THEORY OF INFORMATION PROCESSING.

(Module)

Lic. Andrés M, Rosadio Herrera

INTRODUCTION.
Information processing theories refer to a current that considers the subject as active in
terms of explaining their behavior. A behavior, in principle, is not focused on external
concepts but on the way of processing, approaching or analyzing information. It is a
processing system from which some elements are capable of interacting with their
environment, a system capable of comparing, classifying, storing and creating new thought
structures.
Information processing theories imply an overcoming of the behaviorist vision. They involve
elements and events that cause knowledge to be approached differently.

CONCEPT .
The theory of information processing is a set of psychological models that conceive of the
human being as an active processor of the stimuli obtained from his environment, and
which consists of the process of receiving, retaining and retrieving knowledge.
The approach with which cognitive theories of learning begin is information processing,
which adopts the analogy of the computer to study and explain the functioning of the
human mind . The mind processes information, from its input ( input ) to its output (
output ), through a series of processes (information collection, processing, storage, retrieval

Perception interprets, operates Output of a

Input of and elaborates a response
information response
and use of it when necessary) that operate successively and sequentially:

Memory is the main process involved in this processing and learning, from this approach,
consists of the process of receiving, retaining and retrieving knowledge. Most memory
models, called structural models or multi-store models, recognize a series of stages or
sequences in the flow of information. Thus, the information from the environment is
collected in sensory memory, where it remains for a short period of time, and passes to
short-term memory, from where it can be transferred to long-term memory .
The passage of information from one warehouse to another can suffer a decline if certain
control processes are not present.

Sensory memory.

The stimuli from the environment affect the sensory organs, activate the receptors and the
information is stored in a structure called sensory register or sensory memory. The
persistence of information in sensory memory is very brief.
This process is clearly influenced by attention, since it is a selective process with limited
capacity. Among the numerous stimuli that surround us, we only process and transfer those
on which we focus our attention. Our perceptive capacity is limited, and only the information
that reaches memory and is considered significant is selected. The perception of this
information involves giving it meaning, based on the information that is already stored and
organized in memory.

Short-term or working memory

In working memory, information remains temporarily and is combined with knowledge from
long-term memory. The content and the time we can keep it in are limited, so it is limited to
the information we are using at the moment. The automation of certain activities or the
grouping of stimuli allows us to get the most out of working memory.

In order for the information to be retained for a longer interval of time, even indefinite, it
would be necessary to resort to some strategy, such as review or rehearsal, which consists
of repeating the information in a more or less routine manner. By increasing the number of
times it is repeated or rehearsed, the probability that the information will pass into long-term
memory increases.

Long term memory

Some of the information received by short-term memory is lost and others are processed
and transferred to long-term memory, where the information is permanently stored. Its
capacity is theoretically
unlimited.

The difficulty in remembering, on some occasions, is due to the difficulty in retrieving

information from memory.

The following types of long-term memory are distinguished :

▪ Episodic memory : refers to the storage of facts, events or personal experiences that took
place at a specific time and place. For example, what happened on my birthday, the first day
of school...
▪ Semantic memory : refers to the knowledge of facts or concepts related to language. For
example, knowing the structure of a sentence, distinguishing a verb from a noun, that ferns
are plants...

▪ Motor or procedural memory : refers to the information related to motor skills learned
through practice. for example, how you turn on an oven or drive a car.
Information is stored in memory in an organized way through images, semantic networks or
schemas. A semantic or propositional network is a set of significantly associated
information units organized hierarchically. However, when the number of information units
is very high, the semantic network would be excessively complex and the schema model is
preferred. A schema is an organized structure of knowledge on a certain topic that
constitutes models that describe certain situations or information.
Way in which new knowledge is integrated into the information already stored in
memory .
In this process they participate:
▪ Elaboration , which consists of adding meaning to new information, relating it to what we
already have registered in our memory. Understanding occurs by integrating and
comparing new information with our own schemas and knowledge. Because of this, it is
easier to remember the material that is prepared during learning: firstly, because it is a
form of review that makes it easier for the information to be stored in long-term memory;
and secondly, because more links between knowledge are activated and established, so
that there will be more routes to reach them. Of course, if students elaborate on new
information by making incorrect connections or misdirected explanations, all of these
errors will be remembered as well.
▪ Organization is the second element of processing that improves learning. It is easier to
learn and remember material that is well organized. Placing a concept in a structure will
help you learn and remember both general definitions and concrete examples, and
when you need the information the structure will serve as a guide to find it.
▪ The context is the third element that influences learning. Along with the information,
aspects of the physical and emotional context, places, rooms, how we felt on a certain
day, who was with us, etc. are learned. Recall of information will be easier if the retrieval
context is similar to the original (performance improves if studying for an exam under
conditions similar to those of the test).

ROBERT MILLS GAGNÉ

Gagné systematizes an integrative approach where aspects of stimulus-response

theories and information processing models are considered. It is a cumulative learning
model that proposes eight types of learning.
▪ 1. Learning Signs and Signals: Sign is anything that replaces or indicates
something else, thanks to some type of association between them.
2. Learning Operant Responses: These are what Skinner called operant conditioning.
3. Chain Learning: Learning a certain sequence or order of actions.
4. Verbal Association Learning: It is a type of chain learning that involves quite
complex symbolic process operations.
5. Multiple Discrimination Learning: It involves associations of several elements, but
it also involves separating and discriminating.
6. Concept Learning: It means responding to stimuli in terms of abstract properties.
7. Learning Principles: A principle is a relationship between two or more concepts. 8.
Problem Solving Learning: The solution to a problem consists of developing, with the
combination of principles already learned, a new principle.

