Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

LESSON 1.1

INFORMATION ORGANISATION AS A SYSTEM:

BASIC CONCEPTS, TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
AN INFORMATION SYSTEM
Rekha Devi
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Information Organisation as a System
1.3.1 Basic Concept and Definition of Information System
1.3.2 Types of Information System: National and International/Global
1.3.3 Characteristics of Information System
1.4 Summary
1.5 Glossary
1.6 Answers to In-text Questions
1.7 Self-Assessment Questions
1.8 References
1.9 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson,.you will be able to:

• Describe Information Organisation as a System

• Define Information System
• Identify various types of Information Systems nationally and internationally
• Describe the important characteristics of Information System

1.2 INTRODUCTION

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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

In today’s world of digital technology, providing the right and authentic information
to the users from the ocean of information is a major challenge for library
professionals.Moreover, information overload and its duplication are common issues in
locating the right information in the suitable format at right time for the right user. Many
such obstacles in providing the access to information to the users arose the problem of
Information gap in the country. Various national and international organisations came
forward to provide a solution to these issues by coordination, promotion, and growth of
library and information services. These organisations include governmental entities as well as
non-profit, professional groups(Arora, 2006b).Major national information systems and
initiatives started by the Indian government in the fields of science, technology, social
sciences, and humanities are included on the lesson.Technologies advancements, particularly
in the areas of computer and communication technology, have greatly benefited
contemporary information organisations. Technology applications have greatly improved the
function of these organisations. Resource sharing, library collaboration, consortia,
networking, etc. are important nowadays for solving service and information handling issues
as well as for delivering information in diverse formats closer to users(Arora, n.d.).
Right information to the right user at right time is of vital importance in the present
day context. The advent of computers has enhanced the possibility of creating electronic
databases which has opened new opportunities for the development of international
information systems. In this less, we bring you descriptive account of some of the
international information systems also referred to as global information systems. These
include United Nations governed International Nuclear Information System (INIS),
Intemationallnformation System on Agricultural Sciences and Technology (AGRIS),
INFOTERRA, etc. among others.

1.3 Information Organisation as a System

Information is the need of the era and to provide this information to every users at
right time is the major function of the libraries. Users require information in different
domains for If we look at the total amount of money spent on education, research, and
development across all disciplines or subject areas in the nation, we can easily see that
science and technology receive a significant portion of these expenditures each year rather
than the arts, social sciences, humanities, etc. It has been noted that a significant percentage
of this investment in research and technology is used to establish and keep up effective
libraries and information hubs.

A large number of national and international organisations are engaged in the development of
library and information services, devoted to collection, processing and dissemination of
information in various countries.

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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

India therefore has well-developed library and information systems in the nation in the
majority of the fields covered by science and technology, such as engineering and
technology, medical sciences, atomic energy, and space sciences.

1.3.1 Basic Concept and definition of Information System:

A system is an arrangement of parts/elements working together to perform a set of
operations in the accomplishment of the purpose as a whole.
Properties of a ‘System’:

• The properties and behaviour of a system are affected by those of its

components.
• Each component has an impact on its system but none can have an
independent effect.
• Every possible sub-group of components has these two essential properties of
its system.

According to ALA Glossary, an information system is “a complete system designed for the
generation, organisation, storage, retrieval, and dissemination of information within an
institution, organisation, or other defined area of society”.

Information system refers to the methods, media, producers, and recipients involved in an
organised way to effect information transfer within a specific field, activity or organisation.
An information system consists of a complex collection of

• Information messages;
• Persons who produce and use them;
• Institutions which process them, and
• A set of behaviour patterns, customs, and traditions by which these persons and
institutions interrelate.

An information system or information grid is a network of information centre at different

levels working in perfect harmony and close co-operation with each other with the objectives
of storing and dissemination of information usually of a specific types or a specific
community.

An information system is a method or a combination of methods for acquiring, classifying,

recording and disseminating.

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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

1.3.2 Types of Information System: National and International

National Information System

If we consider the amount of money spent on education, research and development .
activities in various disciplines or subject fields in the country, we can easily find that
major portion of such expenditure goes every year to science and technology, rather
than the subject fields of arts, social sciences, humanities, etc. It has been observed
that major portion of this investment in science and technology is spent in building up
and maintaining good libraries and information centres. India, therefore, has well
developed library and information systems in the country in most of the disciplines
covered by science and technology, like agricultural sciences, medical sciences,
atomic energy, space sciences, engineering and technology, etc. To cover all the
libraries and information centres in S&T operating in the country is beyond the scope
of this Unit. In this lesson some of the information systems and programmes that are
operating at national level have been covered(Arora, n.d.).
1. Information Systems in Science and Technology
a. National Information System for Science and Technology (NISSAT):
NISSAT programme was launched by Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research (DSIR), with the broad objective of interlinking and coordinating a
large number of information sources, systems and services into an effective
network under an overall coordinating agency. The NISSAT programme was
formally implemented in September 1977.
b. Biotechnology Information System (BTIS):To promote R&D efforts in
different areas of biotechnology viz. agricultural, animal, environmental,
medical and plant biotechnology in India, Ministry of Science and
Technology, set up a Department of Biotechnology (DBT) in 1986 at New
Delhi. The department through its several programmes, accelerated the pace
of development of biotechnology in the country.
c. Environmental Information System (ENVIS): Recognising the importance
of environmental information for sustainable development and formulation of
environmentai management polices, Government ofIndia set up ENVIS in
1982 under theMinistry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) erstwhile
Department of'Environmerit, as a decentralised system with a network of
distributed subject specific centres to collect, collate, store, retrieve and
disseminate relevant and timely environmental information to help in decision
making in environmental planning and management.
d. INFLIBNET: Information and Library Network:INFLIBNET Centre is an
autonomous Inter University Centre (IUC) of University Grant Commission
(UGC) of India with its headquarters in Gujarat university campus,
Ahemadabad. INFLmNET is a major National Programme initiated by UGC

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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

in 1991. Initially started as a project under IUCAA (Inter University Centre

for Astronomy and Astrophysics), INFLIBNET became an independent Inter
University Centre in 1996. INFLIDNET Centre is involved in modernising
university libraries, connecting them as well as information centres, through
nation-wide high-speed data network for optimum utilisation of information.
It serves as an information centre for transfer and access of information,
supporting scholarship, learning and academic pursuit') in universities,
colleges and R&D institutions in the country.
e. National Informatics Centre (NIC):NIC was set up in 1975 by Government
of India, for developing computerised Management Information Systems
(MIS) for Ministries and Departments of Central .and State governments to
facilitate planning and decision making process inthe country. The Centre
commissioned nation-wide online network system called NICNET in 1977 to
enable efficient exchange of information between the Central and State
Government Departments and between the States and their Districts. NICNET
is one ofthe largest VSAT based network connecting the national capital, the
state capitals and district headquarters to one another.
f. National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources
(NISCAIR):NISCAIR came into existence on October 1, 2002, following the
merger of two CSIR institutions viz. Indian National Scientific
Documentation Centre (INSDOC) and National Institute of Science
Communication (NISCOM). Activities and services of NISCAIR have been
dealt in detail in UNIT 9 ofthis Block. In this Unit you will be acquainted with
some ofthe important current National Level Projects ofNISCAIR viz. TKDL
and NSDL.

2. Information Systems and Programmes in Social Sciences

a. Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR):Indian Council of
Social Science Research (ICSSR) was established by Ministry of Human
Resource Development (erstwhile Ministry of Education), Govemment of
India, in 1969 to promote social science research in the country. ICSSR, an
autonomous body, sponsors social science research programmes and projects
in the country; administers grant to institutions and individuals; awards
fellowship; sponsor and arrange technical training in research methodology
and provide guidance for research; develop and support library and
documentation centres for providing information services in social sciences;
organises and support seminars, workshops and study groups andndertakes
publication work in social sciences.
b. UGC-Inter University Centre for International Studies:University Grant
Commission has been establishing Inter University Centres (lUCs) to provide
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common state-of-the-art equipment and facilities to the researchers working in

different universities, since heavy investment in infrastructure and input is
beyond the reach of the individual university for research purposes. Till
recently most ofthe ruCs have been established in the field ofS&T. The UGC
now plans to establish the first ruc inthe fields of Humanities and Social
Sciences by taking over academic and physical infrastructure available at
Indo-American Centre for International Studies, situated at Osmania
University Campus, Hyderabad.
c. UGC-Inter University Centre for Humanities and Social Sciences:UGC
has established four National Facility Centres in selected universities. One
such centre is IUCHSS, set up at Indian Institute of Advanced Studies,
Shimla. The main objectives of the centre are to invite teachers from
universities and colleges to the Institute asAssociate of the IUC, organise
Research Seminars for researchers and young teachers in universities and
colleges and to organise "Study Week" for discussing important problems of
national and international interest.
Some other organisations that provide support to social science research are:
a. Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics
b. Indian Institute of Public Administration
c. SNDT Women’s University Documentation Centre
d. National Council of Applied Economic Research
e. Tata Institute of Social Sciences

3. Information Systems and Programmes in Humanities

a. Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), New Delhi:It was
established in 1950 for strengthening the ties of cultural cooperation and
exchange between India and other countries. The objectives of the Council as
defined in Memorandum of Association are to: • participate in the formulation
and implementation of policies and programmes relating to India's external
cultural relations; • promote cultural exchange with other countries and
people.
b. Indian Council for Historical Research (ICHR), New Delhi: It is an
autonomous body established in 1972 by Government ofIndia, to promote and
support historical research in the country. The Council promotes the study of
historical methods to study the social sciences and humanities to achieve the
goal of an interdisciplinary approach in historical perspectives. The Council
provides financial assistance for holding seminars, conferences, workshops,
etc. related to history. It also provides subsidy for publications of conference
proceedings. The Council has brought out 900 publicationswhich fallinto

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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

followingthree categories:i) Indianhistoryand allieddisciplines, ii) Reference

books, iii) History of Asia and neighboring countries.
c. Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts (IGNCA), New Delhi:Set up by
the Ministry of Culture, Government ofIndia in 1985, IGNCA is a premier
institution inthe preservation and dissemination of knowledge in the fields of
arts, culture, lifestyle studies and folklore. The Centre aims to serve as a major
resource centre forthe arts, especially written, oral and visual resource
materials; undertake research and publication programmes of reference works,
glossaries, dictionaries arid encyclopaedias concerning the arts, humanities
and general cultural heritage; develop computerised National Information
System and Databank on arts, humanities and cultural heritage and create a
networks of communication with oilier national and international centres . of
arts and culture.
d. National Mission for Manuscripts, New Delhi:Manuscripts are a major
source of art, science and culture of a nation. India with its rich cultural
heritage has fairly large collection (about 30 million) of manuscripts located
in different parts oflndia and abroad. In India, manuscripts are located in a
variety of places from university libraries to temples, maths, madrasas,
monastries arl,1private collection. Majority of these collections are yet to be
identified and catalogued. A large number of organisations are facing critical
preservation problems due to lack of resources and technical expertise. The
National Mission for Manuscripts (N1v!M)was launched by Ministry of
Culture, Government oflndia, in Feb. 2003 to locate, catalogue and ..preserve
India's manuscripts; enhance their access, spread awareness and encourage
their use for educational purposes.

International/Global Information System

A large number of international organisations are engaged in the development of library and
information services, these also include global information systems devoted to collection,
processing and dissemination of information in various countries. Use of computers for
location, collection, storage and processing of information has opened up the possibilities-of
creating machine- readable databases which have led to the development of
international/global information systems. This new development has been harnessed further
by the very concept of decentralised input of information from the member countries of a
participating system, where centralised processing of information is possible through
computers, while decentralised dissemination of information is.again possible at the users'
end. This principle is behind the success of the INIS, the International Nuclear Information
System, which had paved the way for other similar systems like AGRIS, DEVSIS,
INFOTERRA, SPINES, CAS, INSPEC, BIOSIS and APINESS. In all these systems, the
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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

input to the system is made available by the member country from where information
originates, leading to reliability,timeliness and comprehensibility.The input thus collected
nationally is entered in prescribed standardised format, usually a machine-readable format to
ensure compatibility(Arora, 2006a).

Some of the Global Information Systems are:

1. INIS: The acronym INIS stands for International Nuclear Information System. INIS
sponsored by the International Atomic Energy Agency (lAEA), Vienna
startedfunctioning in 1970. It is a cooperative, decentralised computerised abstracting
and indexing system providing worldwide coverage of the literature on the peaceful
uses of nuclear energy. It processes and merges input provided by its members and
redistributes the information in machine-readable form as well as in print form. INIS,
the International Nuclear Information System is appropriate for those who need
information on the peaceful applications of nuclear science and technology.
2. AGRIS: AGRIS, the International Information System for the Agricultural Sciences
and Technology, was started in 1974 by the Food and Agriculture Organisation
(FAO) ofthe United Nations. AGRlS became fully operational in 1975 with the first
issue of AGRINDFX and was mode led on the INIS pattern to facilitate information
exchange and to bring together the world literaturedealing with all aspects of
agriculture. Presently, FAO's another programme, Current Agricultural Research
Information System (CARlS) and AGRlS are functioning collectively.
3. INFOTERRA: INFOTERRA is an information network of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) established for facilitating global environmental
information exchange. The programme is functionally successful because of an
efficient system that operates through national focal points designated by various
governments that are members ofthe United Nations. At present, INFOTERRA has
178 members in various Member States of UN. . The INFOTERRA national focal
point in each member state is mostly a national information centre dealing with
environmental science and usually is located in the ministry or a government agency
responsible for activities concerned with environmental protection. The primary
function of each centre is to provide a national environmental information service.
4. UNESCO's Science and Technology Policy Programme: The Division of Science
and Technology Policies of UNESCO had established SPINES Pilot Programme
which was superseded by the Science and Technology Policies Information Exchange
Programme (PIPS) in 1984. It was established to facilitate exchange, at the national
and intemationallevels, the documents and factual data that have a direct bearing on
the formulation and monitoring of national science and technology policies. The PIPS
programme contributed to development of compatible information services dealing
with science and technology in UNESCO Member Countries. This picgramme is now

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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

referred to as UNESCO Science and Technology Policy Programme and is part of

UNESCO's Thematic Area- Natural Sciences and under this is Science Policy.
5. ASTINFO: ASTINFO stands for Regional Network for Exchange of Information and
Experience in Science and Technology in Asia and Pacific. It aims to promote the
exchange of information and experience in science and technology among countries
in the AsialPacific region. It was established in 1983 as an outcome of the Second
Conference of the Science Ministers and Economic Planning Bodies in the
AsialPacific region (CASTASIA II), held in March 1982 in Manilla (Philippines).
ASTINFO has co-ordinating units in 18 Member States; and some 82 national/
regional institutions now hold the status of ASTINFO Associated Centres and
Networks. A quarterly Newsletter is also being published.
6. MEDLARS: The United States National Library of Medicine (NLM), a component
of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) is located in the campus ofNIH in
Bethesda, Maryland. NLM is one of the largest medical libraries ofthe world. It
collects materials in all major areas of the health sciences and related areas which
include chemistry and physics. The goal of the library is to collect material and
provide information and research services in all areas of biomedicine and health care.
7. CAS: In the year 1907, the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) was started. It is a
nonprofit organisation of'the American Chemical Society (ACS), located in
Columbus, Ohio. It disseminates chemistry related information derived from the
scientific and . technical literature and patents world wide. CAS covers publications
in 50 languages from about 150 countries of the world and uses advanced computer
based systems for processing, storing, searching and disseminating relevant scientific,
technical and industry information. The most important feature of CAS is the
computerised Chemical Registry that identifies chemical substances by structure and
assigns each one a unique number. This is used in CAS products to link the structure
with related names, bibliographic references and other information on the substances.
8. INSPEC: INSPEC, started in the year 1967, by the Institution of Electrical Engineers
(lEE), United Kingdom. Presently it is one of the leading bibliographic information
services available in English-language. It provides access to the world's scientific and
technical literature in physics, electrical engineering, electronics, communications,
control engineering, computers and computing, and information technology. INSPEC
based on the Science Abstracts service which has been available from the lEE since
1898. The major effort in this respect is preparation ofthe INSPEC database, since
1969, which provides all the services from INSPEC.
9. BIOSIS: BIOSIS, provided by Thompson Scientific. It is serving the life science
community by providing researchers, students, and librarians with references to
research published and found in journal articles, conference proceedings, meetings,
patents, book chapters and other sources of information. For this, BIOSIS selects
more than 600,000 new entries each year. Based on the collected information,
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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

BIOSIS provides flexible information services which include databases and

customised information products to the life sciences community globally.

1.3.3 Characteristics of Information System:

1. Capacity:Capacity involves the relationship between the size of the system and the
user demands on it. The system needs to be able to collect, store and process all of the
data necessary to develop the information required by its users, as well as have the
capability to meet expansion requirements in the amount of database, in the
information product, and in the number of users(Anupama Saini, 17:01:25 UTC).
2. Quality: Quality has several dimensions. It is related to each of the properties as well
as to the subsystems as a whole. The accuracy and validity of each has a bearing on
the utility of the system for the user.
3. Compatibility: Compatibility is related to the appropriateness of the data and
information of the systems for its users.
4. Timliness: Timeliness is the temporal relationship between user needs and the
system’s response time. Another critical factor relates to the time for which the
information is valid.
5. Coherence: Coherence is a property related to efficiency. The organisation of the
information system should be consistent and logical; the subsystems should be well-
integrated to serve the user requirements.
6. Flexibility: Flexibility permits coherent adjustments as user needs or other aspects of
the various subsystems change. Inherent in this property is the capacity to anticipate
change.
7. Dependability: It allows the information system to perform at given levels of
accuracy and within given time constraints.
8. Economy: It refers to the cost effectiveness property of an information system and is
the most difficult property to measure.

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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. An information system is a method or a combination of methods for

(a) acquiring (b)classifying (c)recording (d)All of these.
2. Quality is the important characteristic of information system. True/False
3. ICCR established in the year_____.
4. AGRIS is the International Information System for the____.
5. International information system is also referred to as_____.
6. INSPEC started in the year_______.
7. INIS stands for ________.
8. CAS stands for_______.
9. IGNCA is located in New Delhi. True/False
10. BIOSIS if provided by _____________

1.4 SUMMARY

The lesson provides an concise overview of Information Systems in the fields of

science and technology, social sciences and humanities, currently in operation in the country.
In the field of science and technology, brief description of NISSAT programme and its
achievements in 25 years of its operation and major activities and nationwide information
services of National Informatics Centre, Biotechnology Information System, Environmental
Information System, INFLIBNET and NISCAIR are covered. All the above mentioned
systems and institutions (except INFLIBNET) are providing i!lformation services in science
and technology. INFLIBNET is concerned with providing information services covering all
the fields of knowledge, viz. S&T, social sciences and humanities. In the field of social
sciences, major information systems programmes of Indian Council of Social Sciences
Research and University Grant Commission are covered. In the field of humanities,
information related activities and programmes ofIndira Gandhi National Centre for Arts,
National Mission for Manuscripts, Indian Council for Cultural Relation, Indian Council of
Historical Research, Indian Council of Philosophical Research, Central Institute of English
and Foreign Languages, Central Institute of Indian Languages, National Archives of India
and National Museum, new Delhi are covered. Like NASSDOC in social sciences and
NISCAIR in S&T, there is no National Information Centre in the field of humanities in the
country.

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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

There are many international organisations, systems and centres contributing towards
promotion, coordination and development of library and information services for assisting
the users. In this Unit, we have covered global information systems like INIS, AGRIS and
INFOTERRA that provide cooperative systems and services and work on the principle of
decentralised input, centralised processing and decentralised output.

1.5 GLOSSARY

Information:It is the processed data on which decisions and actions can be taken.

Information System:Information system refers to the methods, media, producers, and

recipients involved in an organised way to effect information transfer within a specific field,
activity or organisation.
National Information System:An information system which operate at national level.

International Information System:An international venture in terms of coverage of

documents, variety of services and products to users for achieving economy in terms of
money, time and efforts.

1.6 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. (d) 6. 1967
2. True 7. International Nuclear Information System
3. 1950 8. Chemical Abstracts Service
4. Agricultural Sciences and Technology 9. True
5. Global Information System 10. Thompson Scientific

1.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the design elements of national information system. Describe the role of
ENVIS in providing information to users in the field of Environmental Sciences.
2. ‘INIS is an extensive pool of information in the nuclear field and its strength is based
on international co-operation.’ In view of this statement discuss the activities and
structure of INIS.
3. List out some famous National Information Systems in India.
4. List out some famous International Information Systems in India.

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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

1.8 REFERENCES

Anupama Saini. (17:01:25 UTC). Information Organisation as a System. Retrieved from

https://www.slideshare.net/anupamasaini23/information-organisation-as-a-system-

61716023?from_action=save

Arora, R. (2006a). Unit-8 Global Information Systems and Programmes. Indira Gandhi

National Open University, New Delhi. Retrieved from

http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/11117

Arora, R. (2006b). Unit-9 National and International Information Organisations. Indira

Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi. Retrieved from

http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/11118

Arora, R. (n.d.). Organisation of National Information Systems and Programmes.

1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

ATHERTON (Pauline). Handbook for information system and services. 1997. UNESCO,
Paris.

BAMAN (P). Studies on information systems, services and programs in India and abroad.
1993. Ajanta, Delhi.

BARUA (B P). National policy on library and information systems and services for India:
perspectives and projections. 1992. Popular Prakashan, New Delhi.

BURCH (J G) and GRUDNITSKI (G). Information systems: theory and practice. 1986.
Wiley, Singapore.

KENT (A). Resource sharing in libraries: why, how, when next action step. 1974. Marshal
Dekker, New York.

KOCHTANEK (T R) and MATTHEWS (J R). Library information systems: from library

automation to distributed information access solutions. 2002. Libraries Unlimited, West
Westport.

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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

NEELAMEGHAN (A) and PRASAD (K N), Eds. Information systems, networks and
services in India. 2 vols. 1998. Ranganathan Centre for Information Studies, Chennai.
ROWLEY (J). The basics of information system. Ed 2. 1996. Library Association, London.
VICKERY (B C). Information systems. 1973. Butterworths, Washington.

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LESSON 1.2

Kinds of Information System: Libraries, Documentation

Centres and Information Centres
Rekha Devi
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Information System and its various kinds/types
1.4 Libraries
1.4.1 Definition
1.4.2 Need and Purpose
1.4.3 Types of Librarieswith examples
1.4.4 Services of Libraries
1.5 Documentation Centres
1.5.1 Definition
1.5.2 Need and Purpose
1.5.3 Types of Documentation Centres with examples
1.5.4 Services of Documentation Centres
1.6 Information Centres
1.6.1 Definition
1.6.2 Need and Purpose
1.6.3 Types of information Centres with examples
1.6.4 Services of information Centres
1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Answers to In-text Questions
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions
1.11 References
1.12 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

After completing the lesson, you will be able to undertand:

• the need and purpose of libraries

• types of libraries and its examples
• describe the services of libraries
• the need and purpose of documentation centres
• types of documentation centres and its examples
• describe the services of documentation centres
• the need and purpose of information centres
• types of information centres and its examples
• describe the services of information centres

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Libraries, Documentation and information centres are information systems that grew
out of information needs of user communities engaged in research, industrial development,
management of different 42 types of institutions organisations and planning for socio-
economic development. Several new types of libraries, documentation and information
centres have sprung up, resulting in the development of a national framework of information
institutions. This framework is generally referred to as the information infrastructure,
comprising a set of institutions, organisations and resources which support the flow, handling
and delivery of information from generator to user. Such institutions are involved in
acquiring, processing, storing, retrieving and disseminating information. This information
infrastructure encompasses libraries, documentation centres, information centres, referral
centres, information analysis centres, data centres and clearing houses. They are the
components of the total information system of a country. These component units function as
intermediaries linking information and users. Each one of these units has a distinct role, and,
at the same time, a common objective of serving the information needs of specialised users.
After defining libraries, documentation centres, information centres, etc. we shall discuss
their need and purpose, types and services

1.3 INFORMATION SYSTEM AND ITS KINDS

Different kinds of information systemslike: Libraries, Documentation Centres and

Information Centres are discussed in the lesson. We have tried to provide a glance of all three
important information systems with reference to its need and purpose, types and services.

1.4 LIBRARIES

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1.4.1 Definition:
The word “Library” means in English “a collection of books gathered for study, research,
reference and recreation”. It is being perceived that it has derived from a Latin word ‘liber’
which means ‘a book’. The definition of library has changed as its functions have changed
since it inception.
Let’s see some of the definitions provided by different reference sources and the scholars of
Library and Information Science(“CBSE Class XI & XII Library & Information Science
Textbooks,” 2015).

The Oxford Dictionary defines library as “a building or room containing collections

of books, periodicals, and sometimes films and recorded music for using or borrowing by the
public or the members of an institution”.

The Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary says that “a place in which literary, musical,

artistic, or reference materials (as books, manuscripts, recordings, or films) are kept for use
but not for sale”.
The Harrold’s Librarians’ Glossary and Reference Book explains library as:
1) A collection of books and other literary material kept for reading, study and
consultation.
2) A place, building, room or rooms set apart for the keeping and use of a collection of
books, etc.
3) A number of books issued by one publisher under a comprehensive title as the ‘Loeb
Classical Library’, and usually having some general characteristic, such as, subject,
binding, or typography.
4) A collection of films, photographs and other non-book materials, plastic or metal
tapes, disks and programs.

1.4.2 Need and Purpose:

The definition of a library, given by Ranganathan, helps us understand the status of a library
in the society. He designates the library as a public institution. This status itself sets goals and
objectives for a library. Being a public institution, it has the responsibility to serve the public
without any reservation or biasness. Further, he says 'care of collection of books' which refers
to the organization, maintenance and preservation aspects of the library materials so that it
can serve the society or community for a longer period. The final and the most important
factor in his definition is 'making them accessible'. This aspect of the definition sets an
agenda to 1.3 Purpose of a Library 4 provide service to the society. The library should be
made available to the public for use or consultation.

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Hence, the purpose of a library is to serve the society through the records of human thoughts,
ideas and expressions by making them available as and when required by the members of the
society, and preserving them for the coming generations, as these records are the intellectual
wealth of the society.

1.4.3 Types of Libraries:

Broadly there are four types of libraries:
1. Public Library: According to Ernestine Rose, a public library is an institution
which is making honest efforts to build upon solid foundation on past tradition
a modern structure adoptable of the changing need of today and susceptible to
change in the future. A public library is a collection of books for public use,
subject to public control and support. It is open to full public use. A modern
public library collects the printed and audio-visual material. It interprets and
guides in the use of material to enable as many persons as possible. A public
library organises the collection and makes convenient and easy to use for
users. In addition to books, a public library selects and provides pamphlets,
documents and other non-book sources in printed form, and films, tapes,
discs, and other non-print recording of knowledge and opinion.
Examples of Public Library are:
♦ Delhi Public Library
♦ State Library, Shimla
♦ Central State Library, Solan
♦ T.S. Central State Library, Chandigarh

2. Academic Library: Libraries are regarded as heart of institutions. University

Education Commission Report of 1949 has put a great emphasis on the
libraries in university system, and it is rightly called a heart of an institution.
Kothari Commission Report of 1949 has put a great emphasis on roleof
libraries in the life of university. Kothari Commission said that no new subject
would be introduced in the university unless the libraries are given proper
funds for purchase of books, periodicals, equipments and professional staff. A
library have its own independent building. The recommendation of the
Commission was that unless a library is given due importance the objectives
of a university will not be fulfilled. Hence the library attached to the
university, college and school should become the centre of attraction(Vyas,
1993).
Libraries that comes under academic library system are as follows:

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(a) School Library: Secondary Education Commission Report, 1952-53

recommended that the school libraries should cultivate in students the
habit of general reading. The school library should be a repository of
reference books, standard books, and books of general interest. Text books
give brief information only. This is how text books are designed.
Intelligent students would desire for more information. The commission
found the general knowledge and interest among students about studies is
deplorable. General reading habit among students is poor. This speaks for
a good school library system. A school library is an essential instrument of
education.
Examples of School Library are:
♦ Library Kendriya Vidyalaya Kanjikode
♦ Library, Kendriya Vidyalaya No.IV Ambala Cantt
♦ Library, DAV Public School, Sreshtha Vihar, Delhi

(b) College Library: The college library’s main objective is to help in

collecting material which is uselful to teaching. The college library is the
centre of all activities of the college. According to Lyle a college library’s
main functions are to extend reference service, to contribute in the
development of the teaching and to provide library service in order to
improve standard of teaching in fulfilment of the objectives, and to
encourage students to read useful books. The college library becomes a
centre of learning where learned and scholarly reading materials are kept
for the use of the academic community.
Examples of College Library are:
♦ Library, St. Stephen's College, Delhi
♦ British Library Miranda house Library, Delhi
♦ Daulat Ram College Library, Delhi
♦ Library, Government Post Graduate College, Dharamshala, Himachal
Pradesh

(c) University Library: According to Wilson and Tauber the functions of

university library is to acquire and collect books, manuscripts, journals
and other reading materials, and organise them keeping in view the
objectives. A library is a serice oriented institution. It renders service to
the university community. According to M.A. Gelfand the greatest
contribution of a library is ites educational services. A university library is
not mere a collection of books, but important tool of education in today’s
world.

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Examples of University Library are:

♦ Sayaji Rao Gaekwad Central Library, BHU
♦ Central Library, University of Delhi
♦ Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University
♦ JNU Central Library

3. Special Library: L.M. Harrod, “Special Library is a collection of books and

other printed, graphic or recorded material dealing with a limited filed of
knowledge and provided by a learned society, research organization, industrial
or commercial undertaking, government department or even an educational
institution. It may also be a special branch of a public library serving certain
interests or occupational groups such as a technical library or a special subject
library, meeting the needs of all enquiries on that given subject such as a
music library”(Khanna, 1987).
Examples of Special Library are:
♦ National Accessible Library, NIPVED, Dehradun
♦ Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi
♦ Tihar Jail Open Library
♦ National School of Drama Library, New Delhi

4. National Library: Since national library is a vital phenomenon of

librarianship, S.R. Ranganathan ventured to define it as the library having the
duty of collecting and preserving for posterity, the literary products of that
county. It is the central station for assembling and dissemination thought
energy. Inspired, probably by Ranganathan, Unesco’s General Conference
(1970) gave a more comprehensive definition which runs as under:
Libraries which irrespective of their title are responsible for acquiring and
preserving copies of all significant publications published in a country and
functioning as a deposit library, either by law or under other arrangements.
They will also normally perform some of the following functions:
a. Produce a national bibliography
b. Hold and keep up-to-date a large and representative collection of
foreign literature including books about the country;
c. Act as a national bibliographic information centre;
d. Compile union catalogue;
e. Publish the retrospective national bibliography
Examples of National Library are:
♦ National Library of India (Kolkata; formerly Imperial Library)

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♦ British Library (London; formerly British Museum)

♦ Library of Congress (Washington)
♦ The Lenin Library (Moscow)
♦ The Bibliotheque Nationale (Paris)

1.4.4 Services of Libraries:

1) Circulation Services: The borrowing of books for hoine reading is the most widely
used of all public library facilities. Presuming that the reader has been helped by a
proper reference service to choose the book he wants to read at home, the routines
involved in allowing him to take it out or borrow shou Id be clearly charted out and
administered with precision.
a) Interlibrary Cooperation: Though there are many kinds of cooperative
activities developed for providing better services to readers like cooperative
acquisition, cataloguing, and storage of'library materials, interlibrary .loan is
an essential part of the cooperative effort.
2) Reading Room Services: The main activity of the reading rooms manifests itself in
the actual handing out of the resources of the library to readers. Though open access
helps the reader to locate his books of interest, the staff helps to locate books of
peripheral and inter- disciplinary subjects. The range extends from merely handing
over a book to the casual reader, to systematic servicing of material to the serious
scholar.
a) Photocopying Services: Photocopying is a form of'making copies of parts
ofbooks,joumals, newspapers, and pamphlets . and the like. The practice is a
very valuable aid to the library user. For example. people doing extensive the
work on a project 'may need material from parts of many books, journals and
newspapers. They can get copies of the information they need from each
document. Thus, they have permanent possession of the material they need in
form much reduced from the bulk of dozens of documents.
3) References Services: Reference service is providing personal assistance to individual
library users in search of a specific piece.of information. This service begins With a
well-designed contact of readers, books and library staff.
4) Bibliographical Services: Bibliography as a term has more than one definition. For
the purpose ofthis unit the term may be defined as' a name given to' a list ef books,
manuscripts. and other publications, systematically described and arranged which
have some relationship to each other. The author bibliography lists all the works by
and about one author while a subject bibliography is restricted to one subject or to
one subject field.
5) IT Based Services: Each year, more and. more information becomes available about
every subject that iriterests . the library interest users. The present era of information
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technology opens up a wide range of facilities for the libraries. the services of a
library can be profitably improved from the use of technology and the following
benefits can be derived:
• routine and repetitive jobs are handled with saving in staff time and removing
drudgery,
• speed in work; and thus
• improving productivity, and
• the highly debated 'resource sharing' could become a reality
6) Community Intormation Services: Community information services are those
services, which assist individuals and groups with daily problem-solving and with
participation in the democratic process. The public library has a major role to play as
a community information centre to the user community in socioeconomic
development at all levels particularly in areas of decision making, problem-solving,
economi'cproductivity, health care, continuing education etc. The services
concentrate on the needs of those who do not have ready access to other sources of
assistance and on the most important problems that people have to face -problems to
do with their jobs, their homes and their rights.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. The system where only staff could fetch books from the shelves is called
____________.
2. An example of teaching aids used for simplifying teaching learning processes
is ____________.
3. The system where users can browse books from the shelves is called
_____________.
4. DVDs, e-books and online journals one examples of ___________ material.

1.5 DOCUMENTATION CENTRES

1.5.1 Definition:
Documentation activities of a country are very much interlinked with the research and
developmental efforts of the country. Documentation centres are concerned with the
dissemination of documentary information.Specialist libraries began to build up facilities for

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meeting the changing needs of scholarly clientele for intensive services. Later in time,
documentation centres began to emerge towards the same prupose.

In general, a documentation centre brings to the attention of the specialist users

current and recent literature of value to them, sieves through information sources and
indicates pinpointedly or with high precision the right kind of information, makes an
exhaustive search of literature resources so as not to miss worthwhile information, and
provides documentation and information services on demand and in anticipation.

A local documentation centre has the sole function of providing information services
for supporting the programmes and activities of its own institution. The documentation
centres at local levels and which are attached to individual R & D institutions business
houses, industrial enterprises, etc. are established and administerd by their parent institution.
At the national level, it might be the responsibility of the appropriate government agency to
establish and administer the national documentation/information centres.

Definitions A ‘document’ is a single piece of written or printed matter which

furnishes evidence or information on any subject. It can be graphic record of some idea in
words, sound or image. The term ‘documentation’ is the process connected with
identification, recording, organisation, storage and dissemination of intellectual content
recorded in a document in print or non-print medium. ‘Documentation centres’ play an
important role in collecting microliterature,indexing and abstracting them, bringing them to
the notice of the users and disseminating them quickly to the needy users. They are
established at local,regional, national and international levels.

1.5.2 Need and Purpose:

The main purpose of the documentation centre is to identify, acquire, organise and store
documents after indexing and abstracting them. It retrieves and disseminates the document
when requested by the users.

Documentation service is same as reference service but the emphasis shifts from macro-
documents to micro-documents and general readers to special readers. Documentation
service includes the following activities:

• Bring to the notice of readers availability of current information through Current

Awareness Service (CAS) and Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI.
• Providing documents available in the centre.
• Getting documents on inter-library loan from other institutions
• Avoid unfamiliar words, double negatives, passive voice, and difficult language
structures.
• Reproducing documents and providing photocopies.

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• Arranging translation of documents in a language requested by the readers from other

foreign languages.

1.5.3 Types of Documentation Centres with examples:

During 1950s and 1960s, Documentation Centres were established at local,regional,
national and international levels. a)

1) Local documentation centres are supposed to provide information services that

support the requirements of the parent organisation to which they are attached. These
are designed to meet the specific demands of the users. The documentation and
information centres at local levels that are attached to individual R&D institutions,
business houses, industrial enterprises, government departments. etc., are established
and administered by their parent institutions.
Examples:
• National Centre for Science Information (NCSI) at the Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore
• SNDT University, Bombay
• MS University, Baroda.
2) National documentation centres are attached to R&D organisations, business and
industrial organisations, government departments and soon. They undertake activities
which are beyond the control of local documentation centres.
Examples:
• Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre, New Delhi.
• Institute of Scientific and Technical Information, (China), Beijing.
• Thailand National Documentation Centre, Bangkok.
3) International documentation centres collect, organise, process and disseminate
special literature available at international level to meet the information requirements
of the researchers and scholars.
Examples:
• International Patent Documentation Centre (INPADOC), Vienna.
• Trade Information Service, International Trade Centre, Geneva.

4) Regional documentation centres are usually established nationally or internationally

in a region. These are designed to meet the requirements of users in a particular
region.In a geographically vast country, besides the National Documentation Centre,
there may be a need to set up information centres in different regions in order to
mobilise the information resources and facilities and to serve particular requirements
of the users.
Examples:

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1.5.4 Services of Documentation Centres:

The below are some services which are offered by most of the information centres:
The functions of documentation/information centres are performed with the basic objective
of providing a variety of information services. These services are rendered either in response
to or in anticipation of requests by the users.The responsive services are provided in response
to users’ specific special request. On the other hand, anticipatory services are provided in
anticipation of the demands from the users. The various responsive and anticipatory services
provided by documentation/ information centres are:

1) Responsive Services
a) Answering queries
b) Referral services
c) Compilation of bibliographies
d) Retrospective search service
e) Document back-up service
f) Translation service

2) Anticipatory Services
a) Current Awareness Service (CAS)
b) Selective Dissemination of Information service (SDI)
c) Preparation of indexes and abstracts
d) Compilation of directories, handbooks, etc.
e) Compilation of ad-hoc bibliographies
f) State-of-the art reports

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

5. Current Awareness service is an anticipatory service. True/False

6. Regional service is a Responsive service. True/False
7. State of the Art Report is a responsive service. True/False
8. Translation Service is an anticipatory service. True/False
9. Compilation of Bibliographies is a responsive service. True/False

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1.6 INFORMATION CENTRES

1.6.1 Definition:
The Information service units in organisations have been usually referred to as
'Information Centres' or "Information Departments'. The emphasis in this case, as mentioned
earlier, is towards provision of information contained in the documents, rather than
documents themselves which is the main consideration of traditional libraries. An
information centre can be defmed as: "an organisation that (i) selects, acquires, stores and
retrieves specific information in response to requests; (ii) announces, abstracts, extracts and
indexes information; and (iii) disseminates information in response to requests from
documents or in anticipation."

Harrod's Librarians' Glossary defines an Information Centre as being "usually an

office, or a section of a bibliographical centre, research bureau or documentation centre,
which gives information about books or on a subject with which the organization providing
the facilities or the centre is concerned. The functions of this centre include technical writing,
indexing, abstracting, SDC, etc., each of intensive nature".
Another earlier definition of an Information Centre in relation to library functions is:

• An organisation with library as a unit with responsibility to its parent organisation,

• An organisation which charges a fee for its services that cover full cost of the
cooperation, and
• An organisation that relies on the library collection to provide information services
for an external user group upon request.

In the above definition we see that the emphasis is on activities and products and the amount
of intellectual effort involved in the preparation of the products. It has to be noted here that
each individual activity and product eventually forms the input for other activities and
products. Here the activities like selection and collection have been taken from libraries
which are document-oriented, whereas the activities like indexing, abstracting and extracting
are peculiar to information centres. This feature distinguishes an information centre from
other types of information institutions(Arora, 2006).

1.6.2 Need and Purpose:

Some of the reasons for setting up of an information centre are:

• Avoid Increase in volume and variety of information sources;

• Rising cost of documents;
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• Emphasis of service from documents to information contained in documents;

• To meet the changing complexity of information needs of users;
• To keep pace with developments in various subject areas;
• Improved decision making by managers, scientists, R & D personnel, planners and
policymakers;
• To be part of resource sharing and networking activity in a region, subject or
otherwise;
• To have access to new publications, information services and databases;
• To avoid duplication of efforts; and
• Need for carefully evaluated, analysed, consolidated and repackaged information
oriented towards the special needs of the users..

1.6.3 Types of Information Centres with examples:

1. By Specialised Interest
Information Centres grouped under this category are those institutions that cater to
specialists in various subject areas of research, mission-oriented projects, special kinds of
information or information from particular regions. ;

a) Subject Field - Information Centres devoted to subjects like-science,

technology, social sciences, engineer!ng, agriculture, etc.
Examples:
• Science and Technology - National Institute of Science
Communication and Information Resources (NISCAIR), New
Delhi.
b) Mission-oriented - Information Centres devoted to missions, sectors, etc.
of national economy.
Examples:
• Defence- Defence Scientific Information and Documentation
Centre (DESIDOC), . , New Delhi.
c) Kinds of-Information - Information Centres dealing with a particular kind
of information like industrial information, bibliographical information,
management information, etc.
Examples:
• Industrial Information - Small Enterprises National Documentation
Centre (SENDOC), Hyderabad.
d) Geographical Region - Information Centres concerning a particular
geographical region,
Examples:
• Japan Information Centre of Science and Technology, Tokyo.Japan.
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2. By Ownership
Information Centres by ownership include those institutions that are owned,
funded and run by government agencies or learned societies or professional
associations or private agencies.
(a) Government Information Centres
Examples:
• National Informatics Centre (NIC), New Delhi.
• National Social Science Documentation Centre (NASSDOC), New
Delhi.
(b) Semi-Government Information Centres
Examples:
• National Centre for Science Information (University Grant
Commission),
• Indian Institute of Science Campus, Bangalore.
(c) Information Centres of Non-Government Organisations (NGOs)
Examples:
• International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Library,
Canada.
• UNESCO Social and Human Sciences Documentation Centre,
Paris, France.
(d) Private Information Centres
Examples:
• Farmers' Information Centre (Maroochy Horticultural Research
Station), Nambour, Australia.
• Documentation and Information Centre, TERI Library, TERI, New
Delhi.
(e) International Information Centres
Examples:
• Trade Information Services, International Trade Centre
(UNCTADIWTO), Geneva.
• International Patent Documentation Centre (INPADOC), European
Patent Office, Munich.
• Infoterm - International Information Centre for Terminology,
Vienna.

3. By Level of Service

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Many information centres operate at various levels which can be international

or global, regional,national or local.
a) GlobalInternational Information Systems/Centres - These centres
usually have decentralised input, centralised processing and
decentralised dissemination or output of information.
Examples:
• AGRIS/CARIS International Information System for the
Agricultural Sciences and Technology, FAO, Rome.
• Infoterm - International Information Centre for Terminology,
Vienna.
• International Serials Data System (ISDS), Paris.
b) Regional Information Centres - Countries belonging to a
geographical region group together to form regional information
activities.
Examples:
• SAARC Documentation Centre, New Delhi.
• Pan African Development Information System(pADIS),The
Economic Commission For Africa (ECA), Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
c) National Information Centres - These are information centres
usually established by governments of nations and operate at national
level. The national information centres perform national level fuctions,
activities and services.
Examples:
• The National Documentation Centre,Bangkok, Thailand
• National Centre for Scientific arid Technological Information
& Documentation (NACESTID), Ministry of Science,
Technology and Environment, Hanoi, Vietnam.
• Bangladesh National Scientific and Technical Documentation
Centre (BANSDOC), Dhaka, Bangladesh.
• National Social Science Documentation Centre (NASSDOC),
New Delhi.
• National Institute of Science Communication and Infomiation
Resources (NISCAIR), New Delhi.
d) Regional Information Centres (inter-country) - These centres are
usually established in geographically large countries. Regional Centres
are set-up in different regions in order to make available information
facilities to user
e) Sectoral Information Centres - This category of information centres
is devotedto a specific discipline or a subject area. These are available

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on a nationalbasis to users and institution engaged in the concerned

discipline or mission.
Examples:
• National Information Centre For Marine Sciences (NICMAS),
National Instituteof Oceanography, Goa, India.
• Biotechnology Information Centre, Centre of Advanced Study
in Marine Biology
f) Local Information Centres - These centres are attached to
individualorganisations to meet their specific information requirements
Examples:
• Information Centre, United Riceland Ltd., Kurukshetra, India.
• Business Information Centre, Transport Corporation ofIndia
Ltd., Gurgaon,India.
• Biotechnology Information Centre, Centre of Advanced Study
in Marine Biology,

4. By Variety of Services Provided

Information Centres can also be categorised by the variety of services
provided totheir users. These centres usually offer some specialised services
which are unique.
These services include: .
a) Current Awareness Services
b) Abstracting and Digest Services
c) Product Information Services
d) Data Bank
Examples.
• National Social Science Documentation Centre (NASSDOC), New
Delhi.
• National Institute of Science Communication and Information
Resources (NISCAIR), New Delhi .

5. By Types of Material
Some information centres offer only a special kind of material like patents,
standards,etc. and these are categorised according to types of material offered
by them.
Examples:
• International Patent Documentation Centre (INPADOC), European
Patent Office,Munich.

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• International Development Research Centre (lDRC) Library, Canada.

1.6.4 Services of Information Centres:

The below are some services which are offered by most of the information centres:

1) Lending of Books
Lending of books to users for home reading has always been one of the basic functions of
any library since time immemorial. Many information/documentation centres are still
lending books. to users and it has been one of the chief services of most of the
information centres especially for users belonging to the parent organisation of the centre.
However, periodicals, reports and other categories of specialised materials are not lent to
users.
2) Inter-library Lending of Documents
Libraries have always been cooperating with each other by sharing resources in the form
of inter-library lending. Inter-library lending of documents between libraries becomes a
necessity when library materials are required by their users for a short period or on urgent
basis especially in case of special libraries where material relevant to objectives/activities
of the parent organisation only are acquired. Such material, thus, is borrowed from other
libraries to satisfy user needs and returned back after use. This arrangement works on
give and take principle and has been found to be very successful especially at local level.
Most of information centres too offer this service by depending on local libraries for
satisfying requirements of their users on demand.
3) Photocopy Service
In this service, photocopy of materials available with the information centre is provided
to users on request. Here, the user hirnself7herself locates the document, requests for a
copy of the same, pays a token amount and copy of the document is provided on the spot.
This service is very popular with student users and scholars. This service, however, is
available only if copy of some portions of a document is required by users and not copy
of the whole document. Many information centres also provide self operated photocopy
service to users.
4) Document Delivery Service
In document delivery service copies of materials are provided to users upon request. But
in this case, copies of material not only from within the document base of the information
centre, but also available from other organisations (within the city, region, country or
world) are provided to the users. Contrary to photocopy service where on the spot copy of
material located by the users is provided, here, user has to make a formal request on a
form by giving bibliographic details of the documents required. The user is also expected
to pay usually in advance for such a service. The information centre then traces the

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documents, makes photocopy and sends the same to the user. This service thus may take
one week to three months depending upon the availability of material requested for.
5) Reference, Literature Search and Preparation of Bibliographies
Reference services are either passive or active. A passive reference service is one in
which the information centre acquires and makes available reference books, reports
and data. The user can examine these' for the information that he/she needs. It
functions more like a reference room in any library. An active reference service is
provided when a member of the staff locates the material for the user rather than the
user finds it for himself /herself.

Conducting literature searches on a specific problem or subject is a valuable service

provided by most of the information centres. Such a search may present duplication
of research, or may take the form of a state-of-the-art report or it may be an
exhaustive survey. Literature search can be comprehensive search on a given topic or
exhaustive retrospective search.

Bibliographies are usually compiled in an information centre as an end result of a

literature search. A bibliography may contain a select listing by author, title and
subject or it may take the form of an annotated listing in which significance,
pertinence and relevance of the items are evaluated. Bibliographies may be selective
or comprehensive or may be exhaustive in approach. Presently, information centres
prepare bibliographies from printed sources (indexing! abstracting journals), CD-
ROMs or from online access databases. As this is a paid service, users can request for
the same according to their paying capacity wherein cost of bibliography prepared
from online access databases is maximum and the one from printed sources is the
least.
6) Referral Service This is also a .kind of reference service where a user requests for
some material and the information centre does not have the same and cannot obtain it,
then if its location is known, the user is referred to the source or organisation or
individual who can provide the information about the material.
7) Newspaper Clippings
In this service, newspaper clippings on topics relevant to the information centre are
cut and pasted on sheets of paper and placed in folders for ready reference by users.
The folders containing the newspaper clippings are properly indexed and in most of
modern information centres, this service is being computerised too.
8) Translations In information centres, many users, especially those belonging to
science and technology field often require translations from materials published in
foreign languages. Translation service can be offered from within the information
centre or the centre may contract the work to a translation agency. This service is
becoming more and more useful. As science has no geographical boundaries and to

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keep abreast with various scientific developments, it is essential that translation

facilities to be made available in all information centres.
9) Current Awareness Services
Majority of the users are of the view that current awareness services are synonymous
with information centres and feel that these are offered only by information centres.
The various current awareness services usually offered by information centres include
circulation of accession list, selective dissemination of information, bulletin board,
announcement of new arrivals, copies of contents pages of journals and many others.
Abstracting is the process of writing a summary of an article, report, journal or
similar publication so that users of an organisation may quickly read a digest of the
original material. Bibliographical details accompany the summary giving the user
enough information to identify the publisher. Besides preparing abstracts of internally
generated material and externally originated publications, the information centre may
also subscribe to any of the published abstracting indexing services. These
publications are usually oriented towards a particular discipline. Many information
centres also offer contents and abstracting service which is a combination of
reproduction of contents pages of journals and also providing their abstracts
alongwith to enable user to know what new/latest journal articles of their interest
have been published.
10) Information Centre Publications
The information centre should keep its users informed of various holdings, new
acquisitions and its own publications. This can be done in the form of various
brochures about each activity/service/publication or an 'acquisition list' or 'list of new
arrivals' or as a 'list of publication of the information centre.'
11) CD-ROMSearch
Present day information centres, existing in an electronic environment, are gradually
replacing printed resources by electronic resources. Majority of published literature is
now also available in the form ofCD-ROMs - both reference as well as full-
textmaterial. Information centres thus make available to users either references or
materials available on CD-ROMs or provide facilities for searching the CDs within
library prerruses.
12) Online Access to Databases
For the past so many years several major database vendors provide ready access to
hundreds of databases containing a wide range of materials. The records of databases
contain usually references to journal articles, books, technical reports, patents,
conferences proceedings, standards, dissertations, etc. These databases cover recorded
knowledge in most areas and carry useful data/information.' Users request for a
search on a particular topic when they require current literature for research. Search
can be for references or details on a topic of interest to the users. Online search is
very expensive as the information organisation offering-this service has to subscribe-

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to a database directly or through a vendor. Search process involves intervention of a

senior information professional having subject knowledge as well as search skills.
13) Internet Services
The modem information centres working in electronic and networked environment
also make available several Internet setvices or services through Internet. Many users
maintain contact with the information centres for various services through e-mail by
sending and receiving requests for services. This is faster, cheaper, involving lesser
human intervention and time saving. Besides this many information centres also
extend limited Internet search facilities to their users by charging a token amount or
even free

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
10. Documentation and Information Centre, the energy Research Institute
Library(TERI) is an example of ______ information centre.
11. National Informatics Centre (NIC), New Delhi is a ___________ information
centre.
12. Agriculture Information System of FAO(AGRIS) is the best example of a
__________ information centre.

