Ventilation and Air Conditioning

[D11VE]

School of the Built Environment

 Heriot-Watt University 2016

Address for correspondence:
School of the Built Environment
Heriot-Watt University
Riccarton
Edinburgh
EH14 4AS
UK

Tel: +44 (0) 131 449 5111

Fax: +44 (0) 131 451 3161

Author:

Dr F Wang
School of the Built Environment
Tel: +44 (0) 131 451 4636
e-mail: [email protected]

Published Nov 2012

Revised Sept 2016

These course notes are provided by Heriot-Watt University for the

use of students studying on its undergraduate programmes.
Copyright is retained by the author and university and these notes
cannot be reproduced nor copied for any other purpose.
Contents

Aims and objectives

Overview of the course
Recommended texts
Assessment
Glossary of symbols
Abbreviations
List of figures
List of tables

Unit 1: Introduction
Unit objectives
Unit topics

Unit 2: Psychrometrics
Unit objectives
Unit topics
Suggested reading
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Psychrometric data and chart
2.3 Psychrometric processes
2.4 Sensible and latent heat loads

Tutorial questions

Unit 3: Outdoor Design Criteria

Unit objectives
Unit topics
Suggested reading
3.1 Introduction
3.2 External influences
3.3 Outdoor design criteria for winter
3.4 Outdoor design criteria for summer
3.5 Ranges of design conditions
3.6 Solar impacts

Tutorial questions

Unit 4: Indoor Thermal Comfort

Unit objectives
Unit topics
Suggested reading

i
 4.1 Human thermal comfort
4.1.1 Human thermoregulation & thermal responses
4.1.2 Heat exchanges of a human body with indoor
environment
4.1.3 Personal comfort factors
4.2 Environmental comfort factors
4.3 Thermal comfort indices
4.4 Indoor design criteria and other issues

Tutorial questions

Unit 5: Loads Assessment

Unit objectives
Unit topics
Suggested reading
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Assumptions and variables
5.3 Various cooling loads
5.4 External gains
5.5 Internal gains

Tutorial questions

Unit 6: Air Conditioning Systems

Unit objectives
Unit topics
Suggested reading

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Unitary systems
6.3 All air systems
6.3 Air-water systems

Tutorial questions

Unit 7: Refrigeration and Heat Rejection

Unit objectives
Unit topics

Suggested reading
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Refrigeration
7.3 Heat rejection

Tutorial questions

ii
Unit 8: Heat Exchangers

Unit objectives
Unit topics
Suggested reading

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Heat exchangers
8.2.1 Configurations
8.2.2 Flow arrangements
8.2.3 Temperature distribution and characteristic
variables
8.3 Theoretical Analysis
8.3.1 Heat exchanger performance
8.3.2 Example
8.3.3 Heat exchanger transfer units
8.3.4 Example 2
8.4 Applications
8.4.1 Air Coils in AHU
8.4.2 Cooling towers

Tutorial questions

Unit 9: Indoor air quality and ventilation requirements

Unit objectives
Unit topics
Suggested reading

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Indoor air quality
9.2.1 Constituency of air
9.2.2 Common indoor contaminants
9.2.3 Quantifying indoor contaminants
9.2.4 Sick building syndromes and criteria for indoor
air
9.3 Ventilation requirement
9.3.1 Quantifying ventilation
9.3.2 Basic requirement
9.3.3 Calculation of ventilation requirements
9.4 Example

Tutorial questions

Unit 10: Ventilation

Objectives
Unit contents
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 10.1 Introduction
10.2 Ventilation principles
10.2.1 Ventilation assessment
10.2.2 Contaminant removal
10.3 Ventilation strategies
10.3.1 Infiltration
10.3.2 Natural Ventilation
10.3.3 Mechanical ventilation
10.3.4 Mix mode ventilation
10.4 Design for better natural ventilation
10.5 Ventilation Solutions
10.6 Special ventilation systems
10.6.1 Distribution systems
10.6.2 Large spaces
10.6.3 Tall buildings
10.6.4 Ductworks
10.7 Smoke and heat exhaust ventilation
10.7.1 Fire Safety geometry
10.7.2 Spreading over in a building
10.7.3 Smoke control systems

