BRAIN LAB

for Kids
52 MIND-BLOWING EXPERIMENTS, MODELS, AND
ACTIVITIES TO EXPLORE NEUROSCIENCE

Eric H. Chudler, Ph.D.

 CONTENTS

Introduction

UNIT 01 THE NEURON

Lab 1: Clay Neuron
Lab 2: Neuro-Snack
Lab 3: String Neuron
Lab 4: Pipe Cleaner Neuron
Lab 5: Rope Neuron
Lab 6: Pass It On

UNIT 02 THE BRAIN

Lab 7: Thinking Cap
Lab 8: Build a Brain
Lab 9: Baked Brains
Lab 10: Splash Down
Lab 11: Brain Protector

UNIT 03 REFLEXES
Lab 12: Pupil to Pupil
Lab 13: Knee-Jerk Reflex
Lab 14: Catch Me If You Can

UNIT 04 TASTE
Lab 15: No Nose
Lab 16: Tasty Visions
Lab 17: Wet or Dry

UNIT 05 SMELL
 Lab 18: Who Smells?
Lab 19: Scratch-and-Sniff Cards
Lab 20: Smelly T-Shirts
Lab 21: Make Perfume or Cologne

UNIT 06 VISION
Lab 22: Lens Model
Lab 23: Stroop Effect
Lab 24: Blind Spot
Lab 25: Color Cards
Lab 26: Side–Center Tester
Lab 27: Color Afterimages
Lab 28: Benham’s Disks

UNIT 07 TOUCH
Lab 29: One Point, Two Point
Lab 30: Make Your Point
Lab 31: Sandpaper Testers
Lab 32: Braille Alphabet
Lab 33: Touch Here, Touch There
Lab 34: The Little Box of Science
Lab 35: Touch Maze

UNIT 08 HEARING
Lab 36: Eardrum Model
Lab 37: Sound Shakers
Lab 38: Take a Walk
Lab 39: Hear Here, Hear There

UNIT 09 SLEEP AND BODY RHYTHMS

Lab 40: Sleep Log
Lab 41: REM Detective
 Lab 42: Drop Off Time
Lab 43: Body Temperature
Lab 44: Rhythms of the Day

UNIT 10 MEMORY
Lab 45: Now You See It, Now You Don’t
Lab 46: Neuro-telephone
Lab 47: Memory Implant
Lab 48: Now or Later
Lab 49: Grocery Store
Lab 50: Word Memory
Lab 51: Location3
Lab 52: Concentration

Resources
Appendix
Acknowledgments
About the Author
Index
 INTRODUCTION

RIDING A BICYCLE, learning a new

language, catching a ball, reading a
book: these activities and everything
else we see, hear, feel, and do are made
possible by the soft, whitish-pink
substance inside our heads called the
brain.
We take for granted many of the
amazing things our brain does for us.
Although scientists have made
remarkable discoveries about how the brain works, there are still
many mysteries about how the brain does its seemingly miraculous
feats. This book will help you understand how the brain
accomplishes many of its actions. You will do this mainly by
experimenting, testing, and building.

Using This Book

CAREFUL SCIENTISTS take detailed notes about the experiments that
they do in their laboratories. You should start a lab notebook as you
use this book. The pages of your notebook should be bound and not
just a loose collection of papers. If you run out of room in one
notebook, get another one. Your notebook should include the name
of the lab or experiment, the date and time you did the activity, the
methods you used, any observations you made, the results you
found, and a discussion of what you think your results mean. Your
notes should have enough information so that someone else who
reads your notebook can perform the exact same experiment and
understand what you discovered.
 Each lab in this book is divided into several sections. After the
title of each lab, the approximate time it will take to do the lab is
listed. The Materials section lists everything you need to complete
the lab, and the Method section provides a step-by-step guide of the
procedures and materials you will need to complete the lab. You
may find a different way to do an activity, and that is fine, but make
sure that you write down any changes to the method in your
notebook. The science behind an experiment is explained in the
What’s Going On section. This section will provide you with a
better understanding of your experimental results and observations.
Brain Facts are some interesting, fun, and perhaps surprising bits of
trivia related to each lab. Finally, Thinking Deeper has additional
ideas to further your exploration of a lab. For example, you might
find an experiment for a science fair competition, or maybe you are
just curious to see what will happen and discover something new.
 UNIT 01

THE NEURON
NEURONS (NERVE CELLS) are specialized cells in the nervous system. These
microscopic cells are like little batteries because they are able to generate small amounts of
electricity. To communicate with other nerve cells, muscles, or glands, neurons send
electrical signals over short and long distances. Each part of a neuron has a special
function to ensure that these messages are sent quickly and efficiently.
Most people have never seen a real neuron. Scientists must use microscopes to see
neurons because these cells are so small. Drawings and photographs of neurons help other
people understand the structure of these cells. Another way to understand what a neuron
looks like is to build a model of one and hold it in your hand. That is what you will be doing
in these first labs: you will be making models of neurons. Of course, your models will be
many times larger than a real neuron.
Although books and websites have drawings of typical neurons, remember that neurons
come in many different shapes and sizes. As you build your neuron models, think about
what makes a good model. How realistic should your model look? Does your model have
the correct proportions? Does your model show all of the important parts of a neuron? How
might you improve the construction of the model? Are there other materials you could use to
make a model?

Image
 Lab 1 CLAY NEURON
The human brain contains 86 to 100 billion neurons (nerve cells).
In this lab, you will create a model of a neuron using clay.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
The diameter of a neuron’s cell body ranges from about 4 microns to 100 microns.
The axon of a neuron that stretches from the toe to the neck in a giraffe can be 14.8 feet
(4.5 m) in length.
An octopus has about 500 million neurons in its nervous system. Most of these neurons
are located in the octopus's arms.

Image Time
20 minutes

Image Materials
Modeling clay in 4 different colors

Image Method
1. Gather small amounts of modeling clay in four different colors.
Each color of clay will represent a different part of a neuron.
2. Roll the clay of one color into an acorn-size ball and then press it
flat (fig. 1). This piece of clay will represent the neuron’s cell body.

Image
Fig. 1: Roll clay; press flat.

3. With a second color of clay, add extensions to the cell body (fig.
2). These extensions represent dendrites.
 Image
Fig. 2: Add extensions.

4. Roll a third color of clay into a thin line. Attach this piece to the
cell body (fig. 3). This new piece represents the axon of a neuron.

Image
Fig. 3: Add axon.

5. Press a small amount of clay of the fourth color onto the end of
the axon (fig. 4). This last piece of clay represents the synaptic
terminal.

Image
Fig. 4: Add terminal.

Ima THINKING DEEPER

ge Neurons can be grouped in different ways based on their structure and
function. One way to group neurons is by their shape. For example, neurons
that have many dendrites attached to a cell body are called multipolar neurons. Use
clay to construct neurons with different dendritic patterns, such as unipolar, bipolar,
and multipolar neurons. Another way to group neurons is by the direction they send
information. Sensory neurons, for example, bring information from the senses into the
central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). Motor neurons send signals out of the
central nervous system to control muscles and glands. In between sensory and motor
neurons are interneurons. Search the internet for examples of neurons found in
different parts of the brain. For example, build a pyramidal cell from the cerebral cortex
or a Purkinje cell from the cerebellum.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge A neuron (nerve cell) has four basic parts: dendrites, a cell body,
an axon, and a synaptic terminal. Dendrites are connected to the cell body
and take information to the cell body. The cell body (soma) contains the
nucleus of the cell and other organelles necessary to keep a neuron healthy
and functioning normally. A single axon attached to a cell body takes
information away from the cell body. The end of an axon has a synaptic
terminal that stores chemical neurotransmitters.
 Lab 2 NEURO-SNACK
Create this edible neuron to see the different parts of a neuron’s cell
body and then have a tasty snack.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
The word nucleus comes from the Latin word meaning “nut.”
Some people around the world consider the brains of calves, goats, sheep, and squirrels
to be a delicacy.
The brain has other cells called glia. Some glial cells provide physical support to
neurons, bring fuel to neurons, or remove waste products.

Image Time
30 minutes to prepare; 8 hours for the model to set

Image Materials
Mixing bowl
Spoon
1 box of gelatin (any flavor)
Water
Cooking pot
1 resealable plastic bag (sandwich size)
1 can of fruit cocktail
Assortment of small candies

Image Safety Tips

An adult should help with heating and pouring the hot water over the gelatin.
Beware of any food allergies.

Image Method
1. In a mixing bowl with a spoon, combine the box of gelatin with
the water by following the directions on the box (fig. 1).
 Image
Fig. 1: Mix gelatin and water.

2. Let the gelatin cool to a warm temperature, and pour it into a

small plastic bag (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Pour cooled gelatin into a small plastic bag.

3. Drain the juice from the can of fruit cocktail. Add fruits and
candy pieces to the bag of gelatin (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Add fruits and candy pieces to the bag of gelatin.

4. Seal tightly and store the plastic bag in the refrigerator to set the
gelatin (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Seal and refrigerate the bag.

5. When the gelatin is firm (fig. 5), open the plastic bag and
remove the neuron model. Enjoy your neuro-snack!

Image
Fig. 5: Once the gelatin is firm, remove and enjoy.

Ima THINKING DEEPER

ge What other foods could you use to make an edible neuron model? For
example, make a neuron model using vegetables or breakfast cereal.
There are 86 to 100 billion neurons in the brain. Let’s round up and assume that a
brain has 100 billion neurons. If you tried to count all those neurons at a rate of one
neuron per second, how long would it take? Yes, one answer is 100 billion seconds,
but how many months or years is this? Do the math.
 Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?
ge Like other cells in the body, neurons are surrounded by a
membrane. In your neuro-snack model, the plastic bag represents the
membrane. The candy and fruit represent the nucleus, cytoplasm,
mitochondria, and other organelles that contain genes, make proteins, and
produce energy. Some of the organelles found inside the cell body of a
neuron include
Nucleus: holds genetic material (DNA) to control the development of the neuron
Nucleolus: found inside the nucleus; helps build proteins
Ribosomes: helps build proteins
Nissl bodies: groups of ribosomes where proteins are made
Endoplasmic reticulum: system of tubes that transports materials inside a neuron
Golgi apparatus: wraps peptides and proteins into packages called vesicles
Microfilaments and neurotubules: give structural support to the neuron and help move
materials throughout the cell
Mitochondria: create energy for the neuron
 Lab 3 STRING NEURON
It is not a parachute, a broom, or a Image
tower. It’s a neuron! A string neuron.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
The brain of a honeybee has 950,000 neurons.
Neurons are the oldest cells in your body. Most of the neurons in your brain today are the
same ones you had when you were born.
Neuroscience is the field that studies the structure and function of the nervous system.

Image Time
5 minutes

Image Materials
3 feet (1 m) of string

Image Method
1. Tie the ends of the string to make a loop.
2. Place the string over your thumb and little finger of one hand
(fig. 1). If you are right-handed, use your left hand for this step.

Image
Fig. 1: Put string over thumb/little finger.
3. Pinch the string in the middle of your palm and pull it down (fig.
2).

Image
Fig. 2: Pinch string and pull down.

4. Pinch the string in the middle of your palm again and pull it
down again.
5. With your thumb and a finger of your right hand, reach into the
loop (fig. 3) and place your fingers into the string on the thumb and
pinky of your left hand.

Image
Fig. 3: Reach into loop.

6. Hold the string with your right-hand fingers and then pull the
string out through the large loop.
7. Flip the string back over the three middle fingers of your left
hand (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Flip string back over.

8. Pull the string in the middle of your palm (fig. 5).

Image
Fig. 5: Pull string in middle.

Ima THINKING DEEPER

ge Although this neuron model uses a thin string for its axon, real axons are so
thin that you need a microscope to see them. Also, some axons are very
long. For example, axons that have their cell bodies in your spinal cord can stretch all
the way down to muscles in your foot. Make a scale model of a neuron by assuming
that the cell body of a real neuron has a diameter of 100 microns and is connected to
an axon that is 1 yard (m) long. If you used a ping-pong ball that has a diameter of
1.57 inches (4 cm) as the cell body, calculate how long the axon would need to be to
maintain the same proportion as in a real neuron. Do the math and then tie a thread or
 string to the ball and stretch out the axon. How much thread will you need? Here is a
hint: you are going to need a lot of thread!

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge This string model shows a neuron’s dendrites, cell body, axon, and
synaptic terminal. Because this neuron model has many dendrites attached
to the cell body, it is called a multipolar neuron. Scientists can use special
chemicals to mark neurons so they can see the structure of these small cells.
Some of these chemicals are absorbed into neurons while other chemicals
are injected directly inside a neuron. Because neurons are so small,
scientists must use microscopes to see and identify the different parts of a
neuron.
 Lab 4
PIPE CLEANER
NEURON
This simple model of a neuron (nerve Image
cell) is made from pipe cleaners (chenille stems). Each stem color
represents a different part of the neuron.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
The distance between nodes of Ranvier is between 0.2 and 2 mm (0.02 and 0.08
inches).
Without myelin, electrical signals travel at speeds between 1.6 and 6.6 feet (0.5 and 2.0
m) per second or 1.1 to 4.5 mph (1.8 to 7.2 kmh). With myelin, electrical signals can travel
at speeds between 16.4 and 393.7 feet (5.0 and 120.0 m) per second or 11.2 to 268.4 mph
(18.0 to 432.0 kmh).
The word meaning saltatory comes from the Latin word meaning “to leap.”

Image Time
20 minutes

Image Materials
Scissors
Ruler
5 pipe cleaners (different colors)

Image Method
1. With scissors and a ruler, cut three of the pipe cleaners into 4-
inch (10 cm) lengths (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Cut three pipe cleaners into smaller pieces.
2. Place the remaining two long pipe cleaners to form a “+” sign
(fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Form a “+” with two long pipe cleaners.

3. Bend one pipe cleaner in half over the other pipe cleaner (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Bend one pipe cleaner over the other and twist it around
itself.

4. Twist this pipe cleaner to form a single length. This length

represents the axon; the end of the axon represents the synaptic
terminal.
5. Bend the cut pieces of one pipe cleaner around the untwisted
pipe cleaner. These smaller pieces represent dendrites (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Tie cut pieces around the untwisted pipe cleaner.

6. Form a ball by wrapping a small pipe cleaner around itself. This

represents the cell body (fig. 5).

Image
Fig. 5: Form a ball with the cell body pipe cleaner.

7. Twist more dendrite pieces onto the dendrites that are already
attached to the cell body.
8. Wrap small pieces of a new pipe cleaner around the axon. This
wrapping represents the myelin sheath (fig. 6).
 Image
Fig. 6: Wrap small pieces of a new pipe cleaner or add beads to the
axon to represent a myelin sheath.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge In addition to showing dendrites, a cell body, an axon, and a
synaptic terminal, this neuron model has myelin. Myelin wraps around and
insulates the axon of a neuron, helping send electrical messages more
quickly through an axon. Instead of covering the entire axon, the myelin
insulation has breaks called nodes of Ranvier. Electrical signals jump from
node to node in a process called saltatory conduction.

Ima THINKING DEEPER

ge Each neuron in the brain can be connected to thousands of other neurons.
These connections, called synapses, form a network or circuit of
interconnected neurons that processes information. Create a neural network with a
wire mesh by threading your model neurons through the holes in the mesh. Leave a
small space between the synaptic terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another
neuron for the synapse.
 Lab 5 ROPE NEURON
Build a model of a neuron to show how an electrical signal travels
down an axon and releases chemical messengers
(neurotransmitters) at the synaptic terminal.

BRAIN FACTS
The distance between a synaptic terminal and a dendrite is only 20 to 40 nanometers.
(There are 1,000 nanometers in one micron and 1,000 microns in one millimeter.)
A single neuron can have from 1,000 to 10,000 synapses (connections) with other
neurons.
One vesicle can contain 5,000 molecules of neurotransmitter.

Image Time
1 hour

Image Materials
Scissors
10 feet (3 m) of thin rope
Drill
3 plastic containers or bowls
10 feet (3 m) of thick rope
1 pool float
Wire cutters
12 inches (30 cm) of wire
10 ping-pong balls

Image Safety Tips

An adult should operate or supervise drilling holes.
Make sure that the person holding the container (synaptic terminal with the ping-pong
balls (neurotransmitters) keeps his or her fingers and hands away from where the pool
float comes into contact with the container.

Image Method
1. With scissors, cut the thin rope into five 7-inch (18 cm) equal-
length pieces (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Cut rope.

2. Tie a knot at one end of each piece of thin rope.

3. Drill five small holes around the rim of two plastic containers
(fig. 2). The holes on each container should be at the same place on
each container because these will be wired together.

Image
Fig. 2: Drill holes.

4. Drill five more holes through the bottom of one container. These
holes should be large enough for the thin rope to pass through, but
small enough so the knot in each rope will not slip through.
5. Thread each thin rope through a hole in the bottom of the
container (fig. 3). Pull the rope through the container completely so
the knot rests on the inside of the container (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 3: Thread rope and knot.

Image
Fig. 4: The knots should rest on the inside of the container.

6. Tie a knot in one end of the thick rope.

7. Drill a hole in the center of the bottom of the other container
with holes around the rim.
8. Thread the thick rope through this new hole (fig. 5).

Fig. 5: Thread thick rope through.

9. Thread the pool float onto the thick rope (fig. 6).
Fig. 6: Put float on rope.

10. Drill a hole in the center of the third plastic container.

11. Make a knot in the thick rope and then thread it through the
center hole of the third container. The knot should be on the inside
of the container.
12. Using wire cutters, cut the wire into 2-inch (5 cm) lengths.
13. Place the rims of the first two plastic containers so that the
holes are side by side.
14. Thread a wire through the holes on each container. Tie the
wires to seal the containers to create a boxlike shape (fig. 7).
Fig. 7: Wire container together.