1.7 SUMMARY

• Libraries specialise in collecting, organising and disseminating different types of

material to various users.
• Documentation/Information Centres emerged in course of time to meet the
information requirements of special type of users.
• A library provides only the address of the document whereas a documentation/
information centres provides not only the address of the document but also the details
of the centres of the document.

1.8 GLOSSARY

Information System:A system in terms of coverage of documents, variety of services and

products to users for achieving economy in time, efforts and monetary terms.

Library:Library is a service institution with professionally trained staff to promote the use of
the collection

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Documentation Centre:Documentation centres are concerned with the dissemination of

documentary information.

Information Centre:The emphasis in the case of Information centres is towards provision of

information contained in the documents, rather than the documents themselves.

1.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Closed Access system 9. True

2. Maps, Globes, Poster, Pictures etc. 10. Private
3. Open Access System 11.Government
4. Non-book Material 12.Global
5. True
6. True
7. False
8. False

1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between library, information centre and documentation centre.

2. Discuss the services of Library and Information/Documentation Centre.

1.11 REFERENCES

Arora, R. (2006). Unit-2 Information Centres: Types and their Organisation. Indira Gandhi

National Open University, New Delhi. Retrieved from

http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/11106

CBSE Class XI & XII Library & Information Science Textbooks. (2015, September 6).

Retrieved August 17, 2022, from Library@Kendriya Vidyalaya Pattom website:

https://librarykvpattom.wordpress.com/2015/09/06/cbse-class-xi-xii-library-

information-science-textbooks/

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Khanna, J. K. (1987). Library and Society. Kurukshetra University.

Vyas, S. D. (1993). Library and Society. Panchsheel Prakashan.

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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LESSON 1.3

Data Centres, Information Analysis Centres, Referral

Centres and Clearing Houses
Rekha Devi
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Information Institutions and Its types
1.4 Data Centres
1.4.1 Definition
1.4.2 Struture of Data Centres
1.4.3 Functions of Data Centres
1.4.4 Services of Data Centres
1.5 Information Analysis Centres
1.5.1 Definition
1.5.2 Need and Purpose
1.5.3 Examples of Information Analysis Centres
1.5.4 Services of Information Analysis Centres
1.6 Referral Centres
1.6.1 Definition
1.6.2 Need and Purpose
1.6.3 Functions of Referral Centres
1.6.4 Examples ofReferral Centres
1.7 Clearing Houses: Meaning and Definition
1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Answers to In-text Questions
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions
1.12 References
1.12 Suggested Readings

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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing the lesson, you will be able to undertand:

• the meaning of Data Centres

• the structue of Data Centres
• describe the services of Data Centres
• the need and purpose of Information Analysis centres
• Examples of Information Analysis centres
• describe the services of Information Analysis centres
• the need and purpose of Referral centres
• functions of Referral centres and its examples
• describe the services of Referral centres
• the meaning of Clearing Houses

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Information plays a significant role in the development of mankind. It is needed for

different purposes, viz. education, entertainment, decision making, etc. Library is one of the
agencies that exists to serve the information needs of the society. Data centres, information
analysis centres and referral centres and clearing houses are other agencies involved in
providing information. This less is devoted to a discussion of social perspectives of library
and information(Satyanarayana, 2018). Such institutions are involved in acquiring,
processing, storing, retrieving and disseminating information. This information infrastructure
encompasses libraries, documentation centres, information centres, referral centres,
information analysis centres, data centres and clearing houses. They are the components of
the total information system of a country. These component units function as intermediaries
linking information and users. Each one of these units has a distinct role, and, at the same
time, a common objective of serving the information needs of specialised users. After
defining Data centres, information analysis centres and referral centres and clearing houses,
etc. we shall discuss their need and purpose, types and services

1.3 INFORMATION INSTITUTIONS AND ITS TYPES

The organising principle that paved the way for the establishment of information
organisations in this era is solving societal problems by exploiting appropriate information.
Systems that evolved in this period reflect a context in which information is used in problem
solving such as economic development, industrial planning, agricultural productivity and
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environmental protection, etc. The institutions that came into existence during this period had
the capability to handle specific type of information and could provide new products and
services. However, they could not evolve appropriate structures. Though the systems which
were developed during this era exhibit characteristics necessary to meet the informational
requirements of the times, needed further development and legitimisation. The community of
users whose needs the systems were expected to fulfil was somewhat amorphous and ill
defined involving a variety of groups such as elected representatives of people, judiciary,
technologists, media people and the general public. In addition to the amorphous nature of
the users, the information systems had to tackle different types of information largely non –
STI – some of the categories being local, ill-organised, proprietary, value-added and
reflecting value judgements.

In the literature of Library and Information Science we come across different types of
information institutions. The primary objective of all these organisations happens to be
collection, processing, organisation and dissemination of information to individuals, groups
and organisations as and when they require it. The most important type of these institutions
are: libraries, documentation centres, information analysis centres, Data centres, clearning
houses, Referral centres etc. Apart from these traditional institutions, which have been in
existence for long, many de-institutionalised information services have sprung up lately.
Some of these are discussed in the following sections of this less.

1.4 DATA CENTRES

1.4.1 Definition:
Data is an important ingredient of research. Its societal importance can not be under
estimated. The contemporary society needs data for various activities such as planning,
development and decision-making, etc. in every sphere of human progress.

Data must be collected, processed and organised so as to facilitate its utilisation in an

effective manner. Managing scientific data has been identified as one of the most important
emerging needs of scientific community because of the sheer volume and increasing
complexity of data collected. Effective generating, managing and analysing the data requires
a comprehensive approach that encompasses all the stages from the initial data acquisition to
the final analysis of the data. For this purpose, an institutional mechanism is essential. Such
institutional mechanisms are known as data centres.

According to UNESCO a data centre “constitutes an organisation handling quantitative

numerical material data”. Such centres take the primary function of collecting, organising
and disseminating data and also provide a measurement service and are in a position to
advance relevant measurement techniques. The term data centre is used interchangeably to

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define a range of information centres, not all of which are critically evaluating data. Data
centres vary both in scope and size. There can be data centres at local, national, regional, and
international levels.

1.4.2 Structure of Data Centres:

A data centre generally includes three major components:

• An organised data collection (i.e. the database);

• A connection with data sources which feed the database; and
• A contact with users who are expected to interact with the data base with different
types of questions.

Fig 1.1: Component of a Data Centre (Source: (Satyanarayana, 2017))

Modern data centres are usually maintained by organisations in order to handle core
operations in information services including the Internet connectivity, intranets, LANs,
WANs, and extranets. The most basic data centre will have a computer network and security
applications which amounts to very large amounts of data stored in a number of computers.
Generally larger companies will have IT infrastructure to handle the activities of a data
centre.
It may be stated that the activities of data centre comprise:

• Data collection,
• Data control,
• Data codification,
• Data organisation and structuring into a database and
• Data retrieval.
For accomplishing all these functions a data centre should be equipped with suitably
trained manpower. In India many data centres have been established under the erstwhile
NISSAT programme. National Information Centre for Crystallography is an example of a
data centre.

The World Data System (WDS) was established to achieve and distribute data collected
from the observational programmes of the 1957-1958 International Geographical Year. It

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was originally established in the United States, Europe, Russia and Japan, since then the
WDS expanded to other countries and to new scientific disciplines. The WDS presently
includes 52 centres in 12 countries. Its holdings include a wide range of solar,
geographical, environmental, and human dimensions data. It is funded and maintained by
host countries on behalf of the international scientific community.

Data Centre employs the following categories of personnel:

• Data Coordinators
• Data Specialists
• Data Analysts
• Programmers

1.4.3 Functions of Data Centres:

Functions performed by Data Centre are:

a) Data collection;
b) Data control;
c) Data coding;
d) Data storage;
e) Data organisation and encoding; and
f) Data dissemination and retrieval.
In short a Data Centre is expected to perform the following three functions:

a) Data Evaluation;
b) Data Dissemination; and
c) Referral Service

1.4.4 Services of Data Centres:

The Data Centre is expected to provide the following two types of basic services:

• Answer to users queries; and

• Supply the processed/synthesised data (processed from basic data).
The Data Centre, which is involved in the acquisition and processing of data, is in a strategic
position to disseminate the data and answer the user queries. Data services may be provided
on demand and/or on anticipatory basis.
The categories of data services also involve appropriate mechanisms. They are:
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1) Reference Mechanism;
2) Referral Mechanism;
3) Announcement Mechanism;
4) Accretion Mechanism;
5) Compilation Mechanism;
6) EvaluationMechanism; ,
7) Document Access Mechanism;
8) Publication Mechanism;
9) PromotionlLiaison Mechanism; and
10) System Monitoring/Improvement.

From the users' point-of-view, and to differentiate types of Data Centres, all these.
mechanisms, can be reduced to three types of services:

1) Data Evaluation and Compilation Services;

2) Data Dissemination Service; and
3) Data Referral Service.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Activities of data centre comprises.
(a) Data collection (b) Data control (c) Data retrieval (d) All of these
2. Data centre employs____.
(a) Data coordinator (b) Data specialist (c) Data analysts (d) All of these
3. Data source is not a component of data centre. True/False
4. Data must be collected, processed and organised so as to facilitate its
utilisation in an effective manner. True/False

1.5 INFORMATION ANALYSIS CENTRES

1.5.1 Definition:
The origin of activities pertaining to information analysis may be traced back to the 19th
century. But the idea of a systematically organised centre for information analysis activity is
relatively new. The Weinberg Report extensively discussed the role of information analysis
centres (IACs) and their importance and emphasised that the activities of most successful

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IACs are intrinsic part of science and technology. The centres not only disseminate and
retrieve information; they create new information …. Theprocess of sifting through large
masses of data often leads to new generalisations Information Institutions … In short,
knowledgeable scientific interpreters who can collect relevant data, review a field, and distil
information in a manner that goes to the heart of a technical situation, are more helpful to the
over burdened specialist than is a mere pile of relevant documents. Such knowledgeable
scientific middlemen, who themselves contribute to science are backbone of the information
(analysis) centre; they make information centre a technical institute rather than a technical
library. The essence of good technical centre is that it is operated by highly competent
working scientists and engineers – people who see the operation of centre as an opportunity
to advance and deepen their own personal contact with their science and technology. The
COSATI standing panel wrote the following comprehensive definition into its charter: “An
Information Analysis Centre is a formally structured organisational unit, specifically (but not
necessarily exclusively) established for the purpose of acquiring, selecting, storing,
retrieving, evaluating, analysing and synthesising the body of information and / or in clearly
defined and specialised field or pertaining to a specified mission with intent of compiling,
digesting, repackaging or otherwise organising and presenting pertinent information and / or
data in a form most authoritative, timely and useful to a society of peers and management”.

The key activities of IACs are: analysis, interpretation, synthesis, evaluation, and
repackaging of information carried out by subject specialists, resulting in the production of
new, evaluated information – in the form of critical reviews, state-of-the-art-monographs, or
data compilations, as wellsubstantive, evaluated responses to queries – for the purpose of
assisting a community of users more broadly representative than the staff of the parent
institutes or laboratories.

1.5.2 Need and Purpose:

The users needed a valueadded reliable service, which involved analysis, synthesis and
evaluation of information pertaining to clearly defined specialised field or pertaining to
specific mission, packaged in appropriate form for different categories of users.
Thus, the need for information analysis was felt mainly due to three reasons viz:

1) overflow of information;
2) scattering of information; and
3) uneven quality of information which required considerable amount of sifting and
filtering to retrieve quality information.

1.5.3 Examples of Information Analysis Centres:

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1) International
a) Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Centre (CDIAC): It is the primary
climate change data and information analysis centre of the U.S. Department of
Energy. CDIAC data holdings include records of the atmospheric
concentration of carbon dioxide and other radioactive gases; the role of the
terrestrial biosphere and oceans in biochemical cycles of greenhouse gases;
emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuel consumption and land use
changes; long term climate trends; and effect of elevated carbon dioxide on
vegetation and vulnerability of coastal areas to the rising sea level. (http://
www.cdiac.ornl.gov/)
CDIAC brings out the following information analysis products:
• CDIAC Newsletter
• Trends Online: A Compendium of Data on Global Change
• A Handbook of Methods for Analysis of the Various Parameters of the
Carbon Dioxide System in Sea Water
b) DoD Information Analysis Centres: United States Department of Defence
(DoD) has the following ten information analysis centres, each dealing with
specialised branch of S&T :
• AMMTIAC- Advanced Materials Manufacturing and Testing
Information Analysis Centre
• CBRNIAC- Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Defence
Information Analysis Centre
• CPIAC- Chemical Propulsion Information Analysis Center
• DACS- Data and Analysis Centre for Software
• IATAC- Information Assurance Technology Analysis Centre

2) National
a) The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI): Commonly known as TERI
(Formerly Tata Energy Research Institute), the institute provides information
analysis service in the field of energy mostly to its research staff. TERI
publishes IAC products for the use of different levels of its user groups also.
You will study about its products in Unit 6 of this Course. (http://
www.teriin.org/)
b) Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE): CMIE is a private
organisation which provides information analysis services in different sectors
of Economy. Its Industry Analysis Service and Economy Intelligence Service
are cited as examples of information analysis services. (http://
www.cmie.com)
c) IDSA (Institute for Defence Studies and Analysis): It “is a non-partisan
autonomous body dedicated to objective research and policy relevant studies

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on all aspects of defence and security. Its mission is to promote national and
international security through generation and dissemination of knowledge on
defence and security related issues”.

1.5.4 Services of Information Analysis Centres:

The below are some services which are offered by most of the information analysis
centres:

1) Identifying Users and User's Needs

User constitutes the most important element in all information consolidation activities
and perfect understanding of user's needs is a pre-requisite for any successful lAC
product. As a matter of fact, it is now well recognised that information systems and
services rail, ifuser's needs are not taken into account while designing these services.
There are several methods available for user studies. Each method has some plus
point and some limitations. It is observed that centres which make detailed plan for
user studies carefully and carry out the study accordingly, bring out the successful
lAC product(Anand, 2006).
2) Selection of Relevant Information Sources
Based on the information needs of the user and the type of IAC product, relevant
information sources are selected. Information sources can be categorised into: i)
Documentary sources, ii) Institutional sources, and iii) Human sources. Documentary
sources are primary, secondary and tertiary sources. While primary and secondary
sources contain information on a subject, tertiary sources are used as an aid for
selection of primary, secondary, institutional as well as human sources. Among
documentary sources, advanced treatises from reputed institutions/publishers, primary
peer reviewed periodicals, ad-hoc bibliographies, indexing and abstracting periodicals
on the subject concerned, annual reviews or advances in particular subject series from
reputed publishers should be selected for consolidation purposes.
3) Evaluation of Information
Evaluation involves judging the intrinsic merit, validity and reliability of information
contained in the sources selected for consolidation. Procedures for judging intrinsic
values are examination of: i) Reviews and state-of-the-arts publications on that topic:
to see if the selected sources are covered by them. ii) Refereeing and peer review: to
see if the selected sources have undergone refereeing and peer review process prior to
publication, as is the normal practice in scholarly scientificpublications. iii) Citation
indexes: analysis of amount of citations received by the selected sources which may
be author, journal, or institution.
4) Restructuring and Type of Product:

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After analysis and synthesis of information from various sources, decision is taken on
the type of product.Repackaging and type of product depends on the target audience.
Results of user studies should be taken into account while determining the type of
lAC product that will satisfy target user's needs. At the same time product should
meet the comprehension level of target audience as well as reliably reflect the state of
knowledge of data on the given subject. A largee number of products are possible.
Some of them are:
• Reviews: Critical reviews; state-of-the-art reports; case studies; literature
reviews, etc.
• Reports: Assessment, market and technical reports; alerting bulletins or
newsletters.
• Databases: Expert databases; subject knowledge databases.
5) Dissemination and Communication
The work ofIAC centre is not complete with the making of a product or provision of a
service. Its active and effective dissemination through appropriate channels to the
target audience and its effective utilisation by the user form th~ integral part of the
whole information consolidation process.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

5. IAC stands for____.

6. The key activities of IACs are:
(a)analysisof Information (b)interpretationof Information
(c)synthesisof Information (d) All of these
7. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) is a national IAC. True/False
8. Selection of Relevant Information Sources is not a service of IAC. True/False
9. CDIAC stands for____.

1.6 REFERRAL CENTRES

1.6.1 Definition:
The There are a variety of organisations involved in information dissemination
activity. These different organisations need to be properly coordinated by an agency for their
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effective functioning. A new type of establishment with specific mandate to act as a

switching mechanism among different information dissemination institutions is an essential
requirement. Such an organisation is referred to as Referral Centre(Satyanarayana, 2017).

The Harrods’s Librarian’s Glossary provides the following explanatory annotation to

the term Referral Centre:

• “An organisation for directing researchers for information and data to appropriate
sources, such as libraries, information evaluation centres, documentation centres,
documents and individuals;
• A Referral Centre is some sort of an Information Desk for the scientific and technical
community which does not provide enquiries directly with the information they need,
but suggests sources likely to satisfy the users / clients;
• Referral Centre is an organisation for the indication of sources (of persons,
institutions and publications) from which scientific information may be obtained on a
given subject”.

In other words, a referral centre serves as an intermediary, directing those who have queries
relating to information requirement on scientific and technical subjects, to the organisations
as well as to individuals who have specialised knowledge in those fields and are willing to
share that knowledge with others. To carry out its functions referral centre must:

• be equipped with an inventory of all significant information resources in different

disciplines;
• compile and publish directories of scientific and technical information resources;
• analyse the operating relationship that exists in the scientific information complex.

As in the case of IACs the referral centres exist at different levels (i.e. local, regional and
international).

1.6.2 Need and Purpose:

A single institution or organisation like a library, cannot cater to the users increasing and
varied needs of information. It cannot also perform every function. Even the large computer
systems and/or networks, are unable to cope-up with growing mass of information and
simultaneously meet the user demands. This calls for division oflabour in information
handling. A switching and control mechanism is introduced to ease this complexity of
information handling-activity.Anew type ofinformation system known as Referral Centre
came into existence to satisfy this need(Asundi & Singh, 2006).

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The basic purpose of a Referral Centre is to ease the stress on a single Information System
which is being loaded Withall services. Libraries are integral and fundamental components of
the information network system. They are unable to handle dynamic needs of users, which
sometimes fall outside the contents of documents alone .
Some of the factors of change in this context are:

1. Bulk factor;
2. Time factor;
3. Current information factor;
4. Evaluation factor; and
5. Personal factor.

These factors have yet another dimension to create-and establish Referral Centres. The help,
and guidance often sought from experts, specialists and individuals, is another influencing
factor necessitating the establishment of Referral Centres.

1.6.3 Functions of Referral Centres

1. To collect on a world-wide basis information about information/data sources within
the subject or mission.
2. To prepare a comprehensive inventory ofthe types ofinformationldata services
available from these sources with a detailed subject index to facilitate its access.
3. To guide users to the appropriate sources where from the required data orinformation
may be obtained.
4. To function as an intermediary between enquirer and the organisation and/or
individuals who possess specialised knowledge on the subject of enquiry.

1.6.4 Examples of Referral Centres:

The below are some notable Referral Centres:

1) National Referral Centre, Library of Congress

The National Referral Centre for Science and Technology of Library of Congress was ·
started in 1963. The Referral Centre of Reference Department works closely with ·
another division, viz. Science and Technology Division of the Library of Congress. This
is deigned and developed as a clearing house.
2) International Referral Service of UNEP
The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) has established International
Referral Service covering all sources of environmental information. In every country, a
National Group through various local centres provides details about the information.
Library of Congress has established one such centre,which is actively cooperating with
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the SpecialCommittee on Environmental Information ofthe SpecialLibrariesAssociation

(SLA).
3) Information Referral Service System (INRES)
The WIDE Initiative (Web ofInforrnation for Development) was launched by the United
.Nations Development Programmes'(UNDP) Special Unit for Technical Cooperation
among Developing Countries (SUrrCDC). Inthe year 1974, SUrrCDC was established
within UNDP by the United Nations General Assembly. The WIDE Initiative was
launched to support and to further, technical cooperation among developing countries
(TCDC). It introduced Internet-based services and efforts to give more visibility to
developing country expertise, foster communications and promote more effective
technical cooperation among developing countries.
4) DARE
DARE UNESCO Social and Human Sciences Documentation Centre encourages
international cooperation in social sciences by exchange of information. It supports the
social and human sciences information and documentation programmes of UNESCO . It
serves as aclearing house forrelevant UNESCO documents. This also works as an
information centre for specialists,governmental and non-governmental organisations,
members states, and to train, research and documentation centres.

1.7 CLEARNING HOUSES: MEANING AND DEFINITION

A Clearing House is a central agency for collection, classification and distribution of

information. It may include specialised Information Centres as well as conventional libraries.
In scientific parlance, a Clearing House is a relatively new word. It represents a depository
for documents with the additional objective of servicing as a central agency engaged in the
distribution of information, It also includes such functions as collecting and maintaining
records of research and development Sometimes, subjective questions about items in these
records are referred to the source and thus a Clearing House may have to perform the
function of a Referral Centre. The Smithsonianstitute of Science Information Exchange
Services serves as a Clearing House for research in progress. Similarly, the National Referral
Centre of the Library of Congress provides referral services to experts within the field of
enquiry. It does not supply data or documents. The Defence Documentation Centre in the
USA is a depository of reports and other documents generated by the Department of
Defence. It also serves as a referral centre for identifying experts in various fields. The
Educational Research Information Centre (ERIC) is another centre which acts as a resource
centre and also provides referral service. For a number of years the BLLD, U'K, functioned
as a Referral Centre.

Most of the Clearing Houses have specialised as well as developed collections. They
have information gathering networks to acquire documents in their subject areas. They also
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provide specialised information services in some selected areas. They auswer specific and
general type of questions and may act as central searching places for enquiry especially for
R&D reports(Satyanarayana, 2006).

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
10. A Referral Centre is an organisation for the indication of ______.
11. UNEP stands for ___________.
12. The National Referral Centre for Science and Technology of Library of
Congress was · started in 1966. True/False
13. INRES stands for______.
14. A Clearing House is a central agency for collection, classification and
distribution of information. True/False

1.7 SUMMARY

The lesson emphasis the significance of various information institutions like Data Centres,
Information Analysis Centres, Referral Centres and Clearing Houses in the society. It also
discuss about the role of these information institutions in the process of information
dissemination. The leson concludes by emphasising the role of information institutions in the
society.

1.8 GLOSSARY

Data Centre:A data centre is an organisation handling quantitative numerical or factual data,
whose functions are to store collect, organise, analyse and disseminate data and provide
various types of services on demand or in anticipation of demand.

Information Analysis Centre:An organisation directed towards the collection of technical

information and data in a specific area and its evaluation and filtering into a form of
condensed data, summaries and state-of-the-art reports.

Referral Centre:To guide users to the appropriate sources where from the required data
orinformation may be obtained.

Clearing House:They provide a single point of access to information originating from

different sources, countries and languages.

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1.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. (d) 9. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis

2. (d) Centre (CDIAC)
3. False 10. Sources
4. True 11. United Nations Environmental
5. Information Analysis Centre Programme (UNEP)
6. (d) 12. False
7. True 13. Information Referral Service System
8. False (INRES)
14. True

1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between Data Centre, information analysis centre, Referral centre and
Clearing House.
2. Discuss the services of Data Centre, information analysis centre, Referral centre and
Clearing House.
3. Discuss the types of Data Centre, information analysis centre, Referral centre and
Clearing House.
4. Distinguish between Data Centre and Referral Centre.
5. Explain the structure and functions of a Data Centre.

1.11 REFERENCES

Anand, C. M. (2006). Unit-4 Information Analysis and Consolidation Centres. Indira Gandhi

National Open University, New Delhi. Retrieved from

http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/11109

Asundi, A. Y., & Singh, J. P. (2006). Unit-3 Data Centres and Referral Centres. Indira

Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi. Retrieved from

http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/11108

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Satyanarayana, R. (2006). Unit-1 Information Institutions: Evolution, Growth, Functions and

Types. Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi. Retrieved from

http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/11105

Satyanarayana, R. (2017). Unit-3 Information Institutions. IGNOU. Retrieved from

http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/35225

Satyanarayana, R. (2018). Block-1 Library and Information in social Perspective. IGNOU.

Retrieved from http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/43070

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

ATHERTON (Pauline). Handbook for information system and services. 1997. UNESCO,
Paris.

BAMAN (P). Studies on information systems, services and programs in India and abroad.
1993. Ajanta, Delhi.

BARUA (B P). National policy on library and information systems and services for India:
perspectives and projections. 1992. Popular Prakashan, New Delhi.

BURCH (J G) and GRUDNITSKI (G). Information systems: theory and practice. 1986.
Wiley, Singapore.

KENT (A). Resource sharing in libraries: why, how, when next action step. 1974. Marshal
Dekker, New York.

KOCHTANEK (T R) and MATTHEWS (J R). Library information systems: from library

automation to distributed information access solutions. 2002. Libraries Unlimited, West
Westport.

NEELAMEGHAN (A) and PRASAD (K N), Eds. Information systems, networks and
services in India. 2 vols. 1998. Ranganathan Centre for Information Studies, Chennai.
ROWLEY (J). The basics of information system. Ed 2. 1996. Library Association, London.
VICKERY (B C). Information systems. 1973. Butterworths, Washington.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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LESSON 1.4

ARCHIVES AND TRANSLATION POOLS:

FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES

Rekha Devi
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Archives
1.3.1 Meaning and Definition
1.3.2 Need and Purpose
1.3.3 Functions of Archives
1.3.4 Examples of Archives
1.4 Translation Centres/Pools
1.4.1 Meaning and Definition
1.4.2 Translation Methods
1.4.3 Translation Centres/Pools
1.4.4 Translation Services in India
1.4.5 Role of Libraries/Information Organisations in Translation Service
1.5 Summary
1.6 Glossary
1.7 Answers to In-text Questions
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References
1.10 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After having read this Unit you will be able to:

• discuss archiving;

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• discuss translation centres/pools;

• explain the need and functions of archives; and
• list some of the famousarchives in India
• List the method of translation
• Discuss the translation services in India
• Explain the role of libraries in translation services

1.2 INTRODUCTION

A research scientist, institution, organisation, or even an individual may keep non-

current records and documents in their archives for preservation in all media, including
paper, sound recordings, etc. As a result, the information kept in the archives is still valuable
for use in the future. The archives' materials are one-of-a-kind in kind. The result of a
process, an archive is a collection of information that has evolved from an activity and is
associated both functionally and organizationally. Governments at all levels, universities,
cultural institutions, nonprofit organisations, hospitals, museums, and other places where it is
critical to store non-current records for an extended period of time all maintain archives.

The translators are in charge of translating the materials. To understand the

terminology of the given subject, a translator for scientific translations needs to be well-
versed in both languages and the subject. The majority of translation work was formerly
carried out by human translators. Machine translation (MT) research got underway in the
1950s as computers became more common. Machine translation is the process of using
computers to translate text between two different natural languages. A significant number of
MT systems for mainframe computers, personal computers, and the Internet have been
developed throughout the past 70 years of machine translation research.

1.3 ARCHIVES

1.3.1 Meaning and Definition:

Although there isn't a single, universal definition of archives, here are a few
examples: Records become archival as soon as they are made or received, in accordance with
the 1979 French definition of archives. Federal records in the United States become archival
as soon as a federal agency formally offers them, and the National Archives signs a
document assuming responsibility for them legally. Although records can be archives, not all
records can be archives. Records are chosen for archiving because they are valuable in the
long run, either as proof of past transactions or for the knowledge they hold about specific

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people, places, and things. Archivists make the choice of which records to include in
archives.

Archival records often pertain to local or at least geographically restricted concerns.

Archival holdings are generally related to matters concerning the place where they are kept,
and as archives seldom move, the best opportunity of finding your grandparents’ marriage
records is to turn to the archives of their home town. Many archivists are experts in historical
issues related to the archives they administer, so they often deal with regional
history(“Manuscripts and Archives,” 2018).

The term "archives" has derived from the Greek word " archeion". Etymologically,
"archeion" has its origin in the word "arch" which refers to the magisterial residence, then the
Public office where Government records are kept. Historical manuscripts, isolated letters of
ancient rulers, copper plates, stone inscriptions, besides a host of other artifacts, are popularly
known as archives. Archives are a greater or a lesser faction of records of an organization,
institution or individual which are preserved for their enduring value whether they are current
or noncurrent.

Engenio Casanova, an Italian archivist defines archives as, "the orderly accumulation
of documents which were created in the course of its activity by an institution or an
individual and which are preserved for the accomplishment of its political, legal or cultural
purposes by such as institution or individual".

Dr. P Basu, an Indian archivist, said that "archives are records of enduring value
nolonger required by the creating agency for frequent use". It is thus clear that archives are
essentially all records but all records are not archives(“Archival Librarianship: MLISc
Elective Paper - Indian Books and Periodicals,” n.d.)

Let's examine the role of an archivist. Archivist: A person who manages the archives'
documents is referred to as an archivist. In order to be administratively helpful to its creators
or successors, they keep the archives of the parent entity, whether it be a government,
organisation, or institution.

1.3.2 Need and Purpose:

• to safeguard the National, regional, traditional culture of the society.

• to spread awareness among the people to respect and value their culture and also
changes happening in the society. For example, an Ethnomusicology archives
provides some of the rare and oldest recordings of folk/popular/ classical forms,
which will be beneficial for any current research scholar or individual to observe the
similarity/changes of the performance in present contest.
• making people to think about their past and its related history.
• preserves important recorded documents for future reference
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1.3.3 Functions of Archives:

1. Acquisition
Archives collects non-current records of an organization/institution/research scholar
or individual etc. types of material collected in the archives. These varies from
Governments records, folklore materials, history of people, manuscripts etc., as per
the archival requirement. Acquisition is thus pivotal. Following are the certain
acquisition policy defines the types of records that archives seek to add to its
holdings.
2. Appraisal
The decision by an archives or organization is to take a collection to preserve and
process its own archival records. It involves a significant commitment of time,
money, and space, because, no one can afford to keep everything and anything. That
is why, the incoming material being considered must be appraised to determine,
firstly, whether the collection as a whole is worth keeping, and second, which item
within it are permanently valuable. The preference of decision for preserving
collection depends upon the current historical and cultural values, and the intellectual
and conceptual frameworks of those conducting the appraisal.
3. Documentation
An essential bridge between the collectors and the archives is documentation. It is the
written document which accompanies with the acquired materials. For a systematic
documentation every piece of note has great value as the context is not self evident.
The documentation process includes the identification of item, storage location,
retrieval, presentation and circulation for the information of users. For example, in a
sound archives, the archivist have very little knowledge of being responsible for the
preservation of recordings for the future user without knowing who they will be and
what they may need to know. Therefore all details of the recording including the
answers to the basic questions "why, what, where, when, by whom, for whom" etc.,
should be documented as an archival holding
4. Preservation
It is one of the major process of archiving, the process of preservation takes place
after a systematic, well-documented collection has been made with its contents. The
goal of preservation is to assure that records in archival custody survive for an
indefinite period of time, in some cases as long as legally necessary. This can be most
easily achieved when the goals and basic principles of preservation are understood by
all staff involved with the records. It is a join responsibility of a number of
professional staff for preservation of archives, each of whom brings unique
knowledge to bear on the complex problem of preserving archival records. Archival
materials are diverse, they are composite object, generally composed of a variety of
papers, inks (from carbon ink to laser printing), animal skins and its products, textiles,
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photographs and photographic material, audio-visual materials (wax cylinders, shellac

and vinyl disc and optical materials: CD and DVD), magnetic materials (tape, hard
discs and floppy discs) etc.
5. Using archives
Archival collection exists to be used, but the understanding of appropriate use varies
from institutions to institution in line with their missions. Usually all archives provide
information of their collection in publish forms like newsletter, ephemera or
brochures etc., and now-a-days in many countries information are provided through
Internet. However, the archivist are much responsible to their user because of the
uniqueness of their holdings. Therefore archivist require to guide the user to care for
and handling of the archival records, specially for paper records are concern, they are
very old being prone to perishing if handle recklessly. Every user to leave the records
after consultations as far as possible in the same condition in which they were got
used. Most often in sound archives, duplicate copies are made as required for the
user, so the original recordings remain safe and intact. Most of the sound archives
provide copies of recording to user for research activity in request.

1.3.4 Examples of Archives:

1. The National Archives of India

It is the repository of the non-current records of the Government of India and is
holding them in trust for the use of administrators and scholars. It is an attached office
of the Department of culture under Ministry of Tourism and Culture. Its was set up in
March 1891 in Calcutta (Kolkata) as the Imperial Record Department and subsequent
to the transfer of the National Capital from Kolkata to New Delhi in 1911 it was
shifted to its present building in 1926.
2. National Film Archive of India (NFAI)
NFAI was established in February 1964, as a media unit of the Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting. Its objective is to acquire, preserve and restore the rich
heritage of National Cinema, and the cream of international cinema. The archive has
made significant progress in the preservation of films, audio and video material,
documentation, research and dissemination of film culture in India. The archive
functions as the main repository of Indian and foreign research workers for viewing
film classics, relating to their research projects. TheArchives Distribution Library
caters to over 300 Film societies and Film Study groups in educational institutions in
the country.
3. Archives of Research Centre for Ethnomusicology (ARCE)
The Archives and Research for Ethnomusicology (ARCE) was established in 1982 by
the American Institute of Indian Studies (AIIS), at Gurgaon, Haryana, consortium
ofAmerican Universities with a strong interest in SouthAsian Studies. The primary

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objective of this archive was to provide a centre in India where collections of Indian
music and oral traditions could be centralized and made available, and to stimulate
the study of ethnomusicologyin India. The preservation of these recordings,
cataloguing them and making them available to researchers form the basic of the day-
to-day activities of the archives.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. The term "archives" has derived from the Greek word _____.
2. A person who is responsible for managing the records of archives is a___.
3. NFAI was established in______.
4. Preservation is the major process of archiving. True/False
5. The Archives and Research for Ethnomusicology (ARCE) was established in
_______.

1.4 TRANSLATION POOLS

1.4.1 Meaning and Definition:

Translation has been derived from the Latin word Translation which consists of two
words Trans and Latum meaning “a carrying across” or “a bringing across”. Translation is
the process of transferring the information contents of the text in one language (L1) into
another language (L2).

“Translation” means a written work expressed in a language other than the language
in which it was originally composed. The purpose of translation is to make
a document accessible to those who have insufficient knowledge of a language to be able to
comprehend the text in its original form(LISBDNETWORK, 2018).

Translation pools—maintained both at national and international levels—which make

available their holdings to each other through mutual cooperation. For easy and quick
location of translations, the centers operating the translation pools maintain or bring out
printed indexes. Union lists of translations are also brought out. Cover-to-cover translation is
an important development in the field of translation of micro documents. It is translation of
whole periodical issue from front cover to back cover. The librarian or information worker
should work as a link between the user and the translator. He will receive demand for
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translation or anticipate the demand, get the translation done by a suitable translator or
procure it form some agency or pool and then serve the translation to the user(“Translation
Services - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics,” n.d.).

1.4.2 Translation Methods:

The appropriate method of translating any text depends on the material to be
translated. Material in science, technology and social sciences is translated adhering to the
contents of the original. This is known as literal translation. Literal translation is utilised for
factual type of materials such as commercial correspondence, legal materials, technical
materials as well as scholarly materials in the pure and applied sciences and social sciences
whereas translation of materials in humanities such as novels, plays, poetry, films, television,
radio, motion picture scripts and vocal music texts, etc. is literary translation. This type of
translation differs from science and technology translation as here the style and techniques of
expressing feelings are more important. Second difference is the delivery of material in target
language. Translation of literary material is destined for mass consumption. On the other
hand scientific, technical, legal and commercial materials are intended for the specialists in a
given field. The other major difference is that science and technology translations are done
once, while literary classics (such as novels, religious books like Bible, Bhagwat Gita, etc.)
are repeatedly translated.

1.4.3 Translation Centres/Pools:

In the United States, major translation efforts consisted of English language
translation of S&T material captured during the World War II, sponsored by National
Science Foundation (NSF) and Special Library Association (SLA). During this period a large
number of foreign reports were being translated simultaneously by different organisations
which resulted in duplication of translation efforts, amounting to waste of time and money.
The need was felt to establish a clearing house for translations, where translations could be
collected, processed, announced and copies supplied on request. In response to this need, two
translation centres viz. Scientific Translation Center and SLA Translation Center (Later
named as National Translation Center) were set up where translations could be
deposited.NSF funded ‘Scientific Translation Center’ which covered Russian type scripts and
technical reports that were deposited in Library of Congress. This Centre was located in
Library of Congress.National Translation Center was founded in 1953 under the name of
SLA Translation Pool. This Centre engaged in collecting and processing translations from
western European and Oriental languages. The Center was located in John Crerar Library,
Chicago.Industrial research facilities and government agencies increased their translation
activities considerably. Consequently, the number of translations deposited in SLA
Translation Pool grew. In 1957, the SLA Translation Pool changed its name to SLA
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Translation Center and expanded its activities to cover not only translations deposited with
the centre but also those available from commercial translation agencies and professional
societies. SLA Translation Center to fully serve its users, established exchange agreements
with national groups and professional societies around the world, by means of which
translations were deposited with or reported to the Center. New additions to the Center’s
collections were announced in the monthly journal, Translation Register Index. This journal
begun by the Special Library Association (SLA) in 1967 was transferred to National
Translation Center in 1971. The SLA Translation Center became National Translation Center
and was housed in John Crerar Library, Chicago. In 1989, The National Translation Center
became part of the Library of Congress. In 1993, The Library of Congress closed the
National Translation Center and holdings of the Center i.e. translations from 1989 to 1993,
were transferred to Canada Institute for Scientific and Technical Information in Ottawa,
Canada.

Translations held by ‘Scientific Translation Center’ were announced by the following

indexes:

• Bibliography of Translations from Russian Scientific and Technical Literature

(1953-1956).
• Translation Monthly (1955-58)
• Technical Translations (1959-1968)
• Translation Register Index (1967-86). This index merged with World
Translation Index in 1987.
National Translation Center announced its translations by the following indexes:

• SLA List of Translations (1953-1955)

• Translation Monthly (1957-1858)
• Translation Register Index (1967-86). This index merged with World Translation
Index in 1987.

International Translation Center (ITC) came into existence in 1961 (Formerly known as
European Translation Center) in Delft, The Netherlands. The present name was adopted in
1975.

1.4.4 Translation Services in India:

In India several Government and Public Sector Organizations, R&D institutions in
science and technology have in-house translation facility to meet their own translation
requirements for limited number of languages. Some such organizations are BARC,
DESIDOC, BHEL, MECON and HAL.

NISCAIR Foreign Language Service

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NISCAIR (Erstwhile INSDOC) has been providing translation service to S&T community
since its inception in 1952. It caters to the translation requirements of National laboratories,
S&T institutes, R&D Organizations, Corporate and Public Sector Undertakings, Universities,
Research scholars, etc. NISCAIR provides translations of S&T documents from 20 foreign
languages into English. The languages include Chinese, Czech, Danish, Dutch, French,
German, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Rumanian, Russian,
SerboCroatian, Spanish, and Swedish, etc. NISCAIR also provides reverse translation
(English into foreign language). It undertakes translation from English (maximum of one
page) into French, German, Russian and Spanish. Translation of document in English into
Japanese (Full document) is also undertaken. The translation work is carried out by
experienced staff translators and panel of translators registered with NISCAIR.

Translation Activities in Humanities and Social Sciences in India

There are twenty-two official languages recognized by the Government in India. Hindi in
Devanagari script is official language of the government and English is an associate
language. Though there are orders from Government of India, that all official communication
should be done in Hindi, but in reality it is not true. Quite a lot of communication is done in
English and most State Governments function in their own regional languages. This situation
demands urgent need for translation of official documents. Apart from official documents,
there is urgent need for translation of text books, scholarly material, literary material, etc. In
response to this need, a number of organizations in India are actively involved in translation
activities in the field of humanities and social sciences.
Some of such organizations are as follows:

a. National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) and National Book
Trust are both engaged in translation of text books in various Indian languages.
(http://www.ncert.nic.in) (http://www.nbtindis.gov.in/)
b. State Council of Educational Research and Training carries out translation work from
English into state languages and from state languages into English and vice-versa.
(http://www.edudel.nic.in/scert.html)
c. Sahitya Academy is the central institution for publication and promotion of literary
activities in 24 Indian languages including English. The Academy gives 24 annual
awards to literary works in Indian languages. It gives equal number of awards to
literary translations from and into languages of India. The academy has launched four
Centres for Translations in Bangalore, Ahmadabad, Kolkata, and in Delhi. In
addition, it has archive of Indian literature in Delhi. (http://www.sahitya-
akademi.gov.in/)
d. Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages conducts training courses in
foreign languages including German, French, Russian, Arabic, Spanish and Japanese.

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The institute also carries out translation work.

(http://www.indiaedu.com/universities/deemed/centralinstitute.html/)
e. Institute of Asian Studies, Chennai is involved in research, training, translation and
publication activities in Asian languages. The institute carries out study and research
in Tamil, Kannada, Japanese, Telugu, and Buddhism and related translation and
publication activities. In addition, the Institute is carrying out research in Manuscript
ology and Folklore studies and translation activities related to these areas.
(http://www.istituteofasianstudies.com/)
f. Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) carries out literary translations of books
and other documents to project Indian cultural heritage to the world. The Council’s
translation and publication activities focus on books related to Indian culture,
philosophy, mythology as well as traditional music, dance and theatre. The Council
has translated Sanskrit classics into number of foreign language.

1.4.5 Role of Libraries/Information Organisations in Translation Service:

Libraries/information organisations can play active role in meeting user demands for
translation of documents, by maintaining details of translators and translating firms in the
library, so as to contact the right agency when needed. If demands are more frequent, then a
library staff member or a resource person should be there either to translate, or abstract or
provide summary of the source language document into target language to meet users’ urgent
need for translation service.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

6. Translation has been derived from the Latin word. True / False
7. SLA Translation Pool changed its name to ________.
8. International Translation Center (ITC) came into existence in ________.
9. NISCAIR does not provide translation service in India. True/False
10. Hindi in Devanagari script is official language of the government. True/False

1.5 SUMMARY

Archives are important not just for historical research but also for the influence that
knowledge of the past has on the present and the future. A few examples of how archives are
effectively used include shifting social trends, various governmental laws, organisational and
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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

institutional regulations, etc. Archives are useful to everyone because they preserve an
institution's memory. The use of archives enables accountability to the public as well as
continuity and consistency. They greatly benefit residents in establishing and defending their
individual and property rights and advantages, as well as giving them a sense of national
identity. By giving enticing and physical examples of our society's legacy, they educate,
amuse, and improve our lives. In other words, archives give us the foundation for
understanding our past, they orient us to the present, and they direct our progress into the
future.

1.6 GLOSSARY

Archive:Archives houses non-current records/documents (all formats such as paper, sound

recordings etc.) of an institution/organization/research scholar or even individual for
preservation.

Translation Centre/Pool:These centres either carried out translation work themselves or

acted as referral centres for collecting, processing and announcing the translations done by
various agencies in the country.

1.7 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Archeion 6. True
2. Archivist 7. SLA Translation Center
3. 1964 8. 1961
4. True 9. False
5. 1982 10. True

1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Describe the translation service of NISCAIR.

2. List the types of translation centres and their services.
3. Descibe the methods of translation
4. Discuss the role of libraries in translation services.
5. Discuss the meaning and functions of Archives.
6. List the name of various Archives in India.

1.9 REFERENCES

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Archival Librarianship: MLISc Elective Paper—Indian books and Periodicals. (n.d.).

Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.ibpbooks.com/archival-librarianship-

mlisc-elective-paper/p/957

LISBDNETWORK. (2018, October 18). Library Translation Service. Retrieved November 8,

2022, from Library & Information Science Education Network website:

https://www.lisedunetwork.com/library-translation-service/

Manuscripts and Archives: Comparative Views on Record-Keeping. (2018). In Manuscripts

and Archives. De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110541397

Translation Services—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved November 8,

2022, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/translation-services

1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

ATHERTON (Pauline). Handbook for information system and services. 1997. UNESCO,
Paris.

BAMAN (P). Studies on information systems, services and programs in India and abroad.
1993. Ajanta, Delhi.

BARUA (B P). National policy on library and information systems and services for India:
perspectives and projections. 1992. Popular Prakashan, New Delhi.

BURCH (J G) and GRUDNITSKI (G). Information systems: theory and practice. 1986.
Wiley, Singapore.

KENT (A). Resource sharing in libraries: why, how, when next action step. 1974. Marshal
Dekker, New York.

KOCHTANEK (T R) and MATTHEWS (J R). Library information systems: from library

automation to distributed information access solutions. 2002. Libraries Unlimited, West
Westport.

NEELAMEGHAN (A) and PRASAD (K N), Eds. Information systems, networks and
services in India. 2 vols. 1998. Ranganathan Centre for Information Studies, Chennai.
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 Paper – M-101 - INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMES

ROWLEY (J). The basics of information system. Ed 2. 1996. Library Association, London.
VICKERY (B C). Information systems. 1973. Butterworths, Washington.
Ghosh. Sailen. Archives in India. Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay: Calcutta. 1963.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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 UNIT II- NATIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEM AND
POLICY
LESSON 2.1
PLANNING AND DESIGN OF NATIONAL
INFORMATION SYSTEM

Dr P K Bhattacharya
Associate Director and Senior Fellow
The Energy and Resources Institute
New Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Understanding Concept of National Information System (NATIS)
1.4 Benefits of National Information System
1.5 Planning of National Information System
1.5.1 Planning Objectives
1.5.2 Functions of National Information System
1.5.3 Design of National Information System
1.6 Developmental Initiatives for National Information Systems
1.6.1 Early Initiatives
1.6.2 Recent Government Initiatives
1.7 Summary
1.8 Answers to Self-Check Your Progress
1.8.1 Five Short Questions
1.8.2 Five Multiple Choice Questions
1.9 Key Words
1.10 Acronyms in the text
1.11 References and Further Reading
1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will learn:
• An overview of national information systems, development history and programmes
currently in progress in the country in areas of Science & Technology, Social Science &
Humanities

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• Understand objectives, structure, functions, services, products, and achievements of
major information systems and programmes that are operating in the country
• Role of these systems and programmes in promoting information delivery and bringing
changes in information seeking of users.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
We are living in information society, where relevant information hold the key
decision making at every stages of life for individuals, communities, societies, economy and
governance. Information is key to development of a nation in terms of government policy,
education, training, research and knowledge. It helps to establish a link between resources
and activities in intellectual development and educational materials in society, institutions
and individuals. Access to precise and reliable information is key to policy development,
academic development, scientific-technical research, commercial-economic transactions etc.
Right information at appropriate time to the right person, help to minimize the wastage of
resources, save time and money.

An Information System include all components that collect, manipulate and

disseminate data or information. A wide spread national level network (offline or online)
usually evolves as national information system. It usually includes hardware and software,
connected people, collecting and disseminating institutions (libraries, data centres,
government agencies, departments etc), all relevant communication systems such as
telephone lines, WAN, websites and databases. Information system activities involved data
collection, categorization, cleaning and validation, inputting of data, storage of data,
processing of data into information and production of services and products based on the data
for the users. Sometimes, government initiates information programmes for mass awareness
and benefits where information systems play role of carriers of information. Information
systems are communication systems that select, organise, store and disseminate public
knowledge to the users as per the objectives laid down by the information programmes.

Recognising the importance of information, since independence Government of India as

well as international organizations have been making consistent efforts to set up libraries and
information centres with relevant resources and facilities in India. Over the past few decades,
this has resulted into the growth of academic and research institutions, information centres,
national level information infrastructure and networks in the country.
• Since over 90% of information in India are generated through government sources,
Government of India has taken periodic stapes to develop national level information
system through implementation of programmes, schemes, department, relevant policies
and national level networks eg. establishment of National Informatics Centre (NIC). NIC
today hosts largest government information base (both online and offline) following a
robust decentralized information network. Most of the Government Ministries,
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 government agencies, autonomous bodies and related organizations have opened up their
own information centres (now available online through web sites), which primarily keep
records, track achievements and promote activities performed.
• In academic sector, efforts have been made to set up libraries at school, college and
university level. Government has been strengthening Public Library System and
Community Information Centre to cater to information requirements of civil society.
• In R&D sector, libraries and information centres have come up in the field of science and
technology, social sciences and humanities. These centres provide specialised
information support and services to select subject areas. While many organizations are
operating at national level, some important ones include National Institute of Science
Communication and Information Resources (NISCAIR, formerly INSDOC)), Defence
Scientific Documentation. Centre (DESIDOC), National Social Science Documentation
Centre (NASSDOC), Small Enterprises National Documentation Centre (SENDOC), etc.

Since existing information systems meet only certain limited goals within a particular agency
related to the fields relevant to a specific activity of that institution, the process of storage,
retrieval, and dissemination of information has been designed to the specific requirements of
the organization. Thus the organization of information systems particularly planning
infrastructure for national information systems should be one of the important and top-
priority in the national development plans. (Joshi and Mehta, 2014)

1.3 UNDERSTANDING CONCEPT OF NATIONAL INFORMATION

SYSTEM (NATIS)
The computer age introduced a new element to businesses, universities, and a set of
other organizations which deals with collecting and organizing data and information is part
of information system. An information system is described as having five components
Computer hardware - This is the physical technology that works with information collection
process.
Computer software - The hardware needs to know what to do, and that is the role of software.
Telecommunications - This component connects the hardware together to form a network.
Databases and data warehouses - This component is where the “material” that the other
components work are put for use. A database is a place where data is collected and from
which it can be retrieved by querying it using one or more specific criteria. A data warehouse
contains all of the data in whatever form that an organization needs.
Human resources and procedures - The final component of information systems is the
human element. It consists of the people who collect data following numerous processes, run
the system and the procedures to build databases and data centres and put intellectual inputs
to turn these huge data into learning that can interpret what has happened in the past and
guide future actions.

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When one or more of these components collectively work at the national level, serve national
purpose and collaborate other countries networks it constitutes a National Information
System.

