National University of Rosario

Faculty of C. Politics and IR

Communication research methodology
Promotion work
“The case studies”

Nicolas R. Achkar

Owner: Susana B. Fruits

JTP: Glenda Mü ller

Delivery date: November 3, 2010

 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

INDEX

Definition and positioning What is case study?.......................................................................5

INTRODUCTION/PRESENTATION

Much has been said lately about qualitative data collection techniques: participant observation,
discourse analysis, focus groups, in-depth interviews, life stories. But even so, the resurgence
and explosion of qualitative methods in which we are living makes it more necessary than ever
to reflect on the problem of research design, on the logic behind an investigation.

One of the most common research designs in the social sciences, and with a privileged place
in the field of communication knowledge, is the case study. It is chosen by many undergraduate
and graduate students as a design for their theses. But there are still confusions,
misconceptions, and some myths around case studies.

Permanently redefined, it is the field where there are no recipes, and where the
researcher's work finds its greatest challenges. And this happens with the case study, often
confused, for example, with the participant observation technique. 1 or with ethnographies. The
use and place of case studies in research methodology in social sciences is another: that of
strategy.2 .

There are a number of criticisms commonly made of the case study methodology. John
Gerring sets out several of them at the beginning of his book “Case study research. “Principles
and practices” . Firstly, there are those coming from researchers in other branches of research,
especially those with positivist roots, who consider case studies and qualitative designs in
general to be of dubious validity and lacking rigor, associating them with free-form research
devoid of methodological considerations 3 . And a second group of criticisms points to the poor
or no basis for generalization. Both groups of criticism are crossed by the old tension between
quantitative and qualitative paradigms and methods.

This, according to the author, leads us to a paradox, since although “most of what we know

1 Yin, Robert “Case study research. Design and Methods” 3rd ed. Sage Publications, USA 2003 | P. 12
2 By strategy, Yin understands a way of collecting and analyzing data and information following its own logic.
This logic covers all stages of the research, from the study questions to the presentation of results. | Yin ob
cit. P. 3
3 Maoz (2002:164-5) in Gerring, J. “Case study research. Principles and practices” Cambridge University Press,
United Kingdom, 2006 | P. 6

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about the empirical world has been generated by case studies (Darwin, Freud, Piaget, Levi-
Strauss, Lazarsfeld among many others), and case studies continue to be a large part of the
work generated by social science disciplines, case study methodology is generally
despised/discussed, because it is misunderstood. 4 .

First, as we said, a group of criticisms of case studies revolve around the reliability of the
results. Most of them, coming mainly from post-positivism focused on quantitative approaches,
are not entirely unjustified since, according to Robert K. Yin, the case study methodology has
often been carried out without following systematic procedures that contemplate rigor in the
collection and processing of data. One of the possible reasons for this is the very extensive use
of case studies for instructional purposes, such as in pedagogy, marketing, economics, politics,
etc. When a case is used in this way, the teacher or speaker can highlight some aspect to
demonstrate a particular point more effectively. 5 . As we will see, the use of case studies in
scientific research works very differently.

Another axis of tension regarding this methodology is the supposed

qualitative/quantitative opposition, according to which the case study would be “reduced” to
qualitative studies, or understood as “the rubric where all non-quantitative approaches are
located.”6 . Here we say that it is not at all about thinking of this dichotomy as exclusive. The
case study methodology is of course qualitative par excellence, it is a design that consists of the
intensive study and in all its complexity of one or a few cases, but in no way excludes the use of
quantitative information. Statistical data occupy a contextual place, of context reconstruction,
and can be a component to incorporate when reviewing the historical dimension of a case.

On this point there is a divergence between the aforementioned authors. Gerring considers
it possible that a case study can be approached with both qualitative and quantitative methods,
especially from the analysis of the collected data. One of the reasons is the special attention
that the author gives to the increase in the number of cases (N) to what he calls a cross-case
study, making qualitative analysis increasingly difficult and when the analysis moves towards a
comparative basis of the cases. For his part, Yin considers that the case study can use both
approaches (quali and quantitative) with regard to sources of information . For this work we
position ourselves according to Yin's perspective, as we consider the case study as an intensive
study by definition, and it is not susceptible to being approached by statistical methods
because the cases are not units of a sample.

4 Gerring, J. ob cit. P. 8
5 Yin, ob cit. P. 10
6 Gerring ob cit. 10

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 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

Yin, who is one of the main references in this methodology, suggests that there is a common
error according to which many social researchers still believe that the different research
strategies should be organized hierarchically, with reference to the types of research. 7 . Thus, it
is commonly believed that “case studies would be more appropriate for the exploratory stage
of research, surveys for the descriptive stage, and that experiments are the only way to create
explanatory or causalistic models.”8 . The author says that this is not the case, but rather that
“each strategy can be used for three purposes: exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory.” 9

According to Padua10 Exploratory studies are predominant in areas or disciplines where the
problems are not sufficiently developed, so that the researcher aims to “gain familiarity” with
the situation before formulating his problem specifically. It is worth remembering that the
researcher requires some kind of conceptual “model,” or theory about the nature of the
phenomenon or situation, which is why one of the main difficulties is related to the
preconceptions that are brought to the field. This last clarification will be important later in the
work.

Descriptive studies are more specific and organized than exploratory studies, since the
questions are guided by taxonomies, descriptive schemes or typologies.

Explanatory studies provide answers to the whys. The answer is located within the logic of
scientific explanations, through theories organized in such a way that they comply with the
double condition of logical and empirical verification. Logic in the sense of consistency
between the propositions that make up the system; empirical in the sense of correspondence
of the propositional system with empirical reality. We will see that one of the case study
designs, used to generate theory, perfectly meets the requirements of an explanatory study.