ORGANIZATION OF GAGNÉ'S THEORY

A. The learning processes : That is, how the subject learns and what are the
hypothetical postulates on which the theory is built, there are 8 phases:
Motivation phase (EXPECTATION). The first phase in the learning process is the
motivation phase. In this phase, an objective is basically established, directing attention
towards it . In this way we know what we should direct our actions towards.
Comprehension phase (ATTENTION, SELECTIVE PERCEPTION). In this second
phase, selective attention and perception processes are used when a change in some
stimulus attracts attention and makes us focus physically and cognitively on it .
Acquisition phase (ENCRYPTION ACCUMULATION ACCESS). Although the previous
phases are mainly based on the fixation of attention and the intention to attend, during
the third phase the acquisition and encoding of information occurs. collecting the stimuli
and working with them. This third phase is the main one in the learning process since it
is the moment in which knowledge is acquired .

Retention phase (MEMORY ACCUMULATION). After the acquisition of the

information, it is stored in memory, having to monitor possible interference with other
knowledge, this retention being favored by them.
Remembrance phase (RECOVERY). Once the information is retained, the learning
remains in memory until some type of stimulus triggers the need to retrieve it . In
this situation, the memory of the stored information is born after processing the needs
that arise from the stimulus or demand.
Generalization phase (TRANSFER). A very important part of learning is the ability to
generalize information. In this phase of the learning process, an association is built
between the knowledge acquired and recovered and the different situations in which
said knowledge could be required.
This generalization allows us to establish adaptive behaviors in the face of novel stimuli
about which we have no information. It can be understood as one of the main goals of
the learning process, since it is here where the usefulness of what is learned is noted by
taking it beyond the initial context.
Performance phase (RESPONSE). The seventh phase of the learning process is
performance. In this phase the individual transforms learned knowledge into action,
performing a behavior in response to external or internal stimulation.
Feedback phase (AFFIRMATION or REINFORCEMENT), The comparison between
the results of the action derived from the use of learning and the expectations that were
had regarding said results is the last phase of the process. If the results are as expected
or better, the learning will be strengthened, while otherwise attempts will be made to
modify it or it will be discarded in that situation in favor of other alternatives.

B. The learning outcomes or domains :

It analyzes the results or the types of abilities that the student learns, and they are
divided into 5:
1. Motor skills
2. Verbal information
3. Intellectual skills
4. Attitudes
5. Cognitive strategies
C. The conditions or instructional events of learning : According to Gagné there are two
conditions of learning or events that facilitate learning: 1. Internal conditions 2. External
conditions e. Application: It is noted that Gagné's greatest contribution is in the
organization of learning situations.

THE THEORY OF NEWELL AND SIMON

Newell and Simon are considered the founders of artificial intelligence. According to this
theory, intelligence had to be studied from a functional perspective, not a physiological
one. This search for general theories of intelligent behavior was a feature of the first
formulations in artificial intelligence, later replaced by the recognition of the important
role that specific knowledge of the aforementioned task plays in the resolution of various
tasks.

In Simon's own words: “If we can construct an information processing system with
behavioral rules that lead it to behave like the dynamic system we are trying to describe,
then this system is a theory of the child at a stage of development. Once we have
described a particular stage through a program we would be faced with the task of
describing what additional information processing mechanisms are necessary to
simulate evolutionary changes, the transition from one stage to the next; That is, we
would need to describe how the system would modify its own structure. Therefore, the
theory would have two parts: A program for discovering performance at a particular
stage and a learning program governing the transition from one stage to another.
 This small paragraph is, in our opinion, singularly clear regarding the information
processing point of view of intellectual development, and includes an entire research
program.

If we want to summarize the contributions of Newell and Simon's theory to a better

understanding of children's thinking and its changes with age, we can summarize them
in three:

• The role of the task environment: resolution of different tasks as a result of the
interaction between an information processing system, the subject who solves
the problem, and a task environment: the latter being the task as described by
the experimenter. The structure of the task environment determines the
representation that the subject makes of it and, therefore, the difficulties or
facilities that will be found in its resolution.

• The role of encoding: subjects' understanding of the task; that is, in problems
related to coding. Relevant information from the task environment must be selected
and a representation of the task constructed from it. The failure to identify and
encode the critical attributes of the task may be at the origin of the difficulties that
children encounter on many occasions.

• Computer simulation: the production systems of human thought are made up of a

set of productions, where each of them is a condition-action rule; That is, these
rules, based on the fulfillment of a certain condition, establish the performance of a
specific action. A production system acts through the recognize-act cycle. Actions
can modify the knowledge state of the system by adding, removing or changing
existing elements; Actions can also correspond to perceptual or environmental
interactions.

RICHARD MAYER

Richard Mayer has thoroughly studied and worked on the cognitive theory of multimedia
learning. The main focus of his work was determining the way people learn, which has been
the main theme in his theory of multimedia learning.
Learning through Multimedia
The cognitive theory of multimedia learning focuses on how people learn through various
media configurations, which is a topic very close to the world of online learning. This theory
highlights three important cognitive processes that are necessary for meaningful learning.
It's about selection, organization and integration.

1. Selection of words and images - in the first step of learning, the student focuses on
perceiving the relevant words and images of the material presented to him
2. Organization – after selecting relevant information, the student mentally organizes the
information into logical verbal models and visual representations
3. Integration – finally, these two types of representation are integrated with each other
and assimilated with prior knowledge.

Multimedia Sensory
presentation memory

word choice

image organized
selection image