The concept of National Information System (NATIS) was developed by UNESCO to

encourage the creation in individual countries of a clear and coherent program and policy for
recognizing the important elements in the nation’s information systems and assigning
priorities for their development. The program was initiated in 1974 and several countries
made efforts to implement the programme. In India launching of NISSAT programme under
the purview of Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR), Govt of India was
an effort toward implementation of the concept of NATIS.

1.4 BENEFITS OF NATIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

The importance of the national information system as a powerful national pace is now being
recognized by the government, industry, and education. The national information system is
the means of achieving national objectives through economic and effective utilization of
information, in technological innovation, decision making, research, and education. A
number of recent developments have emphasized the need to focus more attention on the
planning of information systems at the national level. Major benefits of NATIS will be
• Functioning of a national network with multiple sub-systems
• Access to computer facilities, bridging digital divide
• Access to information and services at all level
• Collaborative learning, work and execution of collective goal
• Saving time for researchers, academicians and business professionals
• Saving cost of information services
• Skill development of information/knowledge professionals

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 IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. What are planning objectives of NATIS?
a. Access to information
b. Protection of intellectual property
c. Promotion of reading habits at all level
d. Skilling of LIS professionals
2. What benefits you won’t get through NATIS?
a. Access to information and services at all level
b. Capturing primary knowledge of stakeholders
c. Collaborative learning, work and execution of collective goal
d. Saving time for researchers
3. The functions of the NATIS could broadly be categorised under
a. Coordination, collaboration & networking
b. ICT tools, products and services development and promotion
c. Training & development of professionals
d. National policy development

1.5 PLANNING OF NATIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

National information system for libraries is a subsystem of a national super-system
which cater requirement of overall information requirement of the country i.e.. Each and
every field, whether education, research or social service.
The primary objective of any national information system for libraries is to collect,
store, organize, retrieve and make available the information sources to the information users
at the national level. The system should be able to respond quickly with relevant information
gathering resources from all possible sources through existing network. This indicates the
system planning need to create multiple actors which include awareness of users, national
information centres, national level network and skilled workforce.

1.5.1 Planning Objectives

Components of national information system planning objectives have many facets.
These include policy formulation for user education to skill development of associated
professionals. A brief account is enumerated here.

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 Developing a national information policy: A national information policy reflecting
the needs of all sectors of the library community and should address need of the national
community as a whole, should be formulated to guide the establishment of a national
information plan, whose elements should be incorporated in the national development plans.

• Assessment of user’s need is primary requirement of the NATIS planning. A detailed

analysis should be made of the information needs of Government for its tasks and of the
various groups of users including research, academics, business etc in such areas.
Thorough industry research and education planning is necessary to ensure that the
national information system is planned to meet these needs.
• Stimulation of user awareness is possible through bridging digital divide by increasing
user awareness; involving appropriate bodies, including universities and other
educational institutions in the process. Systematic instructions in the use of the
information resources should be made available in all the elements of NATIS.
• Analysis of existing information resources reflects gaps in the existing information
resources, services or their delivery processes. Comprehensive surveys should be
undertaken of the existing documentation practices, national documentation centres,
libraries, and archives. A resource mapping is essential pre-requisite of sound national
planning for the development of NATIS.
• Value of NATIS remain on it’s usefulness as perceived by the potential users. Hence, in
order to maintain the reading habit in the educational institutions including schools,
colleges, universities and libraries within the NATIS, regular promotional strategy and
programmes to be developed and executed.
• NATIS is expected to develop significant numbers of information products and services
by the skilled professionals associated with the system. Comprehensive surveys should be
conducted to analyse skill level of manpower in libraries, training requirement of
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 associated professionals aligned to the contemporary technology development and user
needs. Training calendar development and execution of trainings should be made part of
the system planning process. The resources so developed would be able to assist as
necessary and can be mobilized to enable minimum essential facilities for the users.
Training need assessment and skill development is required to make efficient planning of
manpower provision and forecasting of future needs for NATIS (Joshi & Mehta, 1997).

Many international efforts have been made in the past under the guidance of UNESCO in this
direction through UNISIST, INIS, AGRIS, MEDLARS and other information systems
initiatives, dealing with specific areas. These systems are based on the principle of
coordination and voluntary cooperation at the international level of the relevant existing
national institutional components in the corresponding area. However, a participatory
approach of various national information systems initiatives with an equitable benefits for all
would enhance the cooperation to a greater extent. The cooperation of the international non-
governmental organizations, specialized in documentation and library and related fields
which carry out many useful activities, are expected to be increased. UNESCO programmes
envisage following efforts (may be through inter-governmental conferences) are necessary
for a collaborative NATIS model. The components of this model include

• Assistance to the Member States for the planning and development of

NATIS
• Methodologies will be elaborated as basic tools to guide Member states in
the various phases of planning and developing NAT1S.
• Application of information technology to documentation, library services
delivery and archival services will be encouraged and promoted as per
NATIS concept
• The programme for professional education and training of information
manpower will be revised and extended and
• Promotion of Universal Bibliographic Control.

Based on the above planning objectives of the national information system, it is felt that the
functions of the national information system can be derived in accordance with the national
development plans and policies.
1.5.2 Functions of National Information System
As per the international cases and Indian implementation initiatives, it becomes clear that
successful achievement of NATIS objectives require robust functioning of the system. Since

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 multiple entities will be engaged in development and functioning of the system, a
collaborative working network would be necessary. The functions of the NATIS could
broadly be categorised under:
(a) Coordination, collaboration & networking
(b) ICT tools, products and services development and promotion
(c) Training & development of professionals

(a) Coordination, Collaboration and Networking

• Identify, survey and assess information availability and requirements of stakeholders
across the nation, forecast future information requirements and formulate national
development plans and policies.
• Collaborate with national and international information agencies to build and use
information resources and services to meet the present and future information
requirements of the users eg. ELDIS, AGRIS, CTCN at the international level and
NISSAT, BTIS, ENVIS etc at the national level.
• NATIS should participate actively in research, development, and innovation in library
and information science to enhance both the efficiency of information services and the
quality of the information provided by these services.
• NATIS should facilitate improved coordination between existing national, international,
governmental and non-governmental organizations and information systems. This include
exchange of publication, information, and human expertise in information handling

(b) ICT Tools, Products & Services Development and Promotion

• Developing network driven computer facilities at information centres (eg. NIC), create
and maintain databases for fast information access and retrieval of users (eg. DELNET,
INFLIBNET).
• Establishing standards in materials (eg. union catalogues, bibliographies, and current
awareness services, indexing, and abstracting services), techniques and services as part of
the national systems for their effective utilization at all levels.
• At the national level, NATIS should steer development of central databanks in standard
interoperable format (eg. www.data.gov.in) and value based information services (VAS)
for users to meet their information requirements. Also, VAS should provide
encouragement users to stimulate new ideas and approaches to problems such as
databases and services developed by INFLIBNET.
• NATIS should work collaboratively with the existing information systems and develop
their information resources and services. It should also establish sector specific national
information centres such as NISSAT centres wherever necessary according to the present
and future requirement of users.
• NATIS need to work through multiple stakeholders for cooperative acquisition,
processing, storage, retrieval, analysis and dissemination of information resources using

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 application of latest information technologies. This would facilitate efficient and
economic inter-lending of information resources.
• Keeping pace with ICT development across the globe, NATIS should develop and use
efficient tools and techniques for documentation, preservation and information handling.

(c) Training & Development of Professionals

Creation, maintenance and promotion of information resources and services for users at
all levels utilizing ICT tools and technologies require specialized skills. NATIS need to
assess present skills, service conditions and status for library and information science
personnel, and build up expertise to cater to users. Providing appropriate education and
training for adequate number of LIS professionals of different categories should be taken
as top priority.

1.5.3 Design of National Information System

Design of NATIS require adequate planning, legislative framework, skilled manpower, ICT
and web technology intervention and fund allocation to implement these processes. While
many sub-systems in different subject fields are available at national level, disseminated by
various centres, however, dream of policy supported national information system remains
unattended.
In order to design a NATIS plan, a design framework is necessary which should address all
the issues mentioned in the following diagram.

Planning the Organisational Structure

The NATIS information resources collection, creation, product development and services
delivery functions from centres which include information and documentation centres,
resources and services of libraries and archives should be coordinated through a central body
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or bodies to form the national information system. This will ensure the optimum use of
available resources, avoiding work duplication and the maximum contribution of these
information sources to the cultural, social, and economic development of the nation.

Establishing Legislative Framework for NATIS

Legislative action should be taken from Government for implementation of the national
information system. This legislation should cover a conceptual framework covering role and
responsibilities of nodal ministry and implementation bodies of the national system and
constituent specialized sub-systems. Government Departments such as Ministry of Human
Resource Development (MHRD, the nodal ministry for higher education), Ministry of
Culture (MoC, the nodal ministry for library activities in India) and agencies who own most
of these sub-systems need to work in a coordinated manner under the framework to develop
national information system. Guidelines of National Knowledge Commission and National
Mission on Libraries indicated need of a coordinated approach of central, state and non-
government organizations. Although, several information policies with specific requirements
have been enacted in past years, however, an overall national information policy and a robust
regulatory framework is yet to be established.

Planning the Technological Needs

The National Information plan should include adequate provision for the application of
information technology tools and techniques, as appropriate in the various components of
NATIS with the aim of achieving maximum utilization of existing resources. Most of the
government contents are now available on the website in digital form, and many of these
contents are in open domain for free use. But, with nearly 43% mobile penetration in rural
India and low access to Internet has created digital divide over the years. Inclusive growth of
society using ICT tools and technologies are therefore put on first priority by central and
state governments in India. Providing access to information resources is now top government
priority, already some work has started in different states in rural India. Bridging digital
divide, access to network resources, availability of Internet connection and nation-wide
facilities of computers are need of the hour to develop a national information system.
Information collection in different formats, languages and resource sharing compatibility
through standardization are essential requirement seen where technology intervention is
necessary.
Financial Allocation for NATIS
Implementation of NATIS components across the country require improvement in existing
network infrastructure, providing network access where necessary, establishing or acquiring
existing library networks, development of data standardization and interoperable databases,
creation of information products and services, and many more. Adequate financial provision
in national budget should be made for effective implementation of the plan for the national
information system. The expenditure required for the successful operation of the national

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information system call for long-term finance allocation in national budget eg. NISSAT
programme. It should be the main source of funds for NATIS financial support. Targets for
NATIS financial provisions are
• Inclusion of the financial expenditure of NATIS in the national development plans and
yearly budget allocated to nodal ministry
• Fund allocation and approval of purchase for all elements of NATIS from internal or
international sources including foundations, multilateral bodies under education head of
SDGs
• Allocation of fund for salary structure for the professionals involved in NATIS
information work from nodal ministry budget eg. MHRD, MoC.

Skilling of Manpower for Information Infrastructure, Products and Services

NATIS should be recognized as a forward looking futuristic provision to create national level
information system for learning and service delivery at all levels across India. NATIS calls
for a large number of skilled manpower who should have digital competence to handle a
national level network under the guidance of experts. In line of National Education Policy
2020, the national educational infrastructure should be formed for skill development of
information professionals, which should be an integral part of existing education pedagogy
and course contents at universities or equivalent institutions of higher education. Skill
development in ICT, networking, information products, service innovation, interoperability
and standardization, data handling, knowledge management, etc should be integrated with the
existing courses of universities, national institutions and government/private programmes of
professional education. The skill level should have a mapping with the requirement of the
NATIS. This coordinated approach for developing skillful information manpower would
regularly supply adequate numbers of professional staff to meet the demands for NATIS.

Universal Bibliographic Control

Universal Bibliographic Control (UBC) ensures data standardization and interoperability
with any other countries national information system. This require metadata standard for any
new publications, non-book materials or social media content. Major challenges will be
materials or publications available in vernacular languages, which can be dealt with modern
machine translation techniques and with other such software. The aim of UBC is to achieve
universal availability of resources. This will enable universal resource sharing as in the case
when we follow cataloguing and metadata using AACR2, MARK21, DublinCore and other
data standard. The national information system should normally accept standardized record
for any types of published documentation material.

1.6 DEVELOPMENTAL INITIATIVES FOR NATIONAL

INFORMATION SYSTEMS

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Information sharing had always been in Government priority which we can understand as we
see major steps including setting up post-independent UGC committees for education and
library infrastructure development. Meanwhile, advances in computer and communication
technologies and fast paced developments over the past few decades paved the way for
computerisation of information resources and networking of different organisations for
sharing and exchange of information. The need for strengthening the information base in the
country was soon recognized by Government of India, and steps taken to integrate different
information agencies into a national level information system.
1.6.1 Early Initiatives
Consequently, Government of India took several early initiatives, particularly from 1975
onwards. National Information Systems and Programmes launched by Government of India
in the country in the fields of S&T, Social Sciences and Humanities. These initiatives include
launching new government schemes, programmes and setting up new institutions,
departments to fulfil the national level information network need. Expenditure toward these
initiatives primarily focus on science and technology areas rather than the subject fields of
arts, social sciences, humanities, etc. Since beginning, substantial portion of expenses were
spent in building up and maintaining good libraries and information centres. As a result,
India has well developed library and information systems in most of the scientific disciplines
such as medical sciences, agricultural sciences, engineering and technology, etc,

Some important government initiatives in S&T sector include setting up of NIC (National
Informatics Centre) in 1975 and NISSAT (National Information System for Science and
Technology) programme in 1977 and continued till 2002. NISSAT programme was launched
by DSIR, Govt of India with the broad objective of interlinking and coordinating a large
number of information sources, systems and services into an effective network under an
overall coordinating agency. The NISSAT programme was formally operational to develop
national information services using existing systems and services, create a framework for
international cooperation in information sharing, skill development of information
professionals, promotion of R&D in information science to develop information products and
services.

Further to this national level specialised information systems were set up such as
Biotechnology Information System (BTIS), Environmental Information System (ENVIS),
etc. In late 1980’s INFLIBNET Centre was set up to modernize university libraries through
automation, provide access to information resources, creating library networks, databases,
library consortia, ICT tools development and training manpower to facilitate information
services. NISCAIR has been set up to host national science library and facilitate access to
scientific knowledge for research and development.

To facilitate social science and humanities research in the national development, Government
of India, initiated several programmes such as setting up of Indian Council of Social Science
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Research. The Council supports research in the areas of Economics (including commerce),
Education, Management (including Business Administration), Political Science (including
International Relations), Psychology, Public Administration, and Sociology (including
Criminology and Social Work). Anthropology, Geography, History, Law, Library and
Information Services and Linguistics, etc. The Council established National Social Science
Documentation Centre (NASSDOC) to provide adequate support in documentation,
bibliographical services and access to publications for social science research. Besides, UGC
has set up Inter University Centre in Humanities and Social Sciences for strengthening
research.

Similarly, in addition to the academic institutions like universities and colleges, government
has initiated several programmes and created a number of national level institutions to
promote and support research in the field of humanities. Some of these institutions at the
national level are Indian Council of Philosophical Research (lCPR), Indian Council for
Cultural Relations (lCCR), Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts (IGNCA), Indian Council
of Historical Research (ICHR), Sahitya Akademi, Central Institute of English and Foreign
Languages, Central Institute of Indian Languages, National Archives of India, National
Museum, and many more. Libraries and information centres attached to these institutions
primarily support research and provide access to resources to the parent bodies. No national
information system in humanities have been set up to coordinate and carry out information
activities.

1.6.2 Recent Government Initiatives

During the last three decades, NIC has developed "network centric" application software for
programme implementation in various ministries and departments, using state-of-the-
technology software tools. During 1980s and early 1990s, the policy thrust was on creating
"Management Information System (MIS)" and "Decision Support System (DSS)" for
development, planning and responsive administration in governments which led to the
genesis of present day "e-Governance" / "e-Government". NIC has set up state-of-the-art ICT
infrastructure consisting of national and state Data Centres to manage the information
systems and websites of central ministries/ departments and local governments, disaster
recovery centres, network operations facility to manage heterogeneous networks spread
across bhawans, states and districts, certifying authority, video-conferencing and capacity
building across the country. NIC has several national data servers, robust cyber protection
and large quantity of government open and restricted data.

Recently, NIC has taken various initiatives like Government e-Procurement System
(GePNIC), Office Management Software (e-Office), Hospital Management System (e-
Hospital), Government Financial Accounting Information System (e-Lekha), National Land
Records Modernization Programme (NLRMP), Transport and National Registry, Treasury
Computerisation, VAT, MG-NREGA, India-Portal, e-Courts, Postal Life Insurance, etc.
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Besides NIC supported e-governance initiatives at national level, Ministry of Electronics and
Telecommunications, Govt of India has initiated several schemes as part of Digital India
Mission, where many sectoral national level information systems have been established to
accomplish specific purpose. MyGov platform for providing government services and
facilities, Aadhaar enabled payment system (AEPS), BPO Promotion Scheme, Digidhan
Abhiyaan Bazar, National Mission on Education, NREGA-Soft, PAHAL (DBTL), Pradhan
Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyaan, Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana, Pradhan
Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana etc are national level information sub-systems are set up
towards meeting the requirement of overall national information system in pieces.

Development of national information system in any field require creation of information

infrastructure, funding and policy support. While, government has supported information
sub-systems in respective fields through funding support of various schemes and initiative
such as National Knowledge Commission, National Knowledge Network, National Library
Mission, National Mission on Manuscripts etc, no specific information policies have been
formed till date. However, in recent times, some important national policies and Acts have
been enacted to facilitate information and data sharing. These include Right to Information
Act 2005, Information Technology Act 2012, National Data Sharing Policy 2012 and
National Education Policy 2020 etc. Collectively, these national level policies is expected to
strengthen ICT driven information sharing in the country.

INTEXT QUESTION
4. Which component is not part of NATIS framework design?
a) Access to information
b) Technology requirement
c) Financial provision
d) Legislative framework

5.NATIS calls for a large number of manpower, who should have

a. Library science qualification
b. Management proficiency
c.Digital competence to handle network
d.National policy development knowledge

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 1.7 SUMMARY
Objective of National Information System (NATIS) for libraries are to collect,
organize and disseminate information to users at national level. The system should be quick
to respond with solution from all possible sources through existing network. A successful
NATIS require planning, designing of several sub-systems as per stakeholders need.
Components of NATIS include designing and implementing information policies, create
awareness, analysing information needs and mapping them with available sources and
disseminate the relevant information using existing networks. The smooth functioning of
NATIS is possible through improved network infrastructure, financial allocation and skilled
manpower who would handle the systems.
About 90% of information in India are generated through public sources.
Recognizing the value of information delivery using ICT tools and technologies, government
has implemented several sectoral NATIS eg. NISSAT, NIC, INFLIBNET, NASSDOC,
DESIDOC, DELNET etc and many national organizations eg. National library of India,
RRRLF, NISCAIR, etc in early years of ICT development. In recent years, several useful
Apps developed under Digital India programmes has helped to provide e-governance for
public benefits.

1.8 GLOSSARY
AGRIS International System for Agricultural Science and Technology
BTIS Biotechnology Information System
DESIDOC Defence Scientific Documentation Centre
DSS Decision Support System
ENVIS Environmental Information System
INFLIBNET Information and library Network
INIS International Nuclear Information System
MEDLARS Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System.
MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development
MIS Management Information System
MoC Ministry of Culture
NASSDOC National Social Science Documentation Centre
NATIS National Information System
NIC National informatics Center
NISCAIR National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources

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SENDOC Small Enterprises National Documentation Centre
UBC Universal Bibliographic Control
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNISIST United Nations International Scientific Information System

1.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Protection of intellectual property 4. Access to information
2. Capturing primary knowledge of 5. Digital competence to handle network

stakeholders
3. National policy development

1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

• 1. How do you plan a National Information System?
• 2. What are functions of National Information System?
• 3. What are financial provisions of Indian National Information System?
• 4. Discuss on early work to develop National Information System in India.
• 5. National Information System functioning require proper planning and design –
Comment on the statement.

1.11 REFERENCES
Joshi, S. C., & Mehta, S. N. (2014). National Information System: Planning and
Management. pp. 253–264 (1st ed.). New Delhi: Global Vision Publishing House.
Chatterjee A (2017). Information Systems and Networks. In Elements of Information
Organization and Dissemination, accessible at
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/national-information-systems
Lahiri, A (1986). National Information System for Science and Technology. In:.
Gupta, B.M.( et al.)(eds). Handbook of Libraries, Archives and Information Centres
in India. New Delhi: Information Industry Publications. Vol. 3, pp. 58-74.
National Information System for Science and Technology. DSIR Annual Report. 2002-
2003.
https://www.lispower.in/2021/04/short-note-on-national-information.html, Accessed on 23
July 2022

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http://www.epset.gr/en/Nisrt/About-Nisrt, Accessed on 23 July 2022
Encyclopedia Britannica (2022). 5 Components of Information Systems. Available at
https://www.britannica.com/list/5-components-of-information-systems, accessed on
31 July 2022

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Guha, K. (1998), "Indian cellular groups defend regulator", Financial Times, 11 February,
p. 4
Grieco, J.M. (1984). Between Dependency and Autonomy: India's Experience with the
International Computer Industry. Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley
Jain, R. (1997), "India's telecom reforms in basic services: One step forward and two
backwards?", Information Technology in Developing Countries - IFIP WG 9.4 /
COMNET-IT Newsletter, 7(2), 1997, pp. 11-13
Kazmin, A.L. (1997), "Internet policy: Long way to go on a bumpy road", Financial Times
Survey of India's Software Industry, Financial Times, 3 December 1997, p.4
Petrazzini, B. & Harindranath, G. (1996). Information Infrastructure Initiatives in Emerging
Economies: The Case of India in B. Kahin & Wilson, E. (eds.). National
Information Infrastructure Initiatives: Vision and Policy Design. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: The MIT Press, pp.217-260
Subramanian, C.R. (1992). India and the Computer: A Study of Planned Development.
Delhi: Oxford University Press
Shah, Ajay and Misra, S.(1997). Designing India’s National Information
Infrastructure. EPW Vol 32(44/45): 2880-2884
Sachdeva, S. (2002). White Paper: E-Governance Strategy in India. 35p.
NIDA. ( 2011). Supporting Society’s Needs: a Model Framework for Developing Library
Policy (Part 1: Background and Literature Search). Network for Information and
Digital Access. 11pp.
NCIIPC.(2013). Guidelines for Protection of National Critical Information
Infrastructure. (version 1.0). National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre,
National Research Organisation, Government of India. 172p.
UNESCO. (2009). National Information Society Policy: A Template. UNESCO: Paris
143pp.
Ranjan, Set. al (2012). Building an Information Security Infrastructure – A comprehensive
framework towards a robust, resilient and dependable infrastructure. IJCSI Vol 9(3):
414-419
Government of India. (2001). Report of the working group on IT for the formulation of the
Tenth Five Year Plan: Working Group on IT (73/2001). Planning Commission.
221pp.
Cate, F.H. (1994). The National Information Infrastructure: Policymaking

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 and policy makers Faculty publications. Paper 738. Available at
www.repository.alw.indiana.edu/facpub/738 19pp.
Seth, M K and Parida, B.( 2006). Information Needs and Use pattern of
Disadvantaged Countries: A Case Study. Library Philosophy and Practice Vol9(1):
1-8p.
Gudauskas, R., 2012. National Information policy, informationinfrastructure and libraries.
IFLA (satellite conf 2012Klaipedia) 14p.

**************LMS Feedback: [email protected]**************

LESSON 2.2
NATIONAL INFORMATION POLICY

Dr P K Bhattacharya
Associate Director and Senior Fellow
The Energy and Resources Institute
New Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Understanding information policy perspectives
1.3.1 Broad Concept of Information
1.3.2 Understanding Policy
1.4 Concept of National Information Policy
1.4.1 Definition of National Information policy
1.4.2 Early Initiatives of National Policy Framework in India
a. 1.4.3 Relevance of Information Policies
1.5 National Information Policies in India
1.5.1 Freedom of Information Act 2002
1.5.2 Right to Information Act 2005
1.5.3 Information Technology Action Plan
1.5.4 National ICT Policy 2012
1.5.5 National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP) 2012
1.5.6 New Education Policy (NEP 2020)
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
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1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Multiple actors and major stakeholders owns various sub-systems of National Information
System. Execution of such a system require knowledge access, technology skills, skilled
manpower and collaborative work within a network environment. Organizing and handling
such huge resources across national level need government intervention, so that such system
can be functional properly and driven by legislative framework and policy support. Learning
objectives and outcome of this Chapter include
• Understanding Information Policy Perspectives
• Concept of Information Policy
• Relevance and Need of Policies
• Role of Information Policies
• Examples of Existing National Information Policies

1.2 INTRODUCTION
The National Information Policy is considered to be an overarching umbrella for different
stakeholders, who perceives information policies differently to handle respective work. The
stakeholders in this case include research professionals, library and information science
professionals, ICT and networking experts, policy makers, mass media and common man.
Each of these category of stakeholders perception about information policies varies widely
since their viewpoint and use of information connotes different meanings. Perceptions these
groups also vary widely regarding the concept information and policy. As perceptions of
information policies vary for stakeholders, catering their need through one policy at the
national level is very difficult.
• Information policy perspective of research and scholarly communities revolve around
their respective research and development activities. Policy parameters should provide
guidelines to the research data and information generated, disseminated and
communicated by the peer community and their subsequent discussion format and
processes in different contexts. Researchers also look for various forms of information
eg. Reports, research papers, concept note, proposals, handbook, manuals etc and also the
information support facilities to retrieve these contents.
• For library and information professionals, concept of information policy is to deal with
contents of documents including products and services which they disseminate as per the
needs of users. In this case information policies focus on
• Document forms, standard, format of explicit information
• Document types in textual, video, images, sound, microforms, etc

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• Type of documents available in electronic and digital form where standardization,
metadata format, inter-operability, open or subscribed access to information
• Authority of documents from individual, institutional and organisational mechanisms
• Providing access to information contents and developing products and services
• The ICT and networking experts view information policy as a guideline which will
support them to access hardware and software, improve their functionalities, develop
solutions to user problems and meeting user demand, information processing packages,
transmission of messages, communication networks. They also expect that the
information policies should help them to develop and maintain WAN/LAN networks,
tools, cloud storage, apps etc and other related matters.
• Government collect, process, analyse issues faced by various stakeholders within
different civil groups, and want to perform both as repositories and solution providers.
For them, information policies supposed to highlights issues, problems, large scale
implementation processes etc. Policy makers expect information policies should work as
a decision making and implementation tool for government ministries and their agencies
to draw recommendations, measure effectiveness of present systems and future
governance methodologies which should be carried out to support nation-wide
government functions.
• Professionals who works for mass media such as radio, TV, news and social media,
would understand information policy to cover' the gathering, analysis and dissemination
of news, views, and general information to the public in different forms and formats.
They expect that information policies should emphasized on freedom of information and
related areas for public at large. For them, access and dissemination of information
generated by governments and other agencies without any constraints should get primary
focus in information policy.
• On the other hand, for a common man information policy is anything that provide access
to information and helps them to decide, act or be informed on any issues revolving
around. Common man wants access to current and correct information without delay and
view information policies are tool to support this aspiration.
The government, while formulating a National Information Policy (Policies) should have to
take into consideration all these perceptions and evolve a mechanism to consult and develop
appropriate policy conducive to all. This process is further complicated due to acute digital
divide, which makes inclusive single policy development virtually impossible. However,
over the past few decades government has relentlessly working to streamline various issues
raised by different categories of user groups, and are to some extent successful to visualise
and develop policy parameters suitable to all.
1.3 UNDERSTANDING INFORMATION POLICY
PERSPECTIVES
1.3.1 Broad Concept of Information:

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Derived from the definition given in the UNISIST Main Working document, information is
the symbolic element used for communicating knowledge, irrespective of their nature
(numeric, textual, etc.) material content, form of presentation, etc. Information is used to
communicate scientific, technical, philosophical and social knowledge to it’s users on their
demand. Information refers to substance of documents which is available as physical
existence. While information is developed after refining and consolidating ‘data’; organised
set of information when presented to form a conclusive understanding, judgement or an
experimental result is ‘knowledge’.
In the context of National Information Policy, 'information' is considered as whole range of
related activities that include data collection, consolidation, processing, packaging and
dissemination. This covers work and activities of scientists, academicians, business houses,
artists, authors, raw data collectors and many others. Government agencies generate nearly
90% of available information, engaging various actors (publishing and database providers
industry, films and television industries, data processing organisations, libraries and archives,
indexing and abstracting services, NGOs and corporates etc) and performing several
overlapping activities (storage, retrieval, processing, disseminating and duplicating
information)
1.3.2 Understanding Policy:
To many of us, meaning of the term 'Policy' is sometimes vague and remain undefined while
many of us follow it during course of own work. Fundamentally, a policy means a statement
of guidelines for a course of action. However, it require formulation of levels of generality
and specificity to execute an action based on a policy. To understand appropriate meaning of
policies, we should know meaning of associated terms and their hierarchy while taking any
action, these include goal, policy, strategy and programme.
As per management experts, a goal is the ultimate destination to be reached, over an
indefinite period of time, following some specific actions. A policy is a firm statement of
commitment to define the actions to be performed to achieve the goal. On the other hand, a
strategy is a predetermined course of actions to be carried out from a number of alternatives,
defined by the policy. Programme defines a set of tasks taken to implement a strategy to
reach to the final goal.

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As evident from the above diagram, all these steps are inter-related to achieve the goal, ie.
National Information policy (NIP). While policies and it’s framework development is
important first stone to achieve the predefined goal, however, policies can change at regular
intervals with fixed goal. To make these changes realistic, policies are kept flexible enough
to adopt changing environments of political, economic, social and cultural perspective of the
user categories. Policy implementation require defined actionable strategy, which then
executed through a series of programmes where actions are taken. In the present context
policy means an instrument which support to plan, design a strategic framework seeking to
concretise some programmatic actions to achieve information policy as national level goal. In
light of the present discussion, it is now possible to understand National Information Policy.

1.4 CONCEPT OF NATIONAL INFORMATION POLICY

1.4.1 Definition of National Information policy
According to UNISIST 11- main working document (1971) "A National Information Policy
is a set of decisions taken by a government, through appropriate laws and regulations, to
orient the harmonious development of information transfer activities in order to satisfy the
information needs of the country. A National Information Policy needs provision of
necessary means or instruments such as financial, personnel, institutional, for concrete
implementation." This was presented in the form of a model, which was cited later in
multiple literature and development process. This model offered not only descriptive
parameters, but also supported a theoretical perspective from which information systems may
be understood and evaluated.
However, there is a need to bring this model to the focus of information science (IS) research
as well as to update and revise it in today’s perspective. The original model only considered
scientific and technical communication as a whole. Revision of this model is necessary with
respect to the humanities and social sciences aspects and also to regard internal differences in
the sciences (Søndergaard, 2003). Further to this, the model was based on information
communication process in physical form, however, empirically most of the communications
are happening today following digital or electronic communication processes. Hence,
National Information policy definition should be revisited giving adequate importance to
digital technology, online media and existing tools.
Moreover, National Information policy (NIP) definition had some restrictions as the way
library and information professionals would like to view information policy, to meet the
challenges of the changing context of information collection, processing, distribution under
the purview of digital platforms and delivery mechanism. This changing context has far
reaching impact on envisioning national information systems and services with reference to
education, research, business activities, and network planning and operational issues. This
has resulted in continuous progress of government initiatives towards developing multiple
issues specific information policies since early days of digitization to present days.
1.4.2 Early Initiatives of National Policy Framework in India

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Initial process of development of National Information Policy was initiated in October 1985
by Ministry of Culture and Ministry of human Resources Development through establishing
a Committee of senior library and education professionals with Prof. D P Chattopadhyay as
Chairman to draft a national information policy with special focus on library and information
science. The Committee submitted it’s report in May 1986 highlighting various aspects and
pertinent issues in LIS professionals which include public library systems and bibliographic
services, manpower issues, professional status of librarians and salary structures,
modernization of library and information systems, initiation of new programmes relevant to
national needs of information, financial requirements etc. The committee also recommended
suggestions to each of these issues for promotion of national information system in library
and information domain. During this period a few important government measures were
taken to develop legal provisions and procedures to access to information. Many significant
outcomes happened after submission of this report, which may or may not have direct
relation to this report.

• Around the same time NISSAT was established in 1986 and continued till 2002 catering
the need of national information system on science and technology space. Detail account
of NISSAT activities and performance will be discussed in Chapter -3 of Unit-2 module.
Another important development to put adequate stress on sharing of resources through
network among libraries. NIC was established in 1976 to provide access to government
and other paid information through nation-wide network to wider mass as per their
requirement. NIC started aggressive promotion of government information services
through NICNET. One more important step taken by MHRD was to establish
INFLIBNET under UGC. INFLIBNET was envisioned to establish a nation-wide
framework and implementable network to promote information resource sharing within
university libraries, developing knowledge products and services and ICT enabled
databases and tools for libraries.
• A series of library and information networks like the Delhi Library Network (DELNET),
Bombay Library Network (BONET), Madras Library Network (MALIBNET), and
Calcutta Library Network (CALIBNET), etc. were also set up to integrate resources and
services of select libraries in major cities of India. Also, professional LIS associations
like the Indian Library Association (ILA), the Indian Association of Special Libraries and
Information Centers (IASLIC), Society for Information Science (SIS) and many others
were advocating LIS issues to the government to initiate efforts towards formulating a
National Information Policy, through a number of seminars and conferences.

• Another significant development during this phase was establishing a high level Task
force in 1998 to draft an Information Technology Action Plan. National Task Force on
Information Technology and Software Development had submitted the Information
Technology Action Plan on July 1998, which comprises 108 action points aimed at three
basic objectives of Info-infrastructure Drive, Target ITEX-50 and IT for All by 2008. The
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 plan will accelerate the drive for setting up a robust info- infrastructure with an extensive
spread of fibre optic networks, satcom networks and wireless networks to interconnect
existing informatics infrastructure. Target ITEX – 50 will leverage a potential 2 trillion
dollar Global IT industry by the year 2008. The plan also emphasized on IT for All by
2008 mandate and accelerated the rate of PC/set-top-box penetration in the country from
the 1998 level of one per 500 to one per 50 people along with a universal access to
Internet / Extranets/ Intranets by the year 2008. Towards the goal of IT for all by 2008,
policies are provided for setting the base for a rapid spread of IT awareness among the
citizens, business and several infrastructures were planned to be set up (DSIR, 1998).

• Freedom of Information Act, 2002 was notified to provide for freedom to every citizen to
secure access to information under the control of public authorities and promoted
openness, transparency and accountability in administrative processes. Freedom of
information is the right to obtain information from any public authority by means of (i)
inspection, taking of extracts and notes ; (ii) certified copies of any records of such public
authority; (iii) disketts, floppies or in any other electronic mode or through printouts
where such information is stored in a computer or in any other device. Virtually all
agencies of the executive branch of the government are required by the Act to issue
regulations to implement the provisions of the Act. The freedom of information Act held
government agencies accountable to citizens.

1.5 RELEVANCE OF INFORMATION POLICIES

Information is used by all stakeholders for different purposes and formulate varieties of
outputs on daily basis using relevant information. A NIP helps in establishing e-govenance
structure, content creation and delivery, heritage/legacy, quality of information, social
inclusion, universal access, e-commerce, legal deposit, intellectual property rights, freedom
of information, privacy and confidentiality, authenticity/authorisation, metadata,
interoperability and information literacy. The ultimate purpose of information and knowledge
is to put them to use, and in turn, to provide for a higher quality of life to people in general
and specific to people who are engaged in research, education, policy making, and business
processes. The vital role of information in national development has to be seen in this
perspective.

Stakeholder groups which use different types of information regularly and felt necessity of
national information policy include a) scientific, technical and societal information for
education, research and development, business, and socio-economic development; b) mass
media dealing with newspapers, TV, Radio broadcasts, etc; c) publication and information
database deals with selling information as products; d) ICT and networking experts who
handle technology, hardware and software problems and e) general users for daily
information requirement and exercising right to access to government information. A
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National Information Policy has potential to change silo’s mind-set of individual public,
government agencies and organizations. It can instigate information sharing and use, and
eventually helps a country to achieve a sustainable socio-economic development. Following
are major issues identified why a country should develop a NIP or several sectoral policies
for societal benefits.
• Access to government information using RTI Act 2005
• Promotion of government information for benefits of civil society
• Development of national information infrastructure
• Managing data standardisation and interoperability
• Promotion of technological innovation
• Wider information access through resource sharing, consortia development
• Facilitate delivery of high quality lower-cost government services to the public
• Cost saving for purchase of priced information
• Engage in collaborative work in a network environment
• Development of the electronic information industry
• Protection of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
• Support to lifelong learning
• Improving regional and international cooperation

Barring government generated information, information in most cases are intellectual output
and are under intellectual protection, restricting misuse. While most of the government
information are now available online for free use, however, such process are restricted due to
digital divide across multiple users categories., Moreover, awareness of fair information use
eg. copyright issues, creative common licencing, etc are still in infant stages in India,
resulting into skewed information availability and use. While we are living in information
society, access to information many-a-times remain restricted due to scattered information
sources, licencing issues, high purchase cost, languages, digital divide, standards and format,
interoperability, internet access and many more. A robust information and data sharing
framework is necessary to wider information access to civil society.

In the context of India, a National Information Policy or a set of policies must necessarily be
governed and owned by Government agencies, based on regulatory framework of data
sharing mechanism. At various stages of our national development - social, economic,
educational, research - government have framed information policies in consultation with
domain experts. All the policies needs to be compatible with the Five-Year National Plan and
should be integrated with national programmes of the country.

1.6 NATIONAL INFORMATION POLICIES IN INDIA

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Indian government has recognized information generation, processing and dissemination as
most important pillar to improve citizen’s lifestyle and promote government beneficial
activities to civil society. As a result, over the years has enacted several information policies
for different perspectives in India. Some of the important policies which have direct
relevance to LIS professionals are highlighted.

1.6.1 Freedom of Information Act 2002

Freedom of Information emphasize on the fundamental principle of human rights. This right
to information is guaranteed in international law and many countries including India are now
giving legal effect to it. The Freedom of Information Bill, 2002 was passed into a law in
December 2002 after many years of public debate in a number of States. The Act provides
freedom of government information access right to every citizen of India from from public
authorities, subject to certain exceptions stated in the Act. The Act extends to the whole of
India, except the State of Jammu and Kashmir for constitutional reasons.

The Act defines

• Information as "material in any form relating to the administration, operation or decisions
of a public authority".
• 'Public authority' as anybody established under the Indian Constitution or by any law, as
well as anybody "owned, controlled or substantially financed by funds provided directly
or indirectly" by government.

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• Record as any document, microfilm, microfiche or any material or any material
reproduced by any device from the public authorities.

Promotional measures
Public authorities are required to appoint Public Information Officers who are responsible for
dealing with requests and providing reply to requesters. Individuals who have acted in good
faith pursuant to Law are protected against sanction. In other words, individuals who release
information of wrongdoing-whistle blowers must be protected.

Process to follow
The Act laid down process of requesting information from any public authorities, which are
to be followed by all actors while the law is in force.
• Requests for information by any Indian citizen must be made in writing, wherever
individuals have difficulties with this, the Public Information Officer is required to
provide "all reasonable assistance" to them.
• Requests must be dealt with as expeditiously as possible and in any event, within 30
days. Requests may be accepted subject to the payment of a fee for information falls
within the ambit of the Act.
• Where a request for information is rejected, the requester is entitled to be informed of the
reasons for the rejection, the period within which an appeal may be lodged with the
relevant information about to the appellate authority.

Mandatory disclosure of Publishing Authorities functions and facilities

The Act requires public bodies to publish at intervals prescribed by the government, the
following information:
• Particulars of organisation details, functions, facilities and duties
• Powers and duties of its officers and employees and the procedure followed by them
• The norms set by the public authority for the discharge of its functions
• Rules, regulations, instructions, manuals and other categories or records used by their
employees
• Details of the Public Information Officer

Exceptions allowed under the Act

This section highlights exceptions in the Act most of which are not impacting general public
interests. However, a requester can appeal against any decision of a Public Information
Officer within 30 days of the reply. Exceptions where the information:
• Information that would adversely the sovereignty and integrity of the Country, security,
strategic papers and decisions and scientific or economic international relations
• Information that affect public safety and order including detection, trial and investigation
of an offence

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• If disclosed such information would affect centre-state relations
• Contains trade or commercial secrets protected by law of a public authority

E-governance and freedom of information access

Information on changes of E-governance at the right time is one of the effective information
tool for the people. ICT driven E-governance application enables people to understand the
processes of government functioning, accountability, speedy response and transparency of
the government. E-governance integrates people, processes, technology for meeting
governance goals. (Raghavan and Nair, 2003). The government has already initiated
appropriate steps of E-governance by executive orders across the nation eg. creating online
voting provisions, almost all transport processes in RTOs, net-banking for financial
transactions, payment and calculation of utility tariffs, online education tools for study,
examination and results etc. The freedom of information access has helped the citizens to
understand government functions, policies, activities and responsiveness.

Citizen’s expectations
As the governments are committed to do welfare of the people and States, the assigned
bodies provide support in almost all areas of public interest. The information generated and
disseminated and published in any form, get stocked for future records in a number of
libraries and other information institutions in our country.

1.6.2 Right to Information Act 2005

India is recognized as world’s largest democracy. Citizens have right to know government
processes, policies and consultations, government decisions pertaining to public. Right to
Information Act 2005 mandates timely response to citizen requests for government
information. It is an initiative taken by Department of Personnel and Training, Ministry of
Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions. RTI Act 2005 incorporated required provisions
and replaced earlier Freedom of Information Act 2002 with additional power to Indian
citizens towards government information access.

Objectives
The basic object of the Right to Information Act is to empower the citizens, promote
transparency and accountability in the working of the Government, contain corruption, and
make our democracy work for the people in real sense. It creates informed citizens who are
better equipped to keep necessary vigil on the instruments of governance and make the
government more accountable to the governed.

Salient features

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Under the Right to Information Act, people have a right to seek information from public
authorities, including government organisations. The law lists down the rules and procedures
on how somebody can request information. A citizen can request any government document
and get certified copies of the same. Salient features of RTI Act, 2005 includes
• The RTI Act allows people to file legal requests to government agencies to look at
government documents, understand processes and ask for any public information from
the government.
• All government bodies, whether state, central or local, are liable to respond to an RTI
query filed by any citizen within a stipulated time frame. All government-owned
organisations are also liable to provide information under RTI Act.
• In any government set-up, a Public Information Officer (PIO) will be designated to
handle RTI queries, who accepts the request forms and provide information to public,
with rare exception of classified information of national security related issues.
• Any information that are disclosed in the Central or State legislative assembly must be
given to any applicant under the RTI Act.
• Moreover, Assistant PIOs work in every district or divisional level to accept and process
public requests and help people get desired information.

A website gateway has been established to file RTI requests to gather government
information to provide a– RTI Portal Gateway to the citizens for quick search of information
on the details of first Appellate Authorities, PIOs etc. Besides, access to RTI related
information / disclosures published on the web by various Public Authorities under the
government of India as well as the State Governments can be accessed. The process of
recovering information from government sources using RTI route are as follows:
• Every person who wants to get information under the RTI Act must fill out an application
in Hindi or English and send it in by email. If you can’t write it, PIOs will assist in
putting your oral request in writing.
• If the applicant is deaf, blind, or has disabilities, the public authority must offer assistance
and access to the documents sought.
• The applicant doesn’t need to explain why they want the information or give any other
personal information, rather they can simply send requests for government information.
• The applicant can file a complaint against the PIO if the person failed to provide requisite
information on time.
• PIOs are liable to pay a fine of Rs. 250 per day for delay in not furnishing the required
information to an applicant.

RTI Act 2005 has a direct consequence in library and information service delivery option.
While LIS professionals supposed to provide information services on user demand, some
relevant government data which otherwise are not available on public domain, can be

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obtained from various government organizations and ministries. This will ensure data
authenticity and quality in providing services.

However, we have seen significant criticism of the Right to Information Act, as many felt hat
the Act hasn’t been able to reach it’s full goals because of systemic flaws including non-
availability of nation-wide coordination between government departments and agencies,
absence of data standardization, variation in data collection parameters and unnecessary
delay by government agencies in providing information etc. However, the fact is that the RTI
Act gives us a rare chance to see how the government works, especially at the grassroots
level, where citizens have the most say in how things are done.
On the other hand, RTI Act has been grossly misused for gaining individual benefits rather
than a social cause. The Delhi High Court has said that the misuse of the RTI Act needs to be
dealt with proper regulations or the public will lose faith and trust in this act.
1.6.3 Information Technology Action Plan
Recognising the potential of ICT for rapid and all-round national development, a National
Task Force on Information Technology and Software development was constituted in May
1988. The report of the task force, formulated into the Information Technology Action Plan,
1988 contains 108 recommendations covering developmental possibilities and bottlenecks
areas which are crucial for boosting ICT in India.

The recommendations, cover a wide spectrum of issues relating to telecommunications,

finance, banking, revenue, commerce, electronics, human resource development, defence,
and rural development. The report addressed critical national needs in the areas of
information infrastructure, Internet access, software development and exports, hardware
manufacture, electronic commerce, R&D in ICT, manpower training and education. Salient
points of the National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development are
as follows:
• A strategy roadmap for extensive use of IT in all areas of national economy i.e.
agriculture, industry, trade and services as a critical input in making India a global
economic power.
• Recommended a design for building world class physical, institutional and regulatory IT
infrastructure keeping in mind convergence of telecommunications, computers, consumer
electronics and the media infrastructure.
• Highlighted need and means for creating a national informatics infrastructure (NII)
backbone, bridging local and the global informatics infrastructure at optimal cost by
using existing government resources.
• Suggested measures for massive expansion of personal computer density and Internet use
by all sections of society.
• Recommend a strategy for boosting the learning and use of IT in Indian languages
through promotion of software development

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• Suggested measures to catalyze the growth of exports through the extensive use of
commerce and electronic data interchange.
• Suggest ways in which the use of IT can be maximised in the Government at all levels, so
as to make its functioning people-friendly, transparent and accountable.
• Devise a strategy for establishing a strong and internationally competitive domestic
manufacturing base for computers, computer components and peripherals.
• Design an all-inclusive training and manpower development plan involving Government
agencies, private business, voluntary organizations, educational institutions and others
• Develop an innovative and strategic plan to raise the necessary financial resources to
minimise government outlay.
• Recommended how India can leverage its global competitiveness in InfoTech to play a
prominent role in the development of IT in India and other countries.

The Task' Force recommended to give information technology a pro-people and pro-
development thrust. The government has acted in line of these findings and taken a series of
policy measures to develop India’s ICT policy directives with support from another IT Task
Force, which submitted its "IT Action Plan” in 1998. The report focussed on universalization
of IT and IT based education at all levels. Some of the highlights of the IT Action Plan are:
• Conversion of STD/ISD booths in the Country into "Information-Kiosks" providing
Internet and related services like email.
• Ministries and Departments to earmark 1-3 % of the budget for IT infrastructure
development with 3 time increase of capital investment.
• IT literacy for Government / Public Sector employees.
• Software and IT to be treated as priority sector by banks and other financial
organizations.
• Approval for Indian IT companies for overseas acquisitions.
• Broadening definition of software to include entire range of IT software as per WTO-ITA
norms.
• Zero duty on all IT products and exemption for software developers and exporters from
physical and custom bonding at STPs, EDUs and EPZs
• Early introduction of cyber laws
• Networking of all Engineering / Medical colleges, Universities

1.6.4 National ICT Policy 2012

National Policy on Information Technology 2012 aims at leveraging benefits of information
& communication technology (ICT) to address the country’s economic and developmental
challenges to transform the lives of people. IT has been recognized as key driver of the
knowledge based global economy, hence it was envisioned that right policies and investment
in ICT infrastructure can strengthen Indian economy as global power-house.

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Objectives
The policy attempts to optimally leverage India’s global edge in ICT and an inclusive growth
for an equitable society. The policy is oriented towards e-governance, empowerment of
citizens and bridging digital divide. The Government has initiated the process of mass
adoption of National ICT Policy to guide ICT development, accessibility to information and
its utilization to meet the local, national and global challenges.

The broad objectives of the National ICT policy include creation, adoption and promotion of
ICT through development of policy instruments, regulatory framework, human resource
development, industry promotion and e-governance.

Thrust areas
The ICT Policy 2012 envisaged the growth of the IT market to USD 300 billion and creation
of additional 10 million employments in India in different ITeS sector by 2020. The thrust
areas of the policy include:
• Establish India as global market-player in emerging technologies and services.
• Promote IT driven innovation and R&D infrastructure in cutting edge technologies and
developing solutions in areas like GPS based services, mobile services, cloud computing,
social media and utility models.
• Encourage adoption of ICTs in key economic and strategic sectors to improve
productivity.
• Provide fiscal benefits to SMEs and Start-Ups for adoption of IT in value creation and
supply chain management
• Establish IT education strategy and skilled manpower to management information
systems at all levels including government, private and academics.
• Bridge digital divide among urban and rural population through IT infrastructure
development, Internet penetration and e-literacy programmes.
• Encouraging mandatory e-delivery and affordable access to all public services in
electronic mode.
• Enhance transparency, accountability, efficiency, reliability and decentralization in
Government through e-governance and delivery of public services.
• Promote top quality ICT initiatives in social sectors like education, health, rural
development and financial services to promote equity.
• Make India the global hub for development of language technologies, encourage
• development of Indian languages content accessible to all.
• Enable access of content and ICT applications by differently-abled people for inclusive
development.
• Strengthen regulatory control on ITeS sectors and security framework for a legally
compliant cyber ecosystem.

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• Adopt open standards and promote open source, open data and open technologies in all
sectors including education

Implementable guidelines
Policy instruments
• A countrywide reliable and efficient ICT infrastructure was envisioned which shall have
sufficient capacity, network speeds, able to provide improved connectivity in a cost-
effective manner to cater to the needs of the country. Effective utilization of all installed
ICT infrastructures were strategically planned to contribute to flexibility and redundancy
on a national basis. The government has created provisions for sharing and co-locating of
infrastructure and facilities for this purpose. Also, private sector was recognized as
integral part of the development of ICT infrastructures and solutions. Competitive
markets for ICT services were ensured for development of the ICT sector in India.
• Promote widespread accessibility to ICT services, deployment and maintenance of
networks, deployment of ICT infrastructure to allow e-commerce and e-governance that
are interoperable on a national basis.

Legal and Regulatory Framework

• Review the existing legislations in view of international best practices and support
development of a legal framework for ICT sector for e-governance, e-business and
innovation.
• Promote confidence for engagement with the information society through enactment of
legislations addressing issues of computer use, equitable competition amongst service
providers, cyber-crimes, consumer protection, intellectual property rights, dispute
resolution and security.
• Promote online training and skill development regulations for encouraging multi-sector
digital transformation, development of legal processes and communities on regulatory
issues, including law enforcement agencies.