And although in certain situations more than one strategy may be useful or appropriate, we
must at this point understand that they are not mutually exclusive. Even so, it is important to
be able to identify which one will be the most appropriate, as it has some advantage over the
others. Thus, as we will develop in the next section of the work, Yin suggests that the case
study is particularly beneficial when “the research questions are of the 'how' and 'why' type
about a group of contemporary events about which the researcher has little or no control 11

7 It is worth clarifying that we do not consider the types of research as independent and finished forms, but
rather as complementary stages in any research process.
8 Yin, R. ob cit. P. 3
9 Yin, R. ob cit. P. 3
10 Padua, J and others (1996) “ Research techniques applied to the social sciences ”, Cap., 2, FCE, Mexico. P.
31 to 33
11 Yin, R. ob cit. P. 9

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Regarding the questions regarding the generalizability of the findings made through this
methodology, as Yin says, the short answer is that “ case studies, like experiments, are
generalizable to theoretical propositions and not to populations or universes.” 12 . This is
an analytical generalization, as opposed to a statistical generalization. This is one of the central
points in the defense of the case study as a scientific research design. Thus we will try to think
about the production of theory from case studies following the example of Eisenhardt. 13 ,
linking them with Grounded Theory14

As can be seen, the case study engages at several points with key issues of social science
research methodology. What I will try to explain here is that the case study is on a scale,
beyond data collection techniques: it is a question of research design, of strategy, of a logic that
can comprise a variety of research techniques. collection, rely on multiple sources, both
quantitative and quantitative, and as such is subject to specific procedures. The case study
design “occupies a central place in anthropology, archaeology, marketing, economics,
education, history, medicine, political science, psychology, social work and sociology” 15 and
therefore it is essential to know its proper functioning and specificity when using it for
investigative purposes.

This work has four sections with which it is intended to take a tour of the axes that I
consider fundamental to think about the case study methodology: “Definition and positioning”;
“The place of theory in case studies: The methodological design”; “The place of theory in case
studies: The development of theory” and; “Case selection criteria”.

DEFINITION AND POSITIONING WHAT IS CASE STUDY?

It is necessary to have an operational definition of what a case study is: a) it is a type of

qualitative research design that; b) focuses on one or a handful of examples (or instances) 16 ; c)
relying on multiple sources of information to 17 ; d) give an account of the detail of a
phenomenon in its particularity and complexity 18 ; e) paying special attention to the links
between it and its real context and; f) resorting to triangulation to ensure its validity and

12 Yin, R. ob cit. P. 10
13 Eisenhardt, K “Building theory from Case Study Research” The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 14,
no. 4. (Oct., 1989), pp. 532-550
14 Glasser, B & Strauss, A. “The Discovery of Grounded Theory: strategies for qualitative research” Aldine, USA
1967
15 Gerring, J. ob cit. P. 2
16 Gerring, J ob cit. P. 18
17 Yin, R ob cit. P. 15
18 Stake, R “Research with case studies” Ediciones Morata, Madrid 1999 | P. 11

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 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

evaluate its results19

a) We say first that the case study “begins with a design logic.” 20 . Every type of empirical
research has, implicitly or explicitly, a research design. Yin explains that “in the most basic
sense, design is the logical sequence that connects empirical data to the initial question of a
study and, ultimately, to its conclusions.”21

The choice of case study methodology must then be linked to the research problem and its
objectives, in short, to the question being asked. Since the case study is a strategy, its choice
falls on a question of adequacy of the technique to the problem, to guarantee the reliability and
effectiveness of the results.

In all research, the foundational element is the research questions, they are those that
determine the problem.22 of the research and from which the object of study and the objectives
emerge. The objectives of research, as Carlos Borsotti states, “are the type of knowledge that is
going to be produced”23 , since these are not objectives in terms of purpose or application, but
correspond to those questions that you want to answer.

Regarding this question, Yin suggests that there are five types of basic research questions:
What, who, how, where, and why.24 . Jorge Padua makes a very similar approach regarding the
research questions. It is very difficult to establish a correspondence between each type of
question and a type of research, or even the applications of each, and any attempt to make a
taxonomy would end up being a large compendium of exceptions. None of the questions are
exclusively exploratory, descriptive or explanatory.

But even so, Yin considers that the “What” can, in general, lead to exploratory studies; and
the “How” and “Why” deal with “operational links that need to be traced over time, rather than
regularities, recurrences or incidences” and are what can commonly lead to a case study, a
historical study, or experimental work. The specificity of the case study is that on the one hand,
and unlike historical research, it works on contemporary problems but in which, unlike
experiments, the researcher has little or no ability to manipulate the relevant behaviors. 25 , in
addition to not dissociating the phenomenon from its environment, nor does it attempt to

19 Stake, R ob cit. | Chapter VII Page 94

20 Jennifer Platt (1992 “Case study” in American methodological thought p.46), in Yin ob cit. P. 13
21 Yin ob cit. P. 20. A very similar approach can be found in Padua, J and others (1996) “Research techniques
applied to the social sciences”, Cap., 2, FCE, Mexico
22 To expand on the research problems see Padua, ob cit.
23 Borsotti, C (2006) “Issues in research methodology.” Miño and Dávila. Buenos Aires. Page 75
24 To expand see Yin, R ob cit. P. 5 to 7. It can also be found in Padua, ob cit.
25 Yin, R ob cit. P. 7

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isolate variables.

b) A case study can consist of one or several cases, depending on whether the research
wants to do an intensive and detailed study of a particular case, or move to a comparative
basis. In each possibility, the cases will be selected based on specific criteria, according to what
is being demonstrated.

But first, what is a case? The notion of case is covered with ambiguities that mean that we
cannot use it to give an unequivocal definition of the case study, or also in Gerring's words, it is
a “definitional quagmire.”26 . Take for example, the definition provided by this same author “
Case connotes a phenomenon (a unit) observed at a moment or over a period of time.” 27 Is this
definition sufficient? This definition assumes that the case as an empirical unit exists outside
the study. Could the case be a product of the space-time cut made through the theoretical
formulation of the problem and the delimitation of the object of study of an investigation?

It is because of this series of problems that Hans Gundermann Krö ll addresses the
definition of the notion of case by taking two dichotomies. 28 . The first consists of thinking if the
case is an empirical entity , or on the contrary if it is a theoretical construction . And the second
dichotomy distinguishes between whether the case is “a result of the investigation process, or
whether it is about units relatively external to the process.” 29 . The crossing of these two
dichotomies produces four characterizations of the case that clearly show us that the
possibility of taking a clear definition of the notion of case is relative to the paradigmatic
positioning.30 Of the investigation:

• “Cases understood as empirical entities that are identified and established as such
in the course of the investigation;
• Cases also conceived as empirical entities, but general, conventional and prior to a
particular investigation;
• Cases that correspond to specific theoretical constructions resulting from the
exchange between theory and evidence in the course of an investigation and,
finally,
• Cases understood as theoretical constructions, but already established and of a

26 Gerring ob cit. P. 17
27 Gerring, J ob cit. P. 19
28 Gundermann Kröll, H. “The case study method” in “ Observing, listening and understanding about the
qualitative tradition in social research ” Tarrés, M. L. (ed.) (2001). FLACSO. Mexico. P. 253 to 255
29 Gundermann Kröll, H. ob cit. P. 254
30Sautu (2005) “ Recommendations for writing the theoretical framework, objectives and methodological
proposal of research projects ”, in “Methodology Manual”, CLACSO, Buenos Aires | P. 34