15. Place the ping-pong balls in the open container (fig. 8).
Fig. 8: Put ping-pong balls in open container.

To set up the model, different people should hold each of the

thin ropes, another person should hold the open container with
ping-pong balls, and another person should stand about 5 feet (1.5
m) away, facing the open container. Another person should hold the
pool float near the sealed containers. Stretch the entire model so the
ropes are tight.
 To use the model, toss some ping-pong balls to the people
holding the dendrites. This represents how neurotransmitters are
released from a synaptic terminal and bind on receptors of a
dendrite. When several balls are caught, the pool float should be
thrown down the axon (fig. 9). This represents how an electrical
signal is sent through an axon. The pool float should hit the
container with enough force to send the ping-pong balls flying
through the air (fig. 10). The person standing opposite the container
should try to catch as many balls as possible (fig. 11).
Fig. 9: Send float.
Fig. 10: Watch balls go flying.
Fig. 11: Try to catch the balls.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge This model illustrates how neurons use electrical signals to
communicate inside a single neuron and chemical signals
(neurotransmitters) to communicate between different neurons. The thin
ropes represent dendrites, the two containers wired together are the cell
body, the thick rope is the axon, the open container is the synaptic terminal,
the ping-pong balls are bags (vesicles) of neurotransmitter molecules, and
the pool float is the electrical signal. When neurons communicate with each
other using chemical messages, the neurotransmitters released from the
synaptic terminal of one neuron float across a small gap before they attach
themselves to special proteins (receptors) on other neurons. The area
including the synaptic terminal, the gap, and a receptor is called the
synapse. When neurotransmitters bind to receptors, they increase or
decrease the likelihood that the receiving neuron will send an electrical
signal.

Ima THINKING DEEPER

ge For many years, scientists thought that a neuron could release only one type
of chemical neurotransmitter. It is now known that a neuron can release
more than one type of chemical neurotransmitter. Use different colored ping-pong balls
to model how a neuron might release more than one type of neurotransmitter.
A chemical neurotransmitter must have the proper shape to fit into a receptor. Like a
key that is needed to open a lock, a neurotransmitter must fit into a receptor for an
action to take place. The actions of receptors after they bind with neurotransmitters
determine whether an electrical signal will be sent down an axon. Some drugs can
interfere with the binding process. For example, some drugs block a receptor so that a
chemical cannot get to the receptor. Other drugs may change the chemical structure of
the neurotransmitter before it gets to the receptor so that it will no longer fit.
 Lab 6 PASS IT ON
Neurons can send messages at speeds up to 268.4 miles (432 km)
per hour. Use a group of friends to send messages through a chain
of neurons.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
The diameters of axons range from 0.2 to 20 microns. The speed an electrical signal
travels inside an axon depends on an axon’s thickness. The thicker the axon diameter, the
faster the signal travels.
Information about pain and temperature travels more slowly inside neurons compared to
information about touch.
Some snakes have venom that blocks the chemical signal of one neuron from reaching
the dendrite of another neuron.

Image Time
30 minutes

Image Materials
A group of at least 10 people
Small objects such as pebbles or coins; one object for each person
Stopwatch

Image Method
1. Each person will represent a neuron. A person’s arm will be a
dendrite, his or her body will be the cell body, the other arm will be
an axon, and that hand will be the synaptic terminal.
2. The small objects will be neurotransmitters.
3. People should line up side by side at arm’s length from each
other (fig. 1).
 Image
Fig. 1: Line up.

4. Each person (neuron) should hold the object (neurotransmitter)

in the same hand near the opposite hand of the person next to them
(fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Hold small objects in one hand.

5. When someone says “Go,” the person at the front of the line
should drop the object into the hand of the next person (fig. 3).
Start the timer at this moment.

Image
Fig. 3: Pass to the next person in line.

6. When the next person receives the signal, this person should
drop his or her object into the hand of the next person in line.
7. Continue to drop-and-receive down the entire chain of people.
8. The last person in the chain should say “Received” when the
message gets to the end. Stop the timer to see how long it took the
message to make it down the entire chain.
9. Remember, everyone has his or her own neurotransmitter at the
start. This neurotransmitter is the one that each person should drop
into the next dendrite. Each person should end up holding a new
neurotransmitter that was received from the previous person.

Ima THINKING DEEPER

ge
 The speed of an electrical signal can be measured if you know where and when the
signal started and ended. To calculate the speed of the message in the chain of
neurons in this lab, use a ruler to measure the distance from the first neuron to the last
neuron. If you know the time it took the message to travel through the entire chain of
neurons, you can do the math (distance ÷ time) to determine the speed of the
message in your model. Compare the speed of the message in your model neuron
chain to the speed of a message in a real neuron.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge Messages travel through the nervous system using electrical and
chemical messages. In this lab, each person became a neuron. To start a
message, one neuron passed a chemical message across a small space.
When the chemical was picked up by the dendrite of the next neuron, it
created an electrical message that was sent to the cell body. From the cell
body, an electrical signal (an “action potential”) was sent down the axon to
the synaptic terminal. To continue the message, the synaptic terminal
released its own supply of neurotransmitters in a small gap across from the
dendrite of another neuron. This model shows how a chemical message is
used for communication between neurons and an electrical message is used
for communication inside a single neuron.
 UNIT 02

THE BRAIN
RESTING COMFORTABLY IN YOUR SKULL, your brain controls everything you do. Your
brain receives information from your senses to tell you what is happening in the
outside world and from inside your body to help maintain your health. Your brain must
understand this information and send commands to muscles, organs, and glands to act
on the information.
You may not be aware of many of your brain’s activities. For example, your brain
controls your heart rate and breathing, but you do not have to think about making your
heart beat or taking a breath. Of course, your brain helps with complex actions, such as
reading, speaking, planning, and problem solving. Although scientists know how the
brain does many of these complicated functions, they are still unraveling some of the
mysteries about this 3-pound (1.4 kg) mass of tissue in our heads.
Labs in this section of the book will help you understand the structure of the brain.
You will build models of the brain using different materials to show the anatomy of the
outside and inside of the brain. The last lab in this section will show the importance of
wearing a helmet to protect your brain. Remember that it is much easier to protect the
brain from injury than to fix the brain after it is damaged.
 THINKING CAP

Put on this “thinking cap” to show off the lobes of your brain.

BRAIN FACTS
The cerebral cortex is made up of 41 percent frontal lobe, 22 percent temporal lobe,
19 percent parietal lobe, and 18 percent occipital lobe.
The total surface area of the cerebral cortex is about 324 square inches (2,090 cm2),
or about the size of a full page of a newspaper.
The thickness of the cerebral cortex varies from 1/12 to 1/4 inch (2 to 6 mm).
The human cerebral cortex has 20 billion neurons.

Time
3 hours over 2 days

Materials
Balloon
Papier-mâché paste. Pastes can be made using several different recipes:
• White glue and water (about 2 parts glue to 1 part water)
• White flour, salt, and water (about 1 part flour to 1 part water with a few
tablespoons of salt)
• Liquid starch and white flour (about 2 parts liquid starch to 1 part white flour)
Mixing bowl
Scissors
Newspaper
Paints
 Paintbrushes

Method
1. Inflate the balloon to a diameter about the size of your head.
2. Mix the papier-mâché paste in a large bowl (fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Make papier-mâché paste.

3. Cut the newspaper into strips 6 inches (15 cm) long and about 1
inch (2.5 cm) wide.
4. Dip the newspaper strips into the paste. Remove the excess paste
from the newspaper strip.
5. Apply the newspaper strips to the balloon (fig. 2). Cover about
half of the balloon from the top. Add enough layers of newspaper
to give you a strong structure. Let the structure dry overnight.
Fig. 2: Apply newspaper to balloons.

6. Gently pry the newspaper mold away from the balloon. If

needed, shape the edges of the mold and strengthen the sides of the
cap with additional newspaper strips and paste for a good fit on
your head. Let the structure dry again if it is wet.
7. Draw (fig. 3) and paint (fig. 4) the “Thinking Cap” with different
colors to show each lobe of the brain. If you need inspiration, refer
to the illustration shown here.
Fig. 3: Draw the lobes of the brain onto the cap.
Fig. 4: Paint the cap.

THINKING DEEPER
You can use your hands to outline the different lobes of the brain. To
find your occipital lobe, interlock your fingers and then put your hands
over your head, to a spot just above your neck. For the parietal lobe, raise your
hands to the top of your head. Unlock your fingers and place them over your ears
to find the temporal lobe. For the frontal lobe, place your palms on your forehead
with your fingers pointing over the top of your head.

WHAT’S GOING ON?

The brain can be divided in half into a right side and a left side, or cerebral
hemispheres. The wrinkles on the outside of each hemisphere are folds of
brain tissue created by bumps (gyri) and grooves (sulci) in the cerebral
cortex. The folding of the cerebral cortex increases the amount of brain
tissue that can fit within the volume of the skull. Like fingerprints, the
patterns created by sulci and gyri on the surface of the brain are different for
each person.
The sulci and gyri also help define four different lobes within each
cerebral hemisphere. As the name implies, the frontal lobe is located at the
front of the brain. The frontal lobe is responsible for higher cognitive
functions, such as reasoning and problem solving. Parts of the frontal lobe
are also involved with movement and emotional behavior. The parietal lobe
sits behind the frontal lobe and helps with the perception of information
from the skin. Below the frontal and parietal lobe is the temporal lobe. The
temporal lobe is involved with the perception of sound and the formation of
memories. At the back of the brain is the occipital lobe, which is
responsible for vision.
 BUILD A BRAIN

Build a brain model using clay.

BRAIN FACTS
Cerebellum is from the Latin word meaning “little brain.”
The corpus callosum is a group of 200 to 250 million axons that transfers
information between the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
The brain’s right side controls movement and receives information from the left side
of the body; the brain’s left side controls movement and receives information from the
right side of the body.

Time
 30 minutes

Materials
Modeling clay in 6 different colors

Method
1. Gather small amounts of modeling clay in six different colors
(fig. 1). Each color of clay will represent a different part of the
brain.

Fig. 1: Gather small amounts of modeling clay made in 6 different colors.

2. Shape the different pieces of clay into the four lobes of the brain,
plus the cerebellum, and the brain stem (fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Form the different pieces of clay into the four lobes of the brain, the
cerebellum, and the brain stem.

3. Press the different clay pieces together to create a single piece

(fig. 3). Reshape or add pieces of clay to form a brain with lobes in
the correct proportions.
Fig. 3: Press the clay pieces together to create a single piece. Reshape if
needed.
 THINKING DEEPER
In this lab, you created a model of only one brain hemisphere. Now,
build a brain model that has both hemispheres. Some brain structures
cannot be seen from the outside. For example, the thalamus, corpus callosum,
and hypothalamus are buried deep in the brain. Create a brain model that shows
these and other structures you would see if the brain were split right down the
middle.
What other materials can you use to make a brain model? Can you make a
brain from recyclables or food? Create an entire brain with both right and left
hemisphere and use materials with different colors to show different structures.

WHAT’S GOING ON?

In addition to the four lobes of the cerebral cortex, the brain has a
cerebellum and a brain stem. The cerebellum is tucked under the
occipital lobe and rests above the brain stem. The cerebellum is important
for movement, balance, and posture. All information going up from the
spinal cord to the brain and all information going down from the brain to
the spinal cord must pass through the brain stem. The brain stem is
composed of different structures that control breathing, arousal, heart rate,
and blood pressure.
 BAKED BRAINS

Baked brains may look and smell tasty,

but don’t eat them.

BRAIN FACTS
The average human brain is 51/2 inches (14 cm)
wide, 6.57 inches (16.7 cm) long, and 32/3 inches
(9.3 cm) high.
The average volume of the human skull is 7 cups (1,700 ml) of which the brain is 6
cups (1,400 ml), blood is 1/2 cup (150 ml), and cerebrospinal fluid is 1/2 cup (150 ml).1

Time
1 hour

Materials
Oven
21/2 cups (270 g) flour
3 tablespoons (50 g) salt
Mixing bowl
Spoon
1/3 cup (75 ml) water
Cookie sheet
Paints
Paintbrushes
 Safety Tip
Be extremely careful using the oven. The cookie sheet and baked items will be very
hot. Adult supervision is required!

Method
1. Preheat the oven to 350°F (175°C).
2. Pour the flour and salt into a large bowl and mix them
thoroughly with a spoon (fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Mix flour and salt in a large bowl.

3. Add water to the flour and salt and stir to combine. If the
mixture is too crumbly, add a little more water (fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Add water.

4. Spread some flour on a countertop or cutting board. Work the

mixture into a ball and knead it on the countertop or cutting board
(fig. 3).
Fig. 3: Knead the mixture.

5. When the mixture can be molded, take a piece and form it into
the shape of a brain. Place the finished brain on an ungreased
cookie sheet (fig. 4).
Fig. 4: Put the brains on a cookie sheet and bake them.

6. Bake the brain for 10 to 15 minutes. The brain might turn

slightly brown, but do not let it burn.
7. Remove the cookie sheet from the oven and let the baked brain
cool to room temperature.
8. Paint the brain using different colors for the different lobes of the
brain (fig. 5).
Fig. 5: Paint the brains using different colors for different lobes.

THINKING DEEPER
You can use the same flour, salt, and water recipe to make baked
neurons. Remember to include dendrites, the cell body, the axon, and
the synaptic terminal in your neurons. Both baked brains and baked neurons
make unusual hanging ornaments. To create an ornament, make a small hole in
your brain and neuron models before you bake them. When your models have
cooled and you have painted them, thread a piece of string or wire through the
hole to hang your new creation.

WHAT’S GOING ON?

When we are born, our brains weigh less than 14 ounces (400 g).
As we get older, new connections are formed between neurons,
and support cells (glial cells) continue to divide and multiply. By the time
you are an adult, your brain will weigh about 3 pounds (1.4 kg) and make
up about 2 percent of your total body weight. The baked brain you created
is likely much smaller than a real brain.
1 S. S. Rengachary and R. G. Ellenbogen, eds., Principles of Neurosurgery
(Edinburgh: Elsevier Mosby, 2005).
 SPLASH DOWN

Build a model to show how the brain is protected by a layer of

fluid.

BRAIN FACTS
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced by a structure called the choroid plexus.
People have 1/2 to 2/3 cup (125 to 150 ml) of CSF.
Between 12/3 and 21/8 cups (400 and 500 ml) of CSF are produced each day.

Time
30 minutes

Materials
2 raw eggs, in their shells
2 plastic containers with tops
Enough water to fill one container
Newspaper

Safety Tip
Wash your hands after cleaning up a damaged egg.

Method
1. Place one egg into each of the containers.
2. Fill one container with water (fig. 1). The other container should
remain empty.

Fig. 1: Fill one container with water.

3. Close and seal the tops of both containers.

4. Spread sheets of newspaper on the ground. The newspaper will
help you clean up any mess you make.
5. Hold the container without water high in the air above the
newspaper (fig. 2) and then drop it (fig. 3).

Fig. 2: Hold containers high.

Fig. 3: Drop them.

6. Hold the container with water high in the air above the
newspaper and then drop it.
7. Recover the containers, open them, and check for damage to the
eggs (fig. 4).
Fig. 4: Check the eggs.

THINKING DEEPER
Problems with the flow of CSF through the brain can occur if too much
CSF is produced or if the circulation or absorption of CSF is interrupted.
This may cause a buildup of CSF and an increase in pressure within the ventricles.
This condition is called hydrocephalus, which affects approximately one million
people in the United States. Symptoms of hydrocephalus include abnormally large
 heads, headache, nausea, movement and vision problems, seizures, and difficulty
concentrating. Although there is no cure for hydrocephalus, the most common
treatment for the symptoms is to place a shunt in the brain to direct the flow of
CSF to another place in the body where it can be absorbed. Brain surgery can also
be performed to create a pathway in the brain to allow the CSF to move or to burn
the choroid plexus to slow the production of CSF.

WHAT’S GOING ON?

The brain (and spinal cord) is surrounded by a thin layer of liquid
called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF also circulates inside the
brain through a series of spaces called ventricles. This lab shows how CSF
can protect the brain from injury. The plastic container represents the skull,
the water represents CSF, and the egg represents the brain. It is likely that
the egg in the container without water was cracked or broken when it was
dropped, while the egg in the container with water was undamaged. This
demonstrates that CSF can cushion the brain if the skull hits a hard object.
In addition to protecting the brain from impacts, CSF allows the brain to
float inside the head and reduces pressure to the base of the brain. CSF also
helps clean harmful chemicals from the brain and transports hormones
throughout the brain.
 BRAIN PROTECTOR

Design and test a helmet to protect a

model brain.

BRAIN FACTS
In 1986, California was the first state to pass a
bicycle helmet law.
In 2015, 817 bicyclists died in crashes with
motor vehicles.
It is best to replace a bike helmet every three to five years. If a helmet is damaged,
buy a new one rather than a used one.

Time
1 hour

Materials
2 raw eggs, in their shells
2 large plastic containers (such as clean yogurt containers)
Tape
Recyclable cushioning materials, such as packing peanuts and bubble wrap
Newspaper

Method
1. Place one egg into an empty container and seal the top with tape
(fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Place egg in container.

2. Pack recyclable materials into the second container.

3. Place the second egg into the packed container (fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Place second egg in padding material.

4. Continue to pack recyclable materials around the egg.

5. Seal the top of the second container with tape.
6. Spread newspaper over the ground.
7. Drop the containers onto the newspaper (fig. 3).
Fig. 3: Drop containers on newspaper.

8. Open the containers and see if the eggs were protected.

9. Compare the damage done to each egg (fig. 4).
Fig. 4: Compare damage.

THINKING DEEPER
What makes an effective helmet and how could you improve the design
and testing of a helmet? Think about the materials that you used to
build your helmet in this lab. What would you change to make a better helmet?
How would you design a larger helmet and test it for its ability to protect
someone’s head? Remember that a human head, including the brain, weighs 7.7
to 12.1 pounds (3.5 to 5.5 kg) and has a volume of about 17 cups (4 L).

WHAT’S GOING ON?

In this lab, you tested the effectiveness of a model helmet to
protect the brain. The helmet was built from the container and
insulating materials, the skull was the eggshell, and the egg yolk and white
were the brain. Did your helmet protect the “brain” or was there some
damage? In real life, helmets significantly reduce the risk of brain injury in
case of a bike, skateboard, ski, or skating accident.
Bicycle helmets have three main parts: the outside shell, the inside liner,
and a strap. The shell is usually a thin plastic layer attached to the inside
liner. The layer of foam that makes up the inside liner is the most important
part of a helmet because it absorbs energy from an impact. Straps and
buckles hold the helmet on a bicyclist’s head in the correct position.
Helmets are tested by dropping them upside down from a measured
distance. If the acceleration inside the helmet is within acceptable limits, it
passes the test.
For maximum safety, a helmet should fit properly and stay in place when
your head moves around. Helmets can be adjusted with foam pads or a
fitting ring. Always buckle and tighten the strap snugly against your chin.
UNIT 03
REFLEXES
REFLEXES ARE QUICK, automatic movements that protect you from
injury or help you maintain your posture and position. These involuntary
movements occur in response to something in the environment and do not
require conscious thought or decision making. For example, if your fingers
touch something sharp or hot, you will move your hand away from the
object before you even realize that you have done something dangerous.
Reflexes that happen below the neck do not even need the brain to get
involved. Instead, the pathways of neurons responsible for spinal reflexes
stay in the spinal cord.