Human Resource Development

• Establish favourable environment and government schemes for different cadres of ICT
personnel in the ministries, government agencies as well as private sectors through
public-private participation and promote ICT awareness programmes.
• Promote and support training of ICT qualified personnel in internationally acceptable
standards at all levels of the education system (formal, vocational, short-term etc) to meet
the growing market needs.
• Promote the use of ICT in the informal education, libraries and online information
database sector, with emphasis on open access and open data initiatives.

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• Encourage activities relating to lifelong learning through the use of ICT for all
educational, scientific and research institutions, libraries, archives, museums, and
community centers.in physical and distance education.
• Promote the development of national online certification and accreditation systems in the
ICT sector.

Industry
• Encourage research, innovations and experimentation in software, hardware and ICT
systems development by increasing awareness among the public and private sector for
carrying out all economic activities.
• Promote the professional recognition of technical professionals in the ICT sector.
• Promote participation of local ICT organizations and foreign entrepreneurs in the ICT
sector through engagement in international ICT events, market participation, acquisitions
and joint ventures following the current trends and establishment of business contacts.
• Create a culture of innovation, entrepreneurship and technological sophistication using
ICT as a catalyst in order to remain globally competitive in business modernization in all
sectors.
• Encourage development of multimedia based local e-contents, online learning for
safeguarding the nation’s environmental, historical, traditional and cultural heritage.

E-Government
• Adopting high-level ICT leadership at the national level for enhanced efficiency and
effectiveness of Government operations and service delivery.
• Encourage easy, secure and efficient access to appropriate Government information
systems and services.
• Facilitate public Internet literacy, information access, bridging digital divides and the use
of computers and other ICT equipments within Government.
• Develop and promote e-governance tools, standardized contents, e-learning tools, online
delivery methods and other web services which enhance the use of ICT in every business
and education sectors to project country’s positive image internationally.
• Encourage and support the use of ICT tools to predict, monitor and respond to disasters
(natural and human made) and in environmental management.
• Enhance collaboration and co-ordination in ICT development at the local, regional and
international level.

1.6.5 National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP) 2012

A large quantum of data generated using public funds by various organizations and
institutions in the country remains inaccessible to the public, although most of such data may
be non-sensitive in nature and could be used by public for scientific, economic and
developmental purposes. There has been an increasing demand by the community, that such
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data collected with the deployment of public funds should be made more readily available to
all, for enabling rational debate, better decision making and use in meeting civil society
needs. The NDSAP policy is designed to promote data sharing and enable access to
Government of India owned data for national planning, development and awareness.

Objectives
NDSAP-2012 was designed to promote technology-based culture of data management as
well as data sharing and access (Open Government Data) across India.
• It provide an enabling provision and platform for proactive and open access to the data
generated by various Government of India entities.
• It opens up, proactively, information on available data, which could be shared with civil
society for developmental purposes, their price details if any, and methods for gaining
access to registered and restricted use.
• NDSAP is to facilitate access to Government of India owned shareable data (along with
its usage information) in machine readable form through a wide area network all over the
country in a periodically updatable manner, within the framework of various related
policies, acts and rules of Government of India, thereby permitting a wider accessibility
and usage by public. (www.data.gov.in)

Policy scope
The policy has limited its scope to data owned by the agencies, departments/ Ministries and
entities under the Government of India and forms a statement of the Government of India of
its commitment to transparency and efficiency in governance. Department of Science &
Technology will continue the process of evolving the policy further, keeping in tune with
technological advancements and the National requirements and enrolling the State
Governments (www.data.gov.in). The open government data initiative started in India with
the notification of the National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP), by the
Department of Science and Technology on March 2012.

Application of the policy

The National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy will apply to all data and information
created, generated, collected and achieved using public funds provided by Government of
India directly or through authorised agencies by various Ministries / Departments/
Organisations/ Agencies and Autonomous bodies.

Nodal agency
Department of Science & Technology (DST) is the Nodal Department for all matters
connected with overall co-ordination, formulation, implementation and monitoring of the
policy. The NDSAP identified the Department of Electronics & Information Technology as
the nodal department for the implementation of the policy through National Informatics
Centre. In pursuance of the Policy, the Open Government Data Platform India was launched
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in 2012 (www.data.gov.in). For Geospatial Data, existing National Spatial Data
Infrastructure (NSDI) mechanism involving both Department of Space and Department of
Science & Technology would be used for any conflict resolution.

Implementation guidelines for NDSAP

• The implementation guidelines for NDSAP include “openness, flexibility, transparency,
quality” of data, and aim to facilitate “access to Government of India shareable data in
machine-readable form”.
• The guidelines prescribe open digital formats suitable for analysis and dissemination.
• Opaque formats such as the portable document format and the image format are
discouraged.
• Shareable data/ Positive list: As per the policy, the data sets identified by the ministries /
departments which are not disclosing privacy information (such as GDP, production,
demographic data, services delivered by government agencies etc) shall be verified and
validated by the individual departments and then ported on the website www.data.gov.in
or on the respective ministry/department websites.
• Non-Shareable data/Negative list under the policy: The negative list includes the data
that is not sharable and the same would not be available on the public domain. Sections 8
and 9 of the Right to Information Act, 2005, The Information Technology Act, 2000 and
the right to privacy as upheld by the Supreme Court of India in its various judgements,
need to be consulted/taken into consideration while preparing the negative list.

1.6.6 New Education Policy (NEP 2020)

The New Education Policy (NEP 2020) was released by the Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD) in July 2020 replacing the 34-year-old National Education Policy
(NEP) that was formulated in 1986.It outlines the government’s vision for the education
sector in India over the next ten years.
This is a significant step forward for India’s education system which is expected to bring
about massive reforms in all business and learning sectors and change in the country and its
people. Hence, this policy specially calls for the requirements of ICT driven advance quality
information infrastructure, LIS professional development, relevant training and services for
promotion of comprehensive skill and educational development.
Objectives
The NEP 2022 is a comprehensive policy that covers all aspects of education, from early
childhood education to higher education and vocational training. The policy aims to
• Transform the education system in India as per the present market needs and make it at
par with international standards
• It also emphasizes on providing quality education to all regardless of their socio-
economic background.
• It aims to increase the Gross Enrolment Ratio in higher education to 50% by 2035.

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 Education Policy Highlights
• The policy emphasizes on providing quality and affordable education to all children in the
age group of 3-18 years.
• It emphasizes on holistic and multidisciplinary education instead of rote learning. Students
will trained to apply concepts to solve real problems rather than remembering things from
books. The school curriculum has been updated to incorporate more core concepts and
vocational education.
• It emphasizes that the three-language formula will be followed in schools, focusing on the
regional language, Hindi and English. Students to learn instruction in regional languages in
the first five grades instead of English.

• The policy focuses on using technology in education to make it more accessible and
effective. It envisages a system where there is no distinction between rural and urban
areas, and all children have access to quality education.
• The policy proposes several measures to improve the quality of teaching, such as
mandatory teacher eligibility tests, teacher professional development programmes, and
teacher education programmes at the elementary, secondary and tertiary levels.
• The policy also focuses on providing vocational and technical education to students so
that they are better equipped to enter the workforce.
• The policy proposes to set up a National Higher Education Regulatory Council to oversee
the regulation of higher education institutions.

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• The policy also seeks to provide greater autonomy to higher education institutions and
promote academic mobility. As a result, the public and private universities will both be
governed by the same regulations.
• This policy introduces a new 5+3+3+4 education structure, which moves away from the
current 10+2 system.
• The Government has announced that all higher education institutes (HEIs) will be
governed by a single regulator, except the Medical and Law Colleges. HEIs now have to
answer to a new body, the Office for Students.
• The master’s degree (MPhil) course will no longer be required for PhD programme,
students can enrol in PhD programme directly, can take breaks and complete research
afterwards.

Major Reforms in New Education Policy

• School board examinations will continue in 10th and 12th classes and be redesigned to be
more holistic and developmental. PARAKH is a new national assessment platform. It will
assess students’ learning and help them to analyze their strengths, weaknesses, gaps, and
potentials.
• The new system will focus on strengthening the local language/regional language and
mother tongue as a medium of education. It will be available for grades 1 to 5.
• Vocational education will start in school, starting with grade 6, also known as middle
school. Internships will be a part of that vocational education curriculum as well.
• There are plans for literature in India and other classical languages as an option. Students
who pursue those degrees will have the freedom to choose which language they wish to
study. The same principle is applicable to other disciplines like science, technology,
engineering and mathematics.
• Higher education will receive flexibility in subjects. There will be multiple entry points
and exit points for all students. UG programmed courses can range in duration from three
to four years. The minimum duration required to get a certificate is one year. However,
students can opt for a different route if they want to, such as obtaining a two-year
Advanced Diploma or getting a B. Tech degree.
• The new system will be student-centric, where all subjects’ education is reduced to its
core essentials.
• According to NEP, learning should be holistic, joyful, stress-free, and a lifelong process.
It focuses on critical thinking, discovery, inquiry, discussion, and teaching based on
analysis and holistic learning methods.
• Academic bank of credit (ABC) will be created as a digital recognition awarded for a
student’s academic performance by universities. ABC will be used to verify an
institution’s credits or schools can use it to reward students.
• Regulators for higher education will keep a strict vigil on implementation of the policy
activities and outcomes in a standardized manner.
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• Focus on online learning to ensure that students are educated to the highest standard. In
the new system, e-learning will be expanded to include online courses, which will
provide flexibility in terms of location and time for students.
• By the end of 2040, universities will become multidisciplinary institutions each of which
will have 3000 or more students. At least one oversized multidisciplinary HEI (higher
education institution) should be built-in or near every district by 2030.
• This is one of the ways we can make our schools more connected to their communities
and provide them with growth opportunities. The goal is to help create 100% youth and
adult literacy.

Impact of NEP on Libraries and Information Systems

• As per NEP 2020, books are needed to be developed consisting of attractive learning
materials content for the students at all levels in all local and Indian languages. Both
public and private sector institutions will work strategically to improve the quality and
attractiveness of books with support of various libraries as they will act as information
clearinghouse for the purpose.

• The NEP emphasized on education for all categories of students and enhanced higher
education rate, which makes accessibility of books, periodicals, other attractive learning
materials content for the students at all levels in all local and Indian languages learning
and teaching materials in both schools and higher education institutional libraries.
Moreover, public libraries will also ensure availability of books to all including
physically handicap. This will enhance libraries role as an academic centre of excellence
within the institutions.

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• Both public and school libraries will be extensively used to increase the readership across
the country. Public libraries will be strengthened and modernized with latest technology
who will.
• The Government will provide infrastructure to ensure adult education and lifelong
learning processes to all interested in Education. The public library spaces shall be used
for adult education and other activities for support local communities, particularly in
villages for their information need during non-school hours community engagement and
skill development.
• Government will promote skill development and acceptable career paths for library staff
and ensure appropriate staffing to meet its goal to digital transformation of library
facilities and services.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. What are the steps in developing policy framework?
a) Define actions
b) Layout plan
c) Marketing of decisions
d) Actions to be taken
2. NEP 2020 does not cover which of the following aspects?
a) Access to information
b) Technology transfer between organizations
c) Bridging urban rural digital divide
d) Affordable education for all
3. When is IT Action Plan developed in India?
a) 1988
b) 1998
c) 2005
d) None
4. Who implements NDSAP policy in India?
a) Department of Science & Technology
b) Digital India
c) Department of Electronics & Information Technology
d) National Institute of Smart Governance
5. RTI Act 2005 policy in India?
a) Allows people to file legal requests to government agencies
b) Public Information Officer (PIO) will be designated to handle RTI queries
c) All government-owned organisations are liable to provide information
d) All private organisations are liable to provide information

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 1.7 SUMMARY
The National Information Policy (NIP) provides policy directives on how to access
and use information. NIP is viewed by different stakeholders which include research
professionals, library and information science professionals, ICT and networking experts,
policy makers, mass media and common man, from different perspectives to handle
respective work. While a single policy can hardy meet needs of different stakeholders,
government has from time to time has constituted working groups who framed a number of
policies relevant to LIS professionals.
While early NIP initiatives in this regard was resulted into working of NISSAT, NIC,
however, realizing the power of ICT to drive future information society, Information
Technology Action Plan was framed in 1998. Many information systems and policies have
come up in last few decades, however, major NIPs relevant to LIS professionals include
Freedom of Information Act which later replaced by Right to Information Act 2005, National
Information Technology Policy 2021, National Data Sharing and Access policy 2012 and
National Education Policy 2020. All these policies have far reaching impact on performance
of library and information centres in India.

1.8 GLOSSARY
ABC Academic bank of credit
DST Department of Science & Technology
HEI Higher Education Institution
ICT Information and communication technology
ITeS Information Technology enabled Services
MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development
NDSAP National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy
NEP National Education Policy
NIP National Information Policy
NSDI National Spatial Data Infrastructure
PIO Public Information Officer
RTI Right to Information Act
UNISIST United Nations International Scientific Information System

1.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Marketing of decisions 4. Department of Electronics & Information
2.Technology transfer between Technology
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organizations 5. All private organisations are liable to
3. 1998 provide information

1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1.Explain the concept of learning. Discuss personal factors that influence learning, with
suitable examples.
2.Discuss some effective methods of learning that you would like your students to
practice in class and at home. Illustrate your answer with relevant examples.

1.11 REFERENCES
Søndergaard T, Andersen J and Hjørland B. (2003). Documents and the communication of
scientific and scholarly information: Revising and updating the UNISIST model.
Journal of Documentation, 9(3):278-320.
Muir A and Oppenheim C. (2002). National Information Developments Worldwide, 4 parts.
Journal of Information Science, 28 (3-6)
Neelameghan A. (1999). Information Economy and Knowledge Society: An Introduction,
Part 3: Economics and Policy Aspects. Information Studies, 5 (4).
Rajagopalan T S and Rajan T N. (1986). National Information Policy for India: A
Perspective. In B.M. Gupta, [et al.]. (eds.) Handbook of Libraries, Archives and
Information Centres in India. New Delhi: Information Industry Publications.
Singh K K. (2021). Libraries @ national education policy (NEP 2020) in India. IP Indian
Journal of Library Science and Information Technology. Available at
https://www.ijlsit.org/html-article/16823
DSIR. (1998). Information Technology Action Plan. Available at
http://164.100.166.67/vol-17-no-3-july-september-1998-information-technology-
action-plan
National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy. (2012) available at
https://geoportal.mp.gov.in/geoportal/Content/Policies/NDSAP_2012.pdf
https://data.gov.in, Accessed on 1 August 2022
National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP). The Gazette of India (17 March
2012), Available at https://data.gov.in/sites/default/files/NDSAP.pdf
IT Action Plan.(1998) available at http://it-taskforce.nic.in, Accessed on 1 August 2022
Government of India, (1998). National Task Force on Information
Technology and Software Development. Information Technology Action Plan.
Available at https://informatics.nic.in/uploads/pdfs/adc92956_July1998.pdf

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Søndergaard T, Andersen J and Hjørland B. (2003). Documents and the communication of
scientific and scholarly information: Revising and updating the UNISIST model.
Journal of Documentation, 9(3):278-320.
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Muir A and Oppenheim C. (2002). National Information Developments Worldwide, 4 parts.
Journal of Information Science, 28 (3-6)

**************LMS Feedback: [email protected]*************

LESSON 2.3
National Information Systems: NISCAIR, DESIDOC,
NASSDOC, SENDOC, ENVIS, etc.

Dr P K Bhattacharya
Associate Director and Senior Fellow
The Energy and Resources Institute
New Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 National Information Systems (NIS)
1.3.1 National Information Systems on Science & Technology
1.3.2 National Information Systems on Social Sciences & Humanities
1.4 Recent Government Initiatives Supporting National Information System
1.4.1 National Knowledge Commission (NKC)
1.4.2 National Mission on Libraries
1.4.3 National Mission for Manuscript
1.4.4 National Digital Library of India (NDLI)
1.4.5 Digital India programme
1.5 National Organizations Supporting Information Systems
1.5.1 University Grants Commission (UGC)
1.5.2 Raja Rammohun Roy Library Foundation (RRRLF), Calcutta
1.5.3 National Library of India
1.5.4 National Medical Library (NML)
1.5.5 National Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM)
1.5.6 National Institute of Smart Government (NISG)
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References

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 1.11 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Widespread use of computer and communication technologies in information dissemination
would require compatibility of systems for information exchange. Many sectoral sub-systems
working collectively in India to fill the gap of an over-arching National Information System.
Multiple actors in government owns various sub-systems and provide seamless physical and
digital access of information in present days, these include national systems and
organizations, information centres and networks, online knowledge portals etc created mostly
by government. In this chapter, you will understand past and present information systems,
their functioning and facilities. Learning objectives and outcome of this Chapter include
• Role of past and present National Information Systems in different sectors
• National information centres and related information infrastructure
• Existing national information systems
• National organizations supporting information systems

1.2 INTRODUCTION
A number of national systems, information organisations and centres have been established
by Government of India over the years to contribute towards promotion, coordination and
development of library and information services. These include governmental bodies,
network of multiple organization working towards a common cause and voluntary
professional organisations. Some of the private bodies have also contributed in this journey
of development of Nation Information Systems in India. National organisations like UGC
and RRRLF, the National Information System for Science and Technology of India; and
National Documentation Centres of India, such as the Indian National Scientific
Documentation Centre (INSDOC, now NISCAIR), the National Social Science
Documentation Centre (NASSDOC) and the Defence Scientific Information and
Documentation Centre (DESIDOC). These organizations collectively function in providing
advisory, catalytic, funding support towards working of multiple national information
systems in India.
While developing a single overarching National Information System is complex task, sector
specific national systems, centres and digital tools have been developed to foster networking,
resource sharing and cooperation in collaborative knowledge creation, dissemination, e-
governance and handling of information services.
1.3 NATIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (NIS)
Over the years as outcome of government initiatives several national level
information centres and agencies have come up for providing information access to society.
Some premiere national information systems have been created in past few decades to

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promote information sharing and knowledge based services. This chapter will highlight some
of these systems along with their objective, functions and achievements.
National Information Systems can broadly be divided based on their subject coverage and
nature of services.
• NIS on Science and Technology
• NIS on Social Sciences and Humanities
These include national information systems and networks such as NISSAT, NIC, INSDOC,
NASSDOC, DESIDOC, DELNET, INFLIBNET, ENVIS, BTIS etc.
Further to this, some other national organizations like UGC, RRRLF, NASSCOM, National
Library etc and government programmes including Knowledge Commission, National
Mission on Libraries and many systems developed have helped promoting information to
citizens through systematic approach. These government systems, supported by suitable ICT
technology and education policies have paved the way for modern sector specific information
systems. In recent times major focus was given on developing e-governance infrastructure
through Digital India programmes.
1.3.1 National Information Systems on Science & Technology:
The contents should be divided into smaller chunks and structured under heading and
sub-headings. The purpose is to present a logical and graded arrangement of subject matter.
The language should be simple and easy to understand. It should not be bookish and full of
jargon. The language used should be appropriate to the level of the learner.
Indian government has created and promoted national information systems and networks in
science & technology areas to create countries human resource capability in techno-savy
India with an innovative mind-set. Government of India have been emphasizing need for
innovation, research and development in scientific fields since independence, however, these
initiatives were having bottlenecks of providing relevant information access to research and
academic communities, huge information infrastructure development cost across India.
However, these initiatives got a real boost with development in ICT based networking
technologies, which has resulted in setting up of number of national level information
systems and national information organizations. Some important systems are highlighted
here.

1.3.1.1 National Information System for Science and Technology (NISSAT)

NISSAT programme was launched by DSIR, Govt of India with the broad objective of
interlinking and coordinating a large number of information sources, systems and services
into an effective network under an overall coordinating agency (Lahiri, 1986). The NISSAT
programme was formally started operational in September 1977 with National Focal Point
located in DSIR, New Delhi with the following objectives:
• Development of national information services
• Promotion of existing information systems and services
• Introduction of modern information handling tools and techniques

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• Promotion of international cooperation in information
• Development of indigenous products and services
• Organisation of skill development programmes and
• Promotion of R&D in information science and technology

NISSAT strategies were primarily to put emphasis on contents creation and providing access,
knowledge sharing using existing infrastructural facilities, creating process to intellectual
property protection, and commercialisation of Information Services. As a result a number of
information products, skills and services were developed. However, thrust areas of NISSAT
were continuously modified, keeping in tune with the global information scenario during its
operations from 1977-2002 (DSIR Annual Report, 2002-2003). During it’s 25 years of
operation, NISSAT programme achieved the following desired objectives:
• Establishing & functioning national information centres:NISSAT established sectoral
national information centres (Table-1) were usually built around the existing information
resources and facilities across India, who already have established library and
information centres. Majority of these centres were established in Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR) institutes across India. The objective was to provide
access to relevant sectoral R&D and industrial information to users across India from
centralized sources.

Table: NISSAT sectoral national information centres

Name of National Information Centre Host Institution
National Information Centre for Leather and Central Leather Institute, Chennai
Allied Industries (NICLAI)
National Information Centre for Food Central Food Technological Research
Sciences (NICFOS) Institute, Mysore
National Information Centre for Machine Central Machine Tools Institute, Bangalore
Tools and Production Engineering
(NICMAP)
National Information Centre for Drugs and Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow
Pharmaceuticals (NICDAP)
National Information Centre for Textiles Ahmedabad Textile Industry's Research
and Allied Subjects (NICTAS) Association (ATIRA)
National Information Centre for Chemistry National Chemical Laboratory, Pune
and Chemical Technology (NICHEM)
National Information Centre for Indian Institute of Management,
Management (NICMAN) Ahmedabad
National Information Centre for Marine and National Institute of Oceanography, Goa
Aquatic Sciences (NICMAS)
National Information Centre for Advanced Central Glass and Ceramic Research

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Ceramics (NICAC) Institute, Calcutta
National Information Centre for National Institute of Science
Bibliometrics (NCB) Communication and Information Resources
(NISCAlR), New Delhi
National Information Centre for University of Madras, Chennai
Crystallography (NICRYS)
National Information Centre for CD-Rom National Aerospace Laboratory, Bangalore
(NICDROM)
CD-Rom National Collection Centre Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi
(NCCC)

• Knowledge network: NISSAT initiated a project for a Knowledge Network using local
language electronic database. The objective of the project was to collect, document,
translate in local languages and digitize innovations and examples of outstanding
traditional knowledge mainly from rural areas, organize these in a multimedia database.
• National Access Centres to International Database Services (NACID): NISSAT
established 11 NACID facilities in select cities for providing online facility to access
international database services such as Dialog and STN databases.
• National server on factual science and technology information: The aim of this project
was to collect and collate factual information from diverse sources, and host these on a
server christened VIGYAN (http://www.vigyan.org.in) for national and international
access. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, set up the server and managed the
operations.
• National websites on S&T subjects: NISSAT initiated creation of several national
websites for national and international access, such as websites on Intellectual Property
Rights (http://www.iprlawindia.org), Knowledge Management (http://www.kmindia.org),
Indian Traditional Textile Design (http://www.indiantextiledesign.com), Food Science
and Technology (http://www.mylibnet.org), etc.
• Database development activities: NISSAT completed 11 database development projects
such as Biographical database of Indian Scientists, Directory of Libraries and Information
Centres in Gujarat, databases on Virus and Virology, Directory of S&T institutions in
India, S.R. Ranganathan’s works and letters, Database on Folk Wisdom, etc.
• Library networks: NISSAT has initiated library/information network development
activities. ADINET in Ahmedabad, BONET in Mumbai, CALIBNET in Calcutta,
DELNET in New Delhi, MYLIBNET in Mysore and PUNENET in Pune
• Union catalogue: To serve as a valuable tool to provide information on the availability of
serials in the selected cities. Promoted development of Union List of Current & Scientific
Serials (ULCSS) in major cities Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Mumbai, Calcutta, New Delhi,
Goa, Nagpur, Pune and Ranchi. Also completed union list of scientific serials in Oil

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 Sector. Besides, Online access centers to international data services, CDROM based SDI
services have been developed
• Information Technology application: NISSAT acquired rights of software packages like
CDS/ISIS for bibliographic information processing and retrieval and IDAMS for
statistical data processing from UNESCO. SANJAY tool was developed to improve
libraries housekeeping and service function through automation. Also, TRISHNA tool
developed in collaboration with National Institute of Science Technology and
Development Studies (NISTADS), New Delhi supports the use of CDS/ISIS using a
GIST CARD for materials in Devnagari scripts. This package was distributed to
ASTINFO member countries like Nepal and Bangaladesh.
• Vidyanidhi database: Vidyanidhi was an information infrastructure, a digital library, a
portal of resources, tools and facilities for doctoral research in India. Vidyanidhi was
envisioned to evolve as a national repository and a consortium for e-theses through
participation and partnership with universities, academic institutions and other stake
holders. Vidyanidhi was created at Mysore University with the support of NISSAT.
• Skill development: NISSAT encouraged and supported manpower development
programmes such as application of computers in library and information centers, use of
personal computers & CDS/ISIS, TQM in library services, science and technical
communication, scientomertics & bibliometrics, etc. Also, NISSAT has developed post-
graduate course on information and knowledge management in collaboration with
National Centre for Science Information (NCSI) and Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore, to evolve a model that could fill in the gap in professional manpower demand
and supply and could be replicated elsewhere.
• Regional cooperation: NISSAT advisory committee also functioned as the National
Advisory Committee of UNISIST and the National Advisory Group for
ASTINFO/UNESCO (Regional Network for the Exchange of Information and
Experiences in Asia and the pacific/UNESCO).
• Virtual information center: A virtual Information Center at ICICI Knowledge Park,
Hyderabad, was set up under a three-year project for providing a gateway to existing
information centers and fast and reliable access to information and interaction among
industry, academia and public research institutions in the area of Science and
Technology.
• E-publishing of scholarly journals: With the help of NISSAT, Indian National Science
Academy started converting the back volumes of its journal in e-format and established a
mechanism to publish the current journals also in e-format. INSA was expected to help
other organizations in this matter in future.
• Model for web-driven distance education: NISSAT, in collaboration with Indira Gandhi
National Open University, New Delhi, initiated a project to evolve a model that would
include online lectures, chat, discussions with experts, online submission, and evaluation
of exercises, etc.

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• National mapping of science: In consultation with and active participation of subject
specialists, NISSAT formulated a plan of action for scientometric and informetric studies
in India. As a first step in the implementation of a program of coordinated research, ten
projects on National Mapping of Science using CAB, Compendex, Inspec, Science
Citation Index, MEDLINE Plus, BIOSIS, EMBASE, GeoRef, CAB, Agricola, and Indian
Science Abstracts were taken up.
• Other studies: NISSAT also promoted and supported research and development and
survey studies. NISSAT completed a study on “Assessment of Information Needs of
Small and Medium Enterprises in MP and setting up of information centres for fulfilling
those needs.” Two other studies on “Food Informatics and Training Opportunities in
Food Technology Networking (FITOFTN) and Digital library of Natural History of
Collections were also taken up.”
• Publications: NISSAT had been bringing out its NISSAT Newsletter—a quarterly
newsletter, since the beginning of the program. It was later renamed as Information
Today & Tomorrow (ITI) and its contents were augmented in changing information
scenario. The newsletter was being distributed free to 5000 individuals and institutions.
The last issue of the newsletter was published in 2002.

1.3.1.2 National Informatics Centre (NIC)

National Informatics Centre (NIC) was established in 1976, and has since emerged as
pioneer of e-Government / e-Governance applications up to the grassroots level as well as a
promoter of digital opportunities for sustainable development. NIC, through its ICT Network,
"NICNET", has created institutional linkages with all the Ministries, Departments of the
Central Government, 35 State Governments/ UTs and about 625 District administrations of
India.

ICT driven government programmes are spearheaded by NIC to derive competitive

advantage by implementing ICT applications in social & public administration. NIC has been
instrumental in steering e-Government/e-Governance applications in government
ministries/establishments across India facilitating government services. It also supports
transparency in government services, promote decentralized planning and management for
efficient functioning of government and ensures accountability. The following major
activities are being undertaken by NIC:
• Setting up of ICT infrastructure across India
• Facilitating ICT based products and services from government
• Implementation of national and state level e-governance projects
• Consultancy to the government departments
• Capacity building of government and civil society
• Research and development towards new tools, process development

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During the last three decades, NIC has developed "network centric" application software for
programme implementation in various ministries and departments, using state-of-the-
technology software tools. During 1980s and early 1990s, the policy thrust was on creating
"Management Information System (MIS)" and "Decision Support System (DSS)" for
development, planning and responsive administration in governments which led to the
genesis of present day "e-Governance" / "e-Government". Bridging the “Digital Divide",
"social and financial inclusion through ICT and "reaching- the-unreached" concepts were
tried and made operational in the late nineties.

Source: https://www.nic.in/

NIC works in broad area of ICT planning, strategizing, implementation, monitoring and data
sorage of government in coordination with other government ministries/agencies. Some of
the major functions of NIC include the following:
• NIC has set up state-of-the-art ICT infrastructure consisting of national and state Data
Centres to manage the information systems and websites of central ministries/
departments, disaster recovery centres, network operations facility to manage
heterogeneous networks spread across bhawans, states and districts, certifying authority,
video-conferencing and capacity building across the country.
• NIC has several national data servers, robust cyber protection and large quantity of
government open and restricted data. Besides, it also develop several knowledge
management systems for ministries (websites), government schemes and programmes
such as MyGov, Make India, Skill India, Swatchch Bharat, Namami Ganga, etc.
• It provides Nationwide Common ICT Infrastructure to support e-Governance services to
the citizen, Products and Solutions designed to address e-Governance Initiatives, Major
e-Governance Projects, State/UT Informatics Support and district level services rendered.

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• NIC secured vast expertise in the design, development and operationalization of various
e-Government projects in all the areas where government has taken ICT-led initiatives
and implementation. NIC also provides many types of information services viz.
Biomedical Information Service, Patent Information Service and Rural Information
Service. In Biomedical Information Service, NIC and ICMR (Indian Council of Medical
Research) have jointly set up Indian Medlars Centre (IMC) to cater to the Information
needs of medical community of India. NIC has designed and developed 3 databases viz.,
IndMED, medIND and Union Catalogue of Biomedical Periodicals to provide quick and
easy access to Indian biomedical literature. NIC provides online and oflline patents
information services for users. Services' offered are bibliographic search, abstracts and
full-text patent document services. Databases used for online searching include EPIDOS,
INPADOC, USPTO, WPO etc which covers bibliography of patents applied and granted
in 65 countries since 1968,consisting of over 33 million references. Besides, in 1986 NIC
in Rural Information Service. This is outcome of NIC’s IT services in villages to
facilitate planning, monitoring and exchange of information between various agencies in
rural development administration.
• National Knowledge Network (NKN) has been set up to connect institutions/
organizations carrying out research and development, Higher Education and Governance
with speed of the order of multi Gigabits per second. Further, State Government
secretariats are connected to the Central Government by very high speed links on Optical
Fiber Cable (OFC). Districts are connected to respective State capitals through leased
lines.
• Various initiatives like Government e-Procurement System (GePNIC), Office
Management Software (e-Office), Hospital Management System (e-Hospital),
Government Financial Accounting Information System (e-Lekha), National Land
Records Modernization Programme (NLRMP), Transport and National Registry,
Treasury Computerisation, VAT, MG-NREGA, India-Portal, e-Courts, Postal Life
Insurance, etc.

1.3.1.3 Environmental Information System (ENVIS)

The Economic Division, Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government
of India implements the Environmental Information System (ENVIS) Scheme since 1984.
The ENVIS serves as a single-stop web-enabled repository of comprehensive environmental
information with collection, collation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of the same
through a nationwide network of 62 ENVIS Hubs (hosted by the Environment/ Forest
Department of State Governments/ UT Administrations) and ENVIS Resource Partners (RPs)
(hosted by environment related governmental and non-governmental organizations/institutes
of professional excellence).

Objectives

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Since beginning ENVIS has been working on to collect environmental information and
bridge the information gaps in different environmental areas such as forestry & biodiversity,
pollution, waste management, wetlands development, disaster management, marine
ecosystems, clean energy, state-of-environment etc. Recently, ENVIS has revamped to
include awareness building among rural population, GIS data collection and green skill
development.

Source: http://www.envis.nic.in/index.aspx

Activities
• Promoted, implemented and coordinated Green Skill Development Programme (GSDP),
an initiative to skill youth in environment, forest and wildlife sectors and developing
livelihood generation
• Implemented National Environment Survey (NES) - a Grid-based Resource Information
and Decision Support System (GRIDSS) for sustainable management of natural
resources.
• Implemented and coordinated Community-driven Environmentally Sustainable Village
Programme (CESVP) with the objective of mobilizing rural communities on
environmental issues, creating decentralized models of development to empower local
communities and build an awareness for sustainable practices at community level.
• Developed, maintained and disseminated environmental information for research,
academics and policy support
• Enable application of modem technologies of acquisition, processing, storage, retrieval
and dissemination of information of environmental nature.
• Updation and maintenance of Indian State-Level Basic Environmental Information
Database (ISBEID) covering 337 environmental parameters at the state/district level on a
centralized server.
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Future development potential of ENVIS network include
• Building a strong statistical base such that ENVIS is recognised as a South Asian Hub for
environment information
• To promote national cooperation and liaise with agencies concerned for exchange of
environment related information.
• To promote, support and assist education and personnel training programmes designed to
enhance ESIM capabilities.

1. Biotechnology Information System Network (BTIS)

Recognizing the importance of information technology for pursuing advanced research in
modern biology and biotechnology, a bioinformatics programme was envisaged by
Department of Biotechnology (DBT) as a distributed database and network organisation, was
launched during 1986-87. The computer communication network, linking all the
bioinformatics centres, is playing a vital role in the success of the bioinformatics programme.
Database development, R&D activities in bioinformatics, human resource development and a
variety of services in support of biotechnology R&D programmes and projects, has made this
programme very useful to the scientific community. Over the years, this programme has
evolved as a vehicle to transfer and exchange of information, scientific knowledge,
technology packages and references in the country.

The Biotechnology Information Centre (BTIC), established at the Department of

Biotechnology is coordinating the entire network activities of 46 Sub-Distributed Information
Centres, located in universities and research institutes of national importance. The BTIS
maintains DBT website, Patent Facilitating Cell as well as maintaining several directories
and databases on the research projects funded by this department. Other important activities
of BTIS include:

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 Source: http://www.btisnet.gov.in/

• The Network has emerged as a sophisticated scientific infrastructure for bioinformatics

involving state-of-the-art computational and communication facilities
• Six national facilities have been set up for interactive graphics based molecular modelling
and other bio-computational needs
• Four long term courses at the level of post MSc Diploma in Bioinformatics, at Poona
University, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Calcutta University and Madurai Kamaraj
University are full-filling the long outstanding need for trained human resources
• More than 100 databases dealing with different aspects and of relevance to R&D efforts
in biotechnology are now available on the network
• A national node of EMBnet has been established at the Centre of DNA Fingerprinting
and Diagnostics (CDFD), Hyderabad

With these resources now available on the BTISnet, it has now become a single largest
information resource for all references to biotechnology related literature, scientific data,
patent information, policy matters and related issues.

1.4 NATIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS ON SOCIAL

SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

1.4.1 National Social Science Documentation Centre (NASSDOC)

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National Social Science Documentation Centre (NASSDOC), was established in 1969 as a
Division of the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) with the objective to
provide library and information support services to researchers in social sciences; those
working in academic institutions, autonomous research organisations, policy making,
planning and research units of government departments, business and industry etc.
NASSDOC also provides guidance to libraries of ICSSR supported Research Institutes and
Regional Centres.

NASSDOC intends to meet challenges of digital environment for social scientists by

creating, applying and utilizing information with ICT driven services, automated library
collection, WEBOPAC, online databases/e-resources etc. NASSDOC has a rich collection of
reference sources, bibliographies, 5,500 doctoral theses, over 11,000 bound volumes of
periodicals, 3400 research project reports and 15,500 books. Besides, users can also access
working papers, seminar papers, ICSSR publications, other subscribed resources etc.

Source: https://icssr.org/nassdoc

NASSDOC provides varieties of documentation, library and information services in social

science areas, which include following services and database development/maintenance.
NASSDOC services and Databases

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• Library and reference service • Annotated Index to Indian Social
• Bibliography on demand Science Journals
• Online Databases/CDs search facility • Directory of Social Science Research
• Literature search from e-resources and Training Institutes in India, 2005
• Acquisition of Ph.D theses, Grey • Directory of Social Scientists in India,
literature 2006
• Document delivery/inter-library loan • Holding List of Periodicals, 2007
• Provides Current Awareness Service to • ICSSR Research Project Reports, 2000-
social scientists and LIS professionals by 2005 (Abstracts)
bringing out different publications on • INSPEL (Indian Social Science
regular basis eg. New Arrivals, Periodical Literature) up to 1970
Bibliographic Reprints, Conference (Retrospective Index)
Alert, Doctoral Dissertation Abstracts • Union List of Current Social Science &
• Provides access to JSTORE to ICSSR Humanities Periodicals: Delhi Libraries,
research institutes 2004-05.
• Consortium of E-resources: ICSSR has • Digitized access to PhD theses
established ICSSR Consortium of e-
resources.

Other services and information products

Web-hosting of ICSSR Journals (ICSSR Journal of Abstracts and Reviews on Economics,
Geography, Political Science, Sociology and Social Anthropology; Indian Psychological
Abstracts and Reviews)
Supporting LIS projects & other funding support
• NASSDOC supports bibliographical and documentation projects which may include
research proposals in the field of library and information sciences and compilation of
research / reference tools for the social scientists. The project proposals should fall under
one of the following categories:
• Financial assistance to PhD Scholars for consulting libraries and archives anywhere in
India.
• Grants-in-Aid to Bibliographical and Documentation Projects: Financial assistance for
research in Library and Information Science and compilation of research/reference tools
for social scientists.
• Continuing Education Programme: Short-term training workshops / seminars / interactive
sessions / lectures for the social science community & Library and Information Science
Professionals to upgrade their knowledge.
• Apprenticeship and Internship: Practical training for library and information Science
students.

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1.4.2 National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources
(NISCAIR)
NISCAIR, a body under Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), erstwhile
known as Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC), came into existence
in 2002 with the merger of National Institute of Science Communication (NISCOM) and
Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC). Both NISCOM and INSDOC
were devoted to dissemination and documentation of S&T information across India.
Objectives
• Develop formal linkages of communication and disseminate information among the
scientific community in different areas of S&T, public, students to inculcate interest in
science.
• Collect, collate and disseminate information on plant, animal and mineral wealth of the
country.
• Promote information technology applications in information management through
science communication and modernizing libraries.
• Act as a facilitator in providing timely access to relevant information in economic, social,
industrial and scientific areas.
• Develop human resources in science communication, library and documentation services.
• Collaborate with international institutions and organizations

Achievements
• Implementation of Online Access of NISCAIR's Primary Journals through open source
digital repository system software. The repository has about 6400 articles.
• NISCAIR is the nodal organization for developing a National Knowledge Resource
Consortium (formerly CSIR e-Journals Consortium) for CSIR laboratories for accessing
e-journals. The activity includes subscription, monitoring access facility of scientific
periodicals published by leading publishers and international institutions.
• NISCAIR developed and maintain the TKDL (Traditional Knowledge Digital Library)
database to protect Indian traditional medicinal plant information from international
misuse. This is done through international Patent Classification (IPC)-Traditional
Knowledge Resource Classification (TKRC) concordance list.

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Activities and Services
• NISCAIR maintains Online periodicals Repository, National Science Library, National
Knowledge Resource Consortium, National Union Catalogue, multiple databases, etc and
provide services to S&T community.
• NISCAIR facilitates science communication, dissemination and S&T information
management systems and services using modern IT infrastructure. NISCAIR collect,
store, publish and disseminate S&T information through a mix of traditional and modern
means
• The institute offers wide range of information services ranging from literature search to
production and printing of S&T publications.
• The institute has strong human resource development programme for training personnel
in library & information science, documentation, science communication etc.
• NISCAIR also undertakes projects on turnkey basis for other organizations in design and
development of databases, automation and modernization of libraries, editing and
production of various publications like journals, books, conference proceedings, annual
reports, etc.

1.4.3 Defence Scientific Information and Documentation Centre (DESIDOC)

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DESIDOC was established in 1958 under the Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO) to serve primarily the information requirements of DRDO scientists.
In 1967, it became an independent institution under DRDO.
Objective: DESIDOC functions as a central agency in DRDO to collect scientific and
technical information from various published and unpublished sources and to process and
disseminate it to various user groups in the defence establishments. It has also a coordination
role in the information set-up of DRDO. DESIDOC library, Defence Science Library (DSL),
is a fully automated ISO 9001:2008 certified library to provide information related to defence
science and technology to the project leaders, top management, and research community of
DRDO within least possible time.
DSL strength: The DSL is equipped with RFID technology and has a rich collection in the
fields of physics, chemistry, materials, electronics, aerospace, life sciences, computer
science, mathematics, remote sensing and defence science technology. It has rich collection
of 75,000 books, one lakh technical reports, 30,000 SPIE conference proceedings and latest
defence related reference materials. It has special collection of standards, specifications,
Jane’s publications etc. to meet the information requirement of scientific community. It
subscribes to 600 online journals and 200 print periodicals. DSL has one lakh bound volumes
of journals from various publishers.
DESIDOC Services: DSL provides both traditional and digital library services to users. The
following library services are extended to the scientific community of DRDO as per their
information requirements
• Digital Library & E-Services (DILES)
• Koha OPAC
• Current awareness service including newspaper clipping service
• Selective Dissemination of Information Service
• Infowatch Service (Cluster based)
• Reference Service
• DESIDOC provides DRDO E-Journals service to DRDO fraternity. Nearly 50 lakh full
text articles were viewed by users.

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Source: https://www.drdo.gov.in/labs-and-establishments/defence-scientific-information-
documentation-centre-desidoc

• Digital Library & E-Services (DILES)

• It is providing Library Automation Service to all DRDO TIRCs and subsequently, will
integrate the OPACs of all these libraries, so that DRDO users will be able to search the
library holdings of any DRDO TIRC through a single interface
• It is a digital library platform for DRDO, so that all the library resources (OPACs and E-
resource like e-Journals, e-Books etc) can be accessed (searched or browsed) through this
single platform. This platform provides access to a pool of openly available e-resources
also. Presently 3000 DRDO scientists/ staff are benefitting from this e-Library by
enrolling themselves as members.
• This digital library platform of DRDO is also accessible through mobiles and other hand-
held devices to ensure ‘Anywhere-Anytime Access’ of e-resources. To ensure this, the
division has developed dedicated mobile-app for library services.
• DILES also looking after the National Digital Library related activities of DESIDOC
which is the nodal agency on behalf of DRDO.
Network service: DESIDOC is responsible for designing; hosting and maintenance of
DRDO website on Internet, DRDO Intranet administration and co-ordination, designing,
hosting, maintenance of DESIDOC website, Internet services through OFC based leased
lines. The division is also engaged in software development, hardware maintenance, network
management

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DRDO Publications: DESIDOC brings out publication of three peer-reviewed journals;
Defence Science Journal (DSJ), Defence Life Science Journal (DLSJ) and DESIDOC Journal
of Library & Information Technology (DJLIT). DESIDOC also publishes Monographs and
special publications authored by retired eminent scientists. Further, it brings out a monthly
DRDO Newsletter which is bilingual and a bi-monthly magazine Technology Focus

1.4.4 Small Enterprises National Documentation Centre (SENDOC)

SENDOC was set up in 1970 by SIET to support MSMEs in India and the developing
countries around the world with information and knowledge. Since then, it has been
functioning as a clearing house of information both for entrepreneurs and extension agents.
The Centre has emerged as a one-stop global and IT powered information centre for a wide
spectrum of MSMEs, academia, students, research institutions, industry associations and
entrepreneurs.
Objectives: The objectives of the Centre are to collect, store and disseminate techno-
managerial information pertaining to MSMEs and to conduct need and demand based
training programmes.
Strengths: The library of the SENDOC possesses 70,000 books, 18,000 back volumes of
journals, 30,000 reports, 65,000 journal abstracts, 7,500 product profiles, and subscribes to
140 national and international periodicals. It has also a collection that provides information
on statistics, economics, production, finance, marketing, technology, machinery and
equipment, raw materials, consultants, Government policies and programmes, exports and
imports, investment, trade and area literature, licensing, etc. Experts working in the Centre
scan and arrange information systematically for quick retrieval using LIMS (Library
Information Management System) package. The information is accessible through our
website www.nimsme.org.
Services: Some of the important services provided by the Centre for MSMEs are:
• Inter-library lending of documents
• Lending of books
• Reference Services (preparation of bibliographies) and literature search
• Newspaper clippings (on select items)
• Technical enquiry
• Reprographic Services
• It also provides consultancy service, product profiles, and organises training programmes
for clientele on cost.
Publications: SENDOC plays a crucial role in the publication of the primary quarterly
research journal ‘Small Enterprises Development, Management and Extension (SEDME)’
since 1974 which is dedicated to small entrepreneurs and academia who wish to express and
exchange their thoughts on any facet of MSMEs. It also publishes monthly News Bulletin
(monthly) highlighting MSME development news.

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 1.4.5 Developing Library Network (DELNET)
DELNET, was set up as a society in 1992. It was initially supported by the NISSAT, DSIR,
Government of India, but was subsequently supported by the National Informatics Centre,
Department of Information Technology, Ministry of Communications and Information
Technology, Government of India and the Ministry of Culture, Government of India.

Source: https://delnet.in/index.html
Objectives
DELNET was established to promote resource sharing among the libraries through the
development of a network of libraries. It was aimed to collect, store and disseminate
information to users and also to build computerised databases, union catalogues and offer
services on user demand. The resource sharing was aimed to reduce duplication of information
resources and cost reduction in organizations wherever possible.

Activities
DELNET has been actively engaged with the compilation of various
UnionCatalogues of the resources available in 5000 member-libraries. It has created and
maintain Union Catalogues and databases of books, periodicals, CD-ROMs, Indian
specialists, articles, video recordings, urdu manuscripts, theses and dissertations, Indian
language publications etc. All the DELNET databases have been developed on in-house
software developed on BASISPlus, an RDBMS which has been provided by NIC.
DELNET'S relentless efforts in resource sharing has contributed a lot towards the
modernization of libraries in India. It has provided document delivery and inter library loan
support, library automation and software development support and reference services to
member libraries.
1.4.6 Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET)
INFLIBNET (Information and Library Network) was set up under UGC in 1991, is a
computer communication network for linking libraries and information centres in

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universities, deemed to be universities, colleges, UGC information centres, institutions of
national importance and R&D institutions, etc.
Objectives
INFLIBNET to promote and establish communication facilities and provide knowledge
access to improve capability in information transfer that provide support to resource sharing,
learning, research and academic pursuit and skill development through cooperation and
involvement of agencies concerned. Major objectives include
• Establish a national library network interconnecting various libraries and information
centres in the country and to improve capability in information handling and services
• Promote and implement computerization of operations and services in the libraries and
information centres of the country
• Promote uniform standard and guidelines in LIS functions, techniques, procedures,
computer hardware and software and services
• Encourage and facilitates sharing of resources towards optimal use through shared
cataloguing, inter-library loan, catalogue production, collection building, database
development
• Provide reliable access to document collection of libraries by creating on-line
union catalogue of serials, theses/ dissertations, books, monographs and non-book
materials
• Provide access to bibliographic information sources with citations, abstracts,
etc. through indigenously created databases
• Create databases of projects, institutions, specialists, etc. and facilitates on-line
information service delivery
• Train and develop human resources in the field of computerized library operations and
networking.
Major Activities
INFLIBNET centre has taken-up a number of new initiatives for benefit of the academic and
research community in universities and colleges. These initiatives include
• Shodhganga: a reservoir of Indian Theses and Dissertations
• Shodhgangotri: a repository of approved synopsis submitted to the universities for
registration under Ph.D programme
• OJAS@INFLIBNET: An open access journal publishing platform
• Shibboleth-based access management system
• Development of open source software R& D promotion
• InfoPort: A comprehensive gateway to all Indian electronic scholarly content
• e-PG Pathshala: a platform of e-Contents for PG courses in different disciplines
• Measuring research output of Indian Universities.
• The centre developed and promoted SoUL software to standardize library OPAC and
collection development

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Also, INFLIBNNET initiated "UGC-Infonet Digital Library Consortium" and provided
access to major scholarly electronic journals and databases in different disciplines. The
Centre is responsible for execution and monitoring access to e-resources to all Govt. / Govt-
aided colleges under a project entitled "National Library and Information Infrastructure for
Scholarly Content (N-LIST)" funded by the MHRD.

1.5 RECENT GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES SUPPORTING

NATIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEM
1.5.1 National Knowledge Commission (NKC)
The ability of a nation to use and create knowledge capital determines its capacity to
empower and enable its citizens by increasing human capabilities. In the next few decades,
India will have the largest set of young people in the world. Following a knowledge oriented
paradigm of development would enable India to leverage this demographic advantage.
With this broad task in mind, the National Knowledge Commission (NKC) was constituted
and functioned during October 2005 to 2nd October 2008. As a high-level advisory body to
the Prime Minister of India, the National Knowledge Commission has been given a mandate
to guide policy and direct reforms, focusing on certain key areas such as education, science
and technology, agriculture, industry, e-governance etc. Easy access to knowledge, creation
and preservation of knowledge systems, dissemination of knowledge and better knowledge
services are core concerns of the commission.
Objectives
The overarching aim of the National Knowledge Commission was to enable the development
of a vibrant knowledge based society. This include both a radical improvement in existing
systems of knowledge and also creating avenues for generating new forms of knowledge.
Greater participation and more equitable access to knowledge across all sections of society
were recognized as vital components in achieving these goals.
In view of the above, the NKC wanted to develop appropriate institutional frameworks to:
• Strengthen the education system, promote domestic research and innovation and
facilitate knowledge application in sectors like health, agriculture, and industry.
• Leverage information and communication technologies to enhance governance and
improve connectivity.
• Devise mechanisms for exchange and interaction between knowledge systems in the
global arena.
In its endeavour to transform the knowledge landscape of the country, the National
Knowledge Commission had submitted around 300 recommendations on 27 focus areas
during its three and a half year term where constitution of National Library Mission was
recommended for implementation under Ministry of Culture, Government of India.
While the term of the NKC has come to an end, the implementation of NKC's
recommendations is currently underway at the Central and State levels in various forms.