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 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

general nature, since they are the product of the activity of a scientific
community.”31

We see that the conception of the case is inseparable from epistemological questions, and it
makes evident that the paradigmatic positioning plays a key role, as we will see in the next
section of the work. We can quickly say that the idea we have of the case is immediately linked
to the purpose of the study, and will be a determining element in the case selection criteria that
we will also address later in the work. We can anticipate that they revolve around whether the
study is carried out by the case itself, or if the case is a means for another series of research
objectives.

c) As we said previously, this type of research design has the advantage of being able to
incorporate an important battery of data collection techniques and sources of information,
both qualitative and quantitative. The fonts used can be diverse, Yin makes a list of the six most
common fonts32 : Documentation, archival material, testimonies, direct observations,
participant observation and physical elements (or artifacts)

• Documentation : Letters, memoranda and other communications, agendas,

announcements and other written reports
• Archival material : surveys, statistics, maps, plans, lists of names

• Testimonials : Can be obtained through in-depth interviews33 (The technique

privileged in this methodology), or also through surveys with open questionnaires.

• Direct observations : Yin distinguishes them from participant observations, and

basically they are non-participant observations that can be carried out even while
transmitting other types of information (during interviews, for example) and even
include the use of photographs
• Participant observation34 : This is a very popular technique coming from the field of
Anthropology, which as its name indicates, is more than a passive observer. The
observer acquires a role in the community or organization under study and records
the daily activity of the place or group.

• Physical elements (or artifacts) : It consists of examining tools, technological devices,

works of art, or other cultural objects. Obviously this source is also typical of

31 Gundermann Kröll, H. ob cit. P. 253 to 255

32 Yin, R ob cit. P. 85 to96
33 To expand on this technique see Guber, R “The anthropological interview: Questions to open the senses”,
“Introduction to non-directivity” in “The metropolitan savage” Ed. Legasa
34 To expand on this technique see Taylor, SJ, and Bogdan, R. (1996) “Introduction to qualitative research
methods” (First part), Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires

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anthropological work, and may be useful for certain studies.

The variety of techniques is quite wide, and this brings with it the possibility of using
diverse data, including working with statistics and material with a quantitative approach. Due
to the general nature of the techniques used to enter the field, it is no coincidence that, as we
said before, the case study is easily confused with participant observation as a technique or
with ethnographies, since like these, it also involves long periods of time. in situ observation
and shares many of its characteristics and methods.

d) and e) Robert Stake makes an extremely useful distinction that establishes two main
lines or types of case studies, according to their purposes. 35 . Firstly, there is the case itself, in
its specificity, as an object of study, which we call intrinsic case study. The second line consists
of studying a case as a means of obtaining something different from it, called instrumental case
studies.

Regarding intrinsic case studies, Stake tells us “we look for the detail of the interaction with
their contexts. The case study is the study of the particularity and complexity of a singular case,
to understand its activity in circumstances

35 Stake, R. ob cit Page 16

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 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

important”36 . This description announces two distinctive characteristics of the case study:
it is holistic and naturalistic .
That the case study is holistic implies that it takes a global approach to the whole in its
complexity. It is an in-depth work that seeks detail and particularities, trying to establish the
characteristic links and mechanisms of the phenomenon. It does not try to reduce variables,
nor isolate them. That's why we talk about thick descriptions 37 as one of the products of this
methodology, as qualitative. For his part, Yin considers a particular type of case study design as
holistic, which analyzes the phenomenon globally, and opposes it to the integrated case study
design.38 , in which you work with a series of different units of analysis within a larger entity,
such as staff and clinical services as units of analysis within a hospital.

The second characteristic says that it is a naturalistic study (Stake) as it examines the
events, occurrences and phenomena in their real context, since one of the main reasons for the
selection of this methodology is when the links between the phenomenon and its context are
not are clearly evident and it is considered that this is of great relevance to explain the
phenomenon under study. Hence the importance and need to draw on the greatest diversity of
possible sources of information, as explained in the previous section, and its great proximity to
ethnographic methods.

These two characteristics make case studies an ideal design for carrying out exploratory
and descriptive studies, as they allow us to account for the details and observe the phenomena
in their real context.

As far as instrumental case studies are concerned, there are two main uses, of equal
importance and popularity: evaluation of effects or results 39 and generate theory. We will not
address the case study for evaluation of results in this work, but instead we will dedicate a
section to the case study design used for the development of theory, as it is a highly relevant
application to position this methodology in research. scientific social.

f) Regarding criticism of the reliability of a case study, in addition to clarifying that the case
is not a sampling unit, and the generalizations made from it are not applicable to universes or
populations, the researcher will not want Stop using a variety of techniques to increase the
36
37
accuracy and validity of your work.

Stake dedicates an entire chapter 40 from the book consulted to triangulation, or the

36Stake, R. ob cit Page 11

37Hans Gundermann Kröll in FLACSO 277 manual
38Embedded case study design in the original English. Yin, R. ob cit. P. 42 to 43.
39 Yin, R. ob cit. P. 15
40 Stake, R. ob cit Chap. VII, Page. 94 to 101

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triangulations necessary to guarantee the validity of a case study. Triangulation, explains

Vasilachis of Gialdino41 , can also be called “methodological convergence”, “multiple method”
and “convergent validation” and consists of complementing different elements of the
methodology to compensate for the weaknesses between methods, designs, techniques,
theories and even the human failures typical of any researcher. Both Vasilachis de Gialdino and
Stake rely on the work of Norman Denzin 42 on the matter. In this way Stake tells us that when it
comes to a case study, the possible strategies are: triangulation of data sources, researcher
triangulation, theory triangulation, methodological triangulation.

Triangulation of data sources consists of observing whether the phenomenon or case

remains the same at other times, in other spaces or when people interact differently. It
involves seeing if what is found retains its meaning and relevance in other
circumstances.

Investigator triangulation is used to “correct” for human error, and compensate for
the subjectivity of an observer by having other researchers observe the same scene or
phenomenon. A variation is to present the reports and observations to a committee of
researchers or experts to discuss alternative interpretations.

Theory triangulation implies that no two researchers ever interpret things in a

completely identical way, so whenever researchers compare their data, some type of
triangulation of theoretical perspectives occurs. For example, Stake says, we can think
about ways in which a rather holistic researcher can be complemented by a more
behavioral one.