During a physical examination, doctors often test a person’s reflexes to

make sure nerves and muscles work properly. The strength of a reflex can
help a doctor know what part of the nervous system is damaged.

In the following labs, you will test different reflexes. Don’t worry if the
responses you see are different from what happens in the doctor’s office.

Image

Lab 12 PUPIL TO PUPIL

Image

Use your eyes to see how other eyes respond to light.

Image
BRAIN FACTS

Image In bright light, the diameter of the pupil ranges in diameter from
1/12 to 1/6 inch (2 to 4 mm).
 Image In the dark, the diameter of the pupil ranges in diameter from 1/6
to 1/3 inch (4 to 8 mm).

Image Humans have round pupils, but other animals have pupils with
different shapes. For example, the pupil of a horse is a horizontal slit and a
cuttlefish pupil is shaped like a “W.”

Image Time

Image 15 minutes

Image Materials

Image Flashlight

Image Safety Tips

Light from the flashlight should sweep quickly across the eye of your test
subject. Do not keep the light shining into the eye for a long time.

Image Method

1. Dim the lights in a room.

2. Have a test subject sit in the dim room for about 5 minutes.

3. Look at the eyes of your test subject (fig. 1) and note the size of this
person’s pupil (the black center spot in the middle of the eye).

Image

Fig. 1: Look at eyes; note pupil size.

4. Shine a flashlight quickly across the eye of your test subject and observe
what happens to the pupil (fig. 2).

Image

Fig. 2: Shine flashlight to observe.

 Image WHAT’S GOING ON?

When the room is dim, a person’s pupil should be large. This allows more
light to enter the eye so a person can see. When light from the flashlight
moves across the pupil, the pupil gets smaller automatically because bright
light can damage the eye. The automatic closing of the pupil is called the
pupillary response.

Image THINKING DEEPER

This lab showed that light entering the eye on one side causes the pupil on
that same side to get smaller. Test the effect of shining light into the eye on
one side on the size of the pupil on the opposite side. For example, shine
light into the left eye and see whether the size of the pupil on the right side
changes. The pupil on the right side should get smaller. This response is
called the consensual pupillary light reflex. Both pupils change size
because information about light from one eye goes to both sides of the
brain and signals from the brain go back to the muscles controlling the size
of the pupils of eyes.

Lab 13 KNEE-JERK REFLEX

Has your doctor ever tapped on your knee during a checkup? In this lab,
you become the “doctor” and test the reflexes of other people.

Image
BRAIN FACTS

Image For the knee-jerk reflex, it takes only about 50 milliseconds (0.05
second) from the time of the tap to the start of the leg kick.

Image The first reflex hammer was developed by J. Madison Taylor at

the Philadelphia Orthopedic Hospital in 1888.2

Image Time
 Image 20 minutes

Image Materials

Image Large rubber eraser

Image Handle from a large mixing spoon

Image Rubber bands

Image Method

1. Make a reflex hammer by attaching the eraser to the spoon handle with
the rubber bands (fig. 1).

Image

Fig. 1: Make hammer.

2. Have your test subject sit in a chair so that his or her legs can swing
freely.

3. Feel your test subject’s knee below the kneecap (fig. 2). Notice the
location of a soft spot (fig. 3).

Image

Fig. 2: Feel knee cap.

Image

Fig. 3: Notice soft spot.

4. Tap the soft spot below the test subject’s knee with the reflex hammer
(fig. 4) and observe the response of the leg.

Image

Fig. 4: Tap subject’s knee.

 Image THINKING DEEPER

The brain is not required for the knee-jerk reflex because the reflex
pathway involves only nerves and the spinal cord. However, the brain can
still influence the knee-jerk reflex if someone thinks about stopping the leg
movement. For example, if you tighten up your thigh muscle, your knee-
jerk reflex may be smaller. To prevent conscious control over the reflex, try
the Jendrassik maneuver. To perform the Jendrassik maneuver, have your
test subjects interlock the fingers of their hands. As you are performing the
knee tap, tell your subjects to pull on their hands. Compare the knee-jerk
response before, during, and after the Jendrassik maneuver. Often, the
Jendrassik maneuver causes a larger knee-jerk response.

ImageWHAT’S GOING ON?

The knee-jerk reflex is called a monosynaptic reflex because there is only

one synapse in the circuit needed to complete the reflex. The tap below the
knee causes the thigh muscle to stretch. Information is then sent to the
spinal cord. After following one synapse in the ventral horn of the spinal
cord, the information is sent back out to the thigh muscle, which then
contracts.

Doctors examine a patient’s knee-jerk reflex to test for problems in the

nerves, muscles, and brain. A weak or absent knee-jerk reflex could
indicate problems with the leg muscle, the nerve bringing sensory
information from the muscle to the spinal cord, or the nerve from the spinal
cord telling the muscle to move. If the leg continues to move back and forth
after the knee tap, there could be a problem with the patient’s cerebellum.

2 D. J. Lanska, “The History of Reflex Hammers,” Neurology 39 (1989):

1542–1549.

Lab 14 CATCH ME IF YOU CAN

Test your visual response time by catching a falling ruler.

 Image

Image
BRAIN FACTS

Image The ulnar nerve, radial nerve, and median nerve are the main
nerves of the hand.

Image The human hand has twenty-seven bones.

Image Time

Image 45 minutes

Image Materials

Image Ruler

Image Paper

Image Pencil or pen

Image Method

1. Hold the ruler near the end (highest number) and let it hang down so the
bottom edge is between the thumb and first finger of your test subject. The
ruler should not touch the hand of your test subject (fig. 1).

Image

Fig. 1: Hold the ruler and let it hang down between the thumb and first
finger of your test subject. Tell your subject you’ll drop the ruler in the next
5 seconds.

2. Tell your test subjects that you will drop the ruler sometime within the
next 5 seconds and that they must catch the ruler (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Drop the ruler and record the number of inches (cm) where your test
subject caught it.

3. Drop the ruler and then record the number of inches (cm) where your test
subject caught the ruler (fig. 3).

Image

Fig. 3: Calculate the average reaction time for each test subject.

4. Convert this distance into a reaction time using the chart or the formula
shown here.

5. Test your subject four or five times by varying the delay in dropping the
ruler. This will prevent your test subject from guessing when the ruler will
fall.

6. Calculate the average reaction time for each test subject. See example
data table shown here.

Image THINKING DEEPER

This lab tested visual reaction time. When your test subjects saw the falling
ruler, they had to make a conscious decision to catch it. You can also test
auditory (hearing) and tactile (touch) reaction times using this same
experimental setup. To test auditory reaction times, ask your test subjects to
close their eyes. Now when you drop the ruler, you must say “drop.” When
your test subjects hear the word “drop,” they have to catch the ruler. To test
tactile reaction time, again have your test subjects close their eyes. This
time when you drop the ruler, tap lightly on your test subject’s foot. When
your test subjects feel the tap on their feet, they must catch the falling ruler.
Compare the reaction times on the visual, auditory, and tactile tests and
explain your results.

Try the experiment in a dimly lit room and compare the reaction time to the
results you obtained in the bright room. If there is a difference in reaction
time, how do you explain the results? Test different groups of people to
determine who has the fastest reaction times. You might compare the
reaction times of boys and girls or kids and adults. You should also try the
experiment with a longer delay between the start time and the drop time.
For example, you might tell your test subjects that you will drop the ruler
within 10 seconds instead of 5 seconds. This added delay might prevent
your test subjects from predicting when you will drop the ruler.

DISTANCE CONVERSION TABLE

DISTANCE TIME DISTANCE TIME

2 inches (5 cm) .10 sec 4 inches (10 cm) .14 sec

6 inches (15 cm) .17 sec 8 inches (20 cm) .20 sec

10 inches (25 cm) .23 sec 12 inches (30 cm) .25 sec

14 inches (35 cm) .27 sec 16 inches (40 cm) .29 sec

18 inches (45 cm) .30 sec 20 inches (50 cm) .32 sec

22 inches (55 cm) .34 sec 24 inches (60 cm) .35 sec

26 inches (65 cm) .36 sec 28 inches (70 cm) .38 sec

30 inches (75 cm) .39 sec 32 inches (80 cm) .40 sec

You can calculate the response time more accurately using this formula,
where t = time (in seconds), y = distance (in cm) and g = 385.8 inches/sec2
(acceleration due to gravity).

Image

ImageWHAT’S GOING ON?

This experiment involved more than a reflex because it required conscious

thought. To catch the ruler, your test subjects had to make a conscious
decision to move their hands and close their fingers around the falling ruler.
This lab measured the reaction time needed for visual information (the
movement of the ruler) to travel from the eyes to the brain. The brain had to
process this information and then send a motor command (“grab that falling
ruler”) to the muscles of the arms, hands, and fingers. If all went well, your
test subjects caught the ruler.
 UNIT 04

TASTE
TASTE, AS WELL AS SMELL, are two senses that can detect chemicals in the
environment. Taste relies on your sense of smell. For example, when you raise your
fork or glass, small molecules travel up to the receptors in your nose. Taste receptors
can detect chemicals from foods and drinks that you put in your mouth. The taste of
foods can signal good things or bad things. It can help you enjoy a freshly baked cookie
or warn you not to swallow spoiled milk.
There are hundreds of little bumps on your tongue called taste buds. Taste buds
contain between 50 and 150 receptor cells each. These cells respond to the five basic
tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (or savory), and provide the information
that will be received by the brain. Someone might enjoy spicy food while a different
person might prefer mild food, or sweets over savory snacks.
People prefer certain foods over others because of the brain’s response to these
signals. Information about taste is sent from the receptors to the brain through both
the facial nerve and the glossopharyngeal nerve. These nerves receive and send the
information from the tongue as well as from receptors on the cheeks and palate. The
labs in this section explore the relationship between taste and smell and how your
taste buds react to certain textures and colors of food and drink.

Image
 Lab 15 NO NOSE
Investigate the importance of your sense of smell to your sense of
taste.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Information about taste from the tongue is sent to the brain by two nerves:
the facial nerve (front two-thirds of the tongue) and the glossopharyngeal nerve (back
one-third of the tongue).
Image The hypoglossal nerve controls tongue movement.
Image Foods with chemicals that activate umami receptors include soy sauce,
Parmesan cheese, and mushrooms.

Image Time
Image 15 minutes

Image Materials
Image Knife
Image Apple and pear
Image Blindfold

Image Safety Tips

Image Beware of food allergies.
Image Wash the fruit and your hands before you cut the fruit with a clean knife.
Image Get an adult to help you use the knife.

Image Method
1. Using a knife, cut an apple and a pear (fig. 1) into 20 small bite-
size pieces (10 apple pieces, 10 pear pieces).

Image
Fig. 1: Cut apple and pear into 20 pieces.

2. Blindfold your test subjects.

3. Give one piece of fruit to your test subjects and have them taste
it (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Give subject fruit to taste.

4. Ask your test subjects whether the food is an apple or a pear.

5. Record the answer as correct or incorrect.
6. Repeat the experiment until your test subjects have tried 5 apple
pieces and 5 pear pieces.
7. Now ask your test subjects to pinch their noses closed and to
breathe through their mouths (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Pinch nose and repeat.

8. Repeat the tasting experiment with the remaining apple and pear
pieces.
9. Record whether your test subjects identified the apple and pear
pieces correctly or incorrectly.
10. Compare your results from the two conditions.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age Make the experiment more difficult for your test subjects by using more
than two different foods. For example, you could use different flavors of
baby food or jelly beans. Make sure that your test foods have the same texture to
 avoid giving your test subjects any additional information about the identity of the
food. You could also try clear liquids by adding salt, sugar, or lemon juice to water.
Compare the ability to taste the difference between these liquids when your nose
is open and closed.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge Your tongue is covered with tiny bumps called taste buds. Within
each taste bud are 50 to 150 receptor cells that respond best to one of the
five basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (or savory). These
receptor cells can respond to all of the five basic tastes, but they respond
best to a particular taste. Responses from all receptor cells provide the brain
with information about taste.
The sense of taste is highly dependent on the sense of smell. When you
put food into your mouth, small molecules from the item travel up to
special receptors in your nose. After these molecules get into your nose,
they dissolve in mucus so they can attach to the receptors. When the
chemical molecules bind to receptors, the receptors send electrical signals
through a nerve to your brain. When your nose is closed, the airflow to the
receptors in your nose is blocked. Therefore, you do not have information
about smell to help you identify the food and the taste of food is blunted.
This is the same reason why food does not taste very good when you have a
cold with a stuffy nose.
 Lab 16 TASTY VISIONS
Explore how vision influences your perception of taste.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Taste buds are found not only on the tongue but also on the cheeks and
palate.
Image The feet of a butterfly have receptors that detect chemicals. In other words,
they taste with their feet.
Image An earthworm has chemical receptors all over its body.

Image Time
Image 1 hour

Image Materials
Image 4 different powdered drinks, each with a different color
Image Measuring cup
Image Water
Image Clear cups
Image Food coloring (to match one powdered drink color)

Image Method
1. Mix each drink according to the directions on the package (fig.
1).

Image
Fig. 1: Mix drinks.

2. Pour 1/4 cup (60 ml) servings of each drink into different clear
cups (fig. 2).
 Image
Fig. 2: Pour water or clear soda into clear cups.

3. Pour 1/4 cup (60 ml) of water into another clear cup.
4. Add a few drops of food coloring to the water (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Add food coloring.

5. Ask your test subjects to try each drink and then identify the
flavor of each (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Ask subject to identify flavor.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age If none of your test subjects was fooled by the unflavored, colored drink,
change the test by diluting the flavored drinks and trying the experiment
again. The diluted drinks will have a weaker taste and may help change the
perception of the unflavored drink.
Food and drink companies spend millions of dollars to study how the color of
food influences what it tastes like. Companies want to know how consumers
perceive their products and they are always looking for ways to make their
products more appealing to consumers. If changing the color of a food or drink
can sell more product, you can be sure that the company will make the change.
People like to eat foods that have the color they expect. Over time, people learn
that particular foods should be particular colors. Check the label on packaged
foods to see what artificial colors are added to different products.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge Were any people fooled by the colored, unflavored drink? Some
people may have said that the unflavored drink tasted like one of the other
drinks. Scientists are interested in this type of experiment to show how
vision interacts with taste and smell. When people become familiar with
certain combinations of colors and tastes, they learn to expect that foods
with a particular color will have a specific taste. Therefore, learning can
change our perceptions.
 Lab 17 WET OR DRY
Find out whether you can taste anything with a dry tongue.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Humans have approximately 10,000 taste buds.
Image Ageusia is the inability to taste anything; hypogeusia is a reduced perception
of taste; hypergeusia is the enhanced ability to taste.
Image The length of a giraffe’s tongue can be almost 21/2 feet (74 cm).
Image Taste buds are replaced about every two weeks.

Image Time
Image 15 minutes

Image Materials
Image Foods such as sugar, salt, and crackers
Image Clean paper towels
Image Water (for rinsing your mouth in between tests)

Image Method
1. Dry the top of your tongue with a clean paper towel (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Dry tongue with paper towel.

2. Place a small amount of food on your tongue (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Place food on tongue.
3. Try to identify the food by taste alone (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Try to identify food by taste.

4. Rinse your mouth with water and then dry your tongue again.
5. Try different foods.
6. Repeat the test, but keep your tongue wet (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Repeat with different food.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age Many books and websites have pictures of a tongue map that shows
where salty, sweet, sour, and bitter taste buds are located. Test the
accuracy of these tongue maps by applying drops of salty, sweet, sour, or bitter
liquids or foods on your tongue. Compare the location where you can taste these
items with the locations shown on a tongue map. You may be surprised when you
find your tongue map is different from the ones you see in books. The typical
tongue map in textbooks is wrong because receptors for all tastes can be found
on all parts of the tongue.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge When your tongue is dry, the food will not have much flavor. You
likely will not be able to taste the food because the chemicals in food must
be dissolved to stimulate a receptor. When you dry your tongue, you are
removing saliva that would dissolve the chemicals. When your tongue is
wet, chemicals from the food dissolve and can bind to taste receptors.
 UNIT 05

SMELL
YOUR SENSE OF SMELL, also known as olfaction, is the other sense that can detect
chemicals in your environment. You are able to pick up on them as they float in the air and
into your nose. Like taste, smells can be either pleasant or might help you avoid unsafe
foods, drinks, and environments. Smell can allow you to enjoy the aroma of a freshly baked
cookie or alert you of smoke from a fire. Some smells may trigger a memory, helping you
remember people and places from the past.
When the chemicals from the environment enter your nose, they dissolve in a layer of
mucus on the olfactory epithelium, which is a membrane in your nose. When you pinch your
nose closed, the airflow to the receptors in your nose is blocked, which is why you are not
able to smell anything. After they dissolve, the chemicals attach to hair cells, or receptors,
on the olfactory epithelium, that are connected to axons. These axons send electrical
signals to the olfactory bulb, which sends the information to the brain. The labs in this
section explore how your sense of smell works as well as how taste and smell work
together to help the brain form a full picture of an object.

Image
 Lab 18 WHO SMELLS?
Humans can distinguish thousands of different smells. In this lab,
you will investigate the sensitivity of your sense of smell.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Humans have about 40 million olfactory receptors; German shepherd dogs have 2
billion olfactory receptors.
Image People who have no sense of smell have a disorder called anosmia.
Image The smell of green bell pepper can be detected when it is mixed with air at only
0.5 part per trillion.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image Perfume or cologne
Image Containers, such as used yogurt cups
Image Measuring cup
Image Water
Image Marker
Image Lab notebook

Image Method
1. Add one drop of perfume or cologne to a container (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Add one drop perfume.

2. Add 3/4 cup (180 ml) of water to the container (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Add water to perfume.

3. Label the bottom of the container with a letter. Make a note in

your lab notebook of this letter and the number of drops in the
container.
4. In a new container, add three drops of perfume and 3/4 cup (180
ml) of water. Again, label the bottom of the container with a letter
and the number of drops of perfume.
5. Continue to make different solutions by adding more drops of
perfume, but always add the same amount of water. Make at least
five different solutions. Remember to label the bottom of the
container and record the “code” in your lab notebook.
6. When all of your solutions are made, you are ready to start the
experiment. Place the containers in front of your test subjects and
ask them to order the containers from the weakest smelling to the
strongest smelling (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Order containers by smell.