Unit 11: System Controls

Unit objectives
Unit topics
Suggested reading

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Control principles
11.2.1 Control theory and algrithm
11.2.2 Control element
11.3 Mix mode ventilation
11.3.1 Design principle
11.3.2 Operation control
11.4 System integration
11.4.1 Underground cooling
11.4.2 Renewable application

iv
Aims and Objectives

The aim of this course is to introduce students to the basic principles

associated with the provision of comfort air conditioning in buildings
and heat change in the systems of services provision.

The main objectives being to ensure that on completion of this

course, students should be able to:

• understand the principle of heating and cooling by provision of

treated air into the enclosure.

• gain an insight of the psychrometric properties of the air and use

the psychrometric chart in design calculation for the major
processes used in air conditioning systems.

• understand the principle of refrigeration and be aware of its

environmental impacts

• understand the mechanism of heat exchange between a human

body and its surrounding indoor environment and the physical
variables used to quantitatively define the environment and
human comfort.

• conduct quick estimation of heat exchanges building elements

and their surrounding environments, and system elements and
their passing flows.

• select appropriate external and internal design criteria for air

conditioning design.

• undertake load assessment and carry out simple design

calculations

• be familiar with the common air conditioning systems in the UK

and temperate climate.

• demonstrate analytical skills in thermal and fluid mechanics fields

using and competence in communication and collaboration to
deal with a wide range of complex engineering and design issues

v
Overview

This course comprises 11 units. The first one is an introductory unit

providing a brief overview on ventilation and air conditioning with
regard the energy and carbon emissions. With an illustration, it
outlines the essential parts commonly seen in an air conditioned
building, and highlights their functions. It also lists the basic physical
principles that are relevant to the theoretical and calculation part of
heating and air conditioning design.

Unit 2 discusses psychrometric properties of moist air, including their

definitions and calculations. It introduces CIBSE psychrometric chart
and presentation of some psychrometric processes commonly seen
in heating and air conditioning operations. Methods are provided to
determine the changes of the properties due to these processes, and
to quantify the heat exchanges associate with these processes.

Unit 3 explain how an interior in a building can be affected by outdoor

weather conditions, and how a complicate outdoor weather system
can be summarised by a few physical variables that affect the indoor
thermal environment. These lead to discussions on outdoor design
conditions for both cold seasons and warm seasons. Some new
variables are introduced to allow hand calculation and quick
assessment.

Indoor thermal comfort is the theme in Unit 4, where indoor design

conditions are also discussed covering key issues of human thermal
responses to an indoor environment. More specifically, it explains
how heat exchange happens between a human body and its
surroundings, how the human body reacts to the indoor thermal
conditions and how a comfortable condition can be quantitatively
defined and physically measured. These lead to discussions on the
design indoor comfort criteria and air conditioning systems to
maintain indoor condition in both warm and cold seasons.

Unit 5 lists all major heat losses and gains. The dynamic features of
some major variables, such as solar radiations, sol-air temperature,
heat flow at inner surfaces and cooling loads are discussed along
with introduction of new variables that quantify the dynamic features.
Above all it explains the approximation methods for load calculation
and examples are given at the end of the unit.

In Unit 6, students are introduced to the main types of air

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conditioning systems commonly applied within buildings. Their basic
configuration and modes of operation are outlined with schematic
diagrams and psychrometric charts.

Unit 7 discusses basic principles of refrigeration and heat rejection

and provides an explanation of the refrigeration cycles and heat-
rejecting equipment commonly used in comfort air conditioning
systems. Also discussed is the sustainable issues related to using of
refrigerants.