Methodological triangulation was previously discussed in this work, consisting of

the use of multiple data collection techniques, so it can be complemented, for example,
by participant observation, with interviews and document review.

41 Vasilachis of Gialdino, I. (1992) “Qualitative Methods I”. CEAL, Buenos Aires | P. 65 to 66

42 To expand, Denzin, N (1984) “The Research Act” Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall

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 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

THE PLACE OF THEORY IN CASE STUDIES: The methodological design

As I expressed previously, ultimately, the central problem of the case study is the problem of
methodological design, and not the simple selection and implementation of data collection
techniques. It is more than an aggregate of tools and protocols. That is why I dedicate a part of
this work to reflecting on the theory in the design of this methodology.

Returning to the path taken up to this point, we said that the case study begins with a
design logic that links and coheres the research questions, the formation of the object of study,
the collection of data, their processing, the formulation of hypothesis, possible conclusions.
Thus, “the design of all research requires a conceptual organization, ideas that express the
understanding that is needed, conceptual bridges that start from what is already known,
cognitive structures that guide the collection of data, and schemes to present the
interpretations to others. people. In social sciences, the most common conceptual organization
for research is built around hypotheses, especially null hypotheses. 43 . It is about finding the
most appropriate strategy to achieve the proposed knowledge objectives about the topics or
problems.44 study.

This is why I consider it necessary to do a quick review of what it means to think about
theory in research, and the elements of a theoretical framework, and then return to the case
studies.

The theoretical approach to a research problem begins by searching for “what theories are
necessary to validly propose your research design.” 45 . It implies a construction of the problem
through the use of theoretical categories that will highlight edges, elements and phenomena to
be treated to the detriment of others: it will produce a cut. The theme to be studied, as well as
the construction of the object of study, the methodology to be used, the entire design, are in a
relationship of immanence.46 with the theoretical dimension of all scientific work. This
construction and trimming will incorporate elements of different degrees of abstraction
(constructs, concepts, propositions) and theories of different scope, located at different levels:
Paradigm, general theory and substantive theory, which together collaborate in the
IS
FR
43 Stake, R. ob cit. P. 25
OM
44 Some authors establish a differentiation between topics and study problems. One of them is Susana
TH
Frutos, for example, who alleges that in the field of communication there are always problems. Frutos, S.
(1999): “ About the construction of the object of study in the field of communication ”, in Yearbook of the
Department of Communication Sciences of the UNR, Vol. 4, Rosario.
45 Sautu, R and others “Methodology manual” Page. 51 CLACSO 2005
46 According to the Dictionary of the Spanish Language of the Royal Spanish Academy (RAE), Immanent: adj.
Phil. That it is inherent to some being or is inseparably linked to its essence, although it can rationally be
distinguished from it.

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formation of what is called theoretical framework. .

At the most general level, and with the highest degree of abstraction, is the paradigm,
composed, broadly speaking, of ontological, epistemological and methodological assumptions,
which determine a conception of the order of things (reality), a conception regarding
knowledge in itself and the ways to obtain it. We can place here the conception we have about
what a case is, following Gundermann Krö ll's proposal. This level is followed by what Sautu
calls general theory “it is made up of a set of logically interrelated propositions that are used to
explain processes and phenomena. This conceptual framework implies a vision of society, of
the place that people occupy in it and the characteristics that the relationships between the
whole and the part assume.47 Finally we find the substantive theory , which is less abstract and
is made up of theoretical propositions specific to the part of reality that is intended to be
studied. From this, the specific objectives will be defined and issues relating to different stages
of the design will be defined. We will return to this in a moment.

Regarding this distinction between the types of theories proposed by Sautu, we also talk
about macrosocial and microsocial perspectives. The theoretical work “will define the
macrosocial or microsocial approach of the study” 48 . Researchers can choose to look at lots of
cases superficially, or a few intensively. There are no macrosocial or microsocial issues: it is a
question of focus or perspectives, in no way mutually exclusive, since they are handled in
different registers, they are two levels. The macrosocial perspective considers aspects relevant
to social structure, institutions, cultures and historical processes. The microsocial approach is
based on individual experience and interactions, the creation of meanings, which “are the basis
for concerted action and the creation and recreation of social order.” 49 Gerring considers that
case studies are not necessarily microsocial, since a case can be a country, or a city, as occurs in
political science. This is undoubtedly coupled with the previously mentioned discussion about
the possibility of carrying out a quantitative approach to the cases. Yin and Stake prefer to
place case studies among microsocial studies.

Microsocial studies, with qualitative methodology, focus on the “actors” 50 , seek to

reconstruct the sociocultural environment in which they are inserted, and work on
interpretations, the created and assigned meanings, trace the ways of categorizing 51 of the

47 Sautu, R and others ob. cit Page 34

48 Sautu, R and others ob. cit Page 51
49 Sautu, R and others ob. cit Page 52
50 Sautu, ob. cit Page 141
51 Expression taken from Rosana Guber, in her book “El Salvaje Metropolitano”, Cap. “The anthropological
interview: Introduction to non-directivity”, Ed. Legasa. Buenos Aires

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 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

actors. We work with small populations, so it does not allow statistical generalizations to be
established. These “intensive” type studies seek specificity, difference, which brings with it the
need for greater flexibility and adaptability in the relay tools used, but greater complexity in
the data obtained. We can easily see why case studies are so commonly associated with
qualitative methodologies themselves, since to a large extent the case study is the intensive
microsocial study par excellence.

It is clear that the theoretical formulation of the problem and the formation of a theoretical
framework are the processes through which logic and rationality are imprinted on the entire
investigation. Exhaustive theoretical work is necessary prior to going out into the field, as it
will allow us to establish the cuts and determine those conceptions we have about the
empirical world, about knowledge, the way in which the data will be collected and analyzed,
the constitution of the object of study and the units of analysis.

This brief tour of the theoretical aspect of a research allows us to continue with the
proposal about the methodological design of a case study. Yin makes an excellent approach to
this question. Start by listing five essential components of a research design. 52 .

1. The Study Questions: As we said, Yin suggests that the study of

cases is more appropriate for “how” and “why” questions.
2. Your proposals53 (if any) : Each proposition directs attention
towards something that should be examined within the coverage or scope of the
case study. These propositions, in addition to reflecting an important theoretical
question, also begin to indicate where to look for relevant information. At the same
time, some studies may have good reasons for not having any

52 Yin, R. ob cit. P. 21 to 26
53 Yin gives propositions a central role. They can be defined as "any generalization that can be proven
consistent or inconsistent with respect to other generalizations that are part of the organized body of
knowledge; scientific propositions, in addition, must be subject, directly or indirectly, to empirical verification"
Padua, J and others. “Research techniques applied to social sciences”, Chap. 2. P. 36. FCE, Mexico

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proposition, as can occur in exploratory studies and some experiments.