7. After your test subjects have ordered the smells, look at the label
on the bottom of each container to see whether they ordered the
cups correctly (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Check labels.

Ima THINKING DEEPER

ge Examine your data to determine whether your test subjects were able to
order the different solutions correctly. If the solutions were not ordered
correctly, check to see whether your subjects made mistakes in the same place. Also,
 check to see whether people had more trouble with repeated attempts to order the
solutions. Does the ability to smell get better or worse when people have more time to
smell each solution? If the test was too difficult for your subjects, make the solutions
more different from one another by adding more drops of perfume or cologne to
adjacent containers.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge Your sense of smell (olfaction) requires that chemicals floating in
the air make their way into your nose. For you to detect these chemicals,
they must dissolve in a layer of mucus on a membrane in your nose called
the olfactory epithelium. After they dissolve, the chemicals attach
themselves to receptors (hair cells) on the olfactory epithelium. The
receptors are connected to axons that send electrical signals to the olfactory
bulb. From the olfactory bulb, information is sent to several areas of the
brain, including the olfactory cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and
hypothalamus, that help us understand the meaning of the signals.
 Lab 19
SCRATCH-AND-SNIFF
CARDS
You may have seen scratch-and-sniff perfume cards inserted into
magazines. Now you can make your own.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Natural gas is normally odorless. Mercaptan is the chemical that gives natural gas
its rotten egg smell so people can detect gas leaks.
Image The chemical butyl mercaptan gives skunk spray its stinky smell.

Image Time
Image 1 hour

Image Materials
Image Scissors
Image Paper, cardboard, or index cards
Image Dried herbs such as oregano, basil, rosemary, and dill
Image Spices such as cinnamon and cloves
Image Flowers
Image Glue

Image Method
1. Cut the paper into 2 by 2-inch (5 by 5 cm) squares.
2. Mix an herb, spice, or crushed flower (fig. 1) with a few drops of
glue (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 1: Crush spices and flowers.
 Image
Fig. 2: Mix with glue.

3. Place the mixed glue on the paper (fig. 3). Let the glue dry (fig.
4).

Image
Fig. 3: Place mixed glue on index card.

Image
Fig. 4: Let the glue dry.

4. Scratch the dried glue and smell the card.

Ima THINKING DEEPER

ge Many brain areas that receive information about smell are part of the limbic
system. The limbic system is important for emotional behavior and memory.
Because of the close association between smell, emotions, and memory, some smells
can remind you of people, places, and events from the past. As you go about your day,
think about the smells you come across and the memories that they produce. You
might trigger a strong memory when you smell a particular flower or freshly baked
cookies.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge Scratching the glue releases molecules of chemicals from the
trapped herbs, spices, and flowers. The chemicals can then float in the air
into your nose, where they bind with receptors.
 Lab 20 SMELLY T-SHIRTS
Take the smelly T-shirt challenge in this lab.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Sweat is made mostly from water with small amounts of fat, sodium, potassium,
and calcium.
Image Humans have 2 to 4 million sweat glands on their body.
Image Sweat glands are found all over the body except on the lips and inside the ear
canals.
Image Mosquitoes are attracted to body odor.

Image Time
Image 5 days

Image Materials
Image 5 T-shirts (same style, same color)
Image 5 large plastic bags (big enough to hold the T-shirt)
Image Masking tape
Image Marker

Image Method
1. Provide a T-shirt to five different test subjects who know each
other (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Provide shirts to subjects and label with codes.

2. Ask your test subjects to wear the T-shirt for 1 hour on five
consecutive days (fig. 2). They should not wash the shirt at any
time.
 Image
Fig. 2: Ask subjects to wear shirts for an hour each day.

3. On the fifth day, the test subjects should put their shirts into
plastic bags and return them to you (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Have shirts returned in plastic bags.

4. Label the bags with a special code, using masking tape and a
marker, so only you know the person who wore the shirt.
5. Mix up the bags and then ask your test subjects to use their sense
of smell to find their own shirt and to identify the wearers of the
other shirts (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Try to identify shirts by smell.

Ima THINKING DEEPER

ge Compare the ability of family members to identify the shirts of their relatives
to those of other people. The result of this experiment might tell you whether
people who are related to each other or live in the same house smell the same. If the
shirt smells are not strong, ask your test subjects to wear the shirts for a longer period
of time or exercise while wearing the shirts.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge The T-shirts absorb the body odor of the wearer. The smell of each
person is unique because it is influenced by sweat, diet, soap, shampoo, and
medications. Sweat is produced by skin glands and helps maintain body
temperature. Body odor is produced when sweat mixes with bacteria on the
skin. Most people find it easy to identify their own T-shirts but have trouble
matching other people to their T-shirts.
 Lab 21
MAKE PERFUME OR
COLOGNE
Make your favorite scent with one of Image
these recipes.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Early perfumes used whale vomit and animal urine.
Image A perfumer is someone who creates perfumes.
Image Some perfumes can cost more than $100 for only 1 teaspoon (5 ml).

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image 7 tablespoons (100 ml) water
Image Mixing bowl
Image Fresh flower blossoms
Image Paper coffee filter
Image Vanilla extract
Image Ground cinnamon
Image Cloves
Image Container or spray bottle to hold the mixture

Image Method
RECIPE 1
1. Pour the water into the mixing bowl (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Add water to a bowl.
2. Add a handful of freshly chopped flower blossoms to the water
(fig. 2). Flowers with strong smells such as lilac, lavender, orange
blossoms, and honeysuckle work well.

Image
Fig. 2: Add chopped flowers or cinnamon and cloves.

3. Let the flower/water mixture sit overnight (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Let sit overnight.

4. Strain the water through a coffee filter into a clean container or

spray bottle (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Strain through coffee filters.

5. Squeeze the coffee filter to get out all of the liquid.

RECIPE 2
1. Pour the water into the mixing bowl.
2. Add a dash of vanilla extract, a pinch of cinnamon, and a few
cloves to the mixing bowl.
3. Let the mixture sit overnight and then strain it through a coffee
filter into a clean container or spray bottle.
4. Smell the water. If you need more of one ingredient, add it, and
let it sit, then filter it again.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge
Chemicals in the flowers, herbs, and seasonings dissolve in the water. When
the chemicals are released from the water, they drift in the air, and if they
make it to your nose, you have a good chance of smelling them. Cosmetic
companies spend millions of dollars each year to create new perfumes to
appeal to consumers. The smell of some perfumes may be attractive to
some people, but other people may find these same perfumes unpleasant.

Ima THINKING DEEPER

ge Make new perfumes with spices and herbs such as mint, rosemary, and
orange peel. Although a bit expensive, essential oils from many different
plants can be used to make perfume. Some essential oils that make nice perfumes
include lemon, cedarwood, bergamot, vanilla, anise, peppermint, and lavender. You
need to add only a few drops of essential oil to the water for a strong smell.
 UNIT 06

VISION
YOUR EYES ARE THE WINDOWS to the outside world. Even in a darkened room, or
with starlight at night, your eye’s photoreceptors, or the cells within the innermost layer
of the retina, send information from the outside world about light’s brightness to your
nervous system, allowing your brain to then process the information. Once the brain
processes the information from your receptors, you’re able to recognize people and
objects with just a quick glance. You can identify the shape, size, distance, movement,
and color of an object all within a span of milliseconds from the time your eye
receptors first receive the information until you see and recognize the image. With this
information from the receptors, you can easily identify the face of a friend in school,
estimate the speed of a car driving past you, and appreciate a fine work of art.
The labs in this section explore how the receptors in your eyes work, how your brain
understands the information it receives from those receptors, and the sights and
images you’re able to see as a result of this lightning-quick process. You will also
discover examples of visual illusions to show how the brain makes assumptions about
what you see and how the process of viewing an image is not always as simple as it
may seem. You will be amazed to find out that it is very easy to fool your brain.

Image
 Lab 22 LENS MODEL
Model the lens of your eye with a magnifying glass.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image An adult human eyeball is just under 1 inch (2.5 cm) long; a baby’s eyeball is
2/3inch (16.5 mm) long.
Image A human eye weighs about 1/4 ounce (7.5 g).
Image The lens of the eye is 1/6 inch (4 mm) thick.
Image There are no nerves or blood vessels in the lens of the eye.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image Tape
Image White paper
Image Magnifying glass
Image Pencil

Image Method
1. Tape a white piece of paper to a wall that faces a window. The
wall should be about 161/2 feet (5 m) from the window.
2. Hold the magnifying glass about 4 inches (10 cm) from the paper
(fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Hold magnifying glass around 4 inches (10 cm) from paper on wall.
3. Move the magnifying glass back and forth to focus the image
from the window (fig. 2, fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 2: Move it to focus image.

Image
Fig. 3: Observe the objects outside the window.

4. Draw the image on the paper and compare it to what you see out
of the window (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Can you see that they’re inverted on the paper?

Im THINKING DEEPER
age Small muscles attached to the lens Image
can contract to flatten the lens. This
action changes how light passes through the lens and can help focus light on the
retina. People are nearsighted when light is focused in front of the retina so that
distant objects look fuzzy. Glasses with concave lenses will help correct the vision
of people who are nearsighted. If light is focused behind the retina, people are
farsighted and will need glasses for reading. Glasses with convex lenses can help
people who are farsighted see close-up objects clearly.
Experiment with different lenses and magnifying glasses. Compare the
distances needed to focus light on the paper with the different lenses. Also,
examine what happens to the image when light passes through the lens at an
angle.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge The light we see is just a small portion of the existing
electromagnetic radiation in our environment. This energy travels in the
form of waves. We can see this type of energy when it has wavelengths
between 380 and 760 nanometers because we have special cells
(photoreceptors) in the retina of our eyes that respond to those wavelengths.
The image you see projected on the paper should be an inverted image of
whatever is outside of the window. Light coming through the lens of the
magnifying glass is projected onto the paper upside down and right is
changed to left. This is what happens when light passes through the lens of
your eye and is projected onto your retina. Photoreceptors in the retina
respond to light and send electrical signals to the brain. The brain is able to
make sense of these signals and understand that right is really left and up is
really down.
 Lab 23 STROOP EFFECT
Use this lab to demonstrate how the color of a word can influence
your ability to read a word.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image This lab is named the Stroop Effect after J. Ridley Stroop, who discovered this
effect in the 1930s. The original description of the Stroop Effect is online at
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Stroop.
Image The cingulate area of the brain responds when people try the Stroop test.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image 2 pieces of paper
Image Colored markers
Image Timer

Image Method
1. On one sheet of paper, use the markers to make two lists of color
names (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Use colored markers to make a list of color names.

2. For the first list, use the same color marker for the word of that
color (fig. 2). For example, write the word RED with a red marker
and GREEN with a green marker.
 Image
Fig. 2: For the first list, use the same color as the word.

3. For the second list, write the words with a color different from
the word (fig. 3). For example, use a green marker to write the
word RED and a blue marker to write the word GREEN.

Image
Fig. 3: For the second list, use a different color than the word.

4. Now, read the lists out loud. Time how long it takes you to say
the color of the words (fig. 4). Do not read the words. Instead, say
what marker color was used to write each word. For example, if a
red marker was used to write the word GREEN, you should say
“red.”

Image
Fig. 4: Time each other reading the lists and compare.

5. Compare the amount of time it took you to say the colors in each
list.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age Change the word lists in different ways to see whether you can read the
list faster. What happens if you turn the word lists upside down or rotate
them 90 degrees? Make a third list of color words, but spell the color words
backward. For example, use a green marker to write “DER,” which is “RED”
backward. Try a list of words that are not colors. For example, use different color
markers to write words such as book, cat, car, and sky. Is it easier to say what color
was used to write the words in these new lists?

WHAT’S GOING ON?

 Ima For most people, it is more difficult to say the colors when the
ge color of the word is different from the written word. This shows
how one function (reading words) can interfere with another
function (saying the colors). The difficulty may occur because you can read
words faster than you can name colors. Alternatively, you might have
trouble naming colors because it requires more attention than reading
words.
 Lab 24 BLIND SPOT
Find the blind spot (optic disk) on the retina of your eye.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image The octopus, squid, and cuttlefish do not have a blind spot because their
photoreceptors are on the innermost layer of the retina.
Image The optic nerve contains about 1,200,000 axons.
Image The retina ranges in thickness from 100 to 230 microns.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image Paper
Image Black markers
Image Ruler

Image Method
1. Draw a small circle on the left side of the paper and an X on the
right side of the paper similar to this image (fig. 1). The circle and
the X should be separated by about 6 inches (15 cm).

Image
Fig. 1: Draw a circle and an X about 6 inches (15 cm) apart.

2. Hold the paper at arm’s length in front of you. The middle of the
paper should be lined up with the middle of your face.
3. Close your right eye (fig. 2).
 Image
Fig. 2: Hold paper; close one eye.

4. With your left eye, look at the X. Looking at the X with your left
eye, you should still be able to see the circle in your peripheral
vision.
5. Slowly bring the paper toward your face while you are looking at
the X (fig. 3). Keep looking at the X with your left eye.

Image
Fig. 3: Bring the paper toward you.
6. At some distance from the X to your face, the circle will
disappear.
7. If you move the paper closer to your face, the circle should
reappear.

Ima THINKING DEEPER

ge If you close one eye, keep your head still, and look into the distance, you
will not notice your blind spot. Certainly light is landing on your blind spot, but you
see an uninterrupted scene. This occurs because your brain fills in the gap made
by your blind spot. Experiment how your brain creates a complete scene by
putting other images into your blind spot. For example, instead of a circle on the
left side of the paper, draw a thick line extending from the X. Leave a gap in the
line and then repeat the blind spot test. What happens when the gap is placed in
your blind spot?
What if part of the line after the gap is a different color? Now what happens when
the gap is placed in your blind spot?
Make other patterns to test your brain’s ability to complete a scene. Try these
patterns and then make your own original patterns for your blind spot test.
 Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?
ge The retina of the eye has several different layers of cells. The
innermost layer of the retina contains cells (photoreceptors) that respond to
light. There are two types of photoreceptor cells. Rod photoreceptors
respond to low light, shape, and movement. Cone photoreceptors work in
bright light and provide information about color and detail. There are three
different types of cones that respond best to a specific frequency of light.
Photoreceptors are connected to cells in other layers of the retina. Axons
from the last layer of the retina collect in a location on the retina called the
optic disk, or blind spot. This area has no photoreceptors because it is
occupied by the optic nerve that sends signals from the retina to the brain.
So, when you are moving the paper back and forth in front of your face, you
are moving the image of the circle over the retina. When the projected
image falls on the optic disk, you cannot see it because there are no
photoreceptors to respond to the light.
 Lab 25 COLOR CARDS
Investigate how your ability to identify colors changes in low light.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image The retina in the human eye has about 120 million rods and 6 million cones.
Image A person who is color blind is missing one or more types of cone receptors.
Image Approximately 8 percent of all men and 0.5 percent of all women are color
blind.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image 5 different color cards, such as paint sample cards (free from paint stores),
pieces of construction paper, or colored sticky notes

Image Method
1. Ensure that each card is the same size. Cut the cards to make
them the same size, if necessary.
2. Write a different number on the back of each color card starting
with 1 (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Write number on each card.

3. In a well-lit room, identify the color on each card (fig. 2). Record
the number and the color.
 Image
Fig. 2: Identify colors.

4. Shuffle the color cards so they are no longer in the same order.
5. Go to a partially dark room or dim the lights in a room (fig. 3).
Repeat the color card identification activity in a dark room. The
room should not be completely dark and you should still be able to
see a little.

Image
Fig. 3: Go to a dark room.

6. Compare the color matches you made in the bright and the dark
rooms (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Repeat color identification.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age It takes a few minutes for your eyes to adapt in the dark. Investigate the
timing of adaption by testing your ability to detect color in the dark at
different times after you enter a dark room.
Many people, especially men and boys, are color blind. The most common type
of color-blindness affects a person’s ability to distinguish between red and green.
Repeat the color card experiment using different shades of red and green. You
may also find Ishihara color-blindness test patterns on the internet to investigate
color-blindness.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge Although you were able to see motion and shape in the dark, it is
likely that you had trouble naming the colors in the dark. Remember that
the cone photoreceptors in the retina respond best to a specific frequency of
light and, therefore, send information about color. However, cones need
bright light to work properly. In low light conditions, the other type of
photoreceptor called rods takes over. Rods respond to changes in light
intensity and provide information about movement and shape but not color.
So, in the dark, you can see the shape of a card, but not its color.
 Lab 26 SIDE–CENTER TESTER
Compare the ability to see movement, color, and detail as images
move from the side to the center of your vision.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Humans have three types of cone receptors that are most sensitive to
wavelengths of light responsible for red, green, and blue.
Image In addition to having eight legs, some spiders have eight eyes.
Image The eye of a dragonfly can have 30,000 lenses.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image Pencil
Image Protractor
Image White paper
Image Glue
Image Cardboard
Image Colored markers
Image Craft sticks
Image String

Image Method
1. With a pencil, trace the outline of the protractor onto a piece of
white paper (fig. 1). Glue the paper to cardboard and let it dry.

Image
Fig. 1: Trace protractor.
2. Label the protractor tracing with the degrees around the arc (fig.
2). This will be your “tester.”

Image
Fig. 2: Label the tester.

3. Use a colored marker to write a letter or number on one end of a

craft stick (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Write a number on a craft stick.

4. Hold the tester level, up to your face, so the middle of the tester
is in the middle of your head, just below your eyes.
5. Looking straight ahead, hold the craft stick to one side of your
head along the outside edge of the tester.
6. Keep looking straight ahead and move the craft stick slowly
toward the middle of the tester (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Move the stick around the tester.

7. As the stick gets closer to the middle, notice when you can see
movement, shape, and color of the letter or number (fig. 5). Record
the degree that you can see movement, shape, and color.

Image
Fig. 5: Note where you can see movement, shape, and color.

8. Repeat the test several times on both sides of your head.

 Im THINKING DEEPER
age Cone receptors are used to see color and for sharp vision, but they need
bright light to work. Use the tester while you change the brightness of a
room to see where an image comes into focus and where you can see color. Also
change the images on your craft stick. For example, attach pictures of different
animals to the stick to see when you can identify them. You might not be able to
distinguish between a dog and a cat until the image is right in front of you.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge As the image on the craft stick is moved, light reflected from the
stick enters your eye through your cornea and pupil. After moving through
the lens of your eye, the light falls on photoreceptors in your retina. Light
coming from the right side falls on the left side of your retinas and light
from the left side falls on the right side of your retinas. As the stick is
moved toward the center of the tester, light from the image falls on more
central parts of your retina.
You likely were able to see movement when the stick was out to the side
of your head, but could not see colors or shapes until the stick made its way
to the middle of the tester. You might not have been able to see clearly until
the stick was at the very middle of the tester. This lab shows that the
photoreceptors responsible for seeing movement, shape, and color are
located in different parts of your retina.
Cone receptors are responsible for color vision and are located primarily
in the central part of the retina. Rod receptors are found in high numbers
along the sides of the retina and do not provide information about color, but
they are sensitive to movement.
 Lab 27 COLOR AFTERIMAGES
When does red become green and blue become yellow? Right here
in this lab.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Some animals have photoreceptors that allow them to see ultraviolet or
infrared radiation.
Image The box jellyfish has twenty-four eyes.