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Some of the recommendations of NKC have already been undertaken for implementation as
part of other government schemes.
1.5.2 National Mission on Libraries
National Mission on Libraries has been set up by Ministry of Culture, Government of India,
on May, 2012 in pursuance of National Knowledge Commission recommendations for
sustained attention for development of Libraries and Information Science Sector. National
Mission on Libraries set up four working groups and after deliberating on the
recommendations of the working groups formulated the scheme "National Mission on
Libraries (NML) - upgradation of libraries providing service to the public". The scheme
consists of four components.
Creation of National Virtual Library of India (NVLI) - The purpose of National Virtual
Library of India is to facilitate a comprehensive database on digital resources on information
about India and on information generated in India, in an open access environment.
Setting up of NML Model Libraries - The setting up on NML Model Libraries would
develop 6 Libraries under Ministry of Culture, 35 State Central Libraries and 35 District
Libraries with particular emphasis on economically backward districts, as model Libraries. In
addition, 629 district libraries across the states would be provided network connectivity.
Quantitative & Qualitative Survey of Libraries - The Quantitative and Qualitative Survey of
Libraries would be undertaken to prepare a baseline data of libraries in India through a
survey of 5000 Libraries.
Capacity Building - The Capacity Building would be undertaken to enhance the professional
competence of library personnel.
1.5.3 National Mission for Manuscript
The National Mission for Manuscripts was established in February 2003, by the Ministry of
Tourism and Culture, Government of India. A unique project in its programme and mandate,
the Mission seeks to unearth and preserve the vast manuscript wealth of India. India
possesses an estimate of five million manuscripts, probably the largest collection in the
world. These cover a variety of themes, textures and aesthetics, scripts, languages,
calligraphies, illuminations and illustrations. Together, they constitute the ‘memory' of
India's history, heritage and thought. These manuscripts lie scattered across the country and
beyond, in numerous institutions as well as private collections, often unattended and
undocumented.
The National Mission for Manuscripts aims to locate, document, preserve and render these
accessible—to connect India's past with its future, its memory with its aspirations.
• Locate manuscripts through national level Survey and Post-Survey.
• Document each and every manuscript and manuscript repository, for a National
Electronic Database that currently contains information on one million manuscripts making
this the largest database on Indian manuscripts in the world
• Conserve manuscripts incorporating both modern and indigenous methods of
conservation and training a new generation of manuscript conservators

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• Train the next generation of scholars in various aspects of Manuscript Studies like
languages, scripts and critical editing and cataloguing of texts and conservation of
manuscripts
• Promote access to manuscripts by digitizing the rarest and most endangered
manuscripts
• Promote access to manuscripts through publication of critical editions of unpublished
manuscripts and catalogues
• Facilitate public's engagement with manuscripts through lectures, seminars,
publications and other outreach programmes
Challenges before the Mission
• The manuscript wealth of India is estimated at around five million manuscripts and is
perhaps the largest collection of in the world.
• Manuscripts are found in a vast number of languages and scripts many of which can
no longer be read.
• Manuscripts are found in different kinds of repositories—ranging from museums,
institutions of learning to private homes and houses of worship, big and small.
• Manuscripts are often found to have been neglected for decades and in very poor
physical state—insect ridden, fungus infected or brittle, fading and fragile.
• Major lack of connection between so-called ‘modern knowledge' and the knowledge
contained in manuscripts. Scholars who can study and use manuscripts are fast disappearing
and a new generation of scholars is not able to rise to the challenge. Often, the knowledge in
manuscripts is not seen as relevant to our times.
1.5.4 National Digital Library of India (NDLI)
NDLI is a virtual repository of learning resources sponsored and mentored by Ministry of
Education, Government of India, through its National Mission on Education through
Information and Communication Technology (NMEICT). It is developed, operated and
maintained from Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. NDLI offers availability of
diverse resources such as books/audio books, lectures/video lectures, presentations,
simulations, lecture notes, question papers and solutions etc. It offers a free NDLI Club
facilities to access all resources. Presently, NDLI covers over 8.6 crore resources from across
Indian organizations in multiple languages.
Objectives
• Developing a single-window learning platform to meet India’s complex mix of
learning needs spanning from multiple languages, geographies, socio-economic groups to
multiple streams and levels of proficiency.
• Paving the way to democratize education in the country through digitisation so that
access can be provided to all leading to collaborative learning, knowledge sharing and grow.
This also supports entrepreneurship in digital learning.
• A virtual teaching-learning-evaluation-knowledge discovery and innovation platform
to encourage collaborative, personalized, self-paced, new-age multi-media education at all
levels.
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• A movement for integrated digital learning across India by engaging learners and
promote effective utilization of NDLI’s vast resources through competitions, training
sessions and workshops.
• NDLI also collaborate with international reputed organizations and bring best
practices to digital learning in India.
Source: https://ndl.iitkgp.ac.in/
Services offered
• NDLI offers online search/browse facilities, which also provides a host of services for
the learner community, which include
• Filtered and federated searching to facilitate focused searching to access resources
with least effort and in minimum time.
• NDLI provides user group-specific services such as Examination Preparatory for
School and College students and job aspirants.
• NDLI is designed to hold content of any language and provides interface support for
10 most widely used Indian languages.
• It is built to provide support for all academic levels and learners from all disciplines.
• NDLI offers people to learn and prepare from best practices from all over the world
and to facilitate researchers to perform inter-linked exploration from multiple sources.
National Digital Library of India Club (NDLI Club) is an enabler of career progression for
students, job seekers, researchers and learners. NDLI Clubs are set up in institutes and nodal
bodies, and these Clubs conduct events to facilitate students to develop knowledge, skill and
traits beyond regular curriculum which are essential for their progression in respective
professional domain.
1.5.5 Digital India programme
Digital India is a flagship programme of the Government of India with a vision to transform
India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy. E-governance initiatives
in India took a broader dimension in the middle of 1990s for wider sectoral applications with
emphasis on citizen-centric services. The major ICT initiatives of the Government included
some major projects, such as railway computerization, land record computerisation etc.
which focused mainly on the development of information systems across India and facilitate
citizens journey towards a information society. Later on, many states started ambitious
individual e-governance projects aimed at providing electronic services to citizens.
Digital India has initiated many e-governance services, Apps and platforms for citizens use.
Some of the important projects conceptualised and implemented under Digital India
programme are included here.
Agrimarket App: This mobile application aims to keep farmers abreast with the crop prices
and discourage them to carry-out distress sale. Farmers can get information related to prices
of crops in markets within 50km of their own device location using the AgriMarket Mobile
App. This app automatically captures the location of the farmers using mobile GPS and
fetches the market prices of crops. Currently, the apps is available in English and Hindi
languages.
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Website. http://mkisan.gov.in/downloadmobileapps.aspx
E-Granthalaya: It is an Integrated Library Management Software developed by National
Informatics Centre,(NIC), Department of Electronics & Information Technology. The
application is useful for automation of in-house activities of libraries and to provide various
online member services. The software provides built-in Web OPAC interface to publish the
library catalogue over Internet. The software is UNICODE Compliant, thus, supports data
entry in local languages.
Website. http://egranthalaya.nic.in/
Knowledge Management System (KMS): Knowledge Management Portal has been created
to establish a culture where knowledge is captured, shared, created and reused by
government departments and officials. It provides a platform to leverage the transformation
of data to knowledge by systematically aligning with the organizational goals and strategy.
Website. https://kms.negd.in
Learning Management System (LMS): Learning Management System (LMS) is a software
application for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting and delivery of
electronic courses (e-learning) and training programs. As a capacity building tool, LMS
facilitates efficient administration of e-learning and training for various government officials
both at centre and states/union territories. It has the objective of enhancing knowledge and
skills of users as per their roles envisaged in the e-Governance Competency Framework
(eGCF).
Website. https://lms.negd.in/
Accessible India Campaign and Mobile App: Sugamya Bharat Abhiyaan or Accessible
India Campaign is a nation-wide flagship campaign for achieving universal accessibility that
enables people with disabilities to gain access for equal opportunity, live independently and
participate fully in all aspects of life in an inclusive society. The campaign targets at
enhancing the accessibility of built environment, transport system and Information and
communication ecosystem. The mobile application is a crowd sourcing platform to
comprehensively obtain information on inaccessible places across the country.
Website. http://accessibleindia.gov.in/content/
Bhim (Bharat Interface for Money): This app makes payment transactions simple, easy
and quick using Unified Payments Interface (UPI). It enables direct bank to bank payments
instantly and collect money using a Mobile number or Payment address.
Website. http://www.bhimupi.org.in/
e-Courts: A total of 11,810 courts have been computerized. Site preparation activity has
been completed at 874 courts, Local Area Network has been established at 3,508 courts, ;
Computer hardware and software has been deployed at 2,482 courts. Around 8,300 district
and subordinate courts across India have started providing key services like Case Filing,
Registration, Case Allocations, Cause Lists, Daily Case Proceedings, Case Registrations, etc.
Website: https://ecourts.gov.in/
e-Hospital: e-Hospital has been developed by NIC and has been implemented at 17 different
hospitals across the country. The modules being implemented include OPD registration
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including appointments, cash & billing, inventory management system, casualty patient
registration and in-patient registration, ward management, lab and radiology services and
blood bank management.
Website: https://ehospital.gov.in/
National e-Governance Services Ltd (NeSL): It is India’s first information utility and is
registered with the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI) under the aegis of the
Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, 2016 (IBC). The company has been set up by leading
banks and public institutions. The primary role of NeSL is to serve as a repository of legal
evidence holding the information pertaining to any debt/claim, as submitted by the financial
or operational creditor and verified and authenticated by the parties to the debt.
Website: https://nesl.co.in/
National e-Services Dashboard (NeSD): Govt. of India and State Govt. have been
implementing large number of e-Governance projects. Various G2C, G2B and G2G services
are being delivered by the Ministry/ Departments or Government Organization. The
requirements of consolidation of all the e-service transaction counts being felt at various
levels. NeSD is being conceptualized keeping in view the above mentioned requirements. It
is a graphics rich dashboard and disseminates e-Transaction statistics of Central and State
level e-Governance Projects including Mission Mode Projects (MMPs). It receives
transaction statistics from web based applications periodically on near real time basis.
Website: https://www.india.gov.in/e-governance-portal
e-Districts: A number of G2C services are rendered electronically to the citizens at the
district/block/sub block level. The list includes different types of certificates such as Income
Certificate, Caste Certificate, and Residence Certificate, etc. along with other services such
as Scholarship portals, permits, passes, licenses, to name a few. The eDistrict portals of each
State provides analysis of these citizen centric services in various states including the
services offered under eDistrict MMP. The services have been categorized into 34 core
services for conducting the analysis. The analysis is based on the data compiled and sent by
respective DIOs of NIC. It contains data collected from most of the states and union
territories across different districts.
Farmer Portal: The portal is envisaged to make available relevant information and services
to the farming community and private sector through the use of information and
communication technologies, to supplement the existing delivery channels provided for by
the department. Farmers’ Portal is an endeavour in this direction to create one-stop-shop for
meeting all informational needs relating to agriculture, animal husbandry and fisheries
sectors production, sale/storage of an Indian farmer. With this Indian Farmer will not be
required to sift through maze of websites created for specific purposes.
Website. http://farmer.gov.in/
ePanchayat: Panchayat Enterprise Suite (PES) under ePanchayat mission mode project was
implemented. Data porting activities for some of the existing applications have already been
completed. As part of integration activity, PRIASoft and PlanPlus have been integrated with
other PES applications, in particular Local Government Directory. Training is being
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undertaken across the country on all PES applications. So far, more than 3000 people have
been trained on one or more PES applications.
Website. http://epanchayat.in/
Data Portal India: Data Portal India has been set up in compliance with the National Data
Sharing and Accessibility Policy (NDSAP) to provide single point access to all the datasets
published by different government departments in open format. It also provides a strong
search & discovery mechanism for instant access to desired datasets. Data Portal has a rich
component of citizen engagement. Data Portal has a backend system which can be used by
government departments to publish their datasets through a predefined workflow. Data Portal
also has a ‘Communities’ component which facilitates forming of communities around
datasets, domain of interest such as agriculture, education, health, or it could be application
developer’s community or even of data journalists.
Website: http://data.gov.in
Geological Survey of India (GSI): The portal has been developed through the Online Core
Business Integrated System Project (OCBIS). The objective behind the portal is to provide a
single window access to the information and services being provided by the GSI for the
broad geoscientific community, citizens and other stakeholders. An attempt has been made
through this portal to provide comprehensive, accurate, reliable and single point source of
information about GSI, its activities, achievements, geoscientific information and its various
facets.
Website. https://www.gsi.gov.in/
Though these e-governance projects were citizen-centric, they could make less than the
desired impact due to their limited features. The isolated and less interactive systems
revealed major gaps that were thwarting the successful adoption of e-governance along the
entire spectrum of governance. It clearly pointed towards the need for a more comprehensive
planning and implementation for the infrastructure required to be put in place,
interoperability issues to be addressed etc., to establish a more connected government.
1.6 NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS SUPPORTING INFORMATION
SYSTEMS

1.6.1 University Grants Commission (UGC)

The University Grants Commission (UGC) is a statutory organization established by an
Act of Parliament in 1956. This is a national body for the co-ordination, determination and
maintenance of standards of college-university higher education. In addition to its role of
giving grants to universities and colleges; the UGC also advises union and state governments
on the educational measures necessary for the improvement of university education including
new university requirement; frames regulations; formulation, evaluation and monitoring of
curriculum and programmes.

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The Commission has also played a major role in promoting library and information services
in universities and colleges. The Commission provides substantial grants for the acquisition
of educational resources, other infrastructural facilities also like library buildings, furniture
and equipment grants are given in every five-year plan period. Besides, it has also established
and constituted a number of libraries/information centers, study centers and committees to
improve quality education and library services. Following activities of UGC are highlighted
in the field of library and information activities.
• Financial assistance to university and college libraries for purchasing resources, library
buildings, infrastructures, staff recruitments and training
• Setting up several high power committees to promote library infrastructure, services, LIS
schools, innovative service development, staff salary and designation standardization, and
curriculum development in library & information science.
• Establishment of National Information Centres
• Establishment of INFLIBNET to facilitate library network, software development,
resource sharing, database development, and training of LIS staffs
• Modernization of university libraries through automation and computerize their services.
It helped university libraries financially and intellectually to connect various network
programmes like INFLIBNET to provide computerized information service to its users
• National review committee on university and college libraries to assess financial
requirements, prepare a status report of university and college libraries, and devise a
strategy for the future for smooth

1.6.2 Raja Rammohun Roy Library Foundation (RRRLF), Calcutta

http://rrrlf.nic.in/Default.aspx
Raja Rammohun Roy Library Foundation was established in May 1972, is an autonomous
organization, established and sponsored by the Department of Culture, Govt. of India. Its
headquarters is located at Calcutta. The foundation is to promote and support the public
library in the country by providing finance, adequate library services and by developing
reading and learning habits. This objective is achieved with the active cooperation of state
governments and union territories and of voluntary organizations operating in the field of
library services, cultural activities, adult education etc
Objectives: Major objectives of RRRLF include
• Formulating a national library policy and working towards its adoption by the union and
state governments and persuading them to enact library legislation
• Developing a national library system by integrating the services of national libraries, state
central libraries, district libraries and other types of libraries
• Acting as a clearing house for ideas and information on library development
• Providing financial assistance to libraries, to regional and national library associations
and to other organisations engaged or interested in the promotion of library development

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• Taking measures and support research to develop solutions to problems of library
development in India
Besides being a fund disbursing body, the foundation is a nodal agency of the union
government in the field of public libraries and functions as a national agency for
coordinating, monitoring and developing the public library movement.
Programmes and Schemes of Assistance
The foundation has functioned as a promotional agency and provided advisory and
consultancy support to public libraries in India. Also, worked as a funding body for public
library development in India. The foundation has covered almost 35,000 libraries at different
levels throughout the country. The foundation has taken a number of steps to promote and
develop all types of public libraries under certain schemes
• Building up of an adequate stock of books and other reading and visual materials
• Development of rural book deposit centres and mobile library services.

There are seven other schemes under which financial assistance is also rendered to different
libraries and information organizations.
• Organisation of seminars, workshops, training courses (orientation/refresher) and book
exhibitions
• Assistance towards storage and display of books
• Assistance to provide public library services
• Assistance to public libraries below district level for increasing accommodation;
• Assistance to state central libraries and distinct libraries to acquire educational
infrastructures
• Assistance to children's libraries or children's sections of general public libraries
• Assistance to public libraries towards centenary celebrations.
Other Promotional Activities
• The foundation also played a major role in the preparing a national policy on library and
information system and issued guidelines on public library system and services.
• RRRLF initiated digitizing rare books, including pre-Independence newspapers, journals
and other documents housed in public libraries. A Digital Repository will be created for
providing access to all stakeholders to digitized documents. Selected copyright-free
materials, including paintings, photographs, manuscripts etc., available in public libraries
will also be digitized and will be made available to the public.
• Raja Rammohun Roy Memorial Lecture by a scholar of eminence is an annual feature of
anniversary celebrations for the Foundation.
• RRRLF also interacts with many national and international professional associations like
IFLA, ILA, IASLIC and different state level library associations.
• The Foundation introduced Annual Raja Rammohun Roy Award to the best contributor
of an article covering the area of development of Public Library Systems and Services or
suggesting measures for promotion of reading habit.
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• The Foundation has also undertaken a programme of giving seven awards annually - one
for the best State central Library and six for the best District Libraries of six regions in
the country.
• The Foundation institutes "RRRLF Fellowship" to offer fellowship to five eminent men
and women in the field of Library Services who have contributed to the library movement
in the country.

1.6.3 National Library of India

Source: http://www.nationallibrary.gov.in/
The Calcutta Public Library (established in 1836) and the Imperial Library (founded in 1891)
was amalgamated to Imperial Library in 1903 at Metcalf Hall, Kolkata. After Independence
the Government of India changed the name of the Imperial Library to the National Library,
with the enactment of the Imperial Library (Change of Name) Act, 1948. On 1 February
1953 the National Library was opened to the public at it’s present location in Belvedere
Estate. The National Library receives books and periodicals in almost all Indian languages
under the Delivery of Books and Newspapers (Public Libraries) Act 1954 (D.B. Act) and
also develop collection of CD-ROMs. The library has multiple divisions for acquiring,
maintenance and preservation of Indian languages collections. Besides, computerized data
collection and maintenance division etc are also functioning to conduct digitization activities.
Objectives
• Acquisition and conservation of all significant national production of printed material,
concerning the country and also acquisition of photographic records of material which are
otherwise not available with in the country.
• Acquisition and conservation of foreign material required by the country.
• Rendering of bibliographical and documents services of current and retrospective
material, both general and specialised.
• Acting as a referral centre purveying full and accurate knowledge.
• Develop Indian languages collection
• Language divisions acquire, process and provide reading materials in all major Indian
languages. Hindi, Kashmiri, Punjabi, Sindhi, Telugu and Urdu language divisions
maintain their own stacks. Other language books are stacked in the Stack division.
Language divisions are also responsible for answering reference queries.
Strength of Library collection
The National Library perform has a national repository of published books in India and CD-
ROMs. The web-OPAC has over 9,50,000 records, including books in foreign languages,
bound journals, and maps. Besides National Library has access to huge online open
educational resources consist of multiple databases, online books, periodicals, reports etc.
The National Library has now acquired several online databases such as Oxford English
Dictionary, Oxford Bibliographies On-line, House of Lords Parliamentary Papers, ebrary
Online Books, Oxford Journals, SAGE Online Journals, Cambridge Companion Online,

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Cambridge Law Report, Orlando Women's Writing, Shakespeare Survey Online and
ProQuest Dissertations (Full Texts).
The Computer division was established in 1988 to assist in the modernisation programmes of
the library. The library has so far digitized and archived over 25000 rare and brittle books,
6837 reports and the digitization process is under way. English books and documents
published before 1900 and Indian publications of pre-1920 are considered for digitisation. So
far 11448 selected books in Indian and English languages have already been digitized. Some
of the notable titles already archived on CDs are Documents of East India Company, e.g.
Report of the Proceedings of the East India Company in regard to the Production of Cotton
Wool (1788), Bengal Selection of Records (1826), Prabasi journal in Bengali, Land
Settlement Reports. Earliest book archived on CD is entitled The Fam’d Romance Rendered
into English by Charles Cotterell (1667), Les voyages de Jean Struys en Moscovie (1720),
Calcutta Monthly Magazine (1797) etc.
Services
• Provide reading, local and outstation membership
• Facilitates lending services and Inter-library loan facility
• Reprographic services, bibliographic services
• Book exhibitions for users and general public eg. the National Library has put on public
view rare manuscripts and books of Rabindranath Tagore on the occasion of the 150th
birth anniversary of the poet.
• Services for children to inculcate reading habits
• Training and guidance to youths including organizing seminars, workshops etc for
promotion of education and research
• One of the basic functions of the National Library is to preserve the printed documents
for future generations. For this purpose, the library has separate divisions for physical,
chemical, reprographic and digital preservation of documents.

1.6.4 National Medical Library (NML)

This library was initially conceived as departmental library having a small collection of
books for the use of officers of the erstwhile Directorate General of Indian Medical Services
(DGIMS) in 1947. Realizing the need for a Central Library to support academic, research and
clinical work of Biomedical Professionals in the country, the Directorate General of Health
Services (Dte.GHS) library was developed gradually and declared as Central Medical Library
in 1961 and as the National Medical Library on 1st April 1966.
Objectives
The National Medical Library aims to provide wide and efficient library and information
services to the health science (HS) professionals in India. It functions under the
administrative control of the Directorate General of Health Services.
Library strength

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The Library is mainly a reference library in the field of Medical and Allied Sciences with all
library services. It has 7.5 lakh volumes of books, reports, bound volume of journals and
other literature and adds latest books and serials every year. It also subscribes to 1500 current
periodicals. The library has good collection of 19th century literature. NML’s electronic
resources in medicine has been conceptualised into NML-ERMED Consortium, an initiative
taken by Dte.GHS & MOHFW to develop nationwide electronic information resources in the
field of medicine for delivering effective health care. 70 state and centrally funded
Government Institutions including all AIIMS are selected as its members. The members are
divided into Level-I and Level-II on the basis of number of end-users in different institutes.
The consortium will continue to be expanded and updated on an ongoing basis and presently
subscribing to 242 high quality online e-journals from 5 leading publishers including British
Medical Journal Publishing, Cambridge University Press, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins,
Oxford University Press, John Wiley & Sons.

1.6.5 National Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM)

The NASSCOM is the industry association for the IT-BPM sector in India. It’s objective is to
build a growth-led, sustainable, technology and business services segment in the country.
NASSCOM’s membership has grown over the years to over 1,800 in recent time.
NASSCOM spearheaded IT industries initiatives and programmes to strengthen the sector in
the country and globally.
Objectives
• NASSCOM helps the IT and IT-enabled products and services industries in India to be
trustworthy, respected, innovative, and society-friendly.
• It works towards expanding IT-BPM industries core markets through quality services and
solutions to client problems.
• It also builds strategic partnerships with its customers other national and international
market players. It seeks to establish India as a hub for innovation and professional
services.

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Source: https://nasscom.in/
Activities
With support from the National Skill Development Council (NSDC), NASSCOM is
committed to develop skilled IT workforce for the IT and IT-enabled products and services.
NASSCOM has also contributed to the development of two organisationsthe Data Security
Council of India to focus on security and the NASSCOM Foundation, which helps sectoral
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives. Besides, NASSCOM collaborates with the
Government of India at the Centre and States to build a conducive policy framework to
improve growth of the IT-BPM industries in the country. Other activities of the NASSCOM
include the following
• NASSCOM works closely with its member organisations, encouraging them to share best
practices and experiences through workshops, industry meets etc, and mentor smaller
organisations to improve their learning curve.
• NASSCOM conducts industry research, surveys and studies on emerging IT-BPM trends
and sector performance to assess future growth perspectives
• NASSCOM is engaging with a broad spectrum of academia, industry and governments to
devise policies, curriculum and assessments that achieve this objective. In order to
enhance the employability of the talent pool in the country the NASSCOM IT-ITeS
Sector Skills Council has launched the following frameworks and programmes such as
• NASSCOM Assessment of Competence (NAC) to assess, certify and ensures a steady
supply of quality professionals for the IT-BPM industry
• Global Business Foundation Skills (GBFS) and Foundation Skills in Information
Technology (FSIT) programmes to help increase the industry readiness of students

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• Performance standards that individuals must follow while functioning in the workplace,
together with specifications of the NOS (National Occupational Standards) across
verticals in the IT-BPM industries
• NASSCOM initiated mass scale Start-ups Programme where 10,000 industries are aimed
at incubating, funding and supporting 10,000 technology start-ups in India.

1.6.6 National Institute of Smart Government (NISG)

NISG is a not-for-profit company setup in a Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) in 2002under
the recommendations of The National Taskforce on Information Technologyand
SoftwareDevelopment, with 51% equity contributed by the private sector and49% by the
public sector.
Objectives
The main idea behind setting up of NISG was the revolution in Information and
Communication Technologies which necessitates the government to keep up with the
changing environment and revolutionized the way the Government interacts with citizens and
business entities. In order to transform Government departments and agencies from
department-centric mode of working to a citizen-centric way, the National e-Governance
Programme (NeGP) was conceived with the vision of making all Government services
accessible to the common man through common service delivery outlets and ensure
efficiency, transparency & reliability of such services at affordable costs to realize the basic
needs of the common man.
Activities
NISG act as an advisory and consulting body which offers the orientation and efficiency of
the private sector combined with the accountability of the public sector which would aid and
guide the public sector in planning and implementing e-solutions to improve service delivery
mechanisms and efficiency of the public departments.

Over the years, NISG has grown in stature and acquired the status of a reliable advisory and
consulting body to the Central Government, State Governments and PSUs in their endeavor
to adopt and implement ICT solutions to improve service delivery and efficiency of the
government departments.

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 IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is not a Digital India initiative?
a) e-Granthalaya
b) e-Districts
c) e-Sodhsindhu
d) BHIM
2. Which of the following can be considered as National Information System?
a) NIC
b) NASSCOM
c) National Library
d) NISG
3. Which of the following is an Information Network?
a) SENDOC
b) NASSCOM
c) National Library
d) RRRLF
4. Which of the following national information centre was not established by
NISSAT?
a) NICLAI
b) NCB
c) NIC
d) NICDAP
5. Which of the following services are not part of INFLIBNET?
a) UGC-Infonet
b) Sodhganga
c) SoUL
d) Worldcat

1.6 SUMMARY
Over the past few decades Indian government has made conscious efforts to
promote national information systems in Science & Technology, Social Science &
Humanities areas. A overarching national system development covering all aspects of life is
complex and perhaps unviable. Several Government Committees have favoured the need of
sectoral information systems to deliver wider knowledge access and benefits of government
services to citizens. As a result several systems had come up in early years of implementation
such as NISSAT, NIC, INSDOC, DESIDOC, NASSDOC. These systems were ably support
by other government networks set-up to promote resource sharing for wide spread research
and development, such as ENVIS, BTIS, INFLIBNET, DELNET etc. While primary
objectives of these systems and networks are to promote information access to all, bridge
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digital divide and bring improvement in education and learning. Over the years, these
systems and networks performed to develop information infrastructure in India and
contributed towards promotion, coordination and development of library and information
services. Indian Government from time to time has also established national centres such as
UGC, RRRLF, NASSCOM etc which provided direction, guidance and framed policies for
development of national information systems in India.
With adequate proficiency in ICT tools and technologies, focus of developing
national information systems have shifted toward digital domain. In recent years, government
has recognized the need of leveraging benefits of e-governance to reach out to citizens. As a
result, we have seen several important projects have come up under digital India Programme.
Collectively these initiatives have made government processes seamless, accessible and
foster faster service delivery to common users. More such initiatives are expected in future
years.

1.7 GLOSSARY
ASTINFO Regional Network for the Exchange of Information and Experiences in Science
and Technology in Asia and the Pacific
ADINET Ahmedabad Library Network
BHIM Bharat Interface for Money
BONET Bombay Library Network
BTIS Biotechnology Information System Network
CALIBNET Calcutta Library Network
CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
DBT Department of Biotechnology
DELNET Developing Library Network
DESIDOC Defence Scientific Information and Documentation Centre
DRDO Defence Research and Development Organisation
eGCF e-Governance Competency Framework
ENVIS Environmental Information System
GRIDSS Grid-based Resource Information and Decision Support System
ICMR Indian Council of Medical Research
ICSSR Indian Council of Social Science Research
ICT Information Communication Technology
IMC Indian Medlars Centre
INFLIBNET Information and Library Network
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INPADOC International Patent Documentation
ISBEID Indian State-Level Basic Environmental Information Database
KMS Knowledge Management System
LIS Library and Information Services
LMS Learning Management System
MIS Management Information System
MoEFCC Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
MSMEs Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
MYLIBNET Mysore Library Network
NASSCOM National Association of Software and Service Companies
NASSDOC National Social Science Documentation Centre
NCSI National Centre for Science Information
NDLI National Digital Library of India
NDSAP National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy
NES National Environment Survey
NeSL National e-Governance Services Ltd
NeSD National e-Services Dashboard
NIC National Informatics Centre
NIS National Information Systems
NISCAIR National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources
NISG National Institute of Smart Government
NISTADS National Institute of Science Technology and Development Studies
NISSAT National Information System for Science and Technology
NKC National Knowledge Commission
NKN National Knowledge Network
NML National Medical Library
PES Panchayat Enterprise Suite
PUNENET Pune Library Network
RRRLF Raja Rammohun Roy Library Foundation
SENDOC Small Enterprises National Documentation Centre
TQM Total Quality Management
UGC University Grants Commission

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ULCSS Union List of Current & Scientific Serials
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USPTO United States Patent Office
WPO World Patent office

1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. e-Sodhsindhu 5. Worldcat
2. NIC
3. SENDOC
4. NIC

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1.What role NISSAT played in promoting National Information System in India?
2.Briefly describe role of National Knowledge Commission?
3.‘Digital India programme is a game changer in promoting e-Governance in India’ –
Comment on the statement.
4.What are salient features of ENVIS and BTIS? How far they are successful as National
Information System?
5.What are the major initiatives in recent years towards meeting objectives of National
Information System?

1.10 REFERENCES
Arora J, Kaur S P, Chandra H and Bhatt R K. (1992). Computer Communication Networks
and their Use for Information Retrieval and Dissemination: Basic Tutorial and
Current Scenario of Networks in India, Microcomputers for Information
Management, 9(4), 1992, pp. 41-261
Dataquest (1997). "The Dataquest Top 20", Dataquest, 15 July 1997, pp. 55-219
Financial Times (1997), "India widens net access", Financial Times, 18 September 1997,
p. 5
Govt of India (1994). Indian Telecommunications, New Delhi: Telecom Commission,
Ministry of Commerce.
Government of India, (1998). National Task Force on Information Technology and
Software Development. Information Technology Action Plan. Available at
https://informatics.nic.in/uploads/pdfs/adc92956_July1998.pdf
Guha K (1998), "Indian cellular groups defend regulator", Financial Times, 11 February
1998, p. 4
Grieco J M. (1984). Between Dependency and Autonomy: India's Experience with the
International Computer Industry. Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley

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Harindranath G & Liebenau J. (1995).The impact of globalisation on India's information
technology industry. Information Technology for Development, 6(2), 73-84
Heeks R B. (1996). India's Software Industry: State Policy, Liberalisation and Industrial
Development. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Petrazzini B & Harindranath, G. (1996). Information Infrastructure Initiatives in
Emerging Economies: The Case of India in B. Kahin & Wilson, E. (eds.). National
Information Infrastructure Initiatives: Vision and Policy Design. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: The MIT Press, pp.217-260
Subramanian C R (1992). India and the Computer: A Study of Planned Development.
Delhi: Oxford University Press
Taylor P (1997), "The domestic IT market", Financial Times Survey of
India's Software Industry, Financial Times, 3 December 1997, pp. 2-3
Shah A and Misra S (1997). Designing India’s National Information Infrastructure. EPW
Vol 32(44/45): 2880-2884
Neelameghan A (1999). Information Economy and Knowledge Society: An Introduction,
Part 3: Economics and Policy Aspects. Information Studies, 5 (4).
Sachdeva S (2002). White Paper: E-Governance Strategy in India. 35p.
NIDA (2011). Supporting Society’s Needs: a Model Framework for Developing Library
Policy (Part 1: Background and Literature Search). Network for Information and
Digital Access. 11pp.
NCIIPC (2013). Guidelines for Protection of National Critical Information Infrastructure.
(version 1.0). National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre,
National Research Organisation, Government of India. 172p.
Cate F H, (1994). The National Information Infrastructure: Policymaking and policy
makers Faculty publications. Paper 738.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Arora J, Kaur S P, Chandra H and Bhatt R K. (1992). Computer Communication Networks
and their Use for Information Retrieval and Dissemination: Basic Tutorial and
Current Scenario of Networks in India, Microcomputers for Information
Management, 9(4), 1992, pp. 41-261
Dataquest (1997). "The Dataquest Top 20", Dataquest, 15 July 1997, pp. 55-219
Financial Times (1997), "India widens net access", Financial Times, 18 September 1997,
p. 5
Govt of India (1994). Indian Telecommunications, New Delhi: Telecom Commission,
Ministry of Commerce.

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 UNIT 3 - GLOBAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

LESSON 3.1
UNESCO, UNISIST AND IFLA

Dr. Gururaj S. Hadagali

Associate Professor
Department of Library and Information Science
Karnatak University, Dharwad – 580 003
Karnataka State
Email: [email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.2.1 Objectives of Global Information Systems
1.2.2 Important Global Information Systems
1.3 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisations (UNESCO)
1.3.1 Aims and Objectives of the UNESCO
1.3.2 Activities of UNESCO
1.4 International Organizations (FID, IFLA & UNESCO)
1.4.1 Publications of UNESCO
1.4.2 Services of UNESCO
1.4.3 Some of the information networks of UNESCO
1.4.4 UNESCO's Activities by Region/Country
1.4.5 UNESCO's Activities by Theme
1.5 United Nations International Scientific Information System (UNISIST)
1.5.1 PGI-General Information Programme
1.5.2 Activities of UNISIST
1.5.3 Publications of UNISIST
1.5.4 Content of the UNISIST reference manual
1.5.5 UNISIST Guidelines and ISO Standards
1.5.6 Staffing and Education, Training and Development of Personnel
1.6 International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA)
1.6.1 Aims and Objectives of IFLA
1.6.2 Structure of the IFLA
1.6.3 Publications of IFLA
1.6.4 Activities of IFLA
1.7 Summary
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1.8 Answers to In-Text Questions
1.9 Self Assessment Questions
1.10 References

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, the student will be able to:

1. Learn the basics of the International Organizations like UNESCO, UNISIST and
IFLA.
2. Outline the importance of these International Organizations.
3. Study the activities of these International Organizations at the global level.
4. Support these International Organizations for the conduct of training
programmes.
5. Identify the different products of these Global Information Systems.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

A huge number of worldwide information systems in different subject fields are involved
in the development of library and information services. These also include organizations and
systems for collecting, processing, and disseminating information across in various countries’
national boundaries. The use of computers for internet access and machine-readable databases
rose with the use of computers for information locating, gathering, storing, and processing,
which speed up the development of global/international information systems. This growth has
been information input from the participating system's member nations has helped this growth
even further because it allows for centralized information processing possible through
computers, while also allowing for decentralized information distribution at the end-user level.

1.2.1 Objectives of Global Information Systems

1. The creation, coordination, and promotion of library and information services for the
convenience of users is assisted through global information systems and centres.
2. Global information systems provide services that work on decentralized input,
centralized processing, and decentralized output.
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3. Information systems and centers are important components of our information infrastructure,
as evidenced by that the expanding demand for information and the growing utilization of
present facilities and services.
4. A machine-readable database has become more likely to be developed due to the emergence
of computers as a significant tool in processing of information, which has increased the
application and capabilities of modern global information systems.
5. Global information system statistical data can be collected, maintained, evaluated, and
presented using a global information system, which includes hardware, software, and data.
GIS enables us to see, comprehend, query, interpret, and visualize data in a variety of ways
that reveal correlations, patterns, and trends through the use of maps, globes, reports, and
graphs.
6. Global information system assists you in finding the answers to your questions and resolving
issues. Each activity can utilize Global information system technology Framework for
information systems of formats in different locations. In order to examine your data
holistically and use it to inform important business and planning choices, you need a
mechanism to integrate it.
7. Global Information Systems can concern any information with a dimensional component,
regardless of the source of the data determined by address and generated from your customer
database.
8. Global Information Systems visualizes this data, enabling dispatchers to design the most
efficient routes for mobile personnel or send the worker who is closest to a users

1.2.2 Important Global Information Systems

1. International Federation of Library Associations And Institutions (IFLA)

2. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
3. International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
4. International System for Agricultural Science and Technology (AGRIS)
5. Medical Literature Analysis And Retrieval System (MEDLARS/MEDLINE)
6. Information Service for Physics Engineering and Computing (INSPEC)
7. BioSciences Information Service of Biological Abstracts (BIOSIS),
8. International Communication Association (ICA)
9. International Labour Organization (ILO)
10. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
11. World Health Organization (WHO)
12. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) was

established -------in the year

2. .............. is the programme launched by IFLA

3. International MARC format (UNIMARC) was launched by----------

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4. INSDOC was established in the year -------
© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
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 1.3 UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL
ORGANISATIONS (UNESCO)

UNESCO was established by the United Nations in 1946, which is endowed with the
responsibility of supporting the library, documentation, information, archives, book production,
copyright, and related activities. And with a view to establishing education, science, and culture
and its development also to maintain peace, brotherhood spirit in the world. UNESCO
headquarters is situated in Paris.

1.3.1 Aims and Objectives of the UNESCO

The objectives are:

a. To contribute to world peace, security, and international understanding by promoting
education, science, and culture among the nations of the world;
b. To foster respect for justice, rule of the law, and basic freedoms for all people;
c. To give momentum to developmental activities in the member-states through operational
assistance.
d. To help promote, human rights, and international understanding through developing
international intellectual cooperation, advancing development through operational assistance
to the Member Countries.

1.3.2 Activities of UNESCO

The activities of UNESCO can be summarised as below:

1. Development of Public Library paid fully through the public library. For this in the year
1949, attention to adult education and literacy program UNESCO published UNESCO
Public Library Manifesto'. In the year 1972 it was revised.

UNESCO established many libraries:

a. Delhi Library by cooperation with Indian Government in the year 1954;

b. Mandaline Public Library in the year 1959;
c. Engu-Nigeria-A regional Centre;
d. Medellin (Colombia)

2. International Exchange of Publications

To facilitate exchanges, UNESCO has prepared conventions on the international

exchange of publications, while for the compilation of bibliographies it has launched in co-
operation with IFLA, an ambitious project, Universal Bibliographic Control (UBC).

3. International Organizations (FID, IFLA & UNESCO)

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 UNESCO influenced the development of public libraries in many of its Member States.
The various UNESCO seminars, conferences, expert missions and publications on public
libraries gained acceptance for the idea that they were an effective and essential means of
passing on the wealth of human knowledge and contributing to economic and social
development.

4. Establishment of Public University and National Libraries

The UNESCO championed the cause of Public Library movement in the Third World. Its
faith in Public Libraries as means of continuing education and cradle of democracies, providing
objective knowledge and information without any restrictions, is reflected in its publication
'UNESCO Public Library Manifesto' (1949), revised in 1972). It established Pilot Public
Libraries in Enugu (Nigeria), Medellin (Colombia) and New Delhi (India). It conducted several
regional seminars at Brazil, Lebanon, Nigeria and India with the support of the member states on
the theme of public libraries including the 'Regional Seminar on Library Development in Asia' at
Delhi in 1960.

5. Training in Library Work

Training and Orientation: In order to provide trained and professional librarians to the member
nations, UNESCO organized refresher courses seminars, symposiums, workshops, etc. Subject
experts were sent to the member nations. To improve education policy and system, seminars and
symposiums. UNESCO started schools of library science in Dakar (Africa Senegal) French
speaking country, Ghana, Jamaica, and Uganda. Dakar University (Sengegal) and BonnesAyas
University, they have started research centers for library science.

UNESCO's action in this field takes the form of meetings of experts, specialized courses,
the setting up of regional training centres like those in Dakar (Senegal), Kampala (Uganda),
Legon (Ghana) and Kingston (Jamaica), and schools of librarianship, the sending of experts and
consultants to Member States, the granting of fellowships and the organizing of courses for
teachers in schools for librarians and archivists. These programmes have contributed to the
improvement of the courses given in these schools and to the opening of additional schools and
have helped to create awareness of the fact that the improvement of library services is hampered
if governments do not give priority to the training of librarians, documentalists and archivists.

6. Support to University and Special Libraries

The development of the services provided by this type of library in the various Member
States is the goal of an ongoing series of activities that includes seminars, technical assistance
missions, grants, publications, etc. Aims and functions, their place in university life, the
techniques to be employed in administering the various services and determining the budgets
they require. An instance of such activities is the Regional Seminar on the Development of
University Libraries in Latin America, held at Mendoza (Argentina), in 1962 whose
recommendations, particularly in regard to cost indicators and the identification of indices of

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participation in university budgets, were instrumental in improving this type of library in Latin
America.

7. Support to Documentation Centres

Until that time, UNESCO's activities had covered every type of library and
documentation unit. They were carried out through the Libraries Division, which was a part of
the former Department of Cultural Activities, before that Division became the Department of
Documentation, Libraries and Archives within the Communication Sector. Owing to the
increasing requirements of scientific and technological research, however, the Organization
introduced new International Organizations (FID, IFLA & UNESCO)programmes in the Science
Sector for the purpose of stimulating and developing scientific and technological documentation
centres. Many such centres were organized in various Member States, as mentioned by Pérez-
Vitoria in an article 'UNESCO's contribution to the development of scientific and technical
documentation centres.'

a. PGI (General Information Programme)

During the period of 1976, UNESCO introduced the new General Information
Programme (PGI) that merged the NATIS and UNISIST programmes. The primary
responsibility of PGI is to promote use of computer and communication technology in library
and information services, information networks, and the provision of online method of
information sharing and exchange between different locations around the world. It is making
efforts to supply microprocessor systems along with simple and easy to handle software
packages for application in library and information fields in the developing countries.

b. NWICO (New World Information & Communication Order)

The UNESCO is helping the developing countries to strengthen their communication

systems by its programmes of New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) and
the Inter-governmental programmes for the Development of Communication (IPDC). The
UNESCO developed a Regional Network for Exchange of Information and Experience in
Science and Technology in Asia and the Pacific in 1984 with the goal of fostering regional
cooperation, gaining a better understanding, and socioeconomic development in Asia and the
Pacific regions (ASTINFO). Another network, known as the Asia Pacific Information Network
in Social Sciences (APINESS), was founded later in 1986.

c. ISORID (International Information System on Research in Documentation)

For the objective of collecting and reporting information on research activities in

documentation, libraries, and archives carried out at different institutions around the world, the
UNESCO has also established the International Information System on Research in
Documentation (ISORID). Under the Science and Technology Policies Information Exchange
System (SPINES) programme, a clearing house has also been established to process information

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on science and information policies of various countries. Furthermore, it developed databases
and information systems including the International Bureau of Education Documentation and
Information System (IBEDOC) and the Data Retrieval System for Documentation in the Social
and Human Sciences (DARE) .

d. UNISIST & NATIS

NATIS (theconcept of a national information and library system) and UNISIST (the
concept of an international system for the transfer of information) together constitute UNESCO's
greatest contribution in the field with which we are concerned helping to place documentation,
library and archives services upon national, regional and international foundations. The goals,
scope and purposes of NATIS and UNISIST had been approved by the UNESCO General
Conference at different sessions and the principles underlying them were the Organization's
response to the growing, complex and pressing problem of how to bring the bibliographical and
documentary resources of mankind within the reach of everyone all over the world without
limitations of any kind.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

5. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisations (UNESCO) was

established in the year --------- and HQ is-----

6. UNESCO Public Library Manifesto was Published during --------

7. Book Coupon System is introduced by------

8. Data Retrieval System for the Social and human sciences is setup by----

1.4 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS (FID, IFLA & UNESCO)

International Federation for Documentation (FID) and the International Council on
Archives (ICA) has enabled the Organization to extend its programs of activities with the support
of the human and technical resources of these organizations. In its turn, it has helped them by
means of subventions and working contracts to maintain and intensify their activities on behalf
of the development of an extension of documentation, library, and archives services. This
collaboration, in the form of coordination of programs and constant consultations on matters of
common interest, combined with all types of national, regional, or international meetings
organized by UNESCO-seminars, workshops, conferences, and courses, and the publication of
important works on the state of documentation, library, and archives services throughout the
world, has greatly helped to strengthen this international 'family,' thus facilitating the exchange

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of ideas and experience and creating bonds of personal friendship conducive to the national and
international expansion of documentation, library, and archives services.

The shortage of suitable books in vernacular languages is a familiar problem in many

countries. Elsewhere, in the Spanish-speaking countries for instance, a flourishing publishing
industry places the country among the world's leading book producers but there is a shortage of
books of use in lifelong education, especially for persons of low educational level. UNESCO has
carried out very thorough studies of this question and in addition to publishing works of great
significance on the book, situation has organized a series of regional meetings to study this
difficult matter in the light of the conditions peculiar to each geographical area.

1.4.1 Publications of UNESCO

The following are some of the important publications of UNESCO.

1. Copyright Bulletin (Quarterly)
2. Impact of Science on Society (Quarterly)
3. UNESCO COURIER (Monthly)
4. UNESCO Journal of Information Science, Librarianship and Archives Administration
(Quarterly) (Formerly UNESCO Bulletin for Libraries).
5. UNISIST Newsletter (Quarterly)
6. World Guide to Library Schools and Training Courses in Documentation, 1981)
7. UNESCO Chronicle (Monthly).

1.4.2 Services of UNESCO

 Principles and Structure of Documentation, Library and Archives Services

 Internationalization of Documentation, Library and Archives Services
 Professional Training
 Book Promotion

1.4.3 Some of the information networks of UNESCO are:

1. Network of UNESCO Chairs in Communication (ORBICOM )

2. Asia Pacific Information Network (APIN )
3. Association of Computer Centres for Exploiting Sustainable Synergy (ACCESS )
4. Regional Information Society Network for Africa (RINAF)
5. Network of Associated Libraries (UNAL – UNESCO)
6. Internet-based Virtual Library (MEDLIB)
7. Information Society Programme for Latin America and the Caribbean (INFOLAC)

1.4.4 UNESCO's Activities by Region/Country

 Africa
 Asia and the Pacific
 Arab States

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  Europe and North America
 Latin America/Caribbean
 Other World

1.4.5 UNESCO's Activities by Theme

The different themes under which UNESCO carries out its different activities include:

a. Archives
b. Community Media
c. Community Multimedia Centres
d. Creative Content (Radio, TV, etc.)
e. Education and Information Communication Technologies
f. e-govemance
g. Ethical Issues Related to Information Society
h. Freedom of Expression
i. Independent Press
j. Information Society
k. Information for Community Development Systems and Programmes
l. Information Literacy
m. Information Process Tools
n. Legislation in Information Society
o. Media Education
p. Libraries
q. Media Development
r. Preservation of Documentary Heritage
s. People with Disabilities and ICT
t. Public Domain Information
u. Public Service Broadcasting
v. Recycling IT Equipment
w. Communication and Information Training
x. Youth and Information Society

1.5 United Nations International Scientific Information System (UNISIST)

The development of national and international scientific, technological, industrial, and
agricultural information policies and services is the objective of the UNISIST program.
UNISIST program was started in the year 1973. a transitional period in UNESCO's efforts in the
field of libraries, documentation, and information was recognized. A conceptual framework
called UNISIST placed a strong emphasis on the knowledge of science and technology.
UNISIST was created with the dual goals of organizing recent trends toward interaction and
acting as a catalyst for the essential progress in scientific information. The fundamental objective
was to create a decentralized, flexible network of services and information based on mutual

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participation. The UNISIST Study Report (1971), a working document of the UNISIST
International Conference, outlined the major tenets upon which this World Science Information
System was founded.

According to this Report indicates that UNISIST motivates interoperability, cooperative

agreements, cooperative development, and maintenance of technical standards to facilitate the
exchange and development of trained manpower, a decrease in administrative and legal
constraints to the flow of scientific information, guidance to countries that actively sought direct
exposure to current and future information services, and the unrestricted transfer of published
scientific information and data among scientists.

1.5.1 PGI-General Information Programme

In order to develop the General Information Programme (PGI), UNISIST and a pre-
program emphasizing on the development of documentation, libraries, and archives were merged
in 1976. The former UNISIST Steering Committee was replaced by an Intergovernmental
Council with 30 Member States, that coordinated the planning and execution of PGI. It was
assumed at the UNISIST II Conference (1979) that the establishment of PGI had brought about
such a significant advantage, such as a decrease in the number of differences in UNESCO's
conversations with Member States on problems relating to information transfer, infrastructure
development, education, and training, as well as an integrated approach to the planning and
development of information systems. The types of activities carried out under each of the five
PGI sub-programmes are as follows:

i) The ISO Standards Handbook I: Information Transfer, 2nd ed. 1982, is a tool for
processing and transferring of information. • Second edition of the Reference Manual for
Machine-Readable Bibliographic Descriptions, 1981. • Reference Manual for Machine-
Readable Descriptions of Research Projects, Institutions, and Organizations, 1982.
3rd edition of the Common Communication Format, 1993.

ii) Development of Databases:The International Assessment of Software Packages in the

Information Field and the Application of Microcomputers to Information Sharing, two
useful inventories, and studies, have been published. The Computerized Documentation
System/Integrated Set of Information Systems (CDS / ISIS) Software has been scaled
down and made available to non-profit organisations in developing countries for charge
in a small or micro version by UNESCO. About 50 database creation projects have been
started within the PGI framework, and all these initiatives have received assistance with
software, consultation, equipment, and training.

iii) Regional and international collaborative programmes: PGI aims to strengthen

national capitals for exchange of information, develop the necessary procedures for
sharing expertise and resources, and supervise the coordination of regional activities in
the collaboration and related to the transfer domains. Examples of such regional
programs include APINESS, the Asia-Pacific Information Network in Social Sciences,

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 and ASTINFO, the Regional Network for the Exchange of Information and Experience
in Science and Technology in Asia and the Pacific information network.

iv) National Information Network and Policies: According to UNESCO, national

information policies should be used as a framework for developing each nation's
information infrastructure. The publication of the document "Information Policy
Objectives: UNISIST Proposals" in 1974 was one attempt in this direction. 113 potential
S&T policy goals were mentioned in this publication. "Guidelines on National
Information Policy: Scope, Formulation and Implementation" also included updated
rules.

v) Developing a Workforce for Information Priority is given towards training both

information professionals and information users under the PGI Programme. Through
developing teaching resources, training teachers, and providing specialized refresher
courses, the goal is to improve national and regional training programs.