3. Its units of analysis : This is one of the big problems that
torments many researchers at the beginning of case studies, since it consists of
defining what the “case” is. Here the need to have epistemological work and also to
have propositions that indicate where and what to look for becomes evident again,
since, although the case is, for example, an individual, the researcher may be tempted
to cover everything. The case may be about an individual, event or entity. At the same
time, it may be a single case, but several units of analysis. We are then talking about
an integrated case study54 , which differs from holistic studies that address the global
nature of the phenomenon studied. The definition of the unit of analysis, and
therefore the case, is related to the way in which the study questions have been
initially defined, and each unit can call for different data collection strategies and
research designs.
4. The logic that links data to propositions : This one and the one that follows,
Yin says, they are the two least developed points about case studies, and they are a
fundamental element in any research design. Borrowing from Campbell (1969), Yin
considers “ pattern matching ” to be a promising approach to case studies, where
several pieces of information from the same case can be related to some theoretical
proposition. Later the author lists five specific techniques for analyzing cases 55 . The
aforementioned union or pattern formation; the construction of explanations;
analysis according to time series; use of logical models; and cross -case synthesis.
5. The criterion for interpreting the findings : This last point is
conditioned by all of the above, which makes it difficult to determine or list a series of
criteria, as we did with the techniques. These criteria are those that allow us to
establish points of relevance, or to untie two possible but rival interpretations, and
are totally relative to the technique used to link the data and the theoretical
propositions described in the previous point.
Cover these five points, says Yin 56 , will force the researcher to begin building a preliminary
theory related to his or her topic of study. For case studies, theory development as part of the
54
55 design stage is, in every sense of the word, fundamental.

There are two ways in which a framework can be constituted. For some topics, existing
works can provide enough elements to design a specific case study, hence the relevance of an

54Embedded case study design. Yin, R. ob cit. P. 42

55To expand on each of these techniques see Yin, ob cit. Chap. 5 “Analyzing Case Study Evidence”.
56 Yin, R. ob cit. Page 28

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 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

exhaustive bibliographic review to determine the state of the art, in search of theoretical tools
that may have been developed previously. But prior work is not always enough, or knowledge
about the topic may be scarce.

At this point we must think about the need to develop our own theoretical framework that
will lead us to produce the first hypotheses, the first conjectures, that will act as a cohesive
element for the five components of the design that little by little begin to form a theory of what
is being studied, a substantive theory. It is at this point where design and theory confirm their
immanence.

To have a better understanding of the relationship between theoretical work and

hypotheses, we turn to Pierre Bourdieu, who understands and characterizes this relationship
in an unsurpassable way: “The different procedures for constructing hypotheses can increase
their effectiveness by resorting to formalization that, in addition to The clarifying function of a
rigorous strategy of concepts and the critical function of a logical demonstration of the rigor of
the definitions and the coherence of the system of statements, can also fulfill, under certain
conditions, a heuristic function.57 by allowing the systematic exploration of the possible and the
controlled construction of a systematic body of hypotheses as a complete scheme of possible
experiences."58 .

This brilliant characterization of the hypothesis formation process is the result of a concern,
regarding the hypothesis as generally deductive reasoning, about the confusion between
similarity and analogy. The first term results in mimetic models (which only capture external
similarities), and the second analogical models (of greater depth, taking care of the
relationships that lie in the background). The importance of this distinction points to the
criticism of the formulation of hypotheses as a result of “spontaneous generation.” 59 (habit that
he attributes to positivism), when it must be the result of exhaustive work on the theoretical
and conceptual framework, in what we previously called "theoretical statement of the
problem", to the point of producing a heuristic of the possible results, and "allowing the
systematic exploration of the possible.

If we recapitulate, designing a case study involves the construction and work on a

57 According to the RAE, Heuristics: Technique of inquiry and discovery. In some sciences, a way of seeking
the solution to a problem through non-rigorous methods, such as trial and error, empirical rules, etc. It is also
defined in areas such as computing as the capacity of a system to immediately carry out positive innovations
for its purposes.
58 Bourdieu, P and others (1991): “The job of the sociologist”, Part 2, Chap. I and II, 21st century. Mexico. P.
85
59Bourdieu, P and others, op. cit Page 79

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 Communication Research Methodology - 2010

theoretical framework that encompasses the theoretical statement of the problem, in which
the topic of the research, its object and the units of analysis are established, as well as a series
of proposals that will organize the data collection, and will also provide analysis criteria. At this
point the first hypotheses, or conjectural answers to the research question(s), begin to appear.
Thus, little by little, we will begin to form a substantive theory, still embryonic, about the
phenomenon under study.

The design of a case study, as a strategy to find the most effective ways to achieve the best
results in an investigation, implies a systematic work of the theory that will give meaning to
the use of the selected data collection techniques, and the subsequent data analysis. The logic
or rationality underlying every research design, as Yin says, is actually the result of theoretical
work that reaches all its stages and covers all its aspects. The advancement and development
of research is immanent to its theoretical development.

Each intrinsic or instrumental case study; single case or multiple cases; exploratory,
descriptive or explanatory; To verify or generate hypotheses, all will require different designs,
even in a multiple case study, where each case studied will require variations in the design.

THE PLACE OF THEORY IN CASE STUDIES: The development of theory

It is time to address what we had anticipated. As a scientific research design, case studies are a
strategy that can be used to generate or develop theory, and not just test it. We return to the
distinction between testing hypotheses and generating them. We are once again concerned
with the question of the generalization of knowledge, and it is time to try to think about what
analytical generalization consists of?
To begin, the classification proposed by Stake is useful, according to which case studies can
be thought of according to their purposes as intrinsic or instrumental . We already dealt with
the first type above, thinking of this design as holistic and naturalistic. But when a case study is
intrinsic, generalization is not a problem, because the design has not been carried out for that
purpose . Now, the second type, instrumental case studies, are used to obtain something
different from themselves as a result, and this is where the problem of generalization appears.
One of the most frequent uses is the use of this methodological strategy to produce theory. But
there are divergences and differences between the authors worked on this point.
Stake believes that, when it comes to case studies, “the real task is particularization, not
generalization.”60 . There are two reasons for this: the first is that Stake places his attention
primarily on intrinsic case studies, and does not consider theory generation as a central use of