Unit 8 looks into the heat exchangers that have been widely applied
in various systems that involve heat transfer from one thermal
medium to the other, such as all heating and cooling coils inside an
air handling unit, cooling tower, and evaporator and condenser in a
chiller.

Indoor air quality and building ventilation are discussed in Unit 9 and
Unit 10, which cover topics of common indoor contaminants and their
effects, basic requirement of ventilation and ventilation principles and
applications. On theoretical level, it discusses the ventilation
equation, its development, conditions and practical applications.

In Unit 11 a view that combines ventilation and air conditioning

together is introduced, particularly looking at the mix mode ventilation
solution. Here the systems, particular their operations are examined
with a dynamic view that takes into account of the changes of
outdoor season and indoor loads. Therefore system control is also a
part of this unit, as it has to response to all the changes.

This set of notes should be considered outline guidance notes only

and students are expected to supplement them by carrying out the
suggested reading of the recommended text for this course.

On completion of each unit students should be able to successfully

attempt the tutorial questions and ultimately, the exam.

vii
Recommended Textbooks

The main references for this section are:

[1] Chadderton D V, Air Conditioning – A Practical Introduction,

Spon Press

[2] Jones W P, Air Conditioning Engineering, 4th Edition, Edward

Arnold, 1994

[3] Jones W P, Air Conditioning Applications and Design, 2nd

Edition, Edward Arnold, 1997

Additional reference materials that support the main text:

[3] CIBSE Guide Book “A” Environmental Design

[4] CIBSE Guide Book “B2” Ventilation and Air Conditioning

[5] Legg R, Air Conditioning Systems, Batsford, 1991

[6] Eastop T D & Watson W E, Mechanical Services for Buildings,

Longmans, 1992

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Assessment

The examination contributes 100% to the overall assessment of the

course. The exam is for three hours and students have to answer
four of the six questions. The questions are very similar to those at
the end of each unit in this set of notes.

Full details of the examination regulations, guidelines for

compensation and options for transfer are given in the student
handbook.

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 Glossary of Symbols – Thermal

α coefficient of absorption for direct solar radiation

A area of wall or roof, m2
Ag area of glazed opening, m2
Aw area of the window, m2
C convective heat inter change, W
C capacity ratio
Cp specific heat of humid air, kJkg-1K-1
c concentration at time t, in parts per million (ppm).
ci initial concentration of contaminant in the space at time zero,
in parts per million (ppm).
ca concentration of the contaminant in the incoming air supply, in
parts per million (ppm).
E evaporative heat inter change, W
E Effectiveness,
f decrement factor
Fb shading factor
Fc air point control factor
Fay room admittance factor with respect to the air node
Fau room conduction factor with respect to the air node
Gc volume of contaminant produced per person within the
space, in m3s-1 per person.
go moisture content of outdoor air, kg.kg-1 of dry air
gr moisture content of room air, kg.kg-1 of dry air
h enthalpy, kJkg-1
hfg latent heat of evaporation, kJkg-1
hso outside surface heat transfer coefficient, Wm-2K-1
Id intensity of direct solar radiation, Wm-2
Is intensity of scattered solar radiation, Wm-2
M, m& s mass flow rate of supply air in kgs-1
M metabolic rate, W
NTU Number of Transfer Units
n the number of air changes per hour
Q incoming ventilation air supply expressed as a volumetric
flow per person per second, or m3s-1 per person.
Qθ+ϕ heat flow into room, W
Qg sensible heat gain through glass, W
QLHG latent heat gain, W
Qs cooling load due to solar gain through glass, W
qs specific cooling load due to solar gain through glass, W
x
QSHG sensible heat gain, W
R radiative heat inter change, W
S a storage factor, W
tai room air temperature, oC
tao outdoor air temperature, oC
tem mean sol-air temperature over 24 hours, oC
teo sol-air temperature, oC
tes external surface temperature, oC
tg globe temperature, oC
tr mean radiant temperature, oC
tr room air temperature, oC
tc operation temperature, oC
tres resultant temperature, oC
ts supply air emperature; in oC
U thermal transmittance of the wall or roof, Wm-2K-1
Ug thermal transmittance of glass, Wm-2K-1
Y thermal admittance of the wall or roof, Wm-2K-1
v air velocity, ms-1
.
v volumetric flow rate of supply air in m3 s-1;
t
V volume of the room, m3
W useful rate of work, W
θm mean temperature difference, K