The objectives of the UNISIST are as follows:

1. To enhance the function of the organizations that constitute the chain of information
transfer;
2. Development of specialized manpower;
3. To the development of organizations and policies for scientific information;
4. To promote the development of the infrastructure for scientific and technical information
in developing countries;

1.5.2 Activities of UNISIST are as follows:

The UNISIST programme, standards, guidelines, policies, and procedures for processing
information and transfer are being integrated and implemented through worldwide.

I. Standardization of Bibliographic Description: The UNISIST/ICSU working group has

prepared a draft manual (Reference manual for machine-readable bibliographic description).
II. Control of Serials and Abstracting / Indexing Periodicals: The computer-based
information lender system known as international Serial Data System(ISDS). has been
developed to be have absolute authority over periodical publishing
III. Broad System of Ordering (BSO): The BSO was developed as a switching mechanism to
link different individual categorization and thesauruses in the process of information transfer
due to the enormous variety of classification schemes that present.
IV. Handbook and Manual: This has been suggested to provide a comprehensive handbook for
services providing scientific documentation and information in developing countries. The
handbook was first released in 1977.
V. National Focal Point: The development of the main focus for scientific information
agencies for each country has received special attention.

1.5.3 Publications of UNISIST

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 1. UNISIST published their newsletter quarterly

2. UNISIST Reference Manual

The ICSU and ICSU—AB member services assisted the collaborative Working Group on
bibliographic descriptions, of UNISIST and ICSU-AB creating the original UNISIST reference
manual for machine-readable bibliographic descriptions in 1974.

a. To give a comprehensive working manual for the international standardisation of the

structure and relevant information in computer-readable bibliographic descriptions created
by A&I services and others.
b. To UNISIST Reference Manual is intended for use by producers of computerized
bibliographic data bases. Their adoption of its conventions will serve to improve both
intellectual and physical access to information.
c. To conventions, the database producers will facilitate the exchange of bibliographic records
among themselves, thereby reducing or eliminating unnecessary redundancy in their efforts
to serve their user communities.
d. To processing of these standardized bibliographic records by libraries, information
dissemination centres and others will be simplified.

The maintenance and development of the UNISIST Reference Manual is the major
responsibility of UNI BID, established by the British Library under a contract with UNESCO,
and operating within the general conceptual and operational framework of the UNISIST
programme. The Centre's objectives are:

 T o maintain the UNISIST Reference Manual, i.e. to issue amendments and additions as
these become necessary.
 T o promote the use of the UNISIST Reference Manual.
 T o any extent necessary, make provision for suitable training in the use of the UNISIST
Reference Manual.
 To provide an information service on existing machine-readable systems of bibliographic
description.
 T o participate in the co-ordination of activities, including research and development,
within the field of standardization of procedures of bibliographic description created for
the use of the information community.
 T o co-operate with other agencies or organizations operating within the framework of
the UNESCO General Information Programme and UNISIST.

1.5.4 Content of the UNISIST reference manual

 The UNISIST Reference Manual is intended to be comprehensive, covering all forms of

literature and non-print materials likely to be processed by its users. At the moment it
covers serials monographs, reports, theses and dissertations, patent documents and
conference publications.

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  A n extension to cover bibliographic description of translations will soon be added.
 Some preliminary work has been done on a possible extension to cartographic materials,
standards and records of research projects. Further extensions are being considered for:
synoptic publications; deposited materials; microforms; audio visual material, e.g. films,
cassettes; legislative and related material; offprints; reprints; computer software on
magnetic tape; technical drawings; trademarks; non-bibliographic data bank material;
technical trade catalogues.

1.5.5 UNISIST Guidelines and ISO Standards having some Degree of Applicability to
Archives and Records Management

This list contains all UNISIST guidelines and ISO standards that are referenced in the
present report and that relate in any respect to archives and records management. Those with two
asterisks are either entirely applicable to archives and records maintenance almost or entirely.
Those indicated by the a single (*) are now only substantially applicable. Those who don't
include a (*) either are theoretical or only informally suggestive of future prescriptive work that
might be undertaken in support of archives and records maintenance. Standards and guidelines
that are unnecessary or completely irrelevant to the management of archives and records are
excluded.

The elements are organised in this POLICY, PLANNING, AND REPORT, within which
they first appeared.

In this report, POLICY, PLANNING, AND EVALUATION are arranged.

 The 1975 Guidelines on the Planning of National Scientific and Technological Information
Systems
 The 1978 publication Guidelines for the Evaluation of Information Systems and Services.
 International Library Statistics and 1979 Guidelines for the National Bibliographic Agency
and the National Bibliography (ISO 2789-1974).
 Information Processing - Flowchart Symbols (ISO 1028-1973).
 Guidelines included In Flowchart Symbols in Visualizations in Information Processing (ISO
2636-1973).
1.5.6 Staffing and Education, Training and Development of Personnel

 Guidelines for the Information Studies of Curriculum Development, 1978.

 Guidelines for the Scientific and Technical Information and Documentation Training
Courses, Seminars, and workshops 1975.
 Guidelines for the Evaluation of Training Courses, Workshops and Seminars in Scientific
and Technical Information and Documentation, 1975.
 A Course in Administration for Managers of Information Services: Design, Implementation
and Topical outline, 1976.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

9. General Information Programme (PGI) was developed by------------

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10. United Nations International Scientific Information System (UNISIST) is known
© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
as...........
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
11. PGI and UNISIST programmes merged in the year ----------
 1.6 International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA)

The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) is one of the major
associations that represents the interests of library services, and information services, and their
users worldwide. It was established in 1927 at the international conference in Edinburgh,
Scotland. It has 1600 members spread over around 150 countries. In 1971, IFLA was established
in the Netherlands. Its headquarters are generously located in the Royal Libra, the National
Library of the Netherlands, in the Hague. In 1976, the name of the organization was extended to
the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. IFLA is an independent,
international, non-profit organization that is not directed by any government.

1.6.1 Aims and Objectives of IFLA

These objectives of the IFLA as follows:

1. To enhance worldwide cooperation and understanding in the field of librarianship;
2. To promote a broader understanding of the significance of quality information services of
the libraries.
3. To enhance international cooperation, research, and improvement throughout all disciplines
through the exchange of ideas.
4. bibliography and also to provide a forum for the exchange of ideas and discussion of various
problems facing the library profession all over the world;
5. It intends to furnish guidelines and standards for various types of library activities including
the presentation of bibliographical data, training programmes of library personnel and
research.

1.6.2 Structure of the IFLA

a. General Council: Members of the Executive Board and representatives selected by IFLA
member associations help compensate the General Council.

b. Executive Board: The one President, six vice presidents, and the treasurer constitute of the
Executive Boardand is elected by the General Council on a proposal by the Consultative
Committee. The election is for 3 years with possible re-election for one more term.

c. Consultative Committee: The Consultative Committee is an advisory body, consisting of the

members of the Executive Board, the chairmen, and secretaries of sections, committees, and
international members.

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d. Programme Development Group: IFLA Program Development Group was established in
1969 as an advisory body for the Executive Board on professional problems. The members
are appointed by the Consultative Committee for 3 years.

Divisions and Sections IFLA has 8 Divisions which include type of libraries, library
activities and regional activities of IFLA. These are:

1. Libraries supporting General Research

2. Libraries Providing Services to the Public
3. Special Libraries
4. Services and Collection
5. Control over bibliography
6. Governance of bibliography
7. Research and Education
8. Local Initiatives

The work of the 8 Sections is carried out through 47 Divisions of IFLA, which are:

1. National Libraries / Government Libraries

2. Academic libraries and other libraries in use for general research
3. Library and Research Services for Parliaments
4. Social Science Libraries
5. Geography and Maps Libraries
6. Science and Technology Libraries
7. Public Libraries Systems and Programmes
8. Libraries Serving the Disadvantaged Persons
9. Libraries for Children and Young Adults
10. School Libraries and Resource Centres
11. Bibliography
12. Cataloguing
13. Acquisition and Collection Development
14. Document Delivery and Resource Sharing
15. Government Information and Official Publications
16. Serials and other Continuing Resources •
17. Rare Books and Manuscripts •
18. Preservation and Conservation
19. Libraries Buildings and Equipment
20. Information Technology
21. Statistics and Evaluation
22. Education and Training
23. Library Theory and Research
24. Africa
25. Asia and Oceania
26. Latin America and the Caribbean
27. Health and Biosciences Libraries

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 28. Classification and Indexing
29. Art Libraries
30. Libraries for the Blind
31. Library Services to Multicultural Populations
32. Reading
33. Management and Marketing
34. Audiovisual and Multimedia
35. Reference and Information Services
36. Genealogy and Local History
37. Mobile Libraries
38. Newspapers
39. Management of Library Associations
40. Women's Issues
41. Information Literacy
42. 4 Continuing Professional Development and Workplace Learning
43. Library History .
44. Library and Information Science Journals
45. Metropolitan Libraries
46. Knowledge Management

In addition to the above, IFLA has also set up 4 Discussion Groups. They are:

1. Law Libraries
2. New Professionals
3. Quality Issues in Libraries
4. e-leaming

1.6.3 Publications of IFLA

In addition, the following periodical publications are published:

1. IFLA Journal (Quarterly);
2. International Cataloguing (Quarterly);
3. IFLA Annual Report;
4. IFLA Directory (Annual); and
5. IFLA News
6. IFLA publication series on Bibliographic Control

1.6.4 Activities of IFLA

1. MARC Programme

The IFLA realized the importance and role of the Machine Readable Cataloguing (MARC)
data in the information retrieval activities of library world and launched an international
programme and the International Machine Readable Cataloguing Office for the development of
this new technique and the activities concerned with it.

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2. Universal Bibliographic Control (UBC)

The Universal Bibliographic Control (UBC) Programme was a major activity taken up by
the Federation in 1971. This programme encourages the use and exchange of standardized
bibliographic descriptions. The IFLA International Office for UBC established in London in
1974 achieves the objectives of this programme by standardizing the form and choice of
headings, the compilation of national bibliographies and machine readable bibliographic data.
1.7 SUMMARY
3. Universal Availability of Publications (UAP)

The IFLA took up the Universal Availability of Publication (UAP) Programme in 1973.
This program aims at improving the availability of published material in whatever form it is, to
the intending users wherever they are without any hindrance. This program not only provides
information on various documents but also gives access to all these documents.

4. ISBDS

IFLA developed and published in 1974 the International Standard Bibliographic

Description for Monographic publications ISBD (M) as the basis for rules of the description of
monographic materials in AACR2. In 1975 IFLA and the Joint Steering Committee for the
Revision of AACR (JSC/AACR) jointly developed the General International Standard
Bibliographic Description ISBD(G). It serves as a framework for the description of all types of
publications in different media ensuring a uniform approach to bibliographic description.

5. Action for Development through Libr0aries Programme( ALP)

6. Preservation and Conservation ( PAC)
7. Alliance for Digital Strategies (ICADS -IFLA-CDNL)
8. IFLA UNIMARC
9. Free Access to Information and Freedom of Expression (FAIFE)
10. Committee on Copyright and other Legal Matters (CLM)
11. Committee on Standards (COS)

The Divisions of IFLA are:

a. Library Types
b. Library Collections
c. Library Services
d. Support of the Profession
e. Regional Activities

In this lesson, we discussed about few international organizations that function on the
global level in different fields. The majority of countries gradually comprehended the benefits of
preserving international relations in some domains through international organizations after
World War II. This is because the information services accessible to users were almost always
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insufficient, which created problems for library professionals when attempting to access
information. Through assisting in the coordination, promotion, and development of relevant
information for the international organizations carried on the responsibility of recognizing these
problems in the attempt to bridge the gap. Governmental and non-governmental organizations, as
well as some professional voluntary organizations, are among these organizations.

1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1 1927 7 UNESCO
2 UBC 8 UNESCO
3 IFLA 9 UNESCO
4 1952 10 World Science Information
System
5 1946 and Paris 11 1976
6 1948 12 1976

1.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the role of Global Information Systems in disseminating information.

2. Explain the programmes and Activities of UNESCO
3. Explain the programmes and Activities of UNISIST
4. Explain the programmes and Activities of IFLA.

1.10 REFERENCES

1. Jain, T. C. (1971). Professional associations and development of librarianship. Delhi.

2. Kent, A. (ed). (1980). Encyclopaedia of Library and Information Science. London:
Macmillian.
3. Khanna, J.K. (1996). Handbook of Information Systems and Services. New Delhi: Beacon
Books.
4. Khanna, J.K. (2000). Documentation and Information Services, Systems and Techniques.
Agra: YK. Publishers.
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5. Lahiri, A. (1991) UNESCO's information activities in India. NISSAT Newsletters, (2) 9-10.
6. Martin, W. J. (2017). The global information society. Routledge.
7. Ouksel, A. M., &Sheth, A. (1999). Semantic interoperability in global information
systems. ACM Sigmod Record, 28(1), 5-12.
8. Parry, G., De Bock, R., & White, G. R. (2015). Global Information System Implementation:
a study of strategic and cultural challenges and enablers in a DMNC.
9. Penna, C.V. (1982 ) UNESCO in Kent Allen and others ed. Encyclopaedia of Library & Info
Service. New York: Marcel Dekkar, (31)341-350.
10. Vajda, E. (1980). UNISIST guide to standards for information handling. UNESCO, Paris.
11. www.unesco.org

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 LESSON 3.2
INIS, AGRIS, INSPEC AND MEDLARS

Dr. Gururaj S. Hadagali

Associate Professor
Department of Library and Information Science
Karnatak University, Dharwad – 580 003
Karnataka State
Email: [email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
1.3 International System for Agricultural Science and Technology (AGRIS)
1.4 Information Services for the Physics and Engineering Communities (INPEC)
1.5 Summary
1.6 Answers to In-Text Questions
1.7 Self-Assessment Questions
1.8 References

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, the student will be able to:

• Learn the basics of the Global Information Systems

• Identify the kinds of Global Information Systems in different disciplines
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and their role in information dissemination.
©•Department
Familiarize with different
of Distance types Education,
& Continuing of information
Campussystems
of OpenatLearning,
the global
level. School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
• Understand the significance of different Global Information Systems
 1.2 International Nuclear Information System (INIS)

International Energy Agency (IAEA) sponsored International Nuclear Information

System (INIS) in Vienna, Austria. It started operating in April 1970. It is a collaborative,
decentralised computerised abstracting and indexing system that provides comprehensive
coverage of published literature on the non-proliferation of nuclear energy. Modern
computerized technology. At present 132 countries are the members of INIS. It collects all the
information provided by the members, processes, merged and redistribute in both machine-
readable form and print form. Scientific and technical reports, conference proceedings, patents,
and theses are among the conventional and non-traditional (grey literature) papers with
bibliographic references and full text available in the INIS repository.

International Nuclear Information System (INIS) provides a database with more than 4.4
million bibliographic records, 2 million of which are full-text documents. Over 100000 new
records are added each year. New technologies were used for collecting the information,
processing, preserving and disseminating which includes digitization, automated classification,
the deployment of modern databases and search engines, artificial intelligence and machine
learning and harvesting. In the year 2020, 1.7 million unique visitors made over 2.5 million
searches, viewing 4 million web pages. The INIS collection is made freely accessible online
since April 2009 worldwide. The information is directly downloaded from INIS servers or
through URL or DOI links provided as a part of the INIS bibliographic record. As it is open and
free accessible by the researchers, students, government officials, journalists and the general
public.

The subject covered by the INIS is based on the requirements and regarding the peaceful
application of nuclear science and technology. The needs of the global user community are
relevant, as are the interests and operations of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Nuclear
reactors, reactor safety, nuclear fusion, uses of radiation and radioisotopes in medicine,
agriculture, industry, and pest control, as well as nuclear chemistry, nuclear physics, and material
science, are the key topics covered. In order to facilitate exploring and searching the collection,
INIS maintains a multilingual thesaurus in Arabic, English, Chinese, French, Japanese, German,
Spanish, and Russian. It provides translations for thousands of scientific and technical terms.

Restructuring of INIS

On January 20, 2012, the IAEA Director General gave his approval to the Department of
Nuclear Energy's (NE) general reorganisation. This includes establishing a separate Nuclear
Knowledge Management Section and the Nuclear Information Section (NIS). The new Nuclear
Information Section consists of

 IAEA Library Unit

 Systems Development and Support Group
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  INIS unit

It is possible to improve current information goods and services and create new ones as a
consequence of the restructuring and development of NIS, all with the goal of improving
organizational efficiency and effectiveness.

Objectives of INIS

The main objective of INIS is to use a modern computer and micrographable

technologies, and provide comprehensive nuclear revelation and abstracting services.

 To promote the sharing of Scientific and technical information peaceful use of atomic
energy.
 To promote scientific cooperation and atomic energy-related professional development.
 To collect, process, preserve and disseminate nuclear information.
 To increase awareness among members about how crucial it is to keep an effective and
efficient system in place for handling nuclear information resources.
 To assist the member states by providing training programs and capacity building.
 To give assistance and information services to the IAEA and its member states.

INIS Salient Features

1. It is computer-based IR system
2. It is a dynamic and flexible system.
3. It is and international co-operative venture.
4. It is document retrieval system.
5. It is an indexing and abstracting service.
6. It works with maximum decentralization and minimum centralization.
7. It ensures high quality of input.
8. It uses its thesaurus for subject indexing.
9. It ensures communication with its participants.
10. It is a mission-oriented system (as against a discipline-oriented system).
11. It offers machine readable information service.
12. It achieves compatibility and co-operation of national information system in science and
technology.
13. It has formulated standards and rules in the field of information science
14. It uses modern techniques in the field of information processing.

INIS Products and Publications

INIS Atom Index: a semi-monthly journal with semi-annual and annual cumulative indexes
derived from the INIS database. It is an abstract journal containing indexes to authors, report

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numbers, corporate names, subjects and conferences. The INIS Atom Index in magnetic tape
format is available to the INIS Liasion Officers of the members of the states only.

INIS Reference Series: The INIS Reference series is published by the IAEA since 1969. It is a
set of documents which contain standards, rules, formats, coder and authority lists used by the
participants in the decentralized INIS program. It is an important tool for users, such as indexers,
cataloguers, abstracters or searchers.

IAEA- INIS/ETDE Thesaurus: “A thesaurus is a terminological control device used in

translating from the natural language of documents, indexes or users into more constrained
‘System Language’ (document language, information language)”. It is a multilingual thesaurus
which translates the technical scientific terms used for searching the information from the
collections. It is quite useful for semantic and multilingual searches. The INIS/ETDE Thesaurus
contains more than 30,000 terms and has developed as a result of systematic study.

INIS Non-Conventional Literature

The Scientific and technical reports, patent filings, conference papers, theses, and
dissertations that are not widely accessible are all included in the non-conventional literature.

INIS Services

Outreach and Promotion

In the respective nations, the Liaison Officers are in charge of promoting the INIS and
planning promotional events. By providing the promotional and informational materials, the
INIS secretariat assists.

The activities include:

 Provision of promotional materials to hosts;

 Promotion at IAEA and other nuclear conferences, meetings, symposia and exhibitions with
online and/or other demonstrations;
 INIS advertising in professional journals;
 Preparation and distribution of brochures, information sheets, and other promotional tools;
 INIS entries published in directories world-wide
 Publishing articles in professional journals;

Training and Distance Learning

The training courses for the International Nuclear Information System are created to achieve a
number of goals,

 Encouraging in exchange of scientific and technical information

 Establishment and improvement of a national information infrastructure in Member
States

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  Responsiveness to Member States’ needs
 High quality and coverage of the INIS Database
 Maximum utilization of INIS output products
 Transfer of modern information technology
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. International Nuclear Information System (INIS) started operating from

__________.
2. International Nuclear Information System (INIS) is situated in _______________.

3. The INIS database is made accessible freely online since _________.

4. Agricultural Sciences and Technology (AGRIS) was established in __________.

Presently the INIS Training Program includes:

1. INIS Training Seminars

The IAEA organizes training seminars for the INIS members every year at Vienna. The
seminars stress using INIS output products and INIS input abilities, and they are funded and
staffed by INIS. The IAEA is in charge of planning all aspects of the seminars, including the
criteria for selection, abstracting, descriptive cataloguing, indexing, retrieval, marketing, and
promotion. The major goal of the training activities is to help INIS members train new
employees who will be preparing input and using output products.

2. INIS Distance Learning Program

The INIS Distance Learning Program offers thorough directions on how to prepare input
for subject analysis and bibliographic description as well as how to use the INIS database. The
curriculum is freely available on CD-ROM for individualized, independent study for INIS
Centres staff members.

3. Technical Co-operation Assistance

The INIS Secretariat helps developing nations participating in INIS establish and operate
nuclear energy information systems through the IAEA Department of Technical Cooperation.

 Regional Training

The IAEA Technical Co-operation Department and the INIS Secretariat jointly sponsor
regional training. It usually relates to projects for technical cooperation and is hosted by a
member nation in the region.

 Fellowships and Scientific Visits

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 In collaboration with INIS, the IAEA Technical Co-operation Department also sponsors
fellowships and scientific visit. A Fellowship is intended for junior staff members in Member
States and provides on-the-job training. It usually lasts two to three months in a single location.
Designed for senior employees in a Member State, a Scientific Visit lasts one to three weeks and
takes place in multiple locations.

INIS Web Services

The maintenance of connections to websites on the Internet in a variety of subject areas,

from nuclear science and technology to all other IAEA-related activities, is included in the INIS
online services. In addition to this, INIS provides topic access to the IAEA website's content as
well as that of numerous other important multinational and international organisations in the
field of nuclear science and technology.
Alert Services
Users who are genuinely researching current and up-to-date information in the sphere of
nuclear science and technology are offered alert services based on INIS products in the form of
SDI service. The national INIS Liaison-Officers of the various INIS members offer these
services. The alert services take the form of individualised searches that are conducted based on
each user's unique subject interest assessment.

Document Delivery Service

International Nuclear Information System has established several INIS national centres.
to provide the document delivery services, and these centres make full-text versions of INIS non-
conventional literature accessible to users in each INIS member state. But the users of that
specific INIS member state are the only one who can utilise this service. When a request comes
in from a nation without such a facility, the Knowledge Preservation Group is contacted to
provide the requested service.

INIS in India

Since INIS's establishment, India has taken a constructive role in it. The National Centre
in charge of INIS activities in India is the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Bombay,
Library and Information Services Division. BARC is a government research centre for nuclear
science and technology that is part of India's Department of Atomic Energy. The Center has done
a good job of gathering data on the issue, transferring it to a centralised processing facility, then
receiving and disseminating the results to the users throughout the country. From the Indian
center, a number of 54554 records have been input from 1970-Sep 2013. The average number of
records input in the last five years is 1967, except in the year 2013. More than 2000 records have
been input from the year 2011 onwards. The collection of literature in the centre is from various
sources of the country which includes conferences, journals (print/online/open sources),
books/monographs, and technical reports.

Objectives

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 The national centre in authority of all INIS activities in India is the Library Centralized
management Services (L&IS) of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in Bombay. Its primary
objectives include;

 To create computer expertise in the preparation of input and use of output from machine-
readable media.
 To select, categorize, index, abstract and report the bibliographic description of items falling
the subject scope of INIS
 To scan, identify and collect nuclear science literature producers in the country

Activities

Some of the activities of the INIS inputting Centre, India are:

a. INIS DVDs service Area Network (LAN) and online INIS through online getaway of BARC,
b. Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI),
c. Demo-Cum-Training on INIS Database,
d. Distribute of INIS Brochures and promotional materials at conferences/symposia in India,
e. Conducting training programmes on setting up INIS Inputting Centers in other member
countries,
f. Document Delivery Service, for example, countries like Brazil, Canada, France, Korea are
regular requesters
g. Development of INIS supporting software tools:
h. INIS Libsoft (for converting DVD-ROM bibliographic data to MS Excel sheets), and
i. Libdata: a software tool (Winfibre matrix file support with features like reverse author name
with affiliation, insert automatic country code in tag).
j. Arranging INIS Database demonstration at various conferences/symposium/poster
presentation,
k. Nuclear News Collection: This involves selection of nuclear and Department of Atomic
energy related news from subscribed newspapers, their digitalisation in order to provide the
scientists and engineers in the BARC campus through LAN as a current awareness service
(CAS), and
l. SIRB-Scientific Information Resource Bulletin: A Monthly News Bulletin published as a
promotional activity of subscribed and open Database including INIS, conference
proceedings, journals, and other digital resources within the center.

1.3 International System for Agricultural Science and Technology

(AGRIS)

Introduction

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations launched the
International Information System for the Agricultural Sciences and Technology (AGRIS) in
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1974, encouraging international collaboration for information sharing in and access to
agricultural science and technology. AGRIS started fully functioning in 1975 with the first issue
of AGRINDEX and was inspired /modelled on the INIS pattern to promote information
exchange and to bring together the world literature dealing with all aspects of agriculture.
Initially, AGRIS was gathering bibliographic references for a central database using the
technologies that were available. Since the Internet's advent in the late 1990s, a network of
centres known as AGRIS has been promoting the flow of information on agricultural science and
technology by using common standards and methodologies. The Current Agricultural Research
Information System (CARIS), AGRIS, and FAO are all currently running programmes.
AGRISisacooperative systeminwhichparticipating
membercountriesaddreferencestotheliteratureproducedwithintheircountryirrespectiveofthelanguage.
The AGRIS provides free access to more than 13.5 million records about publications in the field of
food and agriculture in 90 different languages. It also facilitates access to journals, books, articles,
monographs, databases and grey literature which includes unpublished scientific and technical reports,
theses, dissertations and conference papers in the area of food and agriculture. In AGRIS /CARIS
programmes more than 242 national, international and intergovernmental centres have participated.

Objectives of AGRIS

• The creation of a single, thorough, up-to-date inventory of agricultural literature from

around the world that reflects agricultural research findings, food production, rural
development, and will assist users in identifying issues with all facets of the global food
supply.
• Providing specialized subject retrieval services,
deliveringdocumentsonrequest,currentawarenessandselectivedisseminationof
informationservices to users who need agricultural information in order to meet their
information needs.
• Functioningwithnewandexistingspecializedsecondaryinformationservicessoastoincreaseeffici
encyandeliminateunnecessaryduplication.

Products and Services

The AGRIS database, covering international agricultural literature is available online

through ESA/IRS, DIMDI, DIALOG Information Services, Inc and the International Atomic
Energy Agency. It provides multilingual keyword search option for retrieval of information.
With the help of coordinating centre and some national and regional AGRIS centres online
access and SDI Services are also available. The coordinating centre in Rome offers the AGRIS
output tape to participating centres on a monthly basis.

1. AGRIS CD-ROMs

Large amounts of information are stored and retrieved using electro-optical

technology on a CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read-Only Memory). A range of CD-ROMs are
used to distribute the entire collection of AGRIS data:
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 AGRIS CD-ROMs: all of the information gathered, preserved on archival CD-ROMs, and
one current CD-ROM with the most recent information gathered (quarterly updated).
 AGRIS FHN CD-ROM: consists of data gathered from all AGRIS CD-ROMs in the areas
of food and human nutrition (semi-annually updated).
 AGRIS FORESTRY CD-ROM: consists of data obtained from all AGRIS CD-ROMs in
the areas of forestry and primary forest products.
 AGRIS and AGRIS FHN CD-ROMs created by SilverPlatter Information Ltd. utilising
data prepared by AGRIS Processing Unit Vienna; information is retrieved using the
SilverPlatter programme WinSPIRS.
 AGRIS FORESTRY CD-ROMs are created by WAICENT/FAOINFO of the Library and
Documentation Systems Division (GIL) of the FAO; retrieval software HEURISKO (based
on CDS/ISIS) is also included.
 From AGRIS CD-ROMs, the current software (WinSPIRS, HEURISKO) allows various
searching operations to meet various user search requirements:

• Searching free text in different description fields

• Limiting search operators (less than, greater then, range, etc.)
• Searching by subject category codes, authors, publication year, publication language, etc.
• Logical search operators (OR, AND, NOT, WITH, NEAR)
• Searching by descriptors defined in the AGROVOC Thesaurus
• Lateral searching (forward/backward)
• Truncation of words (to retrieve all variants)
2. AGRIS Database On-line
On-line access to the global AGRIS database is provided by:
a. AGROVOC Thesaurus (FAO/WAICENT, FAO Web Server)
b. DIALOG (Palo Alto, USA): non-USA portion only
c. AGRIS DATABASE ON-LINE (FAO/WAICENT, FAO Web Server)
d. DIMDI (Cologne, Germany)

3. Information Services on Request

APU Vienna provides the following services at user request in printed or magnetic form.

a. Users can request the AGRIS Processing Unit to keep them informed of any new AGRIS
entries on particular topics of interest to them through the selective distribution of
information (SDI) service.
b. Retrospective searches through the entire data base;
c. National bibliographies, which include all entries created in a country as well as those
published outside that are about that country. Agrindex master copies can be created on a
high-resolution laser printer and are ready for photocopying or offset reproduction.
d. Specialized cooperating centres, like the FAO divisions or the CGIAR IARC, can also
create subject bibliographies upon request.
4. Other Services
a. AGRIS working methodologies are developed and distributed.
b. Developing and dissemination of the AGROVOC Thesaurus

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 c. Software for AGRIS input data preparation (AGRIN/AGCHK) is being developed and
distributed.
d. Distribution of the UNESCOs CDS/ISIS database software for PCs.
e. AGROVOC Thesaurus
f. Agrindex (AGRIS monthly bibliography in English, French and Spanish; only up to
December 1995)
g. Training materials (AGRIS Reference Series)
h. Products available on FTP Server (APU Vienna):
i. Current monthly AGRIS output file
j. Other products on Web Server (APU Vienna): AGRIS Reference Series
k. Training material and courses

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

5. The national centre in charge of INIS activities in India is _______________.

6. First version of AGROVOC was published in __________.

7. The Headquarter of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) is situated at

___________

8. MEDLARS was established in the year ___________.

AGROVOC

With the assistance of FAO member nations, the extensive multilingual agriculture
thesaurus AGROVOC was created. It aims for continuous updating and enhancement and is used
for indexing data in agricultural information systems. In 1982, AGROVOC's first version was
created and disseminated to all AGRIS centres. FAO updates the vocabulary in cooperation with
national AGRIS centres. For the consideration of FAO subject specialists, centre staff makes
suggestions for new terms for the database. The selected terms by the experts were added to
AGROVOC. Through the FAO/AGROVOC website, new words and corrections may also be
proposed. The new AGROVOC is currently accessible online.

Limitations in AGRIS

An assessment of AGRIS was conducted in 2000. It was observed that the network had
only partially succeeded in accomplishing its objectives. Limitations in AGRIS were found in
these areas:

i) incomplete coverage,
ii) independent systems,
iii) difficult access to the original documents and

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 iv) structural and institutional constraints.

A new strategic vision has been formed as the AGRIS system strives to decentralise data
processing, prioritise national capacity creation, and enhance autonomous administration of
national agricultural information.

To overcome from these limitations, AGRIS joined Coherence in Information for

Agricultural Research for Development (CIARD) in 2009, a global project of international
partner organisations (such as DFID, CIARD, GFAR, etc.) dedicated to boosting the benefits to
the general public resulting from investments in agricultural research and innovation for
development.
The basic principle agreed by CIARD's stakeholders is that information should be made
"available," "accessible," and "applicable" to the public. FAO is supporting this idea via its
AGRIS portal. In addition, all CIARD parties agree that it is important to respect the roles played
by national, regional, and international institutions while working together to create more
interconnected information collections and services.

According to the new vision, the AGRIS search engine should be able to retrieve and
interpret a wealth of diverse information sources including full-text documents, threads from
discussion fora, blog entries, news articles, and organizational, regional, national, international
information (re)sources. Partnerships with established search engine technology leaders such as
Google, Yahoo or Scirus will be explored in order to provide customized search capabilities.

Open AGRIS: the New AGRIS Linked Open Data Model

The linked dataset produced by converting AGRIS data to RDF contained 80 million triples.
Additionally, AGRIS is listed as a dataset in the Data Hub at http://thedatahub.org/dataset/agris.

Open AGRIS

With the goal of expanding AGRIS knowledge by offering as much information as possible
about a subject or bibliographical resource, OpenAgris is a web application that gathers data
from many online sources. OpenAgris can interlink with many existing datasets using Agrovoc
as its backbone, displaying as much information as possible about a given topic, such as statistics
about fish species or the geographic distribution of plants. These datasets include DBPedia, the
World Bank, Geopolitical Ontology, the FAO fisheries dataset, AGRIS serials dataset, etc. In
this approach, OpenAgris will function as a centralised portal that compiles all data available on
the Internet for a particular subject, field of study (in the agriculture sector), or bibliographic
reference.

The following four internal FAO RDF are the basis of OpenAgris:

a. The AGRIS records dataset: It is the straight translation of records from AGRIS
XML to RDF. This new dataset has more than 130 million triples, compared to the more than 5
million XML items in AGRIS.

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 b. The Agrovoc RDF dataset: The most extensive multilingual agricultural lexicon in
the world, AGROVOC has about 40,000 concepts in 22 languages, encompassing subjects in
agriculture, forestry, and fisheries as well as universally relevant ones like land use, rural
lifestyles, and food security.

c. The AGRIS journals dataset: since approximately 75% of AGRIS database records
are journals articles, we built a dataset of more than 22,000 agricultural journals with complete
information about each journal (ISSN, start date, frequency, publisher...)

d. The AGRIS centers dataset: It includes details on data suppliers, making AGRIS the
information's source.

AgriMetaMaker

It is a web form created with the Drupal content management system that makes it easy to
generate metadata. In a few minutes, one can manually create new references and enter the data.
The relevant fields must be filled up for the documents, saved for future use, as many as
necessary added, reviewed and edited, and finally exported to the computer. Once the same data
delivered to FAO/AGRIS, is made available in the AGRIS database.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

9. INIS, AGRIS, INSPEC and MEDLARS are ________________.

10. The first issue of AGRIS was ___________.

11. ______ is the world’s largest medical Library.

12. Restructuring and development of INIS was done during_____________.

Services in India

IndiahasbeenactivelyparticipatinginAGRISfromtheverybeginningofitsinception.Theparticipa
ting AGRIS/CARISinstitutionfromIndiaisthe
AgriculturalResearchInformationCentre.Onanaverage,3500bibliographicentriesare
submittedtoAGRISdatabaseasIndianinputeveryyear. FAO sends updated machine-readable AGRIS
outputs to the Agricultural Research Information Centre every month,
retrievalisthenprovidedtoagriculturalscientistsrequiringinformationinthecountry.AcomputerizedSDI
serviceisalsomadeavailabletoagriculturalresearchersofIndia. For the purpose of exchanging and
disseminating knowledge on science and technology, the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)
established this organization.

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SUMMARY

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations developed the International
Information System for Agricultural Sciences and Technology. AGRIS offers comprehensive
bibliographic coverage of the literature in agricultural science and technology. The Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has put together AGRIS, which provides
a global perspective on important agricultural research. Over 135 participant countries' diverse
facets of agriculture, such as forestry, animal husbandry, aquatic sciences, fisheries, and human
nutrition, are addressed. Unpublished scientific and technical reports, theses, conference papers,
government publications, and other original content are included in literature. Each year, 130,000
records with keywords in English, French, and Spanish are added.

Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System (MEDLARS)

The National Institutes of Health (NIH), which operates from its headquarters in
Bethesda, Maryland, includes the National Library of Medicine (NLM) of the United States. The
NLM is the world's largest medical library. MEDLARS was established in the year1964 in
NLM. It is a bibliographic database of life sciences and biomedical information. It is a
computerized storage and retrieval system. The first computerized issue of Index Medicus began
functioning along with MEDLARS. Index Medicus is the monthly subject or author index guide
for the articles published by NLM.
MEDLINEistheNationalLibraryofMedicine’sbibliographicdatabase,whichincludesinformationonmedi
cine which includes nursing,dentistry,healthcaresystem,veterinary medicine,andpreclinicalsciences.
MEDLINE is accessible from LNM gateway and PubMed. In 1971, an online version called MEDLINE
(“MEDLARS Online”) become available as a way to do online searching of MEDLARS for remote
medical libraries.

MEDLINE is the U.S National Library of medicine’s premier database which contains over 23
million (2016) references to journals articles in life sciences with a concentration on biomedicine. The
records in MEDLINE are indexed with NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH). The journals are
selected for MEDLINE are based on the recommendation of the Literature Selection Technical Review
Committee (LSTRC), an National Institute of Health- chartered advisory committee of external experts
analogous to the committee that review NIH grant application. Some other journals and newsletters are
selected based on NLM initiated reviews such as history of medicine, health services research,
AIDS, toxicology and environmental health, molecular biology, and complementary medicine
that are special priorities for NLM or other NIH components.

The subjects covered by MEDLINE is biomedicine and health, broadly defined to

encompass those areas of the life sciences, behavioural sciences, chemical sciences, and
bioengineering needed by health professionals and others engaged in basic research and clinical
care, public health, health policy development, or related educational activities. MEDLINE also
covers life sciences vital to biomedical practitioners, researchers, and educators, including
aspects of biology, environmental science, marine biology, plant and animal science as well as

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biophysics and chemistry. Increased coverage of life sciences began in 2000. The publications
covered by MEDLINE are the scholarly journals, newspapers, magazines and newsletters which
are useful to some particular users of the NLM, also for other community users.

MedlinePlus (http://medlineplus.gov/)

It is NLM’s website for consumer health information. The site offers uptodate health
information which is available anytime, anywhere for free. The resources are selective from NIH
and other government and professional organizations in the US.

PubMED

It is a free search engine that mainly accesses the MEDLINE database, which contains
references and abstracts on subjects related to the life sciences and biomedicine. As a component
of the Entrez information retrieval system, the database is maintained by the National Institutes
of Health's (NIH) National Library of Medicine (NLM).

PubMED Central

The National Library of Medicine (NIH/NLM) of the United States offers a free
collection of journal articles from the biomedical and life sciences. As an archive, PMC is made
to ensure that all of its content is always available, even as technology advances and current
digital literary formats may become dated. NLM is of the opinion that constant and active use of
the archive is the best strategy to ensure the accessibility and viability of digital content
throughout time. The core element of PMC is that all of its journal literature should be freely
accessible.

1.4 Information Services for the Physics and Engineering Communities

(INPEC)

Information Services for the Physics and Engineering Communities started in the year
1967, by the Institute of Electronic Engineers (IEE), United Kingdom. It is one of the biggest
and most prestigious bibliographic information services which is accessible in English. It offers
access to the world’s scientific and technical literature in physics, electrical engineering,
electronics, communications, control engineering, computers and computing and information
technology. The database, which is updated annually, includes books, reports, dissertations,
conference proceedings, and scientific and technical publications. INSPEC has trained and
experienced employees ready to scan the abstracted and indexed articles for the database
collection. It contains more than 20 million records of research literature, 4,500 journals indexed.

The subject covered in INPEC are mainly physics, electrical/electronic engineering,

computing, control engineering and information technology, other than these subjects it also

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covers areas such as material science, oceanography, nuclear engineering, geophysics,
biomedical engineering and biophysics.

INSPEC Products and Services

The Institute of Electronic Engineers (IEE) is well known and well-liked throughout the
world for its wide range of print and electronic publications, which include books, journals,
magazines, conference proceedings, and more. These publications cover many different fields of
electrical and electronic engineering, such as telecommunications, computing, power, control,
radar, circuits, materials, and more. It also publishes the writing regulations and a number of
related documents. It also produces the INSPEC bibliographic database, which covers literature
in the fields of physics, electronics, electrical engineering, computing, control and information
technology.

Electronic Format

 Inspec Archive
 Online database for remote access to information from INSPEC.
 Inspec Web
 InspecOndisc (CD-ROM)
 Site licences and direct data services for in-house and remote access information system.
 INSPEC Specialised Databases- It includes 3 subject oriented databases in the areas of
photonics, biomedical technology, and information and communication technology.

Abstracting Journals

INSPEC Abstracting Journals

 Computer and Control Abstract
 Electrical & Electronic Abstract
 Physics Abstracts
 IT focus: Update on Information Technology (fourth journal)

All together form the Science Abstract series of journals from IEE. In these abstract
journals contain all most all of the 350,000 short summaries of the papers, they contain all the
information entered into INSPEC database. The abstract is in English language, with the
language of the source paper indicated if it is other than English.

Current Awareness Services

Three current awareness journals namely Current Paper on Computer and Control (M),
Current Paper in Electrical and Electronic Engineering (M), and Control Papers in Physics (SM)
are design to meet the needs of scientists and engineers whose papers provide the title of articles
and details of source documents for paper published in the world’s technical literature. The
articles are arranged for ease for scanning.

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INSPEC online

The INSPEC on-line database contains details of the world’s information published since
1969 in all areas of computing control, electrical engineering, electronics, physics and
information technology. It is currently being increased at the rate of more than 200000 abstracts
of newly published research and development reports annually, and now contains over 2.5
million records. Each record is indexed in four ways to provide ease of retrieval

 Classification Codes from the INSPEC Classification

 Controlled Indexed terms from INSPEC Thesaurus
 Free Language keywords to reflect the terminology used by the authors
 Treatment Codes to indicate the authors’ approach to the subject

SDI Service

INSPEC SDI is a user-made service which matches the interest ‘profile’ of the scientists,
engineers or managers against the information added to the INSPEC database each week.
Electronic Materials Information Service (EMIS), IEL-IEEE/IEE Electronic library full-text of
IEEE and IEE publications with INSPEC index, are the other services provided by the INSPEC.
1.5 SUMMARY

International Nuclear Information System (INIS), Agricultural Information System

(AGRIS), INSPEC and MEDLARS are the most popular and reputable information systems in
the fields of Nuclear Science, Agriculture, Physics and Medical Sciences. Various databases
used by these Global Information Systems for the benefit of the member library. The collection
includes comprehensive publications, bibliographic references, and both conventional and non-
conventional or grey literature. These global information systems provide news and information
such as events, presentations, training, newsletters, or informational materials.

1.6 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1 1970 7 Bethesda
2 Vienna, Austria 8 1964
3 2009 9 Global Information Systems
4 1974 10 AGRINDEX
5 BARC 11 NLM
6 1982 12 2012

1.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

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1. What is Information System? Write a detailed note on the Global
©Information
Department Systems.
of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
2. Enlist the different
SchoolGlobal
of OpenInformation Systems.of Explain
Learning, University Delhi any of them in
detail.
3. Write a detailed note on the activities and products of INIS.
4. Discuss in detail the activities and products of AGRIS.
 1.8 REFERENCES

1. Gupta, B.M., Guha, B., Jain, V. Saini, M.L., & Singh R. (Ed.). (1988). Handbook of
Libraries, Archives & Information Centres in India Vol 6. Information Resource Centre.
2. Gupta, B.M., Guha, B., Jain, V. Saini, M.L., & Singh R. (Ed.). (1988). Handbook of
Libraries, Archives & Information Centres in India. Information Resource Centre. Vol 6.
3. Kumar, P.S.G. (2002). A Student’s Manual of Library and Information Science Vol 2.
B.R.Publishing Corporation.
4. Kumar, P.S.G. (2002). A Student’s Manual of Library and Information Science Vol 2.
B.R. Publishing Corporation.
5. Savic, D. (2021). International Nuclear Information System (INIS): 50 years of
successful Contribution to Nuclear Science and Society. An International Journal on
Grey Literature, 17(3), 171-175.

Websites Visited

1. http://vou.ac.in/slm/BLIB%20104_Information%20Sources_BLISc.pdf
2. http://vou.ac.in/slm/BLIB%20104_Information%20Sources_BLISc.pdf
3. http://vou.ac.in/slm/BLIB%20104_Information%20Sources_BLISc.pdf
4. https://egyankosh.ac.in
5. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/11117/3/Unit-8.pdf
6. https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000021LI/P000099/M00195
0/ET/1483076219P04_M-28.pdf
7. https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/Home/ViewSubject?catid=9JW4FTxyrU+Wsr8xl8vgiw==
8. https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/Home/ViewSubject?catid=9JW4FTxyrU+Wsr8xl8vgiw==
9. https://www.fao.org/agris/
10. https://www.iaea.org/resources/databases/inis
11. https://www.theiet.org/publishing/inspec/

**************LMS Feedback: [email protected]**************

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© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

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 UNIT 4 – RESOURCE SHARING, LIBRARY
NETWORKS AND LIBRARY CONSORTIA
Lesson- 4.1
PROGRAMMES AND ACTIVITIES OF INFLIBNET
AND DELNET

Dr. Gururaj S. Hadagali

Associate Professor
Department of Library and Information Science
Karnatak University, Dharwad – 580 003
Karnataka State
Email: [email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 INFLIBNET
1.4 Major Activities of INFLIBNET
1.5 DELNET
1.6 Summary
1.8 References

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After learning this Lesson, the student will be able to

• Learn the basic concepts of Networking.

• Identify different kinds of Networks and their role in information dissemination.
• Familiarize with different types of networking at the National level.
• Understand the significance of Information products.
• Discuss the issues involved in putting resource sharing into practice.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
No library or information center can say it is financially and collection-wise
independent in this age of exponential information expansion and resource limits. A user
unaware of the issue requests that all pertinent papers be made public. The union catalogue

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was the libraries' sole hope for acquiring these materials through Interlibrary Loan (ILL).
Due to geographical, postal, and governmental hurdles, it might take days or months to get a
single document. This new era of library collaboration is made possible by the explosive
growth of communication technologies. Recent events prompted efforts on a national and
regional scale to network libraries so that their resources may be better shared. Several
libraries and information networks have been established to facilitate library collaboration
and offer a wide range of services such as Internet access, electronic mail, a centralized
database for storing information, etc. In these systems, the union catalogue is converted into
an OPAC (Online Public Access Catalogue), and the digital collection is linked with the
OPAC, resulting in the development of digital libraries. Two or more libraries and other
organizations involved in a shared pattern of information exchange, through
communications, for some functional purpose" is how the National Commission on Libraries
and Information Science (NCLIS) defines a network in its National Programme Document
(1975).
The term "network" is commonly used to refer to a system whereby users have access
to resources, data, and services from several libraries and other institutions. Regardless of
where they are legally based, libraries commit to providing the same service to one another
as they do to their respective communities. Their ability to communicate with one another
might be improved using modern technologies like the computer and the telephone. The
UNISIST II working document is "A group of inter-related information systems connected
with communication facilities, which are collaborating through more or less formal
agreements to conduct information handling activities to give improved services to the
users." Furthermore, therefore, library networking facilitates collaboration across different
libraries. In order to pool resources, organize consortia, subscribe to the same journals, and
so on, these libraries are linked by various forms of electronic communication.
Need for Library Networking
The development of library networks has been made possible by developments in
information technology. But why create library networks in the first place? The following are
some reasons why creating a library network is essential: More and more information is
being produced today in electronic form:
Information is kept on print, film, magnetic, and optical storage medium. Today, the
vast bulk of information is produced electronically.
Information is accessible through both online and offline databases and is also provided
in bibliographic form. Online library catalogues are becoming more prevalent, and the
majority of indexing and abstracting services are currently accessible there. This encourages
networking among libraries.
Internet: The production, publication, storage, transmission, and consumption of
information have all changed significantly as a result of the internet. Libraries may create
networks and share their resources thanks to the Internet.
Quick access to information: It is challenging for an individual to manually access the
precise and necessary information from the large amount of information available. Using a
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computer makes it easier to analyze, access, and look up crucial information. To access
information that is distantly placed, networks are necessary. The networked libraries have
made resource sharing more practical by reducing the restrictions of travel time and distance.
NATIONAL LIBRARY NETWORKS
There are a number of library networks operational at national level.These are based
on different criteria, e.g. clientele, subject, geographical area, etc. Some of the important
networks are listed below:

1.3 INFLIBNET
In 1991, the University Grants Commission started a major programme called the
INLIBNET Centre. At first, the programme was meant to update libraries and information
centres and set up a way for people to share and get information. This was done to help
scholarship, learning, and academic pursuits. In May 1996, the centre was set up as an
autonomous, independent InterUniversity Centre (IUC) of the UGC, New Delhi with the goal
of coordinating and putting in place a high-speed network that connects all university
libraries in the country using the latest technology. The Center's main activities and services
include automating academic libraries and information centres, creating union databases of
resources available in academic libraries, encouraging academic libraries to share resources,
promoting information access, and supporting scholarship. The Centre acts as a hub for
connecting libraries and information centres in India's universities, colleges, and research and
development centres. The goal is to improve scholarly communication.

The Center has made great strides in its ongoing programmes, which are meant to
keep up with trends and new technologies in information and communication technology
(ICT). The Center has also started a number of projects to help the academic world. For its
work, the INFLIBNET Centre won a number of awards. For example, the project "National
Library and Information Services Infrastructure for Scholarly Content (N-LIST)" won the
Jury Choice Award at e-INDIA 2010 for the year 2010, Manthan South Asia 2010 for the
year 2010. The project N-LIST" won the Digital Skoch Inclusion Award for the year 2011.
The project Shodhganga, which is a collection of Indian theses, won the Jury's Choice Award
at e-INDIA 2011 for the year 2011.

Objectives

The objectives of the Centre, as per the Memorandum of Association (MoA), are as follows:

• To work with and involve key agencies in creating and establishing communication
infrastructure to improve the capacity of information transfer and access in support of
scholarship, learning, research, and academic endeavors;

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• In order to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort, it is necessary to set up an
information and library network, which will consist of a computer communication
network connecting LICs at universities, R & D Institutions, Deemed to be universities,
Information Centres (UGC), Institutions of National Importance and Colleges etc.
• To advocate for and facilitate the standardization of computerization throughout library
and information service operations and services;
• To create and promote common standards and norms for library techniques, methods,
procedures, computer hardware and software, and services in order to maximize the use
of shared resources through the sharing and exchange of information;
• With the goal of improving the nation's information management and service capacities,
we are working to create a national network that will connect libraries and information
centres all around the country.
• To create an online union catalogue of serials, monographs, books, theses and
dissertations, and non-book materials (multimedia, computer data, manuscripts, audio –
visualsetc.) in libraries across India to make their document collections more accessible;
• Through the Sectoral Information Centres of NISSAT, City Networks, UGC Information
Centersand others as well as through the establishment of gateways for online access to
national and international databases held by the national and international information
networks and centres, we aim to make available bibliographic information sources with
citations, abstracts, etc.
• The goal of this research is to find novel ways to save digital representations of important
knowledge written in various Indian languages.
• In order to minimise unnecessary duplication in purchases, libraries should collaborate on
tasks like cataloguing, ILL, catalogue creation, and collection growth.
• To locate sources wherever they are available and obtain it through the INFLIBNET and
union catalogues of documents so that users all over the country, no matter their location
or distance, can access information about serials, theses/dissertations, books,
monographic and non-book resources;
• As a means of providing online information services, it is necessary to compile databases
of projects, institutions, and experts.
• So that the country's libraries, documentation centres, and information centres may pool
their resources and better support the regions that are less well-endowed, we must
promote collaboration among them.
• In order to set up, run, and maintain INFLIBNET, there is a need to develop human
resources and train them in the field of computerized library operations and networking.
Helping scientists, engineers, social scientists, academics, faculty, researchers, and
students talk to one another via email, file sharing, teleconferencing, and other digital
means.