60 Stake, R. ob cit. P. 20

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 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

case studies. The second reason is that the author continues to consider, unlike Yin, that the
case study presents a poor basis for generalization because it is not representative of a
population, calling those produced by a case study “ minor generalizations .”61 . As we saw
previously, Yin is clear on this point: “Theory development not only facilitates the data
collection stage of a case study. Properly developed theory is also the level where
generalization of the case study will occur.62 .
This role of theory has been characterized throughout this work as analytical generalization
and is applicable to theoretical propositions, as opposed to the statistical generalization that is
made for populations or universes. Let us remember that our case is not a unit of a sample, and
should not be selected for these reasons. The inferences are based on the plausibility or logical
nature of the links between the elements of the case studied with respect to a reference
conceptual matrix. Here a previously developed theory or an explanatory model that is
progressively developed in the course of the investigation is used as a template. 63 with which
the empirical results of the case are compared.
In the previous section we said that previous theoretical production can provide a rich
theoretical framework to carry out a case study. But when there is no prior theory, the
researcher will be faced with the need to develop his or her own conceptual matrix or
explanatory model. At this point, case studies have proven to be particularly beneficial,
according to Gerring, because “they have a natural advantage for exploratory research.” 64 .
So how is a theory developed from conducting a case study? The distinction set forth by
Gerring between verifying theory and generating theory, and the distinction between the two
forms of generalization proposed by Yin, find their origins in a theoretical-methodological
proposal developed in the late 1960s, known as “Grounded Theory.”
Kathleen M. In 1989, Eisenhardt published a very interesting article titled “Building
Theories from Case Study Review.” 65 (Building theories from research with case studies) in
which the theory generation procedure through case studies worked, taking the outline of
grounded theory, which in short is, neither more nor less, of a type in particular case study
design, and one of the most recognized for this purpose.
Based on a study they conducted on hospital personnel in contact with dying patients,
Barney G. Glaser and Anselm Strauss developed the so-called “Grounded Theory” during the

61 Stake, R. ob cit. P. 19 to 20
62 Yin, R. Ob cit. P. 31
63 Yin, R. Ob cit. Page 32
64 Gerring, J. Ob cit. P. 39
65 Eisenhardt, K “Building theory from Case Study Research” The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 14,
no. 4. (Oct., 1989), pp. 532-550

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 Communication Research Methodology - 2010

1960s.66 (Grounded Theory in the original English) in an attempt to give the use of qualitative
methodologies the possibility of responding both to the requirement of empirical rigor, and to
account for significant diversity, in a context of the rise of postpositivism. 67
Grounded theory is the name that its creators gave to a process of generating concepts and
theory based on empirical data resulting from case studies, through a process of inductive
analysis. “This theory is not a specific method or technique, but rather is a style of doing
qualitative analysis that includes a series of distinctive methodological tools, such as
theoretical sampling and conducting 'constant comparisons'” 68
As this is a type of instrumental case study design, the use of a case study to generate theory
must be considered from the beginning. Thus the first thing will be, says Eisenhardt, the initial
definition of the research question. Being clear about the object of study and the objectives will
help us maintain the focus of the research and not be overwhelmed by the amount of
information. Secondly, continuing with the author's approach, an a priori specification of the
constructs may be useful.69 , which can function as a parameter to measure the effectiveness of
the same or other constructs with greater precision. Finally, the author adds, and of greater
importance, the research to generate theory begins as close as possible to the ideal of not
having any type of prior theory in consideration and without hypotheses to test.
On this last point, Yin marks a divergence between the case studies and the Grounded
Theory of Glasser and Strauss. According to the author, while grounded theory will have the
smallest possible amount of theoretical propositions at the beginning of an investigation, case
studies, as we saw, require exhaustive theoretical development prior to going out into the field.
In my opinion, intermediate positions can be reached in this dilemma. On the one hand,
Eisenhardt makes it clear that not having excessive prior theoretical influence is an ideal, but it
is far from possible. When we worked on the role of theory in a methodological design we saw
that the paradigmatic positioning and the different levels of theory collaborate from the initial
outline of the research topic and the construction of the object of study. On the other hand,
Eisenhardt gives the example of a study initially designed to verify theory that later turned
towards the production of theory as a result of chance findings in the course of data

66 Glasser, B & Strauss, A. (1967) “The Discovery of Grounded Theory: strategies for qualitative
research“ Aldine, USA
67 Jones, D. and others “Grounded theory: its application in research on everyday life with
HIV/AIDS and hepatitis C” Page. 49
68 Jones, D. and others. Ob cit. P. 48
69 According to Padua, J. ob cit. constructs are concepts of a high level of abstraction that are based on
concepts of a lower level of abstraction. Eisenhardt mentions “power” or “conflict” as some constructs used
in research on strategic decision making in high-level management teams.

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 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

collection.70 . Even so, it is important to avoid the influence of pre-existing theories and
propositions as they may limit the possibility of making findings. This limitation was
mentioned previously when we talked about exploratory studies, in which preconceptions can
cause difficulties in the research work.
This is still a classic discussion around methodological and method problems. We can turn
to Pierre Bourdieu, who does exhaustive work on the role of theory in social research. The
author suggests that the prenotions of spontaneous sociology are a particularly harmful
element for research, as "it continually produces fictitious conceptions or systematizations, at
the same time as its conditions of credibility "71 . We can argue that when we talk about theory
generation from empirical inquiry, excessive use of prior theory can cause the same
undesirable effects.
That is why I consider that Bourdieu's notion of “epistemological surveillance” can shed
light on this difficulty. It is a constant revision of the language, a kind of genealogy 72 of the
terms and concepts that will be used throughout the entire investigation, in which the
meanings that have been given to them, the different definitions and uses are reviewed. This
surveillance does not only apply to those elements of “common language” that can filter into
our analyses, but also to those previous theories that are part of the researcher's ideology . Not
all researchers are first-timers, and it is a difficulty that more experienced ones may struggle
with. The problem of using pre-existing propositions and constructs in the generation of
theory with case studies can be solved as long as constant epistemological surveillance is
carried out, not only of the language itself, but also of those theoretical conceptions that make
up the formation of the intellectual and researcher.
Returning to the production of theory, once the methodological design has been outlined,
we proceed to data collection. This is when what is truly characteristic of grounded theory
begins. In the course of the research, embryonic, incomplete and partial explanatory models
are formulated for certain important aspects of the social relations studied. In a constant back
and forth between information and analytical work, such models are refined and developed
into a general integrative model of what has been studied. This is basically the way grounded
theory operates. But even so, understanding its operation is complex, since it works at
increasing levels of abstraction, with elements that interrelate and complicate each other,
which is why a terminological review of this structure is necessary.