Image Time
Image 10 minutes

Image Materials
Image Red, blue, green, and yellow markers.
Image White paper

Image Method
1. Using red, yellow, green, and blue markers (fig. 1), draw four
squares (fig. 2) that are 11/4 by 11/4 inches (3 by 3 cm) (see picture).

Image
Fig. 1: Use red, yellow, green, and blue markers.

Image
Fig. 2: Make four squares.

2. Stare at the center of your squares for 15 seconds (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Stare at them for 15 seconds.

3. Move your gaze to the middle of a blank area of your paper (fig.
4).

Image
Fig. 4: Then stare at blank white paper to see the afterimage.

4. Notice the colors and their locations on the paper.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge The retinas of your eyes have different types of cells that respond
to different wavelengths of light. Cells called cones are most sensitive to
red, blue, or green light. When you stare at a particular color for too long,
these receptors get tired. When you then look at the white background, the
receptors that are tired do not work as well. Therefore, the information from
all of the different color receptors is not in balance and you see color
“afterimages.” After a short time, the receptors are ready to work again and
your vision quickly returns to normal.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age Digital photographs can be used to create some unusual color
afterimages. Find a brightly colored photograph on a computer. Hold a
piece of white paper near the computer screen. After you stare at the photograph
for about 15 seconds, shift your gaze to the white paper to see an afterimage.
 Lab 28 BENHAM’S DISKS
Make colors appear by spinning a black-and-white disk.
Image
Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image The announcement of Benham’s disk was published in 1894 in the journal
Nature with the title “Artificial Spectrum Top.”3
Image Scientists Gustav Fechner and Hermann von Helmholtz experimented with
black-and-white disks before Mr. Benham did. Fechner and von Helmholtz both noticed
that spinning these disks produced the perception of colors.
Image The colors that you see when you spin Benham’s disks have been called
“subjective colors,” “Fechner-Benham colors,” “Prevost-Fechner-Benham colors,”
“polyphan colors,” and “pattern-induced flicker colors” (PIFCs).

Image Time
Image 1 hour

Image Materials
Image White and black paint
Image Paintbrushes
Image Compact disk
Image Black marker
Image Glue
Image Marble

Image Method
1. Paint half of the compact disk black and the other half white (fig.
1).

Image
Fig. 1: Paint a CD half black and half white.
2. After the paint is dry, use a black marker (fig. 2) to draw a
pattern of lines on the white side of the compact disk (see sample
patterns).

Image
Fig. 2: Draw patterned lines on the white surface.

3. Turn the disk over so the unpainted side is facing up. Glue a
marble in the middle hole of the disk (fig. 3). Let the glue dry.

Image
Fig. 3: Glue a marble to the bottom of the CD.

4. To spin the disk, place the marble on the table, press down
lightly on the disk, and give it a twist (fig. 4). What colors do you
see?

Image
Fig. 4: Give it a spin.

Image

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge In 1894, toymaker C. E. Benham discovered that a spinning disk
with a particular pattern of black-and-white marks could cause people to see
colors. Mr. Benham called his disk an Artificial Spectrum Top and sold it
through Messrs. Newton and Co. Benham’s top (or Benham’s disk) has
puzzled scientists for more than 100 years.
The retina of the eye is composed of two types of receptors sensitive to
light: cones and rods. Cones are important for color vision and for seeing in
bright light. There are three types of cones, each of which is most sensitive
to a particular wavelength of light. Rods are important for seeing in low
light.
 The colors that appear in spinning Benham’s disks may be the result of
changes that occur in the retina and other parts of the visual system. The
black-and-white areas of the disk may activate neighboring areas of the
retina differently. This alternating response may cause an interaction within
the nervous system that generates colors.
Another theory for the perception of Benham disk colors concerns how
different types of cones require different times to respond and the fact that
they stay activated for different amounts of time. Therefore, when you spin
a disk, the white color activates all three types of cones, but then the black
deactivates them. The activation/deactivation sequence causes an imbalance
in the signaling because the different types of cones take different times to
respond and stay on for different lengths of time. This imbalance of
information received by the brain results in the perception of color. Neither
of these theories explains Benham disk colors completely and the reason
behind the illusion remains unsolved.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age Some people notice that Benham disk colors change with the speed of
the spinning disk. Experiment with different spinning speeds and with
the spin direction (clockwise, counterclockwise) to determine when colors appear
and when they are brightest. Also, experiment with different lighting conditions.
Try the disks in sunlight, under incandescent lightbulbs, and under fluorescent
lights to see whether there are any differences in the perceptions of color.
The patterns used for the Benham’s disks in this experiment are only samples.
Continue your investigation by changing the amount of the disk that is colored
black and white. Also, change the thickness of the black lines, the number of black
lines, the location of black lines, and the pattern of black lines. Note how these
changes alter the perception of color with you spin a disk. You can even change
the color of the lines. What happens when you use blue instead of black lines?
Additional clues about the how the disks work may be revealed by asking
people who are color blind what they see in Benham’s disks. People who are color
blind are missing one or more cone receptors in their retinas. Ask these people
what they see when they look at a spinning Benham disk and compare their
perceptions to people who are not color blind.

3 Vol. 51, pp. 113–114.

 UNIT 07

TOUCH
YOUR SENSE OF TOUCH makes it easy for you to know whether, for instance, you are
petting the soft fur of a cat or tapping the sharp end of a pin. Below the first layer of
skin, the epidermis, is the dermis, which contains receptors that allow you to respond
to touch. Touch is actually a group of several senses rather than just one. Attached to
the receptors are neurons, which send signals not only about touch, but also about
pain, heat, cold, and pressure to your nervous system. Different receptors inside the
skin make it possible for you to know about the pressure, vibration, stretching, and
texture of an object.
Using your sense of touch, you also know what part of your body is touching an
object and if the object is moving. Even a light touch activates your sensory receptors.
The receptors are connected to axons, which send electrical signals to the spinal cord.
The brain receives that information and you’re able to tell where another person/object
is making contact with your skin as well as what the person/object feels like. The labs in
this section explore the sensitivity of your skin and the perceptions that result from the
objects that touch your skin.
 ONE POINT, TWO
POINT
What area of your body is most sensitive to touch?

BRAIN FACTS
Skin without any hair is called glabrous skin.
Different types of skin receptors respond to different types of touch. Ruffini nerve
endings are receptors that respond to pressure, Meissner corpuscles respond to light
touch, Pacinian corpuscles respond to vibration, and free nerve endings respond to
temperature and pain.
Adult humans have about 9 pounds (4.1 kg) of skin–the largest organ of the body.

Time
45 minutes

Materials
Toothpicks
Ruler
Rubber bands

Safety Tips
Be extremely careful if you test skin on the face. Remember to use only a light
touch and do not get the toothpick close to your test subject’s eyes.

Method
1. Secure two toothpicks to a ruler with rubber bands (fig. 1). One
should be lined up with the first mark at the beginning of the ruler;
the other should be placed about 11/4 inches (3 cm) away from the
other toothpick. Make sure that the tips of the toothpicks are even
with each other.

Fig. 1: Secure a toothpick to a ruler.

2. Lightly touch the ends of the toothpicks to the back of the hand
of your subject (fig. 2). Your subject should not look at the area of
skin that is being tested. Do not press too hard.

Fig. 2: Lightly touch subject’s hand with toothpicks.

3. Make sure both tips touch the skin at the same time. Ask your
subject whether he or she feels one or two pressure points (fig. 3).
If your subject says one point, then spread the toothpicks a bit
further apart, and touch the back of the hand again. If your subject
reports two points, then push the tips a bit closer together, and test
again.

Fig. 3: Make sure both tips touch the skin at the same time.

4. Read the distance on the ruler between the points that the subject
reports a change from “I feel two points” to “I feel one point” (fig.
4).
Fig. 4: Measure the distance.

THINKING DEEPER
Use the one point–two point test to investigate the sensitivity of touch in
other parts of the body, such as the arms, legs, fingers, back, neck, head, palms,
and toes. Compare the distances required for the response on different body
regions and see how they match with the results of a published experiment (see
table below).4 Which part of the body is most sensitive? In other words, which part
 of the body had the smallest distance where two toothpick points could be
detected?

SITE THRESHOLD SITE THRESHOLD

DISTANCE DISTANCE

Fingers 0.8 to 0.12 inch (2 Upper lip 0.20 inch (5 mm)

to 3 mm)

Cheek 0.24 inch (6 mm) Nose 0.28 inch (7 mm)

Palm 0.41 inch (10 mm) Forehead 0.61 inch (15 mm)

Foot 0.82 inch (20 mm) Belly 1.22 inches (30 mm)

Forearm 1.43 inches (35 mm) Upper arm 1.59 inches (39 mm)

Back 1.59 inches (39 mm) Shoulder 1.67 inches (41 mm)

Thigh 1.71 inches (42 mm) Calf 1.84 inches (45 mm)

4 These data (rounded) are from a threshold experiment published in The Skin Senses, edited by
D. R. Kenshalo (Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1968).

WHAT’S GOING ON?

Skin is made of several layers. The outermost layer of skin is
called the epidermis. The epidermis makes new skin cells, gives
skin its color, and helps protect the body. Below the epidermis is the dermis.
In addition to making sweat and oil, growing hair, and providing blood to
the skin, the dermis contains special cells (receptors) that respond to touch.
Skin receptors are attached to neurons that send signals into the nervous
system about touch, temperature, pressure, and pain.
The receptors in our skin are not distributed in an even way around our
bodies. The skin in some places, such as our fingers and lips, has more
touch receptors than the skin in other parts of our body, such as our backs
and legs.
 MAKE YOUR POINT

Become a neurologist! Make your own set of touch testers to

measure someone’s ability to detect pressure.

BRAIN FACTS
Pressure can be detected when the skin on some parts of the body is moved only
0.001 mm.
The star-nosed mole has almost six times more touch receptors in its nose than
humans have in their hands.
Somatosensation refers to sensory information about the skin.

Time
30 minutes

Materials
Scissors
Monofilament fishing line in several thicknesses
Ruler
Glue
Craft sticks
Blindfold

Method
1. Use scissors to cut various thicknesses of monofilament fishing
line into 11/2-inch (4 cm) lengths (fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Cut fishing line into 11/2-inch (4 cm) lengths.

2. Glue each piece of fishing line at a right angle to the end of a

craft stick to make a tester (fig. 2). Let the glue dry (fig. 3). Your
completed testing apparatus (tester) should look like this:
Fig. 2: Glue fishing line to sticks at right angles.

Image
 Image
Fig. 3: Let glue dry.

Image
3. To measure the sensitivity of your test subjects, blindfold them.
Touch the tester to the skin on the hands of your test subjects until
the fishing line bends (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Touch line to subject’s hand.

4. Ask your test subjects whether they felt anything.

5. If your subject does not feel anything, use a thicker line and
repeat the test. If your subject does feel the touch, use a thinner line
and repeat the test.
6. Record the size of the thinnest fishing line that your test subjects
could feel.

WHAT’S GOING ON?

The tactile detection threshold is the smallest amount of touch
necessary for someone to say, “Hey, I feel that.” The different
thicknesses of fishing line allow you to vary the amount of pressure applied
to the skin on different parts of the body. A person can feel the touch when
enough signals from skin receptors reach the brain.

THINKING DEEPER
Use the touch testers on different parts of your test subject’s body.
Compare the detection threshold for the skin on the fingers, hands,
arms, back, legs, and feet. What is the most sensitive and least sensitive area of
the body? Also compare the detection thresholds for young people and old people
and for boys and girls.
 Lab 31 SANDPAPER TESTERS
Demonstrate the exquisite sensitivity Image
of the sense of touch with sandpaper.

BRAIN FACTS
The eyelids have the thinnest skin on your body.
Some people are born without the ability to sense pain.

Time
30 minutes

Materials
Sandpaper in 5 different grit sizes
Scissors
Cardboard
Glue

Method
1. Get five different grits (roughness) of sandpaper. The degree of
roughness should be printed on the back of the sandpaper sheet.
2. Cut the sandpaper into pieces about 4 by 4 inches (10 by 10 cm)
so you have five pieces of each grade of sandpaper.
3. Cut twenty-five pieces of cardboard into 4 by 4-inch (10 by 10
cm) squares (fig. 1).
 Image
Fig. 1: Cut sandpaper.

4. Glue each piece of sandpaper to a piece of cardboard.

5. Write the grade of roughness on the rough side (sandpaper side)
on each sandpaper/cardboard piece.
6. Mix the pieces of sandpaper and place them with the rough side
down (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Mix the pieces rough side down.

7. Rub your finger on the sandpaper to feel the grit.

8. Based on your feeling of the sandpaper, make five piles of five
cards, each with a single grit of sandpaper (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Sort sandpaper into piles by feel.

9. Order the piles from the smoothest to the roughest.

10. Flip over the cards and see whether you placed the same
sandpaper grits in the same piles.

THINKING DEEPER
Try the sandpaper test again, but this time, press your finger on the
sandpaper rather than rubbing your finger on the sandpaper. Compare
the sensation of the sandpaper press to the sensation you felt when you rubbed
the sandpaper. Also, check the accuracy of your sandpaper piles with this new
method.
 WHAT’S GOING ON?
Rubbing your finger over the sandpaper stimulates receptors in
your skin such as Pacinian corpuscles and Meissner corpuscles. As
each bump in the sandpaper moves over a receptor, a signal is generated.
The skin receptors connect to axons in nerves that send electrical signals
into the spinal cord. From the spinal cord, the signals make their way to the
brain for the perception of touch and roughness.
 Lab 32 BRAILLE ALPHABET
Make your own Braille alphabet to test Image
your sensitivity to touch.

BRAIN FACTS
Louis Braille, who was born in France on January 4, 1809, developed the system of
raised dots for people who are blind when he was only fifteen years old. Braille lost his
eyesight in a workshop accident when he was a young child.
The average reading speed of Braille is about 125 words per minute.

Time
30 minutes

Materials
Braille alphabet sheet
Paper
White glue
Scissors

Method
1. Each letter in the Braille alphabet uses a series of black dots.
Photocopy the image or print one out from a computer (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Each Braille letter uses a series of dots.
2. Place small dots of white glue on the location of each black dot
(fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Place small dots of glue on each black dot.

3. Separate each letter by a small space (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Separate letters by a small space.

4. When the glue dries, you will have created Braille letters that
you can feel.
5. Cut out each letter and try to arrange the letters in alphabetical
order using only your sense of touch.

THINKING DEEPER
Teach yourself to read Braille. First, learn A through J because these use
only the top four dots. The next ten letters (K through T) are similar to
the first ten letters except they use one more dot in the lower left. The letters U, V,
X, Y, and Z are similar to K, L, M, N, and O except they have another dot in the
lower right. The letter W does not follow the other letter pattern. Practice
recognizing the different letters using only your sense of touch. Put letters
together to spell words. When you are ready, go to your local library and ask a
librarian for a book printed with Braille. Can you read the book?

WHAT’S GOING ON?

Braille symbols use a system of raised dots that can be read by the
sense of touch. People who are blind or have low vision move their
fingers over the dots to feel different letters. By understanding the meaning
of the dots, people can read words.
 Lab 33
TOUCH HERE, TOUCH
THERE
Test your accuracy to find a spot touched on your skin.

BRAIN FACTS
A protein called melanin is responsible for the color of skin.
Everyone should wear sunscreen to protect the skin from the damaging effects of
the Sun.
The brain makes chemicals called endorphins that act on neurons and reduce pain.

Time
30 minutes

Materials
Blindfold
Washable markers in 2 different colors
Ruler

Method
1. Blindfold your test subject. Touch a spot on the arm of the
subject with one marker, leaving a small mark (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Blindfold a test subject and touch spot on arm with a marker.
2. Give your blindfolded test subject a marker with a different color
(fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Give person a second mark with a different color.

3. Ask your test subject to use the marker to touch the point that
you just touched (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Ask subject to touch the point.

4. Using the ruler, measure the distance from your point to the
point touched by your subject (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Use a ruler to see how close they were.

5. Repeat this test several times on different parts of your test

subject’s arm and hand.

THINKING DEEPER
In addition to testing the skin on the hands and arms, test other parts of
the body, such as the feet, legs, and torso. Compare the distances to
identify the part of the body that has the smallest distance between the two spots.
To make the test more difficult, ask your test subjects to touch the marked spot on
the opposite side of their body. In other words, if you touch the middle part of
your subjects’ left hand, ask them to mark the identical spot on their right hand.
To make the test even more difficult, have your test subjects wait a minute or two
after you mark a spot before they mark their spot.

WHAT’S GOING ON?

 A light touch to the skin activates sensory receptors. These
receptors are connected to axons that send electrical signals to the
spinal cord. Information then travels to the brain and allows a
person to know what and where something touched the skin. Areas of skin
with small distances between the two marked spots indicate more sensitive
areas of the body. Areas that are more sensitive to touch have more
receptors.
 Lab 34
THE LITTLE BOX OF
SCIENCE
What could it be? Only the Little Box of Science knows for sure.

BRAIN FACTS
The total surface area of the skin is about 3,000 square inches (1.93 m2).
There are approximately 17,000 touch receptors in the hand.
People report pain when temperatures reach 113°F (45°C).

Time
1 hour

Materials
Scissors
Shoe box
Sock
Tape (duct tape is best)
Decorations for the box, such as drawings, photos, and stickers
Objects to put in the box

Method
1. With scissors, cut a hole in the side of a box that is large enough
for your hand (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Cut a hole larger than your hand in a box.

2. Cut off the toe end of the sock to make a tube.

3. Tape one end of the sock to the inside of the box so that the sock
makes a “tunnel” from the outside to the inside of the box (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Cut a sock and tape it to the box.

4. Decorate the box with pictures, photos, and stickers.

5. Place several small objects into the box (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Place objects in the box.

6. Ask your test subjects to reach into the box through the sock to
identify the objects (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Try to identify them by touch.