xi
Abbreviations – Thermal

ACH air changes per hour

CAV constant air volume
CF contact factor
CIBSE Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
COP coefficient of performance
DX direct expansion
LHG latent heat gain
PMV predicted mean vote
PPD predicted percentage dissatisfied
RH relative humidity
RRL room ratio line
SBS sick building syndromes
SHG sensible heat gain
SHL sensible heat loss
UK United Kingdom
VAV variable air volume
VOCs volatile organic compounds

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List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Overview of an air conditioning system

Fig 2.1 CIBSE psychrometric chart on sea level.

Fig 2.2 State points on the psychrometric chart
Fig 2.3 Mixture state
Fig 2.4 Sensible heating and cooling
Fig 2.5 Latent cooling and heating
Fig 2.6 Dehumidification by cooling
Fig 2.7 Humidification with heating
Fig 2.8 Humidification with cooling
Fig 2.9 Humidification by water injection
Fig 2.10 Humidification by steam injection
Fig 2.11 Room ratio line and sensible heat ratio

Fig 3.1 Two examples of vernacular architecture evolved to suit

best the local climate.
Fig.3.2 The major outdoor factors influencing an indoor thermal
environment
Fig 3.3 Recorded variations of all seven major weather variables
during a typical summer day.
Fig 3.4 Percentage frequencies of wet and dry bulb temperatures
for June to September plotted on a psychrometric chart
(London, Heathrow, 1982–2002, CIBSE Guide A2)
Fig 3.5 Ranges of conditions for both indoor and outdoors in
winter, summer, autumn and spring.
Fig 3.6 Incidence of solar radiation onto a horizontal surface
Fig 3.7 Incidence of solar radiation onto a vertical surface

Fig 4.1 Body temperature responses the change of environmental

temperature.
Fig 4.2 percentages of heat released
Fig 4.3 Kata thermometer (left) and Sling hygrometer
Fig 4.4 Winter cycle air washer and re-heater (psychrometric chart)
Fig 4.5 Winter cycle air washer and re-heater (schematic diagram)
Fig 4.6 Winter cycle pre-heater, air washer and re-heater
(psychrometric chart)
Fig 4.7 Winter cycle pre-heater, air washer and re-heater
(schematic diagram)
Fig 4.8 Winter cycle recirculation
Fig 4.9 Winter cycle with air washer, re-heater with re-circulation
Fig 4.10 Winter cycle with pre-heater, air washer, re-heater with re-
circulation
xiii
Fig 4.11 Winter cycle with air washer, re-heater no re-circulation
Fig 4.12 Summer cycles for air washers or cooling coils with re-
heaters
Fig 4.13 Room ratio lines
Fig 4.14 Typical cycles single zone, constant volume systems
(Psychrometric design)

Fig 5.1 Cyclic approximations of the outdoor temperature influence

and inner surface temperature response.
Fig 5.2 Decrement factor and time lag for common wall
structures(CIBSE Guide)

Fig 6.1 Room air conditioning unit

Fig 6.2 Split system
Fig 6.3 Constant volume, single ducted system
Fig 6.4 Dual duct system
Fig 6.5 Summer dual duct cycle
Fig 6.6 Winter dual duct cycle
Fig 6.7 Multi-zone unit
Fig 6.8 VAV system
Fig 6.9 VAV system changing room humidity
Fig 6.10 Summer and winter VAV cycles
Fig 6.11 Four-pipe fan coil unit
Fig 6.12 Two-pipe, non-changeover induction unit
Fig 6.13 Summer cycle, two-pipe, non-changeover induction unit
system
Fig 6.14 Winter cycle, two-pipe, non-changeover induction unit
system