70 Eisenhardt, K. ob cit. P. 536

71 Bourdieu, P. and others. ob cit. P. 31
72 I take the interpretation made by Michel Foucault of this Nietzschean notion. Foucault, M (1971)
“Nietzsche, genealogy, history” Pre-texts (1992) Valencia, Spain

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Theories cannot be built from raw data. It begins with the significant facts or events found
in the material collected by the researcher (for example from interviews, life stories and
accounts, documents, among other sources that we have seen) and they are called incidents.
These are coded according to properties , which can be defined as “the most concrete
characteristics of something (idea, person, thing, activity, event, relationship) capable of being
conceptualized.”73 . Properties help to form categories , which can include diverse information,
but with some common denominator. Categories and properties have an eminently conceptual
analytical character and not merely classificatory, so they are relevant for the elaboration of
the theory that is being generated.
The categories are defined according to certain properties, they are more abstract than the
concepts they represent, but they arise from a similar process of comparative analysis that
allows similarities and differences to be highlighted; They function as starting points for the
development and integration of theory. Concepts constitute the basic units for analysis.
Propositions indicate generalized relationships between a category and its concepts, and
between categories.
Glaser and Strauss propose two central strategies for developing grounded theory:

• The constant comparative method , by which the researcher simultaneously

codes and analyzes the data that allows him to develop theoretical ideas (for the
authors these can be both hypotheses and categories and properties).

• The technique of theoretical sampling , through which the researcher selects

new cases to study according to their potential to refine and/or expand the concepts
and theories already developed.
The constant comparative method aims to systematically generate theory through the use of
explicit coding and analytical procedures. It has been designed to “help the researcher who
intends to generate theory, to do so in such a way that it is integrated, consistent, plausible and
close to the data”74 . Each incident is compared with another incident or with properties of a
category, in terms of as many similarities and differences as possible. In order to account for an
increasing diversity of data, the researcher will be forced to develop ideas at a higher level of
generality and conceptual abstraction, tracking uniformities and diversities, and using
increasingly abstract concepts to specify differences. existing in the data.
It consists of several stages, each leading to the next: comparing incidents applicable to each
category, integrating categories and their properties, delimiting the theory and writing the
theory.
73 Jones, D. and others. Ob cit. P. 50
74 Jones, D. and others. Ob cit. P. 51

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 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

While coding an incident within a category, it must be compared with previous incidents in
the same studied-interviewed group and in different groups coded in the same category.
Constant comparison soon begins to establish theoretical properties for each category. This
coding, as I said before, little by little forces the researcher to move to higher levels of
abstraction that allow the categories to encompass a greater diversity of data. The objective is
to give way to an integration , which implies a growing organization or articulation of the
theory, becoming increasingly systematic.
The theory produced little by little begins to delimit itself , since first it solidifies: the
modifications are increasingly smaller, and those that are made aim more and more to clarify
the general logic of the theory. Irrelevant properties are eliminated, new details are
incorporated, and finally a reduction is carried out in which we work with a smaller set of
categories but with a higher level of abstraction.
Here we move to the second strategy, which is only distinguished from the first for
operational or definitional reasons. Theoretical sampling “consists of collecting data to
generate a theory, through which the researcher jointly selects, codes and analyzes his or her
information and decides what information to choose next, and where to find it to develop his
or her theory as the data emerge.”75 . It is important to emphasize that this strategy operates by
selecting the initial case(s) and beginning data collection based on a general sociological
perspective and on a general theme. The rest of the collection process is controlled by the
emerging theory.
We then have three tasks that are carried out simultaneously: theoretical collection, coding
and data analysis. The collection is guided by constant coding and analysis, for which more and
more data is provided. When does this process of collection and coding that could extend to
infinity stop? As Eisenhardt quotes, there is the ever-present danger of “death by data
asphyxiation.”76 . Firstly, there is a criterion called “theoretical saturation” according to which
there is a point at which no additional information will be found to develop the properties of a
given category.
The same thing will successively happen with all the categories created. “The criteria for
determining saturation are the combination of the empirical limits of the data, the integration
and density of the theory, and the theoretical sensitivity of the analyst” 77
The ideals, objectives, or greatest aspirations of a theory in formation are:

75 Jones, D. and others. Ob cit. Page 54

76 Pettigrew (1988) in Eisenhardt, K. ob cit. P. 540
77 Jones, D. and others. Ob cit. P. 55

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• Parsimony of variables and formulation: maximizing the explanation and

understanding of a phenomenon with the minimum of concepts and formulations
• The extent of applicability of the theory in a wide range of situations, while
maintaining a strong correspondence between theory and data.
Eisenhardt calls the process of building theory from cases a “surprisingly iterative process.”
Although the researcher focuses on one part of the process at a time, the process itself involves
constant iteration back and forth through the steps. The main strengths of this procedure are:
a) its high probability of generating new theories, since by relying on cases, its holistic, deep
and detailed investigation makes it frequent to encounter juxtapositions of contradictory and
paradoxical data and information that tend to arouse suspicion. creativity of the analyst; b) A
second strength is that the emerging theory can be verified with constructs that can be easily
measured and with hypotheses that can be refuted. Likewise, the hypotheses produced are
verified and evaluated again and again throughout the process, through internal and external
validity schemes; c) The resulting theory is empirically valid, as its theory construction process
is closely tied to the data, and this makes it very consistent with empirical observation.
We can see that grounded theory gets along very well with case studies, because in fact it
was designed based on carrying them out. But recognize that “this position is also rooted in
other qualitative research methods such as symbolic interactionism (in its different aspects,
hermeneutics and ethnomethodology”78 . This design demonstrates that it is possible to make
analytical generalizations that allow a theory to be assembled from the realization of a case
study that complies with double verification: Logic as consistency between the propositions
that make up the system and empirical in the sense of correspondence of the system.
propositional with empirical reality. This confirms what Yin stated, since the case study also
serves to carry out explanatory research, and not only exploratory and descriptive.
CASE SELECTION CRITERIA

This is one of the fundamental axes in this methodology, since it is the point that acts as a
closure of meaning for what has been worked on around the methodological design and the
production of theory. That is why I decided to place this section at the end of the work, since
the tour carried out will allow us to see more clearly the relevance of the case selection.

There is a diversity of criteria that can be listed. But first we will review those elements that
influence the choice of the case.

As it is a methodological strategy that is based on one or a handful of instances or examples,

78 Jones, D. and others. Ob cit. Page 48

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 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

and the cases are not units of a sample, its selection should not be taken lightly, since the
development and the research results.