THINKING DEEPER
The box is used to isolate the sense of touch from sight and hearing.
Therefore, touch is the main sense that can be used to identify the
object. However, we have other senses that help with this function. For example,
we have special sensory cells in our joints and muscles that tell us about body
position and muscle strength. The weight of an object might give a clue about its
identity.

WHAT’S GOING ON?

You can make this lab easy by using common, familiar objects, such as a
spoon, a small ball, or a sponge. To make the lab more difficult, use unusual
items, such as a bar of soap, piece of foil, or toy animal. Also, add wooden
or plastic letters or numbers to the box and try to identify them. The box
could be used in a match game if you have pairs of objects. One object goes
into the box while its matching pair is shown or placed in the hand of your
test subject. Your test subject must then reach into the box to find the
matching item.
Wear a pair of gloves to understand the importance of your skin and its
receptors to your ability to feel. Rubber dishwashing gloves, cotton gloves,
or leather gloves will prevent many of the receptors in your skin from
responding when you reach into the box.
 Lab 35 TOUCH MAZE
If you think mazes are difficult to navigate when you can see, try to
complete one using only your sense of touch.

BRAIN FACTS
Sensory information from receptors in the skin is processed in the parietal lobe of
the brain in the somatosensory cortex.
The Pacinian corpuscle receptor was named after Italian anatomist Filippo Pacini
(1812–1883).

Time
30 minutes

Materials
Scissors
Piece of cardboard at least 6 by 6 inches (21 by 21 cm)
Pencil
White glue

Method
1. With scissors, cut out squares of cardboard. Each square should
be about 6 by 6 inches (21x21 cm).
2. Draw a trail maze on the cardboard with a pencil.
3. Apply a layer of glue over the trail (fig. 1).
 Image
Fig. 1: Apply glue in maze shape.

4. After the glue is dry, close your eyes and navigate the maze by
holding your finger on the glue trail (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Navigate the maze.

THINKING DEEPER
If your maze is too difficult to follow, let the glue dry and then apply
another layer of glue to raise the height of the maze (fig. 3). This should
make it easier for you to follow the path (fig. 4). In fact, you could make several
mazes with the same path but different heights. Use a timer to see whether there
are any differences in the time it takes to navigate through the different mazes.
You can also use one maze to investigate the effects of learning. Start a timer at
the same time you start to move through a maze. When you finish a maze, record
the amount of time it took you to finish. Repeat your journey through the same
maze several times and record your times. Make a graph with the trial number on
the x-axis and your time on the y-axis to see whether you improved over time.

Image
Fig. 3: Apply more glue to make ridges higher.

Image
Fig. 4: Try again.

WHAT’S GOING ON?

As you move your finger over the glue, touch receptors send
information to the spinal cord and up to the brain. If your brain
detects that your finger is no longer on the glue trail, signals are sent back
down to your spinal cord and then out to muscles in your arms, hands, and
fingers to correct your error. This pathway from the skin on your finger to
the brain and then from the brain back to the finger helps you navigate the
maze.
 UNIT 08

HEARING
THOSE FLOPPY THINGS on the sides of your head are not just for show. Your ears help
you identify and respond to what is happening in the environment around you. Noises
—everything from fire engine sirens and barking dogs to ocean waves and windswept
leaves—create sound waves, which are invisible vibrations in the air. This vibration
causes changes in air pressure that move the eardrum, or the tympanic membrane,
inside your ear. There are three small bones called the malleus, incus, and stapes that
are connected to the eardrum. These bones receive these vibrations from the eardrum
due to their close proximity to it. The bones send the vibrations to the cochlea, a snail-
shaped structure inside the ear. The receptor cells in the cochlea create electrical
signals that travel from the ear to the brain.
Your brain creates the perception of sound to help you understand the loudness and
pitch of a noise. Your brain uses these perceptions to help you identify voices, avoid
danger, communicate with others, and enjoy music. The labs in this section investigate
the nature of sound, illustrate how changes in air pressure create the perception of
sound, and introduce the roles your brain, cochlear receptors, and auditory nerve play
in receiving and processing sound.
 EARDRUM MODEL

Make a simple model of the eardrum (tympanic membrane) to see

how sound travels through the air and vibrates the eardrum.

BRAIN FACTS
A frog’s eardrum is located outside its body behind its eye.
People can hear sound waves with frequencies between 20 and 20,000 hertz (Hz).
The smallest bone in the human body is one of the bones in the ear called the
stapes. The stapes is 0.10 to 0.13 inch (2.5 to 3.3 mm) long and weighs 1.9 to 4.3
milligrams.

Time
20 minutes

Materials
Plastic wrap
Container with wide opening
Rubber band
Uncooked rice or other small grain
Metal cookie sheet (or other noise maker)

Method
1. Stretch a piece of plastic wrap over a large container. Make sure
the plastic wrap is stretched tightly (fig. 1).
Fig. 1: Stretch plastic over open container.

2. Use a rubber band to secure the plastic wrap over the top of the
container (fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Secure with rubber band.

3. Place a few grains of uncooked rice on top of the plastic wrap

(fig. 3).
Fig. 3: Place rice on plastic and bang cookie sheet.

4. Hold the cookie sheet close to the plastic wrap.

5. Hit the cookie sheet to create a loud noise and see if the rice
grains move (fig. 4).
Fig. 4: Watch the rice grains move from the sound vibrations.

THINKING DEEPER
Most musical instruments create sound by causing some kind of
vibration. For example, guitars and violins have strings that vibrate at
different frequencies. The different lengths, thicknesses, tension, and materials of
the strings change the sound. Sounds from trumpets and clarinets are created
when a column of air vibrates.
Make a simple musical instrument with a plastic or wooden ruler. Hold the ruler
flat on a table so that most of the ruler is hanging over the edge. Use your free
hand to bend the part of the ruler over the edge and then quickly release it. The
ruler should bounce up and down and create a sound. Experiment by strumming
 different lengths of the ruler hanging over the edge. Compare the sounds the
ruler makes with the frequency of the bouncing ruler.

WHAT’S GOING ON?

The “big bang” produces sound waves (changes in air pressure)
that cause the plastic sheet to vibrate. The vibration of the plastic
sheet causes the rice grains to move. Sound waves vibrate the eardrum
(tympanic membrane) in much the same way. The eardrum is connected to
three small bones (malleus, incus, and stapes) in the ear. Therefore, when
the eardrum vibrates, the bones also vibrate. The bones pass the vibrations
to a snail-shaped, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear called the cochlea.
The cochlea has receptor cells that generate electrical signals that are sent to
the brain through the auditory nerve.
 SOUND SHAKERS

Make some noise! Explore hearing with these easy-to-make sound

shakers.

BRAIN FACTS
Exposure to loud sounds can damage receptor cells in the cochlea and cause
hearing loss.
Elephants can hear sounds made by other elephants 6.2 miles (10 km) away.

Time
30 minutes

Materials
Plastic containers with covers or tops, such as film canisters, yogurt cups, or
plastic bottles
Filling such as dry seeds, uncooked beans or rice, sand, pebbles, coins, marbles,
and rocks
Tape
Decorations such as stickers, colored papers, and cutouts from magazines
(optional)

Method
1. Fill different containers one-quarter or half full with dry seeds,
uncooked beans or rice, pebbles, sand, or other small objects (fig.
1).

Fig. 1: Fill containers.

2. Seal the top of the containers with a lid or tape to prevent the
filling from falling out (fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Seal top and decorate.

3. Optional: Decorate the container with stickers, colored paper, or

magazine cutouts.
4. Shake the containers (fig. 3) and compare the sounds made by
the different materials (fig. 4).
Fig. 3: Shake and compare sounds.
Fig. 4: Do different material sound different?

THINKING DEEPER
Use the sound shakers to play a guessing game. Can other people guess
what you put inside each container? You can also create two sound
shakers with the same materials to see whether people can find matching sounds.
If you make similar sound shakers, ensure that the same amount of material is
placed inside each container so people cannot use the weight of the shaker to find
the matching pairs.

WHAT’S GOING ON?

 Sound waves made by these shakers cause changes in air pressure.
When the sound waves enter the ear, they vibrate the eardrum. The
vibrations of the eardrum move three interconnected bones in the
middle ear. The bones move fluid contained in a spiral-shaped structure
called the cochlea. Inside the cochlea is a membrane that has receptor cells
that send electrical signals when they move. These electrical signals travel
to the brain through the auditory nerve. Sounds are perceived when the
signals arrive at the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe of the brain.
 TAKE A WALK

Now it’s time to go outside and take a walk. Don’t forget your lab
notebook.

BRAIN FACTS
A dog whistle makes a high-frequency sound that dogs (and cats) can hear, but
humans cannot hear.
The speed of sound in air is approximately 767.4 miles (1,235 km) per hour.

Time
30 minutes

Materials
Paper
Pen or pencil

Method
1. Find a nice place to have a walk, such as a park, the beach, or the
mall (fig. 1).
Fig. 1: Find a nice place to have a seat

2. Now listen (fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Listen.

3. Write down all of the sounds that you hear (fig. 3).
Fig. 3: Write down what you hear.

THINKING DEEPER
Send some friends on a walk to record the sounds they hear. They can
go out by themselves or in groups. Tell everyone to write down
everything that they hear within a specific amount of time. In addition, everyone
must stay within a certain area, such as a park, playground, or backyard. When the
time is up, compare sound lists (fig. 4) to see whether everyone heard the same
things (fig. 5).
Fig. 4: Compare the sounds that everyone heard.
 Fig. 5: Do you hear the same things?

WHAT’S GOING ON?

The sounds that we normally hear are only a small fraction of the
sounds in our environment. It is impossible for us to pay attention
to everything that is happening around us. Much of what happens in the
environment is not important to us, so we ignore it. In this lab, you were
required to pay attention to sounds that you would likely not hear.
When something happens that is important to us, even though we are not
paying attention to it, we become aware of it. For example, if you are
having lunch in a noisy place and talking to some friends, if someone at
another table says your name, you will likely hear it even though you were
not part of the conversation at the other table.
 HEAR HERE, HEAR
THERE
How important is it to have two ears? Compare the ability to judge
distance using one and two ears.

BRAIN FACTS
Dolphins and bats send out sound waves and then wait for the signals to bounce
back to them. This is called echolocation. These animals use echolocation to find food
and move through their environment.
The loudness of sound is measured in decibels.

Time
30 minutes

Materials
Tape
Yardstick or tape measure
A noisemaker, such as a bell
Marker

Method
1. Make an X on the floor with tape (fig. 1).
Fig. 1: Make an X with tape.

2. Measure distances in increments of 6 feet (2 m) from the X and

place a strip of tape at each point (fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Measure distance and mark.

3. Label each distance from the X with a marker: 6, 12, 18, 24 feet,
etc. (2, 4, 6, 8 m, etc.).
4. Have your test subject stand on the X with his or her eyes closed.
5. You should stand on one of the tape marks facing your subject
(fig. 3).
Fig. 3: Stand on marks and ring the bell.

6. Ring the bell. Your test subject must now tell you which line you
are standing on.
7. Try different distances and record whether your test subject was
able to judge each distance correctly (fig. 4).
Fig. 4: Try it with more than one person at different distances!

8. Repeat the experiment, but this time have your test subject cover
one ear with his or her hand.

THINKING DEEPER
Investigate the factors involved with sound localization by changing how
your test subjects listen to sound. Ask your test subjects to face away
from you or turn to one side when they try to identify the location of sound. Now
check the accuracy of identifying the location of sound with one and two ears.
 WHAT’S GOING ON?
Most people will find that it is easier to locate sounds when they
use two ears. The ability to judge the location of sounds is
influenced by two factors. First, sound coming from one side of the body
has a direct path to the ear on that side, but the head blocks the sound to the
ear on the other side. Therefore, sound coming into the ear on the same side
as the source of the sound is a little louder than the sound coming into the
ear on the opposite side. Second, there is a small difference between the
times when sound enters each ear. The brain is able to use this time
difference to help locate sounds. When one ear is closed, the brain cannot
use the differences in the loudness of sound from each ear or the differences
in the time it takes sounds to reach each ear. Therefore, it is harder to locate
sound when one ear is blocked.
 UNIT 09

SLEEP AND BODY RHYTHMS

WE SPEND ABOUT ONE-THIRD of our lives asleep, unaware of our surroundings.
Wouldn’t it be great if we did not have to sleep? We could get so much more done.
However, sleep is critical to our well-being. Without a good night’s sleep, we feel
anxious and tired and have problems making good decisions.
Your body and brain have a built-in clock that works on a 24-hour cycle. During a 24-
hour period, different body systems move from being active to being less active.
Attention, heart rate, body temperature, and hormone levels are just a few of the many
functions that follow daily rhythms.
The labs in this section will allow you to explore the ups and downs of biological
rhythms in yourself, in other people, and in animals. The methods and materials used
in these labs are simple, but they all require that you make careful observations. While
you study yourself, record your behavior in as much detail as possible. Study others in
their natural environments, but do not disturb them or influence them in any way.
 SLEEP LOG

A sleep log is a great way to study sleep by keeping a record of

your sleep behavior and the dreams that you have each night.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Humans sleep about 8 hours each day. Giraffes sleep only about 2 hours a
day and brown bats sleep about 20 hours a day.
Image Insomnia is a common sleep disorder.
Image Benjamin Franklin wrote, “Early to bed, and early to rise, makes a man healthy,
wealthy and wise.”5

Image Time
Image A few minutes each day for at least 1 week

Image Materials
Image Pen or pencil
Image Lab notebook

Image Method
1. Keep a pen and your lab notebook near your bed (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Keep a pen and lab notebook near your bed.

2. Go to sleep (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Go to sleep.

3. When you wake up, immediately write down or record

everything that you remember about your dreams.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age Try to remember whether your dreams were in color and write down as
many details as possible. You should even record your emotions, the
places you visited, and the names of people in your dreams. Look back at your
dream record to see whether something happened while you were awake that
ended up in your dream.
You might want to investigate factors that affect your dreams. For example,
compare the content of your dreams when you go to sleep in a good mood and
when you are stressed and anxious. The time you go to sleep and the season may
also affect your dreams, so do not forget to record what time you turn out the
lights, the day of the week, and the date. After you have collected many dream
records, go back to your log and look for trends in the amount of sleep you had
and the details of your dreams.
 Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?
ge It is best to write down your dreams immediately after you wake
up because the events and details of dreams will fade with time. After a few
nights of practice recording your dreams, you should get better at
remembering what happened while you were dreaming.
While you sleep, your brain cycles through a regular pattern of electrical
activity. Remember, neurons are like little batteries that generate small
amounts of electricity. Sleep researchers can record this electrical brain
activity (brain waves) by attaching electrodes to the scalp of a person. A
machine called an electroencephalograph (EEG) can amplify and record the
electrical signals.
When a person is awake, the EEG pattern has a small size with very
frequent waves. After a person falls asleep, the EEG pattern slows down
and the size of the waves increases. The EEG pattern then cycles back to a
smaller size with waves that are more frequent. About 90 minutes after a
person falls asleep, the EEG pattern looks as if a person is awake. However,
if you looked at the muscle activity in this sleeping person, it would appear
as if the person was paralyzed. This stage of sleep is called paradoxical
sleep because the EEG pattern looks as if the person is awake. Because the
muscles of the person are paralyzed, a person cannot move during
paradoxical sleep. Most dreaming occurs during paradoxical sleep, also
known as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep because this is a time when a
sleeper’s eyes move back and forth.
5 Poor Richard’s Almanack, 1758.
 Lab 41 REM DETECTIVE
Observe a sleeping person to detect when he or she is in rapid eye
movement (REM) sleep.

Image

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Dreaming can happen outside of REM sleep, but the most intense dreams
occur during REM sleep.
Image Newborn babies can sleep up to 16 hours a day and spend about half of their
time sleeping in REM sleep.
Image Dolphins, whales, and some birds sleep with one side of their brains at a time.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image A sleeping subject, such as a family member or friend

Image Safety Tips

Image Be quiet and do not to wake up the person (or animal) you are observing.

Image Method
1. Practice observing eye movements by asking your test subjects
to close their eyes (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Practice observing eye movement.
2. Then ask them to move their eyes from side to side (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: See what happens when closed eyes move from side to side.

3. Notice a small bulge moving behind your subject’s eyelids.

4. When your test subject is asleep, observe his or her eye
movements (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: When your test subject is asleep, observe his or her eye movements.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age All animals show signs of rest or sleep. Observe how a pet or an animal
at the zoo sleeps. You might notice an animal’s eyes move during REM
periods or muscle movements during other stages of sleep.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is the stage of sleep when most
dreaming occurs. Sleep researchers use expensive electronic equipment to
monitor brain waves to detect REM sleep, but this lab uses just your power
of observation. When people enter REM sleep, their eyes move back and
forth. You should be able to see this eye movement, even when your test
subject’s eyes are closed. You must be patient because it could take 90
minutes for a person to enter REM sleep after they fall asleep. Also, a REM
period lasts only a few minutes.
 Lab 42 DROP OFF TIME
How long does it take you to fall asleep? Sleep researcher Dr.
William C. Dement suggests this easy way to measure the time it
takes you to fall asleep.6

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Sleepwalking does not occur during REM sleep; people do not act out dreams
while they sleepwalk.
Image Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder in which REM sleep suddenly starts when
someone is awake.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image Large dinner plate
Image Lab notebook
Image Pencil or pen
Image Clock (or timer)
Image Metal spoon

Image Method
1. Place the plate on the floor near the side of your bed.
2. In your notebook, write down the time you get into bed.
3. Get into bed and hold a metal spoon in one hand over the plate
on the floor (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Go to bed holding a spoon over a plate on the floor.

4. Fall asleep (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Fall asleep.

5. If you wake up to the sound of the spoon hitting the place, note
the time in your notebook (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Note the time the falling spoon wakes you.

6. Repeat the experiment holding the spoon over the plate or just go
back to sleep.
7. In the morning, calculate the difference between the time when
you got into bed and the time when you woke up to the sound of
the spoon (fig. 4). This difference in time is your sleep latency. For
example, if you got into bed at 9:05 p.m. and the spoon woke you
up at 9:21 p.m., then it took you 16 minutes to fall asleep.