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• Establish an appropriate control and monitoring system for the communication network
at various levels; Conduct research and design systems for communications, computer
networking, information handling, and data management.
• To work together with Indian and international organisations, libraries, and information
hubs in the field related to the Centre's goals; To foster research and development and
build the infrastructure required to generate technologies; To work in tandem with Indian
and international universities, libraries, information centres, and other organisations
working in fields related to the Centre's mission.

MISSION AND VISION

• Make use of cutting-edge computing power to establish an online community of scholars

and academic resources with the end goal of improving people's ability to gain access to
and use of information through increased levels of preservation, innovation, and
cooperation.
• Ensure that all academics, regardless of institution, have easy access to high-quality,
peer-reviewed electronic resources, with a particular emphasis on the services, tools,
procedures, and practices that enhance the usefulness of this data.
• Make improvements to educational institutions' ICT framework by providing more
services.
• Create methods, systems, and applications that provide users to access data in a digital
format at any time and from any location with a reliable and easy-to-use access
management system.
• Create guides to help students choose appropriate materials and online tutorials to help
them learn how to use e-resources.
• Encourage all educational institutions to establish open access digital repositories to save
the educational and research materials they produce.

GOALS OF INFLIBNET

• Library automation should be achieved in all educational institutions.

• Using an online, real-time library environment, create consolidated catalogues of all the
documents that are now available.
• Make it simple and convenient for academic institutions to access scientific, peer-
reviewed electronic resources.
• University administrations should push towards the digitization of archival materials and
the production of digital content (such as e-theses &dissertations, e-articles, electronic
versions of working papers, annual reports, statistical reports, state-of-the-reports
technical reports, etc.).

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• Encourage the establishment of open access digital repositories at academic institutions
for the storage of content resulting from the aforementioned procedure.
• Learn the ins and outs of creating and managing digital content as well as digitizing
processes and digital archives.
• In order to accomplish the aforementioned objectives, it is necessary to provide
instruction on the practical use of the new technologies.
1.4 MAJOR ACTIVITES OF INFLIBNET

E-Consortium Open Access Projects and Library Automation

Initiatives Services
e-ShodhaSindhu Shodhaganga e-PG Pathshala IndCat: Union
Catalogue
ShodhaShuddi Shodhagangotri Vidwan Database SOUL

N-List IR@INFLIBNET Vidya-Mitra

Infistats INFOPORT IRINS

INFED

e-ShodhaSindhu:
The INFLIBNET is a project of the Indian Ministry of Education that gives students
at universities, colleges, and government-funded technical institutions in India access to
electronic materials. The Ministry of Education (erstwhile the Ministry of Human Resource
Development) formed e-ShodhSindhu by merging three consortia initiatives, namely the
UGC-INFONET Digital Library Consortium, the National Library of Information Science
and Technology, and the Institute of Engineering and Technology Information Network. The
12 (B) and 2 (f) status are mandatory for Centrally funded Technical Institutions, like IISc,
IISERs, IITs, IIMs etc., Universities, and Colleges to have access to the e-current
ShodhSindhu's and archived content, which includes more than 10,000 peer-reviewed and
core journals in different disciplinesand a number of full text and bibliographicdatabases
from a large number of aggregators and publishers.

ShodhaShuddi
Since September 1, 2019, all Indian universities and institutions have had access to
Plagiarism Detection Software (PDS) thanks to a programme called "ShodhShuddhi," which
was launched on the advice of the National Steering Committee (NSC) of e-ShodhSindhu.
Over a thousand different types of institutions are uncovered viz.
• Central Universities
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• State Universities
• Deemed to be University
• Private Universities
• Centrally funded Technical Institutions (CFTIs)
• Inter University Centres (IUCs) of UGC
• Under this initiative, Ouriginal (formerly Urkund) a Web Based Plagiarism Detection
Software system is being provided to all users of Universities and Intuitions in the
country.

N-List
The e-ShodhSindhu Consortium, INFLIBNET Centre, and the INDEST-AICTE
Consortium, IIT Delhi are collaborating on a project named N-LIST, which will allow
subscription to e-resources subscribed throughINDEST-AICTE resources for universities and
subscription to e-ShodhSindhu College students, researchers, and teachers at other
beneficiary institutions can use the N-LIST project's server(s) set up in the INFLIBNET
Centre to gain access to electronic materials. After being verified as legitimate users, college
students and faculty can utilize the INFLIBNET Centre's servers to gain access to e-resources
and download the articles they need directly from the publisher's website.

N-LIST: Components
The project consists of four distinct parts, including the following: I subscription and
provision of access to selected e-Shod Sindhu e-resources to technical institutions (IITs, IISc,
IISERs, and NITs); ii) subscription and provision of access to selected INDEST e-resources
to selected universities; iii) subscription and provision of access to selected e-resources to
government-aided colleges; and Activities I and ii) above are jointly managed by the
INDEST and UGC-INFONET. Activities iii) and iv) above are handled by the INFLIBNET
Centre, Gandhinagar. Additionally, the INFLIBNET Centre is in charge of creating and
implementing the right software tools and procedures for authenticating authorized users.

Infistats
The InfiStats Utilization Statistics Portal was created by the INFLIBNET Centre in
order to track the usage statistics of the many e-resources made available to the member
institutions of the e-Shah Sindhu Consortium. Through SUSHI Protocol,InfiStats gathers the
COUNTER usage for each member. The InfiStats portal imports the usage data from the
publishers’ websitedirectoly. The InfiStats interface offers member institutions with levels of
search options to consume data. The institutions can also log into this site to track the
utilisation of the centrally funded e-resources made accessible to them. The InfiStats site now
gives the ability to incorporate and track the consumption of self-subscribed resources by
member institutions.

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 IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1.Library Cooperation, Inter Library Loan, Library Consortia, …………..?

2.INFLIBNET Headquarter is in …………

3.E-ShoshaSindhu is related to …….

4.Shodhaganga is related to ……..

5.e-PG Pathshala is an initiative of Ministry of ……………

6.Vidwan is a database of ………

INFEED

The first Federation in India, the INFED (INDIAN Access Management Federation)
has embraced Shibboleth, a standardOSS for authenticating authorised users from Institutions
and providing them with easy access to e-resources without geographical hurdles.
Under the e-ShodhSindhu, the INFLIBNET Centre offers universities and colleges in
India with access to academic e-resources as one of its key responsibilities. The INFED is a
centralised body which helps to collaborate with member institutions and access control
mechanism employing standardised rules and metadata for attribute interchange.

Shodhaganga

Theses and dissertations are widely recognised as a valuable and distinct source of
knowledge, and are sometimes the only source of academic work. Grey literature (Theses &
Dissertations) continues to be an untapped and underutilised asset. The UGC Notification
(Minimum Standards & Procedure for Award of M.Phil. / Ph.D. Degree, Regulation, 2009
Amendment made on 2016) dated 5th May 2016 requires researchers in universities to
submit the electronic versions of their theses &dissertations in order to advocate open access
to Indian academic works to the academic community at the global level. The provision of e-
theses online through centrally managed digital archives would not only provide easy access
and archiving of Indian doctoral theses, but will also aid to raise the standard and quality of
research. This would solve the severe problem of research duplication and poor quality
caused by "low visibility" and "unseen" factors in research output. According to the
Regulation, the INFLIBNET Centre hosts, maintains, and makes the digital repository of
Indian ETDs accessible to all universities and other institutions.

In Sanskrit the term "Shodh" means "study and discovery." The "Ganga" river is the holiest,
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biggest, and longest in the Indian subcontinent. Shodhgangais a storehouse of Indian
academic intellectuals output managed by the INFLIBNET Centre, Gandhinagar. The
Shodhganga@INFLIBNET is built on DSpace, an OS Digital Repository Software created
by MIT in collaboration with Hewlett-Packard (HP). The DSpace employs protocols and
interoperability standards that are internationally recognised. Shodhganga offers a platform
for research community across India to deposit their theses online and make them available
on open access mode for the benefit of scholarly community. The repository is capable of
capturing, storing, preserving, indexing and disseminatingETDs submitted by the
researchers.

Shodhagangotri
The Sanskrit term "Shodh" signifies "study and discovery." "Gangotri" is one of the
greatest Himalayan glaciers and the source of the Ganges, the holiest, largest and longest
river in India. The Ganges is a symbol of ancient culture and civilisation, since it is eternally
aged, always flowing, eternally loving, and beloved by its people.
Under the "ShodhGangotri" initiative, research scholars in institutions are required to
submit an e-copy of the approved synopsis submitted to universities at the time of
registration for the Ph.D. programme; the initiative has been expanded to include
MRPs/PDFs/Emeritus Fellowship, etc. On the one side, the repository would expose the
patterns and orientations of research undertaken in Indian institutions, and on the other, it
would prevent research duplication. Later, "ShodhGangotri" abstracts would be matched to
"ShodhGanga" theses in full text. Therefore, after the full-text thesis has been submitted for a
summary, a link to the full-text theses will be supplied from "ShodhGangotri" to
"ShodhGanga."

IR @ INFLIBNET
The INFLIBNET Centre has established an IR called IR@INFLBNET using DSpace,
OSS. It organizes two conferences namely CALIBER and PLANNER. The papers published
in these conference proceedings are uploaded into the IR. The Repository also includes other
materials like news paper clippings and course materials.

INFOPORT
InfoPort is a Subject Gateway for Indian ElectronicResources. The INFLIBNET
Centre encourages open access to academic information from India. The InfoPort is intended
to act as a gateway to all Indian scholarly sources. The gateway provides access to the
diversified Indian intellectual output on the Internet that supports search, browse, and
multiple listing. The InfoPort catalogues online materials of Indian origin on a variety of
themes that are freely accessible through a rigorous testing and review procedure. The Centre
intends to engage with college and university librarians and researchers in the discovery and
selection of resources. Different topic groupings make up the cosmos of knowledge. The
world of knowledge, according to the Dewey Decimal Classification, is dispersed between
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000 and 999. InfoPort is organised according to DDC classification, subject indexing, and
alphabetical subject arrangement.

The InfoPort includes Indian Internet resources in the following categories:

• Electronic books,
• electronic journals and reference sources including dictionaries, directories, maps etc.;
• Institutional repositories, resource gateway, etc.
• Wikis, blogs, etc.;
• Teaching and learning website;
• Lecture Notes, Magazines,:
• Portals;
• Audio, video and other multimedia learning resources;
• Libraries, archives and museums;
• News and media services including newspapers, online news services,;
• Websites listing current events and activities;
• Websites of Major Research projects, especially those supported by national funding
bodies such as UGC, DST, DBT, AICTE, MHRD, DOT, etc.;
• Teaching and learning projects website, especially those receiving Government funding;
• Universities, colleges, Research and Development Labs, institutions and e-learning
websites.
• Indian publishers and subscription agents; and
• Listservs and discussion groups, especially those having online archives.

e-PG Pathshala
e-PG Pathshala is an initiative of the Ministry of Human Resource Development's
National Mission on Education through ICT (NME-ICT), which is being carried out by the
UGC. The curriculum-based, interactive e-content in 70 courses spanning all disciplines of
Natural & Mathematical Sciences, Social Sciences, Arts & Humanities, Linguistics and
Languages have been created by subject experts from Indian R & D Institutions and
Universities. Every subject has its own group of lead investigators, content authors,paper
coordinators, Language editors, Content reviewers, and multimedia specialists.

e-Adhyayan (e-Books)
e-Adhyayan is a platform to provide 700+ e-Books for the Post-Graduate Courses.
All the e-books are derived from e-PG Pathshala courses. It also facilitates play-list of video
content.

UGC MOOCs (Online Courses)

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 UGC-MOOCs is one of vertical to produce course on Post Graduate subjects in
SWAYAM (Online Courses, An MHRD initiatives). UGC is one of the national coordinators
of SWAYAM & INFLIBNET is technical partner for UGC-MOOCs.

e-Pathya (Offline Access)

e-Pathya is one the verticals of e-PG Pathshala which is software driven course /
content package that facilitates students pursuing higher education (PG level) in distance
learning as well as campus learning mode. It also facilitates offline access.

VIDWAN Database
VIDWAN is the major database of profiles of Academicians / scientists/ Experts /
Teachers employed by India's foremost Universities and Research &Development
organisations engaged in teaching and research. It includes essential details like the expert's
academic history, experience, scholarly publications, Awards, Projects undertaken,
researcher identities (Ids like Scopus ID, Researchers ID, Google Scholar ID, etc.) The
database was created and is maintained by the INFLIBNET. TheNME-ICT (National
Mission on Education via ICT) funds for this project. The database will aid in the selection of
panels of experts for different committees, task forces, constituted by Ministries/Government
entities for monitoring and evaluation reasons.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
7.IRINS is a product of ……….

8.CALIBER is the national convention organized by. ……………

9.SOUL is …………… software

10.DELNET was started in …………

11.NACLIN is organized by ………….

12.The ultimate aim of DELNET is to provide ………………… service

Objectives

• Quickly and easily provide information about experts to peers, prospective collaborators,
funding agencies, policy makers, and research scholars in the country;
• Identify peer reviewers for articles and research proposals;
• Discover prospective collaborators for ongoing research projects;

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• Establish direct communication with the experts who possess the expertise required by
users;
• To facilitate information exchanges and networking among scientists.

Vidya-Mitra
Vidya-mitra is an online learning platform launched by the NME-ICT, Ministry of
Human Resource Development (MHRD), New Delhi. Through a single interface, the portal
enables learners to search and browse all stored information, including audio/video learning
resources, textual materials, and multimedia-enhanced materials, among others. In addition,
this portal provides facetted search, use statistics, project-based access, and My-Space.

IRINS
The INFLIBNET Centre, home of the Information and Library Network
(INFLIBNET), has created a web-based Research Information Management (RIM) tool
called IRINS. The portal allows universities, research institutions, and individual faculty
members and scientists to aggregate, curate, and publicise their scholarly communication
efforts, therefore laying the groundwork for the development of a scholarly network. Free
software-as-a-service versions of IRINS are made accessible to Indian universities and
research institutes.

Human resources, course management, grant administration, institutional repository,

open and commercial citation databases, academic publishers, etc. might all be integrated
with the help of the IRINS. Various forms of academic identification, including ORCID ID,
ScopusID, Research ID, Microsoft Academic ID, and Google Scholar ID, have been included
into the system for the purpose of consuming scholarly publications.

IndCAT
If you are looking for books, theses, or serials from major Indian academic libraries,
go no farther than IndCat, a free online union catalogue. Information on books, theses, and
serials may be found in the IndCat, along with their location and availability. Records are
made available in common bibliographic forms like MARC and MARCXML. Psychology,
statistics, politics, economics, law, public administration, education, commerce, linguistics,
mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, life sciences, botany, zoology,
medicine, engineering, agriculture, management, architecture, sports, literature, history,
computer science, etc. are all included. The combined catalogues will be accessible via a
user-friendly web interface. When it comes to copy cataloguing and retroconverting
bibliographic records, the IndCat is invaluable. It may also be utilised for facilitating
interlibrary loans and expanding library holdings.
SOUL
The INFLIBNET Centre has created state-of-the-art integrated library management
software called Software for University Libraries (SOUL) to meet the unique needs of
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academic libraries. It was designed to function in a client-server architecture and has a focus
on ease of use. All major bibliographic formats, networking protocols, and circulation
models are supported by the programme. The programme was developed to automate all
library housekeeping tasks after extensive research, debates, and deliberations with the
country's top specialists. The programme works for any library, including small public
libraries and large university libraries. During CALIBER 2000, the initial version of the
programme, called SOUL 1.0, was made available to the public.

In January of 2009, users were able to download SOUL 2.0; the most recent version,
SOUL 3.0, was made available in February of 2021. The new SOUL database is compatible
with the most recent releases of both MS-SQL and MySQL (or any other popular RDBMS).
MARC 21 bibliographic format, Unicode-based Universal Character Sets for multilingual
bibliographic data, and NCIP 2.0 and SIP 2 based protocols for electronic monitoring and
control are only some of the worldwide standards that SOUL 2.0 complies with.

CONVENTIONS
• CALIBER: CONVENTION ON AUTOMATION OF LIBRARIES IN
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

In 1994, the INFLIBNET Centre began hosting a biannual gathering called the
Convention on Automation of Libraries in Education and Research Institutions (CALIBER)
in partnership with institutions around the country. Research and technical works, case
studies, technological updates, etc., relevant to the convention topics and subthemes of the
given year are encouraged to submit high-quality papers for consideration at the convention.
Library and information professionals, educators, information technology specialists,
consultants, and users engaged in library automation and networking, as well as information
producers, have a rare opportunity to meet face-to-face at this conference. Twenty-two
conferences have been hosted thus far in conjunction with various educational institutions.
The 22nd CALIBER, also known as the 13th International CALIBER, will take place in
partnership with BHU,Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India, from November 17-19, 2022.

PLANNER: A NATIONAL CONVENTION FOR NORTH EASTERN REGION

Since its inception in 2003, the Promotion of Library Automation and Networking in
North Eastern Region (PLANNER) conference series has served as a forum for discussing
and finding solutions to concerns specific to the region's libraries. Those working in libraries
and information technology in the Northeast can benefit from meeting and networking with
their peers at this convention, as well as professionals from other parts of the country. Since
2003, seven North-Eastern universities and colleges—including NEHU (Shillong), Manipur
University (Manipur), Assam University (Silchar), Mizoram University (Aizwal), Gauhati
University (Gauhati), Nagaland University (Dimapur), Tezpur University (Tezpur), Sikkim

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University (Sikkim), Dibrugarh University (Assam), Tezpur University (Tezpur), Tezpur
University

Publications:
INFLIBNET Publishes major publications such as:

1) Annual Reports – Gives the information regarding the annual activities of the INFLIBNET
Centre.
2) Newsletter – Gives the information regarding the monthly activities of the INFLIBNET
Centre.
3) University Directory – It is a complication of contact details of university Vice
Chancellors, Directors, Registrar and Librarian etc.

Books Database:

The bibliographic data for books that have been submitted to the Union Catalogue of
Books by the various member universities is made available. This database includes a wide
variety of publications that universities typically group together as part of their book
collections, including monographs, reference books, conference proceedings, textbooks, and
more. Millions of scholarly articles and dissertations from its affiliated institutions are
available here.

Bibliographic entries can be downloaded from the Union book database in MARC21,
CCF, or ASCII format. Bibliographic entries retrieved in MARC21 format are compatible
with SOUL 2.0 and other library management systems. Therefore, IndCat not only acts as a
Union Catalogue of books available in university libraries, but also as a virtual catalogue for
each of the universities that contribute to it. Both GujCat and NeRCat are IndCat branches
that are specialised for browsing the catalogues of specific libraries within India's state of
Gujarat and the eight university libraries located in the country's north-eastern region,
respectively.

ThesesDatabase:

Reference materials for Indian doctorate dissertations are collected and made
available in a single location: the union catalogue of theses. In 1995, 52,000 records from 82
academic institutions were used to kick off the project. Over 2.64 billion entries from roughly
350 institutions are now available in the database.

SerialsDatabase:

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The bibliographic data for journals to which universities subscribe is kept in the union
catalogue of serials, which is divided into three sections: serials holdings, current serials,
and e-journals. Over 33,000 unique titles are catalogued in the serials database, and library
holdings data from participating institutions is also included. Title, publisher, frequency,
publication year, homepage URL, topic headings, holdings information, and names of the
universities are all included in each bibliographic entry for serials.

CEC’s Video Database: The CEC Video Database is a joint project of the INFLIBNET
Centre and the Consortium for Educational Communication (CEC), with the stated goal of
making available to scholars and the general public details on the CEC-created video
programmes. Educative programmes made by the CEC and its 17 EMMRCs are catalogued
in the database, which has over 15,000 citations.

To encourage cooperative cataloguing and reduce unnecessary duplication of efforts, the

Centre has created an application named "Online Copy-Catalogue System" (OCS). On the
one hand, libraries can use a portal called "Online Copy Catalogue System (OCS)" to search
and read bibliographic records of documents in IndCat and then download the records
they're interested in into SOUL 2.0 or other MARC21 compatible software. However, if a
document is needed but is not in the IndCat, it may be easily added using the interface. At
the same time as this new entry is being recorded in the IndCat, it is also being saved in the
locally connected LMS.
Information about Current Research Projects in India.
(http://www.inflibnet.ac.in/researchproject/).

The Research Project Database documents the work of professors at colleges and
universities around the country. Regularly, researchers working on MRP grants from the
UGC upload reports to the database, which already comprises over 15,000. Users can access
both digital and printed versions of the project reports on site at the INFLIBNET Centre.

Open Journal Access System (OJAS) @ INFLIBNET (http://www.inflibnet.ac.in/ojs/)

The Open Journal Access System at the INFLIBNET Centre is a digital platform for
hosting electronic versions of journals in open access mode, complete with integrated
submission, peer-review, editing, layout design, and publication procedures. The OJAS
@INFLIBNET initiative promotes the use of the OJAS @INFLIBNET by academic
institutions publishing print journals to host free, open access, electronic versions of their
publications on the INFLIBNET Centre's server.

Bibliometric and Scientometric Studies

The Bibliometrics Group was formed to investigate the effect of electronic library
resources on academic output in India. Each participating institution's research profile is
currently in the making. A university's strengths and weaknesses, international and national
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collaborations in various fields of study, the correlation between the number of articles
downloaded from e-resources and the number of research articles produced by researchers,
and the impact of research as measured by citations received and the H Index are all factors
that go into these profiles. The citation and source information are both retrieved from Web
of Science. Fifty academic institutions' research profiles are complete.

Human Resource Development and Consultancy

The Centre's mission includes providing training for university and college library
staff in the use of information and communication technologies. The centre often hosts
conferences, training programmes, workshops, and seminars on topics such library
automation, networking, e- resource awareness, theses repositories, institutional
repositories, etc. Universities and colleges all throughout the nation are working with
INFLIBNET to host Regional Training Programmes for Library Automation (IRTPLA) and
User Awareness Training Programmes. Human resource development initiatives in India
include holding national and international conferences every other year; these events are
known as PLANNER in the North-Eastern areas and CALIBER in the rest of the country. It
also offers library-specific SOUL Installation and Operations Training. integrated
publishing system. OJAS @INFLIBNET is a free service provided by the INFLIBNET
Centre that promotes academic institutions to publish electronic versions of their journals on
the INFLIBNET server.

Implementation of Web 2.0 Technologies at the Centre

The INFLIBNET Centre has implemented the following Web 2.0 and Library 2.0
interactive and collaborative technical capabilities, marking its arrival in the new era of
digital libraries. Every one of the Web 2.0 applications employed is free and available to the
public. The INFLIBNET Centre has incorporated many Web 2.0 / Library 2.0 technologies,
such as Chat (http://www.inflibnet.ac.in/chat/), Blogs (http://www.inflibnet.ac.in/blog/),
Wikis (http://www.inflibnet.ac.in/wiki/), Streaming Media & Social Network
(http://in.youtube.com/inflibnet), RSS Feeds Aggregation Service.

Integrated e-Content Portal

As part of the National Mission of Education via ICT, the INFLIBNET Centre is
creating a web-based "Integrated e-Content Portal" for every e-content project. More than 55
projects on e-content are being developed in various disciplines like Engineering, Arts &
Humanities, Science, Social Sciences etc.by means of various Indian
institutes/universities/colleges under NME-ICT.

Through the portal, students will be able to access various types of hosted content, such as
audio/video lessons, written lessons, multimedia enhanced lessons, etc., with a simple search
and browse function. This portal would also have "my account" and "my space"

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functionality, as well as faceted search, syllabus-based search, use statistics, and the ability to
create a custom learning experience.

INFLIBNET Centre also worked on the institutional repository for the National
Institute of Occupational Health (NIOH), the Library Automation Project of Gujarat
University, and the construction of the UGC website and the automation of its programmes.

1.5 DELNET
Starting in January 1988, the Delhi Library Network is supported by NISSAT, the
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research of the Government of India. The network
was officially incorporated as a society in July 1992. The National Informatics Centre of the
Government of India's Planning Commission and the India International Centre in New Delhi
are leading the charge to spread the word about this.

DELNET's primary goal was to "foster cooperation among libraries" by providing

"computerised services to the users to coordinate efforts for acceptable collection growth and
reduce duplication wherever possible." There were only 31 institutions that could be
considered institutional members in the outset, with three more being associate institutional
members. All of these 31 institutions were located in Delhi. In time, more and more people
joined. As its membership expanded beyond the Delhi area, the organization's name had to
be changed. As a result, the Delhi Library Network became the Developing Libraries
Network on September 13, 2000. Due to the update, the network's reach has greatly increased
from its previous confines in a single city to encompass people from all over the globe.

The number of people that are part of DELNET right now is increasing rapidly. As of
November 1, 2001, there were 276 member libraries, up from 153 between 1997 and 2000.

Objectives of DELNET
• The establishment of a library network, the accumulation and dissemination of
information, and the provision of digital services for patrons are all means toward the end
of facilitating cooperation and sharing of library holdings.
• Information science and technology research, development of new systems in the field,
implementation of research findings, and publication of findings.
• To assist affiliated libraries in all aspects of information management, including
acquisition, preservation, dissemination, and use.
• It is important to work together to ensure that collections are growing in the most
effective way possible, and to eliminate duplication of effort whenever feasible.

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• The goal is to create a centralised online union catalogue of all the books, serials, and
non-book materials held by the collaborating libraries, and to assist the creation of
referral and/or research centres.
• To encourage and facilitate the human or automated distribution of papers.
• The goal of this project is to create a bibliographic database for books, serials, and other
non-book resources.
• The goal is to create a repository of projects, experts, and organisations.
• To have access to and keep functioning mechanical and electronic means of transmitting
and receiving electronic mail as quickly as possible.
• Sharing resources with other libraries and information networks on a local, national, and
global scale.
• Hold conferences and seminars on a national scale.

Facilities from DELNET

DELNET is providing the following facilities to its members:
DELNET Databases:
(a) Union Catalogue of Books - CCF:Delnet online union catalogue has 10,26,827
bibliographic records. It is continuously updated and the request for inter library loan can
be placed through the online system.
(b) Union catalogue of books - MARK format: Delnet union catalogue of books in MARC
book format presently has 27,231 records.
(c) Union list of current periodicals: DELNET has created union list of current periodicals
in science and technology, social sciences and humanities. This database is available
online to DELNET users. It now lists 16,497 periodicals and is regularly updated and
new titles are added annually.
(d) Union catalogue of periodicals: union catalogue of periodicals maintained by DELNET
presently contains 15,487 records, which include full holdings data of the libraries.
(e) Database of periodical articles: this can be searched under the title, author, compiler,
name of periodical and subject. At present the database contains 2,18,218 records.
(f) CD-ROM Databases: it is a compilation of bibliographic database of CDROMs
available with the member libraries. It has 1,214 records.
(g) Union list of Video Recordings: this is a database of videocassettes available in
DELNET member libraries and has about 2,278 listings.
(h) Union list of Sound Recordings: this union list consists of audiocassette records
available in member libraries. This has 708 listings.
(i) Database of Urdu Manuscripts: this list 210 manuscripts available in Delhi libraries.
(j) Database of Theses and Dissertations: A database of theses and dissertations submitted
to Indian Universities, which covers various subjects, has been started. The database has
16,587 records.

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(k) Indian Specialists Database - who is who: this database now has 2000 records. Entry
can be searched under the name area of specialization, subjects interests, languages
known, etc.
(l) Union list of Newspapers: this database of newspapers records the title, name of editor,
place of publication, email address and web address of internet edition.
(m) Serials - Management Libraries: a database containing nearly 800 serials, received in
various management libraries has been made online.
(n) DEVINSA Database: Development Information Network for South Asia (DEVINSA) is
a special database on socio-economic issues. It has nearly 20000 records of periodical
articles, books and unpublished materials on socioeconomic issues.
(o) Profile of member libraries: a directory containing information about the member
libraries is available.

Access to Database through INTERNET

(a) DELNET provides access to the following database and listervs through
INTERNET/NICNET.
(b) GISTNIC: DELNET provide access to GISTNIC database of the NationalInformatics
Centre.
(c) LOC: DELNET provides online access to the library of congress catalogue.
(d) NLM: DELNET provides online access to various databases of the National Library of
Medicine like Medline, AIDSline, Popline etc.
(e) U.S. Patents: the online access to full text US Patents.
(f) Index to The Hindu: Delnet is providing index to The Hindu online newspaper to its
users. One lakh indexed news items are available covering its 1996-98 period of the
Chennai edition.
(g) NET HAPPENINGS
(h) IFLA
(i) LIBJOBS
(j) BOOK REVIEWS FROM INTERNET
(k) Current contents

National Bibliographic Database

In 1998, as a pilot project, DELNET compiled the national bibliographic database
with funding from the Indian government's department of culture. Between the Punjab
University in Patiala and the International Institute of Tamil Studies in Chennai, fifty
thousand book recordings were generated. Current compilation efforts may be found at
Andhra University, the Asiatic Society of Bombay, and the Asiatic Society of Kolkata.

DELNET – AICTE MOU

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 DELNET and the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) have signed a
Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to update and connect through DELNET all
technical institutions in India that have been granted AICTE approval.

Training Programs
DELNET arranges tutorials, workshops, lectures and training programmes every year
time to time besides a National Convention on Library and Information Networking
(NACLIN)

Software Development
DELNET has development some library software such as:
a) DEL-DOS: It is based on the DOS Platform
b) DELMARC
c) DEL PLUS

Other Services
a) Retro-conversion:Delnet undertakes retro-conversion projects periodically.
b) Referral center: Delnet maintains a referral center to provide reference facilities to
participating libraries.
c) Database creation: DELNET assists the participating libraries in creation of bibliographic
databases. It also provides technical assistance to member libraries in handling IT
applications in libraries.
d) ILL Online: ILL requests can be registered online for books. It is an optional service and
an amount of Rs. 4000/- per year plus delnet photocopying charges has to be paid.
e) E-mail: DELNET provides, RENNIC E-mail and INTERNET Facilities. It is also an
optional service.
f) Internet TCP/IP connectivity: full Internet TCP/IP connectivity is given to members in
Delhi through NIC.

Publications

i) The DELNET Newsletter

DELNET'S mission of promoting library networking and raising knowledge of current events
is furthered through this publication. It is also used to update subscribers about DELNET'S
development in several areas.

1.6 SUMMARY
In this Unit, you will learn the basics of pooling your resources with others. It
provides a synopsis of the issues and goals associated with pooling resources. Understanding
the development of resource sharing from library collaboration to consortia might be aided
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by a description of the topic's historical context. The development of library networks has
been a windfall for libraries since it has given substance to the idea of resource sharing.
Getting papers sent quickly and efficiently across great distances is a major difficulty that has
been resolved. The importance of library networks and why they exist are presented to the
student. Consortiums of libraries, the most recent innovation in this field, have at last been
implemented.

1.7 ANSWER TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1 Library Networking 7 INFLIBNET
2 Gandhinagar 8 INFLIBNET

3 e-resources 9 Library Automation

4 Theses and Dissertations 10 Delhi

5 HRD 11 DELNET

6 Teachers / Scientists 12 Computerized

1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1.Define resource sharing. Describe its need.
2.Discuss the advantages of resource sharing.
3.Differentiate between library cooperation and resource sharing.
4.Enumerate the objectives of resource sharing.
5.Explain the concept of library consortia.
6.What is INFLIBNET and Discusses about any of its five activities?
7.What is DELNET and Discusses about any of its five activities?

1.9 REFERENCES
Kanakachary, M. (nd). Towards Networking of the Humanities Libraries in India. New
Delhi: EssEss Publications, 31-33.
Kaul, H.K. (1999). DELNET: an effective resource sharing model in India. Asian Libraries,
8 (6), 220-227.
Mumtaz, A. A., &Dheya, A. qader Al-Jasem (2001). Resource-sharing among major
libraries of Kuwait. The Electronic Library, 19 (4), 225 – 231.
SiriginidiSubba Rao (nd). Networking of libraries and information centres: challenges in
India, Library Hi Tech., 19 (2), 167 – 179.
SiriginidiSubba Rao, (2000). Networking of CD-ROMs. Library Review, 49 (3), 119 – 124.

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 Sivaraj, S. (2006). Resource Sharing and Establishing of Library Consortium among the
university and its Affiliated Colleges - SALIS 2006- Paper presented at national
Conference on Initiatives in Libraries and Information Centres in Digital Era.
Sujatha, G. (nd). Resource Sharing and Networking of University Libraries. New Delhi:
EssEss Publications. 1-7.

**************LMS Feedback: [email protected]**************

Lesson- 4.2
CSIR E-JOURNALS CONSORTIUM, UGC- INFONET
DIGITAL LIBRARY CONSORTIUM
Dr. Gururaj S. Hadagali
Associate Professor
Department of Library and Information Science
Karnatak University, Dharwad – 580 003
Karnataka State
Email: [email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Consortium
1.4 UGC- Infonet Consortium
1.5 Summary
1.6 Answers to In-Text Questions
1.7 Self-Assessment Questions
1.8 REFERENCES

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, the student will be to:

• Get familiarize with the Resource sharing, Library networks and library consortia.

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 • Know how a library consortium is gaining importance in the 21st century.
• Understand the different library consortia available in India.
• Analyse how UGC-Infonet helped academic community by extending access to wide
variety of e-resources.
• Apply different pricing models for the subscription to e-resources.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
The influence and impact of Electronic publishing and telecommunication have led to
emergence of library consortia and it increased in both number and function over the last
decade. The development of Library consortium is seen from the history of library
cooperative efforts and the library consortium providing services to its remote users through
licensed access to electronic materials. The concept of consortia approach was advised by Dr.
S. R. Ranganathan, father of Indian Librarianship in his book “Five laws of library science”.
The fifth law “Library is a growing organism” which leads whole world to look of
consortium. The term consortium is a collaboration of homogeneous organizations working
towards the same goals. By joining a consortium, a individual library can expand its reach
globally with more resources and services. Consortia are essential in the current environment,
especially for libraries. The library consortium is a virtual way to address the various issues
that libraries face through proper coordination and optimum utilization of library resources
by balanced use of funds.

Understanding Consortia

In last two decade concept of consortia gaining popularity among the librarians,
scholars, and publishers. The term consortium is derived from the Latin word for fellowship
and the ‘Consortia’ is the plural form of ‘Consortium’ which often used as singular form.
The meaning of consortia is coming together of separate groups for a specific purpose. There
are similar terms such as collaboration, coalition, cooperation, alliance which denotes
concept of consortium. Consortium is not a local or state system of public libraries, but such
systems may agree to access electronic resources on behalf of their respective institutions.
Simply, the consortia run to gamut from relatively informal cooperative founded just to
realize economies of scale in purchasing, to highly-organized, centrally-staffed, centrally
funded organization; intended to share the resources, and engage in all manner of
collaboration within the member libraries.

According to Oxford English Dictionary, Consortium means a “temporary

cooperation of a number of powers, companies, etc, for a common purpose. It is an
association of similar type of organization/ institution who are engaged for producing and
servicing the common things for providing services for a specific purpose of its users”.

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 A definition by American Heritage Dictionary (3rd ed., 1993) considered the term –“a
cooperative arrangement among groups or institutions. More straightforward description of
library consortia would be organizations of libraries formed to realize the benefits and
opportunities of collaborative activity.

Therefore, the common focus of all definitions are “coming together of libraries
having common interests and needs, to achieve a common goal that is beyond what an
individual library could achieve on its own”.

Aims of the Library Consortia

The consortium is a coordination of mutually agreed institutions which support and
assist interlibrary communication, teaching and resource sharing among different multi-type
library membership. The goal of a consortium today has changed from the sharing of
resources to the exchange of expertise across libraries, and it also considers the necessity for
libraries to share their resources in order to maximise their effectiveness.

Need for library consortium

- Now a day’s academic libraries facing new challenges and opportunities in managing
and purchasing serials within their limited budgets due to changes in scientific
publication and publisher pricing policies. Therefore, a shared infrastructure or firm
to share the resources among libraries is crucial to solve the current serials crisis.
- A large number of scientific journals are abandoned every year as a result of the
ongoing price rise for scientific information and the lack of funding of academic
libraries.
- In the present context, access to materials is valued more than building a substantial
library collection, especially if the access is continuous. The consortium makes it
feasible for libraries to benefit from increased access to electronic materials at a low
cost and with the best possible licence terms.
- The cost of journal subscriptions is constantly rising, and the budget gradually
decreases every year.
- Consortium enables libraries to get benefit from expanded access to electronic
resources at a low cost and with the best licence terms.
- More number of journals through e publishing (print journals are migrated to e-
jounals)
- Effective document delivery services, otherwise the article has to be scanned.
- Economical cost of savings for library budget.
- Up to date information since it takes less time for publication
- Greater buying power and increased access to e-resources
- Because of the rapid pace of technological advancement, there is constant demand for
new hardware, software, and educational and training resources.
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Salient features of Library consortium

The salient features of library consortium may be narrated as under

• They solve the various issues of libraries encountered so they can provide users a
variety of services.
• Due to the increasing global population growth, they meet the demand for knowledge
from a large number of people.
• They adapt to publishing the newly created knowledge in various forms.
• Due to the library's financial situation, consortium gather all materials published at
the national and international levels.
• Consortium reduce the language barriers i.e. primary documents are being published
by the developed countries like USA, UK, France, Japan etc, and among them the
non-English speaking countries produce majority of scientific literatures in their
mother languages.
• The licence must be signed by all parties and a single payment made by one of the
participants or through an agency.
• It was more convenient for publishers to negotiate with members through an agent,
who raised unique invoices for each member and received a single payment from
publishers. Statistics on usage by institutions may be gathered to determine how
frequently users access subscriptions to all titles.

Principles to govern the consortia

The important principles for governing them are listed below:

• Flexibility to pick your own vendor, library management tools, and member libraries
with whom to exchange resources.
• Flexibility in terms of managing and control of library resources and enforcement of
collection policies.
• Flexibility to open up access to more information using a portal that displays images
of your library
• Flexibility to enable to share print and electronic resources
• Flexibility to allow users of your library to search and reserve materials from other
member libraries as well as from your own, in addition to allow users of other
member libraries to search and request materials from your library.

Functions of Library Consortium

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The basic functions provided by the consortia are:

• The sharing of all resources of the library like manpower, reading materials, services
etc.
• Establishing connections to the World Wide Web and the internet
• Giving an opportunity to access to electronic resources.

Every library is unique in terms of its collection, user information demands, working
procedures, source of funding, information processing, etc. Standing on a shared platform, a
consortium can adopt the numerous steps of tasks or functions for effective functioning,
which are:

Agreement for establishment: to reach shared goal, a specific agreement must be made
among participating libraries. All libraries should operate in a way that makes them mutually
exclusive, but they must also adhere to the consortium's overall objective. Consequently, it is
necessary to constitute the Management Committee.

Administration of Library Consortium: a statutory body made up of library heads is very

essential to be formed in order to manage the consortium smoothly. Each library will provide
the Chief Coordinator with information about its resources for handling new equipment,
database, user services, and collection.

Benefits of Library Consortia

Access to a wider variety of electronic materials is available at a substantially reduced

cost through consortium-based subscriptions. The Consortium has attracted substantially
decreased subscription fees with the most favourable conditions of agreement because to the
combined efforts of its partner institutions. The Consortium is designed as an open-ended
initiative wherein other institutions can join and benefit from both the favourable terms of
licences and the massively reduced subscription rates. The consortium model provided better
licence terms for use, archival access, and preservation of subscribing electronic resources,
which would not have been possible for any individual institution. To utilize the full the
consortia model's major advantages, the participating libraries have to consider the following
basic requirements:

• The library should possess computers with minimum storage capacity and with up - to -
date configuration.
• The institute may have intranet facility integrated with library network.
• Linkage to library in the institute website or a separate website for library in order to list
and link the accessible resources so as enable the users by right dissemination .

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• High level of coordination and mutual relation between ICT unit of the institute and
library personnel is warranted
• Minimum of moderate level of ICT Skills of library personnel on Internet , e - resources ,
networking is immense to educate the user for optimum use .
• Though there will be central coordinator of the consortia , association with publishers ,
aggregators and librarians are required at an extent .
• High bandwidth, static IP and quality internal network facilities ( cable network with
optical fibre , WiFi , etc. ) have to be ensured .
• The librarian and senior library staff must be familiarized with all the resources which are
to be accessed through consortia and to have appropriate information literacy program
among users to enhance the use of the consortia.
• Mutual understating and effective coordination at times is a prerequisite for successful
implementation of the consortia.
• Budgetary provision for consortia may be legitimized through the license agreement
committee or management of the institutions.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1.The concept of Consortia is related to ____________
2.________________book of Dr. S R Ranganathan emphasized on library consortia
3.__________________ Law of Library Science leads to concept of Library Consortia
4.The term consortium is derived from ___________ word
5.___________________ is the one of the major reasons for E-resources consortia

The benefits of consortia

Promote Resource Sharing: Members of consortiums can share a range of resources in

addition to financial assets. According to Helmer, consortiums "for libraries give shared
expertise, access to new electronic and print resources, professional growth, and new funding
sources. The resources that can be shared by consortia include the following.

• Distribution of catalogues, delivering collections and creation of contents and collection

development.
• Distribution of digital/ electronic resources and encourage archiving of electronic
resources and its storage.
• Allocation of staff expertise, sharing risk, giving out success and professional glamour.
• Development of Library Services to the Users
• Enrich the Quality of Library Services: Since from 1990s, A significant national focus
was placed on increasing the quality of library services even while reducing operating
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 expenses. Libraries turned to consortiums as a method to encourage best practises, share
information about them, and lower the per-unit cost of delivering basic services. It
effectively combines the library services.
• Increase Financial Benefit:Gaining financial benefit is one of the most common reasons
for libraries to join consortia. "All library consortia have one goal in common utilizing
their collective financial resources to gain greater economic control over their
marketplace," says one researcher.

Encourage for Discussion, Collective thinking and Leadership: Being a member of a

consortium has many intangible advantages, such as the encouragement of discussion and
group thinking. Shoaf points out that the value of increased communication between
libraries cannot be overlooked. Another crucial component of library administration is
leadership. A consortium may manage more than just costs by giving its members the
leadership that need to work together for the benefit of the educational environment, the
institution's financial stability, and the standard of services provided to library patrons.

Demonstrate Reduced Cost: Any actions made by a library to save expenses in a

limited budgetary position might be viewed positively by stakeholders and the general public
as a means of maximising the resources available to libraries. Consortia function as an agent
on behalf of the member libraries to negotiate collective purchase prices for information
resources that are lower than what each one institution could achieve on their own. This
reduces the cost of member library operation. Therefore, in order to maximise their resources
within a limited budget, it investigates new ways to combine global resources among the
collaborating libraries.

Facilitates the ' Change Management: Change management is one of the hardest problems
that libraries are now dealing with. The risks involved in making decisions are increasing,
and there are less resources available, both financial and human. A consortium of libraries is
very helpful in managing the transformation. Typically, the change management process
involves a number of steps. These actions each carry a considerable risk. The process of
reducing such risks and maximizing the opportunities is known as change management.

Provides Training and Workshop: Libraries need to be aware of developing concerns in

order to handle change. The consortium can play a crucial role by organising new initiatives,
such as schools of library computerization, classroom library plans, and library improvement
plans, as well as by organising training sessions for current staff members.

Enables Better Access: Encourage the use of methods that are more efficient, quicker, and
less expensive for giving information searchers access to electronic information sources.
Access to electronic resources can be expanded across institutions at a reduced cost or at the
lowest possible cost for the subscription.
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It Facilitates Better Management: Consortia help to manage the electronic information
resources by consolidating its collections and services, while saving libraries the trouble of
managing print resources.

Sustains the Pressure: The strain of a shrinking budget, rising user demand, and rising
resource costs is fully achieved by library alliances.

Protects from Duplication: The amount of time, money, and effort spent duplicating
materials can be reduced, while access and savings can be increased. By offering collective
technical expertise in general or even detailed and specific levels of assistance, to member
constituents, a consortium also safeguards duplicate manpower expert, guide, online serial-
control manager, system analyst, network manager, problem counsellor, architectural
consultant, etc.

Accelerates Sustainable Growth of Libraries: The combined forces of consortia members

make it possible for libraries to benefit equally from increased access to electronic resources
at the most favourable prices and terms. Additionally, it demonstrates the advantages of
providing value-added services like Document Delivery and Search Interfaces in addition to
discounted membership rates. Finally, it improves the uniform growth, standardisation, and
compatibility among the member libraries. All of them point to the sustainability of libraries'
growth.

DISADVANTAGES OF LIBRARY CONSORTIA

Consortia participation needs initial investments in licences and information and

communication technology, which creates a finance issue. We have the issue that the
majority of libraries at the beginning of the year allocated practically all of their funding to
the ongoing operations and services, allowing little space for decisions concerning further
investments during the course of the year. This is a very dangerous decision to make in the
rapidly evolving world of electronic publication.

Secondly, the savings offered by not handling the print edition of the journals are not
a benefit that libraries are prepared to take advantage of. Their workforce is not trained to
handle electronic documents, and their work tasks are still focused on the physical document.
Since publishers often charge for off-consortia delivery of materials in either print or
electronic format, many libraries are reluctant to participate into consortia arrangements.

Thirdly, there will regularly be investments required for locally based consortium-
based central hardware setup, mounting of data, development of interfaces, administration of

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access, etc., but those issues are specifically to be solved not by a single library but in
collaboration between the participating libraries.

Consortia Issues

The activity of the library consortium is a complicated one that requires the full
cooperation and coordinated efforts of the librarians, their administration, and the publishers.
In the modern world of scholarly information, they constitute up a crucial trinity. There are
countless problems with consortia, including focusing on and locating the resources,
continuous online access, permanent access to back issues, pricing, licencing, subscription
payments, copyright and archiving solutions, etc. Another urgent challenge is developing and
deploying the appropriate IT infrastructure.

• Resources Identification: Finding the best product that all of the consortium's members
can agree on is more or less a difficult challenge. This is mostly because each and every
member will have their own wish list of information products and services, however in
the event of an ideal homogeneous group; the overlap between the products will be on the
higher end.
• Technology Infrastructure: Every participating library must plan ahead and obtain the
necessary information technology and communication infrastructure to ensure the proper
delivery of information resources.

• Pricing Issues: The bulk of publishers of scholarly literature do not conform to any
standards, hence this whole area is considered to be grey. Most of the time, the cost of the
journals is too high for many of our libraries, and the only method that could offer a
useful, workable solution is a consortia approach. Publishers are asked to provide the
consortia with their best prices during the discussions. There are other pricing strategies
used, but it's crucial that the price the publisher offers is one that the participating
libraries can afford. Additionally, it needs to guarantee constant access to the resources.

• Access related Issues: Publishers offer a variety of access ways of getting to their
materials, and these options vary depending on the situation. Access authentication
methods that are common among them include IP-based or User ID/Password-based
methods. The consortium's ultimate goal is to provide uninterrupted and hassle-free
access to scholarly content.
• Licensing and Copyright Issues : The E-Journal subscriptions and access models, in
contrast to the print paradigm, only permit licencing of the content / product for a
predetermined amount of time, which imposes numerous constraints and obligations on
the licensee. Numerous challenges that are being discussed by librarians, users, and
publishers require global attention and solutions.

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• Archival Issues: Unfortunately, the consortia in India have not yet given this area the
attention this so desperately needs. Archiving and long-term preservation of the priceless
treasure of knowledge the consortium is gathering have to be done for future generations.
Since technology is developing quickly and becoming obsolete practically at the same
rate, it is imperative that these expensive informational resources be carefully saved and
maintained over an extended period of time.

• Sustainability Issues: When compared to a library consortium's long-term survival and

sustainability, developing and launching it may be the simpler part. To achieve the
specified objective, the consortium's management and members must work incredibly
hard to develop and construct solid models.

• Usage and Usability Issues: The consortium's ROI (Return on Investment) is determined
by the enhanced usability of the pricey information products, which is ultimately
reflected in the host institutes' research productivity. The success or failure of any
collaboration is determined by the sincere efforts of the consortium, the administration,
the researchers and faculty, and the librarians.

The other concerns may be listed as given below:

• Consortia without Legal Entity: Since the consortium of libraries will be involved in
collecting subscription/membership fees from the participating libraries in order to make
payments to the electronic publishers, it is necessary for the consortium to have a legal
entity with permission and authority to deal with establishments like banks. For the
purpose of securing foreign exchange on behalf of the member libraries, the consortium
must negotiate with banking institutions like RBI.
• Problems in Budget Allocation and Funding: These are usually tricky problems,
Being a member of a consortium entails transferring a portion of the library's budget to
the consortium, although it is rarely possible to know the accessible resources' consortia
subscription costs in advance. Depending on the number of participating members and
the licencing arrangement, even consortia costs can vary greatly. As a result, there are
issues with budget allocation to individual libraries because they are unable to foresee
potential price bundles for consortium resources at the time of budgeting. Consortia may
not be aware of the total number of participants or the terms of the resource negotiations,
making it difficult to predict the precise concessions offered to the participating libraries.
• Problem in Transfer of Funds: To create a successful shared subscription, the
consortiums from several participating libraries must be combined together. However, in
actuality, the strict administrative, financial, and auditing restrictions always cause issues
with money transfers. Determining the assets and volume of access compared to the
payment is where the audit issue most frequently arises. Audit often permits payment for

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 a library subscription only against proforma, such as invoices from the publisher, vendor,
society, etc., but not from a consortia. However, for any consortium subscription, the
publisher will only send a combined invoice to the consortium's administrator and not to
the consortium's member libraries. Unless the consortia itself is able to create an invoice
in this case, regulations and procedure may not allow member libraries to pay the
subscription cost of the consortium. This raises the issue of formalising the consortium,
and audit hardly ever permits payment against such invoices.
• Lack of Awareness and Understanding: Particularly in India, librarians are reluctant to
completely support the development of consortia among libraries because they do not
fully understand the concept of consortia-based subscription to electronic resources. They
sometimes lack a strong understanding of the benefits of consortia and frequently miss
out on possibilities. Even many libraries have the tendency to think that their financial
support for a consortium may not be adequate for the advantages they receive.
• Problems in Local Decision - Making & Control: There is concern that joining a
consortium will adversely affect local decision-making, autonomy, and control. Virtually,
the library authorities occasionally express their disapproval of consortiums. In addition,
libraries won't be free to substitute any existing item for a new one after they've already
committed to it.