Fig 7.1 Basic vapour compression cycle

Fig 7.2 Vapour absorption cycle
Fig 7.3 Air-cooled condenser
Fig 7.4 Open circuit cooling tower
Fig 7.5 Cooling towers
Fig 7.6 Closed circuit cooling tower
Fig 7.7 Dry cooler

Fig 8.1 Two types of heat exchangers

Fig 8.2 Basic in-line heat exchangers
Fig 8.3 Temperature distributions
Fig 8.4 Determination of logarithmic mean temperature
difference
Fig 8.5, Applications of finned tubes
Fig 8.6 An air coil inside an AHU for either heating or cooling
Fig 8.7 A cooling coil
Fig 8.8 Cooling tower

Fig 9.1 Decay equation - definition of terms

xiv
Fig 9.2 Contamination variation under a range of imposed
conditions
Fig 9.3 Variation in contamination concentration over a 24 hour
period during an intermittent period

Fig 10.1 Various ventilation arrangements

Fig 10.2 Natural ventilation scenaria in a single space building
Fig 10.3 A hood over a cooker extracting cooking steam and smell
out of the kitchen via a simple duct system
Fig 10.4 Driving forces for passive ventilation
Fig 10.5 Wind right onto a cube
Fig 10.6 Flow speed vs differences in height and temperatures
Fig 10.7 Displacement underfloor ventilation
Fig 10.8 A multipe storey office building with open plan
Fig 10.9 Air supply (diffuser) on a suspended ceiling integrated with
two fluorescent light sets on its sides(square, left and
circular right)
Fig10.10 Cross section of a theatre showing air supply inlets at
audience and return outlets on ceiling)
Fig 10.11 Air supply outlets underneath audience seats
Fig 10.11 Air supply and exhaust system in a tall building
Fig 10.13 Key geometric features for smoke control in a
compartment
Fig 10.14 Air movement and the most likely smoke distribution in a
multi storey building
Fig 11.15 Exhaust ventilation
Fig 10.16 Partitioning a safety passage using reservoir screens and
smoke exhaust ventilation

xv
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Latent heat of evaporation under various temperature.

Table 3.1 The external design data for the 8 locations throughout
the UK, which were recommended by CIBSE before
2006, when new CIBSE environmental design Guide
was introduced
Table 3.2 The frequencies of occurrence of low temperatures
(CIBSE Guide A)
Table 3.3 Percentage frequency of combinations of hourly dry
bulb and wet bulb temperatures for June to September
for London Heathrow, 1982–2002 (CIBSE Guide A2)
Table 3.4 Hourly irradiation values in July in London
Table 3.5 Air and sol-air temperatures for come common surfaces
in July (CIBSE Guide A Table 2.34):

Table 4.1 Common activities in buildings and the correspondent

heat release and MET
Table 4.2 CIBSE criteria for indoor thermal conditions (CIBSE
Guide A1)
Table 4.3 Design criteria for various indoor spaces (CISBE Guide
A, Table1.5)

Table 5.1 Thermal properties of some typical wall constructions

Table 5.2 Summary of typical internal heat gains in office
buildings (CIBSE Guide A, Table 6.1)
Table 5.3 Occupant heat emissions in typical activities inside
buildings. (CIBSE Guide A, Table 6.3)
Table 5.4 Typical values of heat gain from lighting devices for
cooling load calculation
Table 5.5 CIBSE data for various office equipments
Table 5.6 Data for calculate internal sensible and latent heat
gains in common buildings (CISBE Guide A, Table 6.2)

Table 7.1 Comparison of common refrigerants

Table 9.1 Typical formaldehyde emission rate

Table 10.1 Ventilation effectiveness for ventilation arrangements

Table 10.2 CIBSE recommodations
Table 10.3 Empirical values for air infiltration rates due

xvi