Image
Fig. 4: Calculate the difference between bedtime and the spoon dropping.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age Most people fall asleep 10 to 20 minutes after they turn off the lights
and get into bed. If people fall asleep too fast, it may mean that they are
not getting enough sleep. People who have trouble falling asleep may have
trouble relaxing, feel anxious, or have jet lag. Drinking too much coffee or other
drinks with caffeine can also affect a person’s ability to fall asleep and the quality
of sleep. Investigate how your mood and behavior affect your sleep latency.
Before you go to sleep, record how you feel and when you have consumed
anything with caffeine during the day (such as soda or chocolate). Measure your
 sleep latency and compare the time it took you to fall asleep when you were in
different moods and when you consumed different amounts of caffeine.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge As you fall asleep, your muscles will relax and the spoon will fall
out of your hand. The noise of the spoon hitting the plate should wake you
up. Of course, if the spoon misses the plate, you may not wake up. If this
happens, provide a larger target area for the spoon, such as a large metal
cookie sheet.
6 W. C. Dement and C. C. Vaughn, The Promise of Sleep: A Pioneer in
Sleep Medicine Explores the Vital Connection Between Health, Happiness,
and a Good Night’s Sleep (New York: Delacorte Press, 1999).
 Lab 43 BODY TEMPERATURE
All animals have a built-in clock that controls their behavior. Body
rhythms that keep a daily pattern are called circadian rhythms. One
circadian rhythm that is easy to track is your own body
temperature.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Normal body temperature for humans is 98.6°F (37°C), but it can vary by
about 2°F (1°C) depending on the time of day.
Image Normal body temperature for dogs is 101.5°F (38.6°C).
Image Heat stroke happens when a person becomes too hot and hypothermia
happens when a person becomes too cold.

Image Time
Image 5 minutes several times a day

Image Materials
Image Digital thermometer
Image Pen or pencil
Image Lab notebook
Image Graph paper

Image Safety Tips

Image Do not use a thermometer that has liquid in it.
Image Make sure you know how to use a digital thermometer properly.
Image Wash the thermometer carefully after each use.

Image Method
1. When you wake up, place a digital thermometer under your
tongue to measure your body temperature. Record the time of day
and your temperature in your lab notebook.
2. Measure your temperature every 2 hours from the time you get
up in the morning until the time you go to sleep (fig. 1). If you
cannot measure your temperature every 2 hours, then just measure
it as often as possible.

Image
Fig. 1: Measure your temperature every 2 hours.

3. Do not eat or drink anything right before you take your

temperature. Make sure to take your temperature the same way
each time (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Take temperature same way every time.

4. After you have collected a full day of data (fig. 3), plot the
recorded temperatures on graph paper (fig. 4). The time of day
should be on the x-axis and body temperature should be on the y-
axis.

Image
Fig. 3: Record your body temperature.

Image
Fig. 4: Chart your body temperature.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age
 Combine this body temperature lab with the Lab 14: Catch Me If You Can.
Measure your reaction time to catching the ruler and plot your “catch times” with
your body temperature. Is there a correlation between body temperature and
reaction time?

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge A person’s body temperature usually shows a daily cycle. Most
people have their highest body temperature in the afternoon and lowest
body temperature in the very early morning. Body temperature is also
dependent on a person’s age, activity, and stress level.
The area of the brain called the hypothalamus helps regulate body
temperature. The hypothalamus receives information about skin
temperature and has its own sensors that detect the temperature of blood.
The hypothalamus can send signals throughout the body to control
sweating, shivering, and the diameter of blood vessels to keep body
temperature within normal range. If skin temperature is low, the
hypothalamus sends signals automatically to stop sweating, reduce blood
flow to the skin, and start shivering. If a person gets too hot, then the
hypothalamus sends messages to start sweating and increase blood flow to
the skin.
 Lab 44
RHYTHMS OF THE
DAY
Track the rhythm of activity of an animal throughout the day.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image The word circadian comes from the Latin word meaning “about a day.”
Image The suprachiasmatic nucleus contains about 20,000 neurons.
Image Jet lag occurs when circadian rhythms are disrupted.

Image Time
Image All day

Image Materials
Image Research subject (dog, cat, fish, or other animal)
Image Clock
Image Lab notebook
Image Pencil
Image Timer
Image Graph paper

Image Method
1. Decide what animal will be your research subject. A pet will
make a good subject because you will be able to observe it for a
long time (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Study an animal like a fish to watch for cycling patterns.
2. Every 2 hours (more often if you like), observe your research
subject for 5 minutes (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Check on it every 2 hours.

3. In your lab notebook, record the time of day when you make
your observations.
4. Use the timer to measure the amount of time your research
subject spends doing different behaviors within a 5-minute period.
For example, your subject might spend 1 minute drinking water
and 4 minutes walking around, or it may spend all 5 minutes
sleeping.
5. In your notebook, record the amount of time your subject spends
doing each behavior.
6. Do not disturb your subject while you are observing it.
7. Graph the amount of time spent in each behavior at different
times of the day (fig. 3). The x-axis of your graph should be the
time of day and the y-axis should be the time spent in different
behaviors.

Image
Fig. 3: Chart the amount of time spent on each behavior.

8. Keep an activity record for several days (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: What other animals could you observe?

THINKING DEEPER
 Im Are you a morning lark or a night owl? In other words, do you feel alert
and ready to go in the morning or do you feel best at night? Track your
age level of alertness by recording how you feel each hour. Give yourself a
score of 3 if you feel attentive and alert or a 1 if you feel tired and unfocused.
Record a score of 2 if you feel somewhere between attentive and tired.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge In this lab, you studied animal behavior in a natural setting. This
type of research is called naturalistic observation. By examining the graphs
you made, you will likely find that some behaviors are more common at
some times of the day. Animal behaviors follow a regular pattern called
circadian rhythms. A common circadian rhythm is sleep, but hormones,
neurotransmitters, heart rate, hunger, and body temperature also show
regular patterns every 24 hours.
The suprachiasmatic nucleus, a part of the hypothalamus, is an area of
the brain critical for coordinating all circadian rhythms. This brain area
receives signals from the eyes. Light from the Sun is important for
regulating the activity of the suprachiasmatic nucleus and setting the
internal body clock every day. In addition to light, exercise, stress, drugs,
and other factors can influence daily activity rhythms.
 UNIT 10

MEMORY
YOUR MEMORIES MAKE YOU who you are. They tell you the who, what, when, where,
and why of your life. Without your old memories and the ability to make new
memories, you would find it very difficult to go about your daily life.
Memories are created over time in a three-stage process. First, information is stored
in sensory receptors for less than 1 second. If you pay attention, this information is
passed into short-term (working) memory. The capacity of short-term memory is
limited because it can hold only a few items at a time. However, if the information in
short-term memory is repeated and given meaning, it can enter long-term memory for
permanent storage.
Long-term memories have two basic types: declarative memories and procedural
memories. Declarative memories are memories for names, facts, and dates. Procedural
memories are memories for skills such as riding a bike or shooting a basketball. We
know that the brain stores declarative memories and procedural memories differently
because people with brain damage might have trouble with one type of memory but
not the other.
In the following labs, you will investigate how memories are formed and recalled.
The labs will let you explore short-term memory for things you see, hear, and feel. You
will also attempt to influence the memory of other people. These labs should show that
memory can be improved and that it can change over time.
 Lab 45
NOW YOU SEE IT,
NOW YOU DON’T
Test your short-term memory with common objects.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Short-term memory is also called working memory.
Image Retrograde amnesia is memory loss for events that happened before an
injury; anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories.
Image People with Alzheimer’s disease have gradual memory loss and difficulty
remembering new information.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image 20 small items (such as an eraser, pencil, coin, marble, etc.)
Image Tray or plate
Image Cloth or towel to cover the tray
Image Timer
Image Paper and pencils for your subjects

Image Method
1. Place the objects on the tray (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Scatter 10 to 20 items on a tray or plate.

2. Cover the tray with a cloth (fig. 2).

 Image
Fig. 2: Cover the items with a cloth or napkin.

3. Explain to your test subjects that you want them to remember as

many objects on the tray as possible in 1 minute (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Let subjects memorize what’s on the tray for 1 minute.

4. Remove the towel or cloth from the tray and start the timer.
5. After 1 minute, cover the tray and ask your test subjects to write
down all of the items that they can remember.
 Im THINKING DEEPER
age In this lab, you used only twenty objects. Make the test more difficult by
adding more objects to remember or by reducing the amount of time
you give your test subjects to memorize the objects. Also, check to see whether
any of the objects made it into the long-term memory of your test subjects by
checking their recall one day, one week, or one month after they first memorized
the objects. Another way to use this lab is to ask your test subjects to memorize
the objects and then remove one or more objects from the tray (fig. 4). Now, show
your test subjects the tray of objects and ask whether they know which object is
missing (fig. 5).

Image
Fig. 4: Cover the tray, have them turn around, and remove one item.

Image
Fig. 5: Ask your test subjects to turn back around and tell you which item was removed.

This lab can also be used to test the ability to remember objects using the sense
of touch. To do this, use Lab 34: The Little Box of Science with twenty objects. Your
test subjects should never see any of the objects. To memorize the objects, your
test subjects should place their hands inside the box to feel the objects. Compare
the ability to memorize objects using vision versus touch.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge To remember something, you must first pay attention. This
transfers information to short-term memory. Without repetition and
rehearsal, information stays in short-term memory for only a brief time,
perhaps 10 to 20 seconds. Also, the amount of information is limited. Some
research shows that only about seven items can be held in short-term
memory at any one time.
The area of the brain called the hippocampus is critical for getting short-
term memories into long-term memory. People with damage to the
hippocampus can remember events that just happened, but will forget things
if they are not continually repeated. If a memory is stored before the
hippocampus is damaged, then the memory will not be lost.
 Lab 46 NEURO-TELEPHONE
How is your memory for words? Find out by playing a game of
neuro-telephone.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Déjà vu is the feeling that something that just happened also occurred in the
past.
Image Adequate sleep is essential for moving memories into long-term memory.
Image Dory, the fish in the movie Finding Nemo, had anterograde amnesia: she could
not form new memories.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image A group of test subjects

Image Method
1. Arrange a group of test subjects in a circle. One person should
say a single word about the brain, nerve cell, or senses. For
example, this person could say “neuron” (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Once in a circle, one person starts by saying a word.

2. The second person must then say “neuron” and then add a new
brain word, such as “retina” (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: The next person adds a word and keeps going around the circle.

3. The third person must say “neuron, retina” and add another
word, such as “cortex.”
4. The game continues until someone forgets a word in the list.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age Instead of using brainy words in this lab, use words that are more
common or use numbers, letters, and colors. You can even repeat words
that have already been said to make the game more difficult.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge This lab investigates auditory memory. Auditory memory involves
the ability to hear sounds, process this information, keep the information,
and then recall it. Sounds enter the ear where receptors send electrical
signals to the brain. The brain must understand these signals, store the
information, and then recall it when necessary.
Each time a new word is added to a neuro-telephone list, the brain must
store additional information. Repeating the words helps keep the
information in short-term memory. However, short-term memory has a
limited capacity and cannot store too many words.
 Lab 47 MEMORY IMPLANT
Sometimes, your brain makes up its own memories. In this lab, you
will implant a memory into someone else.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Neuroscientists sometime provide expert testimony during courtroom
proceedings to give their opinions about the memory of a witness.
Image Researchers are working to develop a drug that would remove specific
memories.
Image Moderate exercise can reduce the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease, a
brain disorder that causes memory problems.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image Word list (opposite)

Image Method
1. Tell your test subjects that you want them to remember a list of
twenty words that you will read.
2. Read the following list of words (about one word per second) to
your test subjects (fig. 1):
bed pillow blanket nighttime mattress time dream roo
m tired sheets drowsy rest dark clock nap snooze qui
et doze crib yawn

Image
Fig. 1: Read the list of words.

3. Wait for 5 minutes (fig. 2) and then ask your test subjects
whether they remember the word clock on the list. Did they
remember the word dream? Did they remember the word sleep (fig.
3)?

Image
Fig. 2: Wait 5 minutes.

Image
Fig. 3: Ask if they remember the word “sleep.”

Im THINKING DEEPER
age Make your own list of words to create a false memory in someone. Your
list could be about a sport, holiday, or place. The list should have at least
twenty words.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge Your test subjects will likely say that they remember the words
clock, dream, and sleep. But which words were really on the list? Only
clock and dream were on the list. The word sleep was not on the list.
Therefore, listening to words about sleep implanted the memory that the
word sleep was on the list.
This lab shows that memories are not stored in the brain like information
on a computer or voice recorder. Rather, memory can be influenced by
other events and information that the brain receives. Memories can also be
altered as time passes. For example, details of events that happened in the
past may be difficult to recall and you might be uncertain about what really
occurred. This is especially important to judges, lawyers, and juries who
must weigh the testimony of eyewitnesses when deciding a court case.
 Lab 48 NOW OR LATER
Investigate how the order in which you hear a list of words affects
your ability to remember the words.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Mnemonics are memory tricks that help you remember information. For
example, the name “ROY G. BIV” is an easy way to remember the colors in the visible
spectrum: red (R), orange (O), yellow (Y), green (G), blue (B), indigo (I), and violet (V).
Image “Chunking” is a memory strategy that groups several items into a single unit.
For example, eight separate numbers, 16452013, can be reduced to just two: 1645 and
2013.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image Word list (below)
Image Paper and pencils for your test subjects

Image Method
1. Tell your test subjects that you will read a list of words and that
their job is to remember as many of the words as possible.
2. Read the following list of twenty words to your test subjects at a
rate of one word every second (fig. 1).
cat apple ball tree square head house door box car k
ing hammer milk fish book tape arrow flower key sho
e
 Image
Fig. 1: Read the list of words.

3. When you are finished reading the list, ask your test subjects to
write down the words that they can remember (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Have listeners write down words they remember.

4. Collect the lists of words that your subjects remembered.

5. Analyze the data by assigning a “position” to each word that you
read. The first word (cat) should get a “1” and the next word
(apple) should get a “2,” and so on.
6. Graph how many times each word was remembered by all of
your test subjects (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Plot results.

Image
7. The graph above shows an example of a serial-position curve.
The x-axis is the position of each word and the y-axis is the number
of people who remembered each word. In this example, nine
people remembered the first three words, but only seven people
remembered the fourth word on the list.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age If your test subjects can remember all twenty words, then make the lab
more difficult by adding ten more words to the list. You should
experiment with distraction with a new group of test subjects. For example, read
the same list of words, but distract them immediately after you finish reading the
 list by asking them to count backward from one hundred by threes for 15 to 30
seconds. Graph your results and look for differences between the undistracted
group and the distracted group.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge This experiment usually results in a graph similar to the one on
this page. This kind of graph is called a serial-position curve. Words read
first and words read last are remembered better than words read in the
middle of a list. The serial-position curve shows that there are two types of
memory. One is good for the words read last because they are still in short-
term memory. This is called the recency effect because the words were
heard most recently. Memory is also good for the words read first because
they made it into long-term memory. This is called the primacy effect.
Some words in the list may have been easy for some people to recall
because they have special meaning. For example, if someone has a pet fish
and heard the word fish, they might remember this word because they think
of their pet.
 Lab 49 GROCERY STORE
The next time you go to the store, you may not need a list because
you will have memorized it.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Strong memories of the past can often be triggered by specific smells
associated with an event that took place a long time ago.
Image Strong memories are often formed when an event causes strong emotions.
Image A blow to the head will not restore memories to someone with amnesia.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image Pencil or pen
Image Paper

Image Method
1. Before you go to the store, make a shopping list of food you
need to buy (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Make a list.

2. Memorize the items on the list by reading them several times.

3. Take the list with you to the store (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Take the list with you but don’t look at it.

4. When you are at the store, shop by recalling the items on the list
without looking at the list (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Shop by recalling a list.

5. When you are finished shopping, but before you leave the store,
check the list (fig. 4) to make sure you did not forget anything.

Image
Fig. 4: Check the list. Did you remember everything?

Im THINKING DEEPER
age “Chaining” is a memory strategy that can help you remember a list of
words. This method requires that you make mental pictures of the
words and then connect them. The best connecting mental pictures are ones that
are strange. Let’s suppose that the first four items on a shopping list are apples,
bread, tomato sauce, and eggs. A strange mental picture could be of four apples
forming the legs of a tabletop made from a slice of bread. The next mental images
might be of bread pieces wrapped around a jar of tomato sauce and tomato cans
breaking eggs. All you have to do is remember the first word on the list to bring
back the images of the other words.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge Did you remember everything on your shopping list? Rehearsing
or repeating the list of words helps transfer short-term memories into long-
term memories, but it is possible that you forgot some of the items. Some
scientists think we forget because new information interferes with old
information. Forgetting may also happen when a memory pathway in the
brain is lost. It is possible that a memory is still in the brain, but it is just
difficult to recall.
 Lab 50 WORD MEMORY
Some words are easier to remember Image
than other words, especially if they are difficult to picture in your
mind. In this lab, you will test the ability to remember concrete,
abstract, and nonsense words.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image The average twenty-year-old native speaker of American English knows about
42,000 words.7
Image Simon Reinhard holds the world record for remembering random words; in
2010, he recalled 300 words correctly after studying them for 15 minutes.

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image Word lists (opposite)
Image Paper and pencils for test subjects

Image Method
1. Tell your test subjects that you will read them a list of words and
they should try to remember as many as they can (fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Read words to test subject. Ask them to write down words they
remember.

2. Read the list of concrete words to your test subjects at a rate of

one word each second (fig. 2).
3. After you finish reading the list, ask your test subjects to write
down as many words as they can remember (fig. 3). Concrete word
list:
apple window baby bird shoes butterfly pencil corn flo
wer belt hammer house money chair ocean car rock
book table arrow

Image
Fig. 3: Read abstract words.

4. Read this list of abstract words to your test subjects at a rate of

one word each second and then ask your test subjects to write down
as many words as they can remember. Abstract word list:
anger mercy boredom theory hope effort fate freedom
justice happiness honor concept idea interest knowledg
e belief mood moral chance truth

5. Read this list of nonsense words to your test subjects at a rate of

one word each second and then ask your test subjects to write down
as many words as they can remember. Nonsense word list:
vobec botam crov leptav kayrim glimoc ricul hilbom
sowin kepwin difim cumal mib natpem girap
rispaw jolib tubiv ator yapib

6. Count the number of words on each list that your test subjects
remembered (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Do they remember as many?
 Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?
ge Most people find that words that have a real physical structure
(concrete words) are easier to remember than words that are
difficult to picture (abstract words and nonsense words). Concreteness
refers to the ability of a word to form a mental image. For example,
everyone knows what an apple looks like, but they may not be able to form
a mental image of the word truth. The meaning of a word also contributes
to how well a word can be remembered. Nonsense words have no meaning
and are more difficult to remember than concrete words and abstract words.