Yin says that since they are not sampling units, since the logic of representativeness with
respect to a population makes no sense to think about a case study, the choice of a case can be
thought of as one chooses an experiment. Multiple cases will be like multiple experiments.
Furthermore, as we have seen when we addressed the elements of a research design, the
definition of the unit or units of analysis, linked to the definition of the initial research
questions, will imply designs that are slightly different from each other. That is why a case
study cannot lack a strong and detailed justification of the choices made.

In the first instance, then, we see that the selection of cases is inseparable from the research
questions and therefore from its purposes. Selecting a case for an intrinsic case study will not
be the same as for an instrumental one. Secondly, the important decision about whether to
conduct a single case study, or multiple cases. To this we can add the implications of case
selection when theoretical sampling is being carried out for the generation of theory.

We will start with single case designs. Yin lists five rationales for designing single case
studies.

i) Critical case. Commonly used to verify a theory. This case can

used to determine whether the propositions of a theory are correct, or whether an
alternative set of explanations might be more relevant.

ii) Unique or extreme case . It is a criterion widely used in clinical psychology, in which
A particular injury or disorder is so rare that it is worth analyzing and
documenting. This is a clear example of an intrinsic case study, of the case study
itself, with the objectives of achieving, in Stake's words, particularization.
iii) Typical or representative case . This may seem like a contradiction because
previously exposed. But here the goal is to capture everyday circumstances and
conditions or common situations. They serve to reveal the experiences of people or
institutions that are considered average. Here the parameter for “average”,
“standard”, or “typical” is not given from the case, but is determined through
contextual information and the use of statistics, prior and external to the selection
of the case. One of the greatest uses of quantitative information sources in this
methodology can be seen here.
iv) Revealing case. It occurs when the researcher manages to observe and analyze a
phenomenon previously inaccessible to scientific research. Yin gives example of

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Street Corner Society79 by Whyte, which describes a subculture and takes key issues
such as the personal evolution and career of poor young people from Italian slums,
and their ability or inability to break the ties with their neighborhood. They are
eminently exploratory and descriptive investigations.
v) “Longitudinal” case . It is about studying the same case at two different points in
time. They serve to incorporate a diachronic analysis into the study carried out.

When we talk about multiple case studies, we consider that the logic for their selection is
not a logic of sampling, but of replication. Again in analogy with experiments, since when
several cases are selected for observation, the objective, as with experiments, is to replicate or
re-make the same relevant finding. Whether it is a case study that uses previously developed
theory, or the construction of grounded theory (using theoretical sampling), the role of a rich
and well-developed theoretical framework plays a fundamental role in that it “can establish the
conditions under which “a particular phenomenon can be found (literal replication) as well as
the conditions under which it cannot be found (theoretical replication).” 80 . Let us remember
that it is this development of the theoretical framework that can eventually lead to producing a
generalization for other cases.

We then have two replication logics for case selection in multiple case studies. Literal
replication , which attempts to predict similar results, or theoretical replication , which predicts
contrasting results for predictable reasons.

It should be understood that there is a lot of skepticism around single-case designs. But it
is not about whether one or the other is better, but rather it is one of the decisions (and one of
the most important) that the researcher makes when strategically designing his case study.
Each design, whether single case or multiple cases, will have its advantages and disadvantages.
If a single case study is carried out, a broad and solid justification for the selection of the case
must be included. Yin suggests a middle ground, and considers practical a two-case study
design, in which the second provides possibilities for direct replication, yet still serves as a
control as the circumstances in each case will never be identical.

The selection of the case or cases to carry out the study is a determining factor for the
design. It is the decision that will act as a cohesive factor for all the elements of the research
design, and is as important as the work hypotheses. Both the choice of the case or the
delimitation of the units of analysis and the elaboration of the hypotheses are strongly

79 Whyte, W. F. (1955). “ Street Corner Society: The social structure of an Italian slum ” Chicago University
Press. (Original work published in 1943)
80 Yin, R. ob cit. P. 47 and 48

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 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

conditioned by the theoretical work and by the progress in the empirical work. We could think
that in fact the choice of a case responds largely to a hypothesis. The choice of the case can be
one of the first hypotheses made in this type of study, because it ultimately implies a
conjecture and an expectation about what can or cannot be found in that case. The very idea of
replication logic allows us to think this. We do not select a case a priori, nor blindly, in the same
way that hypotheses are not developed at the beginning of an investigation, but after having
advanced through the stages of development of the theoretical framework, the construction of
the object and the design of the investigation. .

The decision for a case is one of the first answers given to the research questions, it is
subject to a conjectural judgment, it is made based on criteria or logic, a theoretical approach is
necessary to guarantee its validity and it is conditioned by the discoveries made in the field.

As A CLOSING
The case study is a methodology frequently underestimated, or at least underestimated. It is
often believed that it is a “shortcut”, or an easy way to address certain topics. But as we saw, it
is far from being a form of research devoid of methodological considerations.

We can place it at the level of strategy or methodological design, as it consists of a logic that
starts from the research questions and seeks the best way to obtain the desired results. It is
characterized by being a type of flexible design, with the advantage of being able to incorporate
various techniques and sources of information, both qualitative and quantitative, and has a
system of triangulations to guarantee its validity.

It is the methodology par excellence when it comes to studying a phenomenon in all its
complexity and detail, when the underlying interest is particularization. But it is also a useful
tool for producing a type of generalization, which we call analytics. It is also one of the most
widely used strategies for theory development, with Glaser and Strauss' famous grounded
theory being a particular type of case study design.

Like any other design, it requires an exhaustive theoretical framework, which will be
composed of those theories necessary to validly pose the research problem, construct the
object of study, select the units of analysis, provide the logic that unites the propositions with
the data, and criteria to analyze it.

This is why the choice of the case to be examined probably constitutes the key axis when
designing a study. The selection criteria are tied to whether it is an exploratory, descriptive or
explanatory type of research; to the purpose of the study, as intrinsic or instrumental; whether

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only one or several were used and based on this, the use of selection criteria, or replication
logic.

It is commonly confused with all those “non-quantitative” approaches, and it is probably the
qualitative design par excellence, as it brings together all its techniques and allows
reconstructing the sociocultural environment of the phenomenon under study, working on
interpretations, the created and assigned meanings, trace the ways of categorizing the actors,
in addition to a great complexity in the data obtained. We can say that the case study is by
definition an excellent example of intensive study.

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 Nicolas R. Achkar “The case studies”

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