1.3 The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Consortium

The National Knowledge Resource Consortium (NKRC), established in year 2009, is

a network of libraries and information centres of 43 CSIR and 26 DST institutes. NKRC's
origin goes back to the year 2001, when the CSIR set up the Electronic Journals Consortium
to provide access to 1200 odd journals of Elsevier Science to all its users. Over a period of
time, the Consortium not only grew in terms of the number of resources but also in terms of
the number of users as more like-minded institutes evinced interest to join the Consortium.
Today, NKRC facilitates access to 5,000+ e-journals of all major publishers, patents,
standards, citation and bibliographic databases. Apart from licensed resources, NKRC is also
a single point entity that provides its users with access to a multitude of open access
resources. The Consortium envisions emerging as a leader to serve the R&D sector with
much needed information to strengthen the research and development system in the country.

The CSIR consortium was set in 2001, to support Science and Technology research in
India. Scientific laboratories affiliated with India's Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR) are engaged in basic and applied research across a variety of fields. Many
laboratories have well-stocked libraries, and some of them serve as the primary information
hubs for various fields and as consultant libraries on a national level. Many of the libraries
that belong to these laboratories offer access to electronic journals using cutting-edge
technology. The National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resource
(NISCAIR), a constituent organisation of CSIR formed by the merger of INSDOC and
NISCOM, provides strategic information support in addition to each laboratory's well-
established library or documentation centre. The entire S&T workforce of CSIR and its
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constituent units can now access globally accessible electronic journals due to a consortia
approach that's been set up by NISCAIR to support CSIR research and development efforts.
As a first step, INSCAIR has signed a contract with Elsevier Science on behalf of CSIR to
access its over 1,500 e- journals. INSCAIR also plans to expand its information resource base
by subscribing to more and more publications that are published internationally. By
establishing suitable arrangements on a consortium basis with the other E-journal providers,
the CSIR consortium increased its access.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6.In__________year the CSIR E-journal Consortium was set up.
7.____________ consortium was launched to support Science and Technology in India.
8.__________ launched E-journal Consortium for academic environment in India.
9.___________ year UGC- INFONET Digital Library consortium was launched in
India.
10.__________ of Bibliographical Databases covered under UGC-INFONET Digital
Library consortium.

1.4 UGC-INFONET CONSORTIUM

The University Grants Commission (UGC) has launched a new programme called the
UGC INFONET Digital Library Consortium to improve academic libraries in India. The
Honourable Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam, the then-President of India, officially launched it in
December 2003, very soon after the UGC-Infonet programme had connected universities to
the Internet that year. It is a national endeavour to provide the academic community in India
with access to scholarly electronic resources, including full-text and bibliographic databases
in all subject disciplines. It makes it easier for academia in the nation's to access top-notch
online resources to enhance teaching, learning, and research.
The Consortium offers current and archived access to nine bibliographic databases and more
than 5,000 core, peer-reviewed publications from 23 publishers and aggregators across nine
distinct disciplines. In the first phase, 50 universities received access to all significant e-
resources in 2004. In three phases, it has now been expanded to 157 universities.
The UGC-INFONET Digital Library Consortium is the largest consortium in India in terms
of users. It has a goal to connect with all universities and institutions that are associated with
those universities.

AimsandObjectives

The UGC INFONET Digital Library Consortium's major goal is to give academic
institutions lower subscription rates to high-quality electronic resources, such as full-text and
bibliographic databases. The major aims and objectives oftheUGC-
InfonetDigitalLibraryConsortiumareasfollows:

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• To give a wide number of access to scholarly electronic resources at considerably
reduced subscription fees and under the most advantageous terms and
conditions among academic institutions, including universities and colleges
• To encourage users' quick and effective access to scholarly content and to develop and
encourage ICT use in Indian universities' teaching and learning
• to make the Consortium's benefits available to its associate members, such as private
universities and colleges
• to provide training in the use of electronic resources to users, librarians, researchers, and
faculty members of the institutions in order to maximise their use.
• topromoteuseofe-e-resourceswithgradualdecreaseinprintsubscription;
• topromoteinteractionandinter-librarycooperationamongsttheparticipatinguniversities;
• toevaluatetheusageofthesubscribedresourcesandtoidentifynewresourcesthatarerequiredtob
esubscribedundertheprogramme;
• tobringqualitativechangeinteaching,learningandresearchwithanaimtomeettheever growing
challenges of globalizationofhighereducation;and
• toincreasetheresearchproductivityoftheinstitutionsbothintermsofqualityandquantity of
publications

Electronic Resources: The Consortium has access to electronic resources that encompass all
of the main academic disciplines. It covers a wide range of resources, such as electronic
journals, bibliographic databases, and reviews published by academic societies, university
presses, institutional publishers, and private publishers. The Consortium has subscriptions to
10 bibliographic databases and 19 full-text electronic resources from 23 publishers and
aggregators. According to the National Steering Committee's proposal, the member
institutions are given varying levels of access to these resources depending on their
requirements and activity profile.

Full text resources

Electronic full-text resources include complete articles and their bibliographic information.
The consortium has full-text e-resource subscriptions with the American Chemical Society,
American Institute of Physics, Oxford University Press, Cambridge University Press, Cell
Press, Springer Link, JSTOR, Project Muse, and other academic societies, university presses,
commercial publishers, and aggregators. Electronic journals are included in all full-text
resources to which the Consortium has subscribed.

BibliographicDatabases
References to publications that have been published in journals, conference proceedings, or
book chapters can be found in bibliographic databases. The majority of bibliographic
databases include links to the full-text of the articles' abstracts.

ElectronicResourcesSubscribedbytheUGC-INFONETDigitalLibraryConsortium
S. ElectronicResources URL No.of No. Phase
No. Jrnls. ofUn
iv.
Full-textResources
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1. ACS http://www.pubs.acs.org/ 31 100 I& II
2. AIP http://www.scitation.org/ 18 100 I& II
3. APS http://www.scitation.org/ 10 100 I& II
4. AnnualReviews http://arjournals.annualreviews.or 33 100 I& II
g/
5. Blackwell http://www.blackwell- 797 60 I& II
synergy.com/
6. CUP-STM http://journals.cambridge.org/ 224 100 I& II
CUP-HSS http://journals.cambridge.org/ 50 I& II
7. CellPress(Elsevier) http://www.sciencedirect.com/ 34 50 I
8. Emerald– Lib.Sci. http://iris.emeraldinsight.com/ 29 60 I& II
9. Instituteof Physics http://www.iop.org/EJ/ 46 100 I& II
10. Jstor http://www.jstor.org/ 729 64 I& II
11. Nature http://www.nature.com/ 1 50 I& II
12. OUP http://www.oxfordjournals.org 202 75 I& II
13. PortlandPress http://www.portlandpress.com/pp/ 8 50 I
default.htm
14. ProjectEuclid http://projecteuclid.org/ 21 50 I
15. ProjectMuse http://muse.jhu.edu/journals 389 100 I& II
16. RSC http://www.rsc.org/ 26 100 I& II
17. SIAMJournals http://epubs.siam.org/ 14 50 I
18. SpringerLink http://www.springerlink.com/ 1236 125 I– III
19. Taylor&Francis http://journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/ 1076 80 I& II
BibliographicDatabases
20. JCCC http://jccc- 150 I- III
infonet.informindia.co.in/
21. MathSciNet http://www.ams.org/mathscinet 50 I
22. SciFinderScholar http://www.cas.org/SCIFINDER/S 20 I
CHOLAR/index.html
23. http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/C 100 I& II
AnalyticalAbstracts urrentAwareness/AA/index.asp
24. http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/C 100 I& II
Catalysts urrentAwareness/CCR/About.as
&CatalysedReaction p
s
25. http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/C 100 I& II
Methods in urrentAwareness/MOS/index.as
OrganicSynthesis p
26. http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/C 100 I& II
Natural urrentAwareness/npu/About.asp
ProductUpdates
27. http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/C 100 I& II
Chemical Hazards urrentAwareness/CHI/index.asp
inIndustry

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 28. http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/C 100 I& II
LaboratoryHazards urrentAwareness/LHB/index.as
Bulletin p

1.5 SUMMARY
The goal of a library consortium is to amplify the capabilities and effectiveness of its
member libraries through collective action, including, but not limited to, print or electronic
resource sharing, reductions in costs through group purchases of resources, and professional
development opportunities. This unit highlighted the importance of Library consortia
especially CSIR E-Journals Consortium and UGC-Infonet Digital Library Consortium.

1.6 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1 Resource Sharing 6 2002
2 Five Laws of Library 7 CSIR E-journal Consortia
Science
3 Fifth Law 8 UGC
4 Latin 9 2003
5 Shrinking of Budget 10 Nine

1.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1.What is Library Consortia? Library Consortia has become necessary for libraries. Justify.
2.UGC-Infonet Digital Library Consortium is boon for academic community. Discuss.
3.Write a detailed note on the importance of CSIR E-Journals Consortium.
1.8 REFERENCES
Chakravarty, R. K., & Singh, S. (2005). e-Resource for Indian Universities: new
Initiatives. SRELS Journal of Information Management, 42 (1), 57-73.
Dhiman, A. N., & Rani, Y. (2012). Manual of Digital Libraries. Vol .2. New Delhi,
EssEss Publications.
Prasad, H. N. (ed.) (2016). Librarianship in 21st century. New Delhi, EssEss Publications.

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 UNIT V: INFORMATION SERVICES AND
INFORMATION PRODUCTS
Lesson -5.1
INFORMATION SERVICES

Dr. Gururaj S. Hadagali

Associate Professor
Department of Library and Information Science
Karnatak University, Dharwad – 580 003
Karnataka State
Email: [email protected]

“Information professionals fall into two camps.

There are those who believe that information is always measurable.
There are those that believe information is never measurable.”
(Penniman 1988)
STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives.
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Documentary Sources
1.4 Non-Documentary Sources
1.5 Types of Information Services
1.6 Summary
1.7 Answers to In-Text Questions
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, the student will be to:

• Gain knowledge of the value of literature searches in research and development

operations
• find pertinent material in both the print and electronic sources
• Describe the value and necessity of information services.

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 • Determining the many kinds of systems that can be used to deliver information
services;
• Increasing the effectiveness of these information services.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
The expected information is what people can find by searching or browsing.
Professional information services should concentrate on discovering, analysing, and
coordinating the demands of diverse possible user groups in order to meet users' needs. This
procedure serves as the foundation for certain of the information service levels. Data and
information can be transformed into knowledge via high-level information services. High-
level information services are currently needed to meet the expanding and shifting needs of
library users, who are increasingly more interested in knowledge than in accessing, storing,
and retrieving information. Information technologies are simultaneously evolving into
knowledge technologies. It is now possible to offer knowledge services in libraries. Thanks
to new emerging technology.

In recent years, the phrase "knowledge services" has become more popular. Of
course, the meaning of this phrase is obvious. It speaks of using the internet to access
services. The word "knowledge services" should, however, be taken to signify more. It
alludes to various components, including the architecture, standards, technology, and models
that enable knowledge services. A method of utilising and processing substantial amounts of
information resources into valuable knowledge that demonstrates both the content and
structure of that knowledge is known as providing knowledge services. They are navigable
and unravelable by users. A decent map is necessary for successful navigation at all
performance levels. Both repositories and the human brain contain knowledge.

1.1 Information:
Resources and assets are both terms used to describe information. It is regarded as a
resource in the form of a body of factual knowledge or as a series of acts with the capacity to
elicit a response that results in adaptive behaviour. It is crucial for the advancement of both
personal and societal development. This is why having access to the appropriate information
or owning accurate and pertinent knowledge is essential to solving the numerous issues that
affect both individuals and the country.

Properties of Information:

• Information is unbiased. The idea of objective information is supported by mathematics

and science. This might be accurate in a formal, abstract situation. It frequently isn't
true the actual world.

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• Information is arbitrary. What is knowledge to me may not be knowledge to you. Who
decides what information is reliable and what is not?
• Time-based information exists. In the future, something that wasn't information today
might start to be. What was knowledge in the past, however, might not be knowledge in
the future.
• Information is transient. Information may be valuable once and never again.
• Information cannot be changed. There are no identical, interchangeable components in
information.
• Sharing information does not make it less valuable.
• Not all information is additive. There isn't twenty times as much material in twenty
volumes on the same subject.

I) Documentary Sources
• S&T Research Periodicals
• Trade and Business Periodicals
• Trade and Business Catalogues, Directories, Companies’ Websites
• Handbooks and Manuals
• Advertisements
• Patents
• Standards
• Statistical Sources

II) Non-Documentary Sources

• Consultants and Consultancy Organisations
• Information Analysis Centres
• Patents Attorneys
• Trade Representatives

DOCUMENTRY SOURCES
a) S&T Research Periodicals
For instance, if an engineering business requests the most recent research data on a
specific chemical process, a search for pertinent papers in S&T publications must be
conducted to locate the necessary data.

b) Trade and Business Periodicals

It is necessary to search for relevant articles in trade and business journals in order to
respond to questions about the most recent information on trade and business. In order to
identify the primary source, which is where the actual information is located, secondary and
tertiary sources are checked. Many full-text and secondary information sources are available
that give access to trade and business-related information.
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c) Trade Catalogues, Directories and Websites
When building and launching new products or resolving everyday issues, engineers
and technical staff frequently need information on the availability of machinery, components
of machinery, tools, materials, etc. These people frequently ask for the company's name,
address, and the names of its dealers and agents. Trade publications and catalogues, a
company's website, and business and trade directories may all quickly and simply answer
questions on this type of information.

d) Handbooks and Manuals

When handling factual, data-finding, and how-to types of technical questions,
reference librarians employ handbooks and manuals as vital reference aids. They are also
often utilised by engineers and technicians who are in the workforce. They are sometimes
referred to as manuals. Despite being presented in a brief and simple manner, the content is
illustrated with numerous diagrams, graphs, equations, formulas, principles, symbols, tables,
methods, etc. They have a constrained range since they deal with intricacies of a niche
subject intended for a selected few specialists.

e) Advertisements
Advertisements are produced by businesses and other organisations to market their
goods and services. Contents can range from a simple list of a product to a thorough
description of it. The adverts can be found online, in trade publications, newspapers, books,
radio, and television. For managers of competing businesses, these advertisements,
particularly those in trade publications, occasionally provide information on a company's new
path of development, the creation of a new department, or the expansion of a certain area of
the business. The majority of trade periodicals with a lot of ads offer an index of the
advertisers and their addresses.

f) Patents
Companies that invest heavily in research and development will need to patent their
discoveries in order to protect them, and they'll also want to know if any patents of a similar
sort have already been issued. By using the bibliographical resources utilised for searching
the patents, a reference librarian can respond to inquiries about searching published patents.
However, preparing the patent specification or commercialising a patented innovation require
the assistance of a specialist who is knowledgeable about both the drafting and legal elements
of patents. These professionals are referred to as patent attorneys. Telephone directories
occasionally contain a list of patent attorneys. For instance, a list of patent and trademark
attorneys can be found in the yellow pages of the Delhi telephone directory.

g) Standards
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 Standards are necessary to guarantee the calibre, dependability, and uniformity of a
given goods or services. The producers of goods with a large market and export potential are
constantly searching for standards to guarantee the acceptance of their goods both
domestically and abroad. Standards and specifications are documents that advocate for the
following: i) Minimum performance and quality requirements for goods and services; and (ii)
Optimal conditions and practises for operations in science, industry, and commerce,
including the production, assessment, distribution, and utilisation of materials, goods, and
services.

There are essentially two types of standards: Fundamental standards and technical
standards are listed in order. Measurements of length, mass, time, temperature, different
types of energy, force, or other types of quantifiable fundamental entities are considered to be
fundamental standards.

Standards and specifications are formulated by: i) Companies; ii) Trade and
Professional Associations; iii) Government Agencies; and iv) National and International
Standardisation Bodies.

h) Statistical Sources
Information on industrial production, agricultural production, export and import
statistics, marketing data, and data reflecting these topics is frequently requested in technical
questions. The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation under India's Central
Statistical Organization is in charge of overseeing the nation's statistical activities. Its duties
include compiling consumer price indices, conducting annual surveys of industries,
conducting economic censuses, compiling the index of industrial production, and
disseminating statistical data, among others.

1.4 NON-DOCUMENTRY SOURCE

a) Consultants and Consultancy Organisations

Technical enquiry service encompasses the services provided to industries by
consultants and consultancy organisations. These services cover everything from the
marketing of the items to the feasibility assessment for starting an industry. Among the
crucial services provided are Feasibility studies, market research, development plans, site
selection, tender evaluation, project reports and evaluation, plant design, PERT/CPM,
construction oversight, equipment procurement and inspection, process expertise, employee
training, material management, marketing and sales promotion, plant maintenance, and plant
modernization, among other things. Depending on the project, the consultancy business may
undertake one or more of the aforementioned services or all operations related to the
establishment of a new industry, product development, and its marketing.

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b) Information Analysis Centres (IAC)
The Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy Pvt. Ltd. (CMIE) is an IAC that conducts
research and produces various information analysis products and services in various
economic sectors, such as agriculture, energy and infrastructure, industry, corporate, capital
market, investments, trade, etc., based on economic and business data of India. The datasets
and research from CMIE are made available as well-designed services. These are offered in
both print and electronic formats. Business Beacon, Economic Intelligence Service, Industry
Analysis Service, PROWESS (Corporate Database), CapEx (database on active investment
activities in India), India Trades, Mergers and Acquisitions, Indian Harvest, etc. are a few of
its services and databases.

c) Patents Attorneys
Attorneys with expertise in patent law. They take care of all legal facets of patents.
They can assist the inventor with the preparation of the patent application, submission of the
patent application, restoration of expired patents, acquiring licences under compulsory terms
or revocation, and notices of patent surrender. They have a wealth of knowledge processing
patent paperwork, so they can respond to numerous technical questions about patents. The
Controller General of Patents, Designs, and Trademarks maintains a register of patent agents
(CGPDTM). Names and addresses of Indian patent agents registered with CGPDTM are
published in the official gazette, newsletters, and other publications of the Controller
General. They are also kept on file in the Controller General's "Register of Patent Agents."

d) Trade Representatives
For the purpose of promoting the sale of their products, numerous commercial
concerns frequently hire trade representatives. These sales representatives meet with
potential customers, present the company's various products, provide samples, demonstrate
the products, offer discounts, and occasionally bargain with the customer over the price of
the product and other terms and conditions like supply terms, warranties, payment terms,
annual maintenance contracts, etc. As a result of their professional experience, these trade
representatives can respond to some technical questions about product specifications,
consumer desire for particular products, availability of certain products, etc.

1.5 TYPES OF INFORMATION SERVICES

Information Services:
Information services encourage the use of library resources, connect users with
library materials, and satisfy users' information needs. Depending on the type of library and
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the type of user that a library or information centre is designed to serve, the breadth and
scope of these services varies.
i) Active or Anticipatory Information Services
ii) Passive or Responsive Information Services

Anticipatory information services are offered in anticipation of the demands from the users
while passive or responsive services are provided in response to a request from the users

Information Analysis and Consolidation Service:

Information analysis and consolidation, also known as an information consolidation
product, an IACR product, or simply an information product, is user-friendly and can be
printed or digitally stored. When such a product is periodically released, it is commonly
referred to as a service, such as an abstracting service, an indexing service, or a digesting
service. In accordance with the definition provided by the National Institutes of Health, this
process entails "selection, evaluation, analysis, interpretation, and synthesis of a body of
information in a clearly defined specialised field with the intent of compiling, digesting,
repackaging, or otherwise organising and presenting pertinent information in a form most
authoritative, timely, and useful to the differential requirements of the different categories of
users." It is clear that information analysis is necessary before consolidating work can begin,
and that the new output that results from consolidation work invariably differs from the
original in terms of structure, format, and/or medium.

Referral Service:
A kind of reference service where a person looking for information is pointed toward
a company or subject matter expert outside the library where the information may be
accessed. It is evident from the preceding statement that referral services are a subset of
reference services and may even be an extension of reference services as no document is
provided. The person looking for information is pointed in the direction of a company or an
authority who can probably provide it. The concept also implies that the library does not have
the information.

There are no restrictions on this service. The range is infinite. Based on the sources
close at hand or in the memory, the service may be offered on any topic to any user—literate
or uneducated, male or female, young or elderly, at any location—a secluded village or a
bustling town, at any time. Union catalogues are among the instruments that support referral
services. Union catalogues are available for books, periodicals, and other bibliographic
resources. A union catalogue lists all of the libraries' collections. It is typically organised
alphabetically by author, document title, etc. The names of the libraries that hold each
document are typically listed under it in abbreviated form. In addition to title, sponsor, place
of publishing, date of beginning and ending (if the journal has discontinued publication),

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volume numbering, etc., any inconsistencies are documented in the union catalogue of
publications.

Reference Service
Reference service, is the process of helping readers to identify sources of information
in response to a particular query, problem or assignment to be done.

Ranganathan has defined reference service as a personal service to each reader in

helping her/him to find the document, answering the particular query, pinpointedly,
exhaustively and expeditiously. Ranganathan has also emphasised that the reference service
aims at “providing the right book to the right reader at the right time.”

The reference service may be provided through the following modes or ways:
• Face-to-Face Reference Service
• Reference Service through Telephone
• Virtual Reference Service

The Reference Service may be classified into two types based on the time taken to attend
to the query.
i. Short-range Reference Service: The short range reference service is completed within
half an hour. E.g. Full form of UNESCO, What is Tunami?. Such questions may be
answered within a minute or so.
ii. Long-range Reference Service: The Long range reference service may take one hour, 1
day, 1 year or even years together. E.g.: Information Seeking Behaviour of P.G. students
of Science discipline in the Universities of North India.

Translation Service
Universality is a distinct characteristic of science is one of the key traits that it shares
with scientific writing. Regardless of their country of origin or language, scientific laws
developed through scientific methods of investigation are global. Therefore, scientific truths
cut beyond language, cultural, political, and sociological boundaries. The advancement of
science is supported by the scientific literature, which contains this knowledge. Since
scientists around the world have a fundamental need for easy access to S&T information, the
findings of scientific research must be made known to them, regardless of the language in
which they are published. After the Soviet Union launched "Sputnik," a renowned American
scientist reportedly said, "Either we will have to learn physics, or we will have to learn
Russian."

Up to 186 countries throughout the world publish the findings of S&T research in a
variety of languages. The Chemical Abstracts keeps track of the chemistry literature written
in more than 50 different languages. The spread of S&T literature across several languages
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has been a major source of worry for research scientists. No nation, regardless of how
technologically developed it may be, can ignore the research done in other nations. The
percentage of literature published in languages other than English is thought to be between
40% and 50%.

Tools for Translators

It has been observed that professional translators spend considerable amount of their
time consulting technical (monolingual, bilingual and multilingual) dictionaries, to find
suitable technical terms while translating S&T documents. They have long been wanting to
have sophisticated computer-based translation tools to speed up translation process. These
segments may be individual words or multiword phrases. A translator can translate, save, and
reuse sentences and sections by using TM. The previously translated text can be used again
when the translator encounters similar or identical information. Even if there isn't an exact
match, the version shown can still be used with little modification. These tools are ideal for
assisting translators working on technical documents and texts with specialised vocabularies.
The following are some additional benefits of TM: i) Consistency in common meanings,
phrases, and terminology when multiple translators collaborate on a single translation
project; ii) Simplifying and speeding up the whole translation process; and iii) Lowering the
cost of long-term translation.

There are 4 main vendors of translation workstations- i) Trados, ii) STAR AG Company
(Transit), iii) IBM (The Translation Manager), and iv) LANT in Belgium (The Eurolang
Optimiser previously sold by SITE in France).

Document Delivery Service

Definition
Regardless of the location or format of the original, Document Delivery Service
(DDS) is actually concerned with the provision of document(s) to users on demand, whether
the original or its copy in print or non-print form. The majority of information services,
including current awareness, SDI, indexing and abstracting, literature search, etc., strive to
direct users to the documents that are most likely to contain the needed information. In
contrast, DDS actually finds the necessary document and gives it to the requester in either the
original or a copy, printed or not. DDS is a crucial service because its effectiveness directly
affects the value and significance of other access services. For instance if a user, alerted by a
current awareness service, requires a document and efforts are not made to supply the same
to him/her in time, then the availability of any alerting service however efficient it may be,
will have no value for him/her. Thus, DDS adds value to other information services.

Types of Document Delivery Systems/Models

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 The availability of electronic bibliographic databases offering "instant" access to
information and simple access to library catalogues (OPAC) around the world on the
Internet, as was mentioned in the section above, has increased users' expectations for both
timely and 100% delivery in addition to raising the demand for original documents. On the
other side, libraries are finding it harder and harder to meet client needs from their own
resources due to the exponential growth of published material, rising publication costs, and
shrinking library budgets. Despite these restrictions, libraries have managed to discover ways
to satisfy the needs of their customers. The libraries have made improvements to their
interlibrary lending services and resource sharing. Some of the efforts made by the libraries
are improvement in inter library loan services, resource sharing among libraries of common
interests, development of specialised document delivery centres, and more recently of joining
library consortia to provide access to full-text electronic resources to their patrons.

Examples of Document Supply Centres

• British Library Document Supply Centre (BLDSC)
• Document Delivery Service of NISCAIR (Formerly INSDOC)
• Electronic Document Delivery Systems
• Article Delivery Over Network Information System (ADONIS)
• Inter-Library Loan Service of Online Computer Library Centre (OCLC ILL)
• DOCLINE: ILL System of National Library of Medicine, USA

Current Awareness service:

The current awareness service gives the correct user the right information at the right time
when they need it. It provides the user with current information to keep them informed. As
soon as a document is received in the library, it is promptly examined and abstracted with the
precise information according to the users' programmes. In order to make each thing visible
to the user in need, the information is also being recoded. who are associated with such data.
The Current Awareness Service has numerous unique qualities that should be noted in order
to present the scientists with the most recent and relevant information.

CAS is described as a "Documentation periodical listing the papers existing during the period
covered, and without being picked to meet the requirements of a particular reader or of a
specific topic under inquiry," by S.R. Ranganathan. It makes an effort to swiftly inform its
clientele of all new ideas being developed in their fields of expertise and adjacent fields.

Type of Current Awareness Service:

Current Awareness Bulletin:

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It is also known as Information Bulletin/Library Bulletin. It may cover the following
information:
• General information about the library e.g. new members of the library staff, new
telephone numbers, new services, etc.
• General news items (items culled out from newspapers relating to libraries)
• Announcements of forthcoming meetings and conferences.

Table of Contents (TOC) List Service:

According to the users' areas of interest, photocopies of journal contents pages are
given to them through this service. Although content pages can be provided as soon as the
material is received, a weekly or monthly bulletin is more common. A table of contents
(TOC), sometimes known as "contents," is a list of a book's or journal's chapters or articles,
arranged in the order in which they appear inside the book or journal.

List of New Arrivals:

The list of new books the library has acquired might be created manually or using the
software the library uses. The list is made available to the library's numerous users for
browsing.

Routing of Periodicals:
The periodicals are routed, disseminated, or sent to each client individually as part of
this service. The problems are passed from one user to the next until they are eventually
returned to the library. The current issue is delivered to the first person on the list with a list
of individuals who have requested to see a periodical attached, with instructions to pass it on
once the issue has been read. Since there is a delay when an item is circulated or routed
among users, this method is no longer widely used in libraries.

E-mail Alerts from Databases Subscribed by the Libraries:

By signing TOC alerts provided directly from the publishers, the readers may also be
instructed on how to obtain Rich Site Summary (RSS) feeds or email alerts from publishers.
Users must typically register on the publisher's website in order to receive notice about the
publishing of a new journal. Registration is never charged.

Display of Current Issues of Journals:

The library may regularly exhibit the most recent issues of journals. The customers
can explore the issue to stay up to date on the most recent events. The current issues are
typically displayed in libraries on a regular basis.

Selective Dissemination of Information:

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 A sort of current awareness service called SDI is designed to keep the customer up to
date on the most recent developments in the area of his interest. It is a tailored service for a
single user or a group of users with similar information demands. It is a rapid service that
gives people precise and comprehensive information. According to each user's or group of
users' unique information demands, SDI involves screening the document and choosing the
content (homogeneous). The primary goal is to keep the user knowledgeable and current in
his area of interest.

Characteristics of SDI:
• It is a computer-assisted service
• SDI is concerned with recently published information
• The source of recently published information may be both inside and outside
• The organization's users, such as researchers, scientists, and managers, should receive
new or current information
• This information is channelled or directed depends on the nature of each user's interest.

ADVANTAGE OF SDI:
• It aids in better educating users.
• It gives users access to crucial documents.
• It supports professional, managerial, and academic skills.
• It offers information in a format that is preferred.
• It takes the user closer to the appropriate information.
• Instead of searching for information resources on his own, the information user will have
more time to focus on other things.
• The medical librarian gives users access to information whenever it is convenient for
them.
• It improves communication between information users and librarians.
• The users will have access to the appropriate data at the appropriate time and location.

Cloud Services:
The ability to harness the power of computers regardless of location has radically
changed thanks to cloud services, a new computing service provided over the internet. Cloud
services offer a shared pool of resources, including networks, computer processing power,
specialised business and user applications, and data storage space. It makes it possible for
consumers to access their e-mail, social networking account, or photo service at any time,
from anywhere in the globe, for little to no cost. Many businesses and organisations, like
Google, Yahoo, Microsoft, and Amazon, among others, are drawn to it and use it for
infrastructure solutions. It does not exclude libraries. The features of various technologies,
such as utility computing, grid computing, unified computing, web 2.0, service-oriented
architecture, and others, are combined in cloud services. Nowadays, it is emerged as one of
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the most popular virtual technology for libraries to deliver its services in an effective
manner.

Inter library loan:

In order to meet the needs of its patrons, a library can use the inter-library lending
service to ask another library on the network for one or more volumes. If a book is out on
loan from the lending library, this can also provide the option to reserve it. It is necessary to
establish an effective mechanism for both physical and electronic distribution of materials.
The willingness of the member libraries to work together is essential to the service's success.

The Organisation which provides Inter library loan facility are:

• DELNET
• INFLIBNET

Literature search:
A literature search is a methodical, exhaustive search of all forms of published
literature to find a wide range of reliable references pertinent to a certain topic. It is a crucial
component of any research project's approach. The success of a research endeavour depends
on a comprehensive analysis of the academic literature from the outset; doing the literature
search correctly will ultimately save hours of work. A essential talent in and of itself,
efficient literature searching will be helpful for any future information gathering endeavour,
whether academic or otherwise.

Newspaper clipping service:

Newspapers are current awareness media and they provide readers with useful
information. Every newspaper is scanned, and any articles deemed interesting are cut and put
onto a piece of paper. Then, one or more subject titles are given to the clippings. The library's
subscription to the newspapers serves as the sole foundation for this service. According to the
users' areas of interest, these clippings are distributed. One lakh newspaper clippings from
the domains of Unani medicine, pharmacy, nursing, education, and religion, among others,
are kept in the Jamia Hamdard Library's collection.

Web-based information service:

The newest developments in libraries are web-based services, which provide users a
richer search and retrieval experience. Web resources are electronic resources that libraries
can access either directly or by joining consortiums. These web resources are full-text
documents that are available in the virtual environment of the Internet and are located outside
of actual library spaces. Authorized users have 24/7 access to them online through the

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Internet from any location of their choice, including their home or place of business. When
viewed historically, web-based services have mostly supplanted conventional online services.

Digest service:

A digest is a reduced version of previously published content, like an essay, book, or

article. They frequently surpass the longest abstract in length. A digest can occasionally
resemble a review piece. A digest can also take the shape of a book. A single article, book,
etc. is created by compiling information from one or more sources. It depends on the digest's
purpose. Regarding the subject, it might be any subject, including law, education, or another
one. It might possibly relate to a particular document form. A digest of a book, tale, play, etc

Abstracting and Indexing service:

A typical abstracting and indexing service is a bibliographical one that offers

publishing bibliographical information along with an abstract, and is frequently commercial
in nature. Most of the time, it is accessible both digitally and in print. It occurs in print form
as a periodical at regular intervals, such as weekly, fortnightly, monthly, etc. The
publication's entries are categorised by class numbers or broad subject headings. There are
several indexes available from each abstracting service, including issue, volume, author,
subject, etc. It typically receives daily updates in database form. An abstracting service
publishes many by-products in addition to an abstracting periodical. As an illustration,
Chemical Abstracts Service publishes Chemical Abstracts

Reprographic service:

Reprography as a term began to acquire popularity internationally in 1963. It is

characterised by the tiny scale of its employees and comprises photocopying, microcopying,
duplicating, and in-plant printing. Techniques for reproducing images on paper include
diffusion transfer, physical transfer, fast stabilisation, diazo, thermography, and
electrostatography. Reprographic technology has played a significant part in the spread of
recorded information and is currently a permanent method of granting access to document
resources that are geographically dispersed. The services provided by reprography are crucial
to document delivery services.

Technical Enquiry

This service is provided only by the subject experts in the respective subjects unlike
Reference Librarian. Technical Enquiry is highly technical in nature. This is the rare services
normally provided in Special Libraries / R & D Institution Libraries.

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 1.5 SUMMARY
The four responsive information services—literature search, technical inquiry,
document delivery, and translation—were covered in this lesson. It has been noted that these
services are being significantly impacted by developments in computer and
telecommunications technologies. For instance, the availability of electronic databases gives
speed, currency, and a wide range of search choices when conducting literary searches. It
took a lot of time and effort to manually compile an extensive subject bibliography. The
process takes less time now that we can search using computers. Additionally, it has provided
other advantages including detailed searching and free text searches. The technical enquiry
service has also been substantially improved by the accessibility of electronic trade and
business databases, firm websites, government websites, etc. Libraries and commercial
document vendors are collaborating on emerging Electronic Document Delivery Systems
(EDDS). There is a global trend toward combining electronic full-text document retrieval
with electronic retrieval of bibliographic references. There is a new generation of e-journal
service providers. Both publishers and aggregators fall under this category. The issues with
document delivery services are getting attention from all around the world, and numerous
international organisations are actively working to find solutions. Ad hoc translations have
significantly decreased as a result of cuts to funding for information services. As a result, the
International Translation Centre and its esteemed journal World Translation Index have been
shut down. There are several machine translation (MT) systems for mainframes, personal
computers, and Further we have discussed content analysis and its applications in library and
information services; customised organisation of information services according to the
information needs of users; citation analysis, cito-analytical products and their applications in
information services; and both documentary and non-documentary aids to information
sources. Various kinds of electronic sources of information, both online based (Internet
resources) and offline-based (CD-ROM or Floppy), have also been discussed in this Unit. A
fairly detailed section on ‘Information Aids’ is included, drawing attention to their
indispensability, in using a plethora of information sources, in the form of bibliographical
tools and reference materials. Using all these resources, tools and techniques, a professional
librarian can provide value-added information services to the end users.

1.6 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1 Information, Technology, and 7 Translation Service

People
2 Two 8 Article Delivery Over Network
Information System

3 EPIDOS-INPADOC 9 Current Awareness Service

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4 Business Information 10 INFLINET and DELNET
5 News and business information 11 Digest service

6 Central Statistical Organisation 12 Making the duplicate content by

using the original copy

1.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

• What do you understand by a technical enquiry? How it differs from general inquiry?
• What is machine translation? Describe different types of approaches used for machine
translation.
• Describe how content analysis constitutes an intellectual foundation for library and
information services.
• Mention the areas of library and information services, wherein content analysis can be
profitably applied.
• Mention the various categories of information sources and their characteristics.
• Explain the need and ways of customised organisation of information services

1.8 REFERENCES
American Chemical Society (2002). Chemical Abstracts – Index Guide. Columbus (Ohio):
Chemical Abstracts Service.
Bhattacharya, G. (1981). Information Analysis and Consolidation: Some Basic
Considerations. DRTC Seminar Paper.
Bottle, R.T., & Wyatt, H.V. (1971). Use of Biological Literature. 2nd ed. Hamden (Cohn):
Archon.
Brown, D. (2003). Is This the End of Document Economy? A Strategic Review of Document
Delivery. Interlending and Document Supply. 31(4), 253-64.
Burke, M. E., & Hall, H. (1998). Navigating Business Information Sources: A Practical
Guide for Information Managers. London: Library Association Publishing.
Campbell, R. (2003). Document Delivery and Journal Publishers: The Looming End of ILL-
Ness? Logos. 19 (1), 16-19.
Cassell, K. A. & Hiremath, C.U. (2009). Reference and Information Services in the 21st
Century: An Introduction. London: Facet 2009.
Chowdhury, G.G., & Chowdhury, S. (2001). Searching CD-ROM and Online Information
Sources. London: Library Association Publishing.
Davis, E.B. (1981). Using the Biological Literature: A Practical Guide. NY: Marcel Dekker.
Egghe, L. & Rousseau, R. (1990). Introduction to Informetrics. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Eleaner, M. & Walters, S. A. (1995). Document Delivery Services: Issues and Answers.
Medford, N.J.: Learned Information Inc.

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Fairthorne, R. A. (1969). Content Analysis, Specification, and Control. In: Williams, Martha
E. (ed). Annual Review of Information Science and Technology. New York: Elservier
Science Publishing Company Inc. Vol. 4.
Genz, M. D. (1998). Working the Reference Desk”. Library Trends. 46.3 (1998): 505-25.
Gopinath, M.A. Creativity and Knowledge Organisation: A Cognitive Interaction.
Grogan, D. (1981). Science and Technology: An Introduction to Literature. London: Clive
Bingley.
Guha, B. (1983). Documentation and Information. Calcutta: World Press.
Hanson, C.W. (1971). Introduction of Science – Information Work. London: ASLIB.
Hutchins, J. (1998). Translation Technology and Translator. Machine Translation Review, 7,
7-14.
Hutchins, J. (1999). The Development and Use of Machine Translation Systems and
Computer based Translation Tools. International Symposium on Machine Translation
and Computer Language Information Processing, 26-28 June, 1999, Beijing, China.
Ranjit, K. (2011). Research Methodology a step-by-step guide for beginners (3rd). SAGE
Publications Ltd.
Ravichandra Rao, I. K. (1985). Quantitative Method in Library and Information Science.
Rev. ed. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern.
Rowley, J. (1999). The Electronic Library. 4th ed. London: Library Association Publishing.
Street, P. (2003). Centre Stage or Just a Supporting Role? International Interlending in
Twenty - First Century - A U.K. Perspective. Interlending and Document Supply.
31(4), 246-52.
Walford, A.J. (1990). Guide to Reference Material. 5th ed. London: Library Association.
Watts, L. (2003). Document Supply: The Evolving Needs of the Library. Learned Publishing.
16 (2), 85-90.

LESSON- 5.2
LITERATURE SEARCH

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© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

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 Dr. Gururaj S. Hadagali
Associate Professor
Department of Library and Information Science
Karnatak University, Dharwad – 580 003
Karnataka State
Email: [email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Stages in the Search Process
1.4 Types of Literature
1.5 Developing A Search Strategy
1.6 Search Strategy Techniques
1.7 Summery
1.8 Answers to In-Text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, the student will be able to:
• Learn the importance of literature search
• Study the difference between search and browse.
• Familiarize with the different types of literature search
• Develop search strategies / techniques
• Analyze and use different search competencies for the effective search of information.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
Literature searches are systematic, well-organized searches of previously published
information to find a wide range of reliable references on a particular topic. There are several
reasons to do a literature search, including gathering data for evidence-based guidance, a
phase in the research process, and academic assessment. However, the fundamental goal of a
thorough literature search is to develop a research question by assessing the body of existing
research and looking for any gaps that could still benefit from additional study.

The research problem is sometimes a topic that the researcher is interested in and
somewhat knowledgeable about. By concentrating on unexplored knowledge, it has to be
directed. The search for something and analysis of pre-existing literature may help to further
clarify the research strategy once we have focused in on the problem. A required for the
performance explanation of how you anticipate the research to develop is known as a

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research hypothesis. It is one of the most crucial resources that helps to respond to the
research question. It ought to be appropriate, have relevant elements, and present a query that
can be tested and looked into.

The process of conducting a thorough and time-consuming literature search can be

planned and managed with the help of a few simple stages. Developing your research
questions and conducting your search are the two most important steps. A literature search is
conducted to find the best methodology, study design, population sampled, sampling
techniques, concept assessment methodologies, and analytic approaches. It helps in detecting
flaws or gaps that could be avoided as well as unnecessary influences affecting the outcome.
Creating a question that is well-focused is essential for enabling effective research.

Show the similarities of research evidence require good access. One potential method
for facilitating quick access to study evidence is through electronic databases. Although
library and information services are increasingly ensuring that customers have access to
electronic databases, access is not the only the challenge.

MEANING OF LITERATURE SEARCH

A literature search is a scientific, exhaustive search of all forms of published literature

to find a wide range of reliable sources pertinent to a specific topic. It is a crucial component
of any research project's approach. The success of a research project depends on a
comprehensive analysis of the academic literature from the outset; doing the literature search
correctly can eventually save hours of work. A essential talent in itself but, efficient literature
searching will be helpful for any future information gathering effort, whether academic or
anything else.

For the majority from in literature searches related to an extensive report, dissertation,
or research project, books and periodicals serve as the primary source of information.
However, many other sources, such as newspaper archives, pictures, original data, and
conference papers, will be equally valuable depending on your topic.

DIFFERENT AIMS OF LITERATURE SEARCH

This type of search has a number of objectives, namely

• To review current critical theories and perspectives

• To list recent research conclusions
• To find potential research models or approaches
• To facilitate comparison with the results of your own research

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 Being adequately prepared before starting the literature search pays worth because it
might be a time-consuming task.

METHODS OF LITERATURE SEARCH

There are several different literature search techniques that can be employed
separately or in combination. Physical literature exploration is still a crucial part of any
systematic review search process. For the previous few decades, searching the local as well
as the national library for books, journals, etc., was the standard procedure. Technology has
advanced to the point that the Internet is now the entry point to a large literature. Using web-
based search engines like Google, Google Scholar, etc, or different electronic research
databases, you can find articles that describe your study topic or ones that are similar to it. In
addition to evidence-based databases for integrated information available as systematic
reviews and abstracts, the many databases that are available for literature searches also
include databases for original published papers in journals. The majority of services,
including SCOPUS, Pro-Quest, and others, are not openly accessible to a specific user.

PRINCIPLES OF A SEARCH STRATEGY

• Describe the steps involved in the search process.

• Keep track of the databases that were utilized in the search, including the terms that were
used in each database.
• List the databases, the number of references that were taken from each database, and the
total number of references utilized for the review in a table format.
• Explain why some references were left out.
• Specify the type of literature used, such as reports, surveys, descriptive/overview articles,
or qualitative investigations.
• Keep track of the important journals you utilized.

1.3 STAGES IN THE SEARCH PROCESS

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 1.4TYPES OF LITERATURE

Primary literature:

Primary sources, which are typically published in a peer-reviewed journal, are the
genuine publications of an expert's new evidence, conclusions, and proposals (case reports,
clinical studies, etc.). Primary literature also includes preliminary reports, congress papers,
and preprints.

Secondary literature:

Systematic review papers or meta-analyses are examples of secondary sources since

they derive and assess information from primary source literature.

Tertiary literature:

Collections of information from primary or secondary literature make up tertiary

literature (eg., reference books.

TYPES OF SEARCH

Based on the subject of interest, a search might take many different forms. It increases
the probability that a search will turn up relevant results.

Translating research question to keywords:

The keywords are the foundation of a successful search since they will produce
results based on any of the specified terms. To elicit more information, synonyms and
alternative phrases should be taken into consideration. Most databases establish common

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search terms using controlled word-stock (or keywords). You can search a database thesaurus
for some of these alternative keywords. Combining keywords with Boolean operators is
another tactic. Keep track of the search terms and strategies you used when researching the
literature because you'll need to describe them later when designing your search strategy.

Phrase search:

Pages that include only the words entered in the phrase, in that precise order, and with
no words in between them, will be produced as a result. The three Boolean operators AND,
OR, and NOT are named for the mathematician George Boole. When two words are
combined using the symbol AND, articles mentioning both words will be returned. The
search will be expanded and return more results if you use the 'OR' operator. While
combining terms with the word "NOT" will return results that contain the first word but not
the second, so focusing the search.

Filters:

Additionally, filters like article types, text availability, language, age, sex, and journal
categories can be used to refine the search.

Overall, the suggestions for doing a literature search can be summarized as follows:

• As mentioned above, choose keywords and use them to search for articles in the library
and digitally.
• Use the thesaurus to find terms to discover your articles
• Search numerous databases for articles connected to your topic
• Locate a piece of writing that is related to your subject and then look at the terms that
were used to describe it and use them in your search.
• In order to save time searching for your papers, use databases that offer full-text articles
as often as feasible (for free through academic libraries, on the Internet, or for a fee).
• Start with broad synthesizes of the literature, such as overviews, summaries of the
literature on your issue, or review articles, if you are researching a topic for the first time
and are not familiar with the research on it.
• Look for studies about your topic in the most current issues of the journals and then go
backwards in time. Review more sources by checking the references at the conclusion of
the articles.
• Suggest books on a particular subject published by a single author, a group of authors, or
volumes including chapters by various authors.
• Find recent conference papers subsequently. Conference papers frequently summarize the
most recent scientific advancements. Make contact with the research' authors. Ask them
whether they are aware of any studies relevant to your area of interest in a letter or phone
call.

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• It is appealing since it is simple to access and because you can download whole articles
from the web. However, carefully examine these publications for quality and validity,
and be wary of whether they accurately describe

STEPS OF LITERATURE SEARCH

A literary search is a systematic, organized search for the most important literature on
a topic. To do a detailed review of the literature, you should:

• Define what you're looking for

• Choose where to look
• Create a search strategy
• Improve your search strategy
• Save your search for later

DECIDING WHERE TO SEARCH

The best technique to find journal papers on a topic is to search subject-specific

databases. However, you can also perform a search in the library for popular data sources
like official records, grey literature, patents, and statistics.

Choose a database

Find the databases that are best suited to your topic. A wide variety of evidence can
be found using databases, including peer-reviewed scholarly articles published over a lengthy
period of time and from a variety of publishers around the globe. Numerous records of
research literature, including conference proceedings, communications, and grey literature,
are kept in databases like Scopus and Web of Science. For several databases where the
Library has a subscription, there are links to full-text articles.

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 IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Google is an example of Search …….

2. AND ……………. Search

3. OR……………. Search

4. A ……………..is a scientific, exhaustive search of all forms of published

literature to find a wide range of reliable sources pertinent to a specific topic

5. In the present context, selective …………… of information has become

important.

1.5 DEVELOPING A SEARCH STRATEGY

A search strategy is a method for organizing the key terms that will be used to search a
database. In order to find relevant results, the search strategy combines the important
components in your search field.

Your search plan will take into account it all:

• Potential search terms

• Phrases and keywords
• Abbreviated and extended search term variations
• Topic models (where applicable)

Because each database operates differently, you must modify your search approach
for each database. If your study spans a variety of topics, you may want to use multiple
distinct search strategies. After reviewing the search results, it is a good idea to test and
improve your strategies.

1.6 SEARCH STRATEGY / TECHNIQUE

The sections that follow provide some techniques you might use to create your search
strategy. Go directly to:

i. Choosing search terms

ii. Searching with keywords
iii. Searching for exact phrases
iv. Using truncated and wildcard searches
v. Searching with subject headings
vi. Using Boolean logic
vii. Citation searching

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i. Choose Search Terms
Different words can be used to represent the same ideas, therefore "self-esteem" could
also be called "self-worth." Your goal is to think about each of your ideas and make a list of
the various ways they might be expressed.

Do the following to come up with other words or phrases to describe your concepts:
• Thesaurus can be used to find synonyms.
• Use a search engine like Google Scholar to look up your concepts, then scan the results
for alternate terms and phrases.
• Search for alternate terms, phrases, and subject headers in relevant abstracts or
publications (if the database uses subject headings).

Different key terms may be discovered while you search, scan papers, and read
abstracts, enhancing your search strategy. You can save time and effort by locating alternate
keywords by using truncation and wildcards.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. Clinical studies are example of …………… literature
7.……………can be used to find synonyms
8.Asterisks (*) are commonly used in databases as the …………..
9.Finding papers that have been referenced by other publications can be done by
using…….
10.A ……………gives the possibility to learn more about a topic of interest as well as
insight into how that topic has previously been explored by analysts

ii. Search with Keywords

Free text words and phrases are known as keywords. Strategies for database searches
combine free text and subject headings (where applicable). Typically, a keyword search
looks for your search terms in the reference's title and abstract. If you simply need a few
focused results, you might only want to search title fields. Make sure your spelling is correct
because some databases may only search for particular words or phrases. Otherwise, you
may miss references.

iii. Search for the Exact Phrase

Use quotation marks around words to make them appear next to one another in a
precise phrase, like "self-esteem." Searching using a phrase reduces the number of results
you receive and improves the relevance of your results. You can typically search for phrases
in databases, but if you're unsure, see the database guide.

iv. Truncation and Wildcard Searches

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 To locate variations of your search word, you can utilize shortened and wildcard
searches. Finding word singular and plural forms as well as alternative endings is made
easier by truncation. Asterisks (*) are commonly used in databases as the truncation symbol.
If you're unsure which symbol to use, look in the database assistance section. Using
"therap*" as an example, you can find therapy, therapies, therapists, or therapists. A wildcard
locates different word spellings. You can use it to search for just one character or none at all.
If you're unsure of which symbol to use as a wildcard, consult the database help section. For
example, "behaviour" in Medline will find both behaviour and behaviour. Wildcards are
helpful for discovering both British and American spellings. Sometimes, different symbols
can be used to locate a single variable character. Used for model, into the Medline database:
“women” will find woman and also women.

v. Searching with Subject Headings

A database employs database topic heads, which are regulated vocabulary terms, to
identify the subject matter of an article. Utilizing pertinent subject headings will improve
your search and enable you to locate additional information on your topic. This is so that
articles can still be found using subject headings even if they don't contain your key words.
For each of the concepts you pick, your search strategy should incorporate both subject
headings and keywords. This is particularly necessary if you're working on a thorough study
or systematic review. You must look at each database separately to discover the subject titles
that are used because they may differ between databases. For instance, you may use the
EMTREE thesaurus for Embase and MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) for Medline.
RESEARCH GUIDE: To check the subject headings the database indexers assigned that
article, click the "full reference" button after searching for a known key paper in the Ovid
databases. Then, you may decide whether to include any that are pertinent in your own
search approach.

vi. Use Boolean Logic To Combine Search Terms

You can experiment with various word or subject combinations by using the boolean
operators AND, OR, and NOT. When combining your search words or results, databases
frequently display Boolean operators as buttons or drop-down choices that you can click.

The three primary Boolean operators are:

• NOT
• AND
• OR

“OR” is used to locate items that refer to either of the search terms. To discover articles