Im THINKING DEEPER
age Create your own lists of words to investigate what other characteristics
of words make them memorable. For example, make a list of long words
with more than one syllable and another list of short words with only one syllable.
Which list is more difficult to remember?

7 M. Brysbaert, M. Stevens, P. Mandera, and E. Keuleers, “How Many

Words Do We Know? Practical Estimates of Vocabulary Size Dependent on
Word Definition, the Degree of Language Input and the Participant’s Age.”
Frontiers in Psychology 7 (2016): 1116.
 Lab 51 LOCATION3
Test your memory for places using this lab.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image The word hippocampus comes from the Greek words meaning “horse” and
“sea monster” because this brain structure resembles a seahorse.
Image London taxi drivers, who have extensive knowledge of the streets and
locations of London, have a larger than average hippocampus.8

Image Time
Image 30 minutes

Image Materials
Image Chalk or rope
Image Blindfold
Image Tennis ball
Image Timer

Image Method
1. Find a large, open area or room without obstacles.
2. Mark a large playing area with chalk, tape, or plastic cones (fig.
1).

Image
Fig. 1: Mark off a large, open area with chalk, tape, or cones.

3. Blindfold your test subject (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Blindfold a test subject.

4. Place the tennis ball somewhere within the playing area (fig. 3).

Image
Fig. 3: Place a tennis ball within the playing area.

5. Ask your test subject to find the tennis ball (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Ask the subject to find the ball and record how long it takes.

6. Say, “Go” to begin the test and start the timer.

7. If you’re indoors, make sure that your test subject does not bump
into any furniture or the wall.
8. When your test subject finds the ball, stop the timer. Record the
amount of time it took to find the ball.
9. Put your test subject back into the same starting location.
10. Place the tennis ball in the same place as the first time.
11. Have your test subject find the ball again and record the amount
of time it took to find the ball (fig. 5).

Image
Fig. 5: Put subject and ball in the same places and repeat the experiment.

12. Repeat the experiment several times and then compare the time
it took to find the ball on the different tries. Plot the results of the
experiment on a graph with the trial number on the x-axis and the
time to find the ball on the y-axis.
 Im THINKING DEEPER
age Collect ten different small objects, such as a coin, a paper clip, a rock, an
eraser, and a pencil. Hide the objects around your house. Make a list of
the objects and their locations. Place the list in an envelope and put the envelope
in a safe place. Wait at least a week and then try to find the hidden objects. If you
cannot locate all of the objects, open the envelope and read your list.

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge The amount of time your test subject took to find the ball should
have decreased with more trials. The ability to remember locations is called
spatial memory. As people explore their environments, they make mental
maps of the space. The hippocampus and parts of the cerebral cortex are
areas of the brain that are used when these maps are made.
8 E. A. Maguire, K. Woollett, and H. J. Spiers, “London Taxi Drivers and
Bus Drivers: A Structural MRI and Neuropsychological Analysis.”
Hippocampus 16 (2006): 1091–1101.
 Lab 52 CONCENTRATION
Play the game of concentration to test your ability to remember
location.

Image
BRAIN FACTS
Image Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) is credited with an amazing ability to
remember faces and to draw them accurately after seeing a person only once.
Image A “tip-of-the-tongue” experience occurs when you feel you know an answer,
but cannot quite remember it.

Image Time
Image 1 hour

Image Materials
Image Scissors
Image Cardboard
Image Ruler
Image 2 copies of the same picture
Image Glue

Image Method
1. To make a set of playing cards, cut the cardboard into rectangles
23/4 by 2 inches (7 by 5 cm).
2. Print out two copies of the same picture.
3. Glue the pictures to the cardboard pieces and then let them dry
(fig. 1).

Image
Fig. 1: Glue duplicated pictures to cardboard squares.

4. Make twenty pairs (forty cards total) of cards.

5. To set up the game, mix the cards.
6. Make a grid of eight cards by five cards with the cards face
down so you cannot see the pictures (fig. 2).

Image
Fig. 2: Make an eight-by-five grid with the cards.

7. To play the game, one person should turn over one card. Then
the same person should turn over one more card (fig. 3). If the
pictures on the two cards are the same, that player picks up those
two cards and has another turn.

Image
Fig. 3: Take turns turning over cards.

8. If the pictures on the cards are not the same, the person puts the
cards, face down, back in the same place where they were found.
9. The next player should then have a turn to find matching
pictures.
10. The object of the game is to remember where a particular card
is located and to find as many matching cards as possible (fig. 4).

Image
Fig. 4: Use your memory to find matches.

11. The person with the most matching cards is the winner.
 Im THINKING DEEPER
age To make the game more difficult, make more cards to increase the size
of the grid. You can also use different pictures of the same thing. For
example, you could make a pair of cards with two different dogs. Even though the
cards have pictures of two different dogs, the cards would still be a match. Try the
game with words on the cards instead of pictures. Is it easier or more difficult to
remember the locations of words?

Ima WHAT’S GOING ON?

ge To find a matching card, the location of the first card is kept in
short-term memory and long-term memory. Accurate memory is important
if a card is turned over early in the game but its matching card is not located
until later in the game. Players must remember the initial location of the
card to find its match.
 RESOURCES

Books
Chudler, E. H. Inside Your Brain. New York: Chelsea House Publishers,
2007.
Chudler, E. H. The Little Book of Neuroscience Haiku. New York: W. W.
Norton & Company, 2013.
Chudler, E. H., and L. A. Johnson. Brain Bytes: Quick Answers to Curious
Questions about the Brain. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2017.
Eagleman, D. The Brain: The Story of You. New York: Pantheon Books,
2015.
Farinella, M., and H. Ros. Neurocomic. London: Nobrow Ltd., 2013.
Fleischman, J. Phineas Gage: A Gruesome but True Story about Brain
Science. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 2002.
Swanson, L. W., E. Newman, A. Araque, and J. M. Dubinsky. The Beautiful
Brain: The Drawings of Santiago Ramon y Cajal. New York: Abrams,
2017.

Websites
The Brain from Top to Bottom: http://thebrain.mcgill.ca
BrainU, Cool Stuff: http://brainu.org/cool-stuff
BrainWorks: http://uwtv.org/series/brainworks
Comparative Mammalian Brain Collections: http://brainmuseum.org
Knowing Neurons: http://knowingneurons.com
National Institute on Drug Abuse: www.drugabuse.gov
Neuroscience for Kids: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html
Society for Neuroscience: www.sfn.org
Your Amazing Brain: www.youramazingbrain.org.uk
 APPENDIX

Measurement Conversions
DISTANCE
1 micron = 1000 nanometers
1 mm = 1000 microns
1 cm = 10 mm = 0.4 inch
1 m = 100 cm = 3.3 ft
1 km = 1000 m = 0.6 mile
SPEED
1 m/s = 3.6 km/hr = 2.2 mile/hr
120 m/s = 432 km/hr = 268 mile/hr
VOLUME
10 ml = 2 teaspoons
75 ml = 5 tablespoons
100 ml = 0.4 cup
200 ml = 0.8 cup
250 ml = 1 cup
TEMPERATURE
37ºC = 98.6ºF
175ºC = 350ºF
WEIGHT
50 gm = 0.1 lb = 1.8 oz
270 gm = 0.6 lb
400 gm = 0.9 lb
1.4 kg = 3.1 lb
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

THANK YOU to my wife, Sandy, and kids, Kelly and Sam, for tolerating
messy kitchen tabletops and cluttered shelves as I developed the
experiments and activities in this book. I hope you enjoyed testing the
activities before anyone else used the materials.
My gratitude goes out to the editors at Quarry Books, Jonathan Simcosky
and John Gettings, who helped guide Brain Lab for Kids through the
publication process. Their patience and thoughtful answers to my many
questions are appreciated.
Finally, Liz Heinecke, the fantastic photographer, and all of the children
who appear in the book must be acknowledged for their time and effort to
bring color and life to the book.
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

ERIC H. CHUDLER is a research neuroscientist interested in how the brain

processes information from the senses, especially from the skin. He is
currently investigating how chemicals in medicinal plants and herbs affect
the nervous system and regeneration. Eric received his Ph.D. from the
Department of Psychology at the University of Washington in Seattle in
1985. He has worked at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, MD,
(1986–1989) and in the Department of Neurosurgery at Massachusetts
General Hospital in Boston, MA, (1989–1991). He is currently a research
associate professor in the Department of Bioengineering and the executive
director/education director at the Center for Sensorimotor Neural
Engineering. He is also a faculty member in both the Department of
Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine and the Graduate Program of
Neurobiology and Behavior at the University of Washington. In addition to
performing basic neuroscience research, Eric works with other
neuroscientists and classroom teachers to develop educational materials to
help students learn about the brain.
 INDEX

Abstract words, remembering, 132

Activities. See also Craft activities; Experiments; Games; Models;
Tests/testing
keeping a sleep log, 110
making a Braille alphabet, 90
making a simple musical instrument, 101
making a Touch Maze, 96
making perfume or cologne, 62
making sound shakers, 102
making touch testers, 86
neuro-telephone game, 124
sending messages through a chain of neurons, 22
taking a walk and listening to sounds, 104
testing your short-term memory, 122
Afterimages, 76
Alzheimer’s disease, 122, 126
Amnesia, 122, 124, 130
Amygdala, 57
Animals
sleep of, 113
tracking rhythm of activity of, 118
Anosmia, 56
Anterograde amnesia, 122, 124
Artificial Spectrum Top, 79
Auditory cortex, 103
Auditory memory, 124
Auditory reaction times, 43
Axons, 10, 11, 15, 19, 22, 71

Benham, C.E., 79
Bike helmets, 34
Bipolar neurons, 11
Birds, 112
Blind spot, 70
Body odor, 60
Body rhythms, 108, 116
circadian rhythms, 116
Body temperature, 116
Braille alphabet, 90
Braille, Louis, 90
Brain facts
about hearing, 100, 102, 104, 106
about memory, 122, 124, 126, 128, 130
about neurons, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 22
about reflexes, 38, 40, 42
about sleep, 110
about sleep and daily rhythms, 110, 112, 114, 116, 118
about smell, 56, 58, 60, 62
about taste, 48, 50, 52
about the brain, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34
about touch, 84, 86, 88, 90, 92, 94, 96
about vision, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 76, 78, 80
Brain stem, 29
Brain, the, 24
Butyl mercaptan, 58

Cell body (neuron), 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23
Cerebellum, 28, 41
Cerebral cortex, 26, 27, 29, 135
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 30, 32
Chaining, 131
Chunking, 128
Circadian rhythms, 116
Clay, modeling, 10, 28
Cochlea, 98, 101, 102, 103
Cologne, 56, 62
Color(s)
afterimages, 76
with black and white spinning disk, 78
Stroop Effect and, 68
taste and, 50
vision and, 74
Color blindness, 72, 73
Color identification, 72
Color vision, 72
Color words, 68
Concrete words, remembering, 132
Cone receptors, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 81
Consensual pupillary light, 38
Corpus callosum, 28, 29
Craft activities
Benham’s Disk colors, 78
color cards, 72
making a Box of Science, 94
making a thinking cap, 26
making baked brains, 30
scratch-and sniff-cards, 58
Side-Center Tester (vision), 74
sound shakers, 102
Cytoplasm, 13

Decibels, sound measured in, 106

Déjà vu, 124
Dement, William C., 114
Dendrites (neuron), 10, 11, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23
Dermis, 82, 85
Digital photographs, 77
Digital thermometers, 116
Dolphins, 106, 112
Dreams/dreaming, 110, 112, 113
Dry tongue, taste and, 52

Eardrum, 98, 100, 103

Echolocation, 106
Edible neuron, 12
Electrical signals
auditory memory and, 125
hearing and, 98, 101, 103
neuron and, 8, 16, 18, 21, 22, 23
sense of smell and, 54, 57
sense of taste and, 49
sight and, 67
touch and, 82, 89, 93
Electroencephalograph (EEG), 111
Electromagnetic radiation, 67
Elephants, 102
Endoplasmic reticulum, 13
Endorphins, 92
Epidermis, 82, 85
Essential oils, 63
Experiments. See also Activities; Tests/testing
on ability to identify sweaty shirts by smell, 60
on areas of body most sensitive to touch, 84
color card, 72
differences in remembering concrete, abstract, or nonsense words, 132
implanting a memory in someone else, 126
measuring time needed to fall asleep, 114
on memory, 122
on order of hearing words and memory, 128
on sensitivity of your sense of smell, 56
tasting, 48
with your blind spot, 70
 on your sensitivity to touch, 84
Expert testimony, 126
Eyeball, human, 66
Eyelids, 88
Eyes. See Vision

Facial nerve, 46, 48

Farsightedness, 67
Finding Nemo, 124
Foods
edible neuron, 12
tasting experiment with, 48
Frogs, 100
Frontal lobe, 26, 27, 29

Games
concentration (memory), 136
guessing, with sound shakers, 103
neuro-telephone, 124
Giraffes, 10, 110
Glabrous skin, 84
Glial cells, 12, 31
Glossopharyngeal nerve, 46, 48
Golgi apparatus, 13
Gryri, 27

Hearing, 98
Hearing loss, 102
Heat stroke, 116
Helmets, to protect the brain, 34
Herbs, 58, 62
Hidden objects, finding, 134
Hippocampus, 57, 123, 134, 135
Human skull, 30
Hypoglossal nerve, 48
Hypothalamus, 29, 57, 117, 119

Incus bones, 98, 101

Insomnia, 110
Interneurons, 11
Ishihara color-blindness test patterns, 73

Jendrassik maneuver, 41
Jet lag, 115, 118

Knee-jerk reflex, 40

Lens of the eye, 66

Light
circadian rhythms and, 119
color vision and, 72
testing effect of, on pupils, 38
Limbic system, 59
Long-term memories, 120, 123, 129, 131, 137

Malleus bone, 98, 101

Measurement conversions, 139
Measurements
ability to detect pressure, 86
of body temperature, 116
speed of an electrical signal, 23
time needed to fall asleep, 114
used for sound localization, 106
visual response time, 42
Meissner corpuscles, 84, 89
Melanin, 92
Membrane, neurons surrounded by a, 13. See also Tympanic membrane
(eardrum)
Memory, 120
Memory loss, 122
Memory strategies, 128, 131
Mercaptan, 58
Messages, sending through a chain of neurons, 22
Microfilaments, 13
Mitochondria, 13
Mnemonics, 128
Modeling clay, 10, 28
Models
about the brain, 28
eardrum, 100
eye lens, 66
neurons, 10, 14
Motor neurons, 11
Movement, vision and, 74
Multipolar neurons, 11, 15
Musical instruments, 101
Myelin, 16, 17

Narcolepsy, 114
Natural gas, 58
Naturalistic observation, 119
Nearsightedness, 67
Nerve cells. See Neurons
Neurons, 8
Neuroscience, definition, 14
Neurotransmitters, 12, 18, 21, 22
Neurotubules, 13
Nissl bodies, 13
Nodes of Ranvier, 16
Nonsense words, remembering, 132
Nucleolus, 13
Nucleus, 11, 12, 13

Occipital lobe, 26, 27, 29

Olfactory bulb, 54, 57
Olfactory cortex, 57
Olfactory epithelium, 54, 57
Optic disk, 71
Optic nerve, 70, 71
Organelles, 11, 13

Pacinian corpuscles, 84, 89, 96

Pain, feeling, 88, 92, 94
Paper-mâché, 26
Paradoxical sleep, 111
Parietal lobe, 26, 27, 29, 96
Perfume, 56, 62
Perfume cards, scratch-and-sniff, 58
Photoreceptor cells, 64, 67, 71, 73, 75, 76
Ping-pong balls, 21
Pipe cleaners, 16
Primacy effect, 129
Pupils (eye), 38

Radial nerve, 42
Recency effect, 129
Receptors
cochlear (hearing), 98, 101, 102, 103
eye (photoreceptors), 64, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 79, 81
neurons and, 19
neurotransmitters and, 21
olfactory (sense of smell), 54, 56, 57
sensory, 93, 120
skin/touch, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 94, 95, 96, 97
taste, 46, 48, 49, 53
Reflexes, 36
Reinhard, Simon, 132
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, 111, 112
Retina (eye), 64, 67, 70, 72, 75, 77, 79
Retrograde amnesia, 122
Ribosomes, 13
Rod photoreceptors, 71, 72, 73, 75, 79
Ruffini nerve endings, 84

Saltatory conduction, 17
Saltatory, word origin of, 16
Sandpaper test, 88
Scale model of a neuron, 15
Scratch-and-sniff cards, 58
Sensory neurons, 11
Sensory receptors, 82, 93, 120
Serial-position curve, 129
Short-term (working) memory, 120, 122, 125, 129, 131, 137
Skin. See Touch
Skin, layers of, 85
Skin receptors, 84, 85, 87, 89
Skin temperature, 117
Sleep, 108, 110
Sleepwalking, 114
Smell, sense of, 48, 54
Snakes, 22
Snyaptic terminal (neuron), 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23
Somatosensation, 86
Sound. See Hearing
Sound waves, 98, 100, 101, 103
Spatial memory, 134
Speed of sound, 104
Spices, 59, 62
Spiders, 74
Spinning disks, 78
Squid, 70
Stapes, 98, 100, 101
String model of neuron, 15
Stroop Effect, 68
Stroop, J. Ridley, 68
Sulci, 27
Suprachiasmatic nucleus, 118, 119
Sweat, 60
Sweat(ing), 117
Synapses, 17, 18, 19
Synaptic terminal, 10, 11, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 31

Tactile reaction time, 43

Taste(s), 46
Taste buds, 46, 49, 50, 52, 53
Taylor, J. Madison, 40
Telephone game, 124
Temporal lobe, 26, 27, 29, 103
Tests/testing
ability to detect pressure, 86
accuracy in finding a spot touched on he skin, 92
on how pupils respond to light, 38
reflexes of other people, 40
for remembering abstract, concrete, and nonsense words, 132
for remembering places, 134
sandpaper touchers, 88
short-term memory, 122
sound localization, 106
touch sensitivity, 84
your memory with concentration game, 136
your visual response time, 42
Tongue maps, 53
Tongue, taste and, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52
Touch, 82
Touch receptors, 85, 86, 94, 97
Tympanic membrane (eardrum), 100

Ulnar nerve, 42
Umami receptors, 48, 49
Unipolar neurons, 11
Ventricles, 33
Vesicles, 13, 18, 19
Vision, 64
Visual response time, 43

Whales, 62, 112

Working (short-term) memory, 120, 122, 125, 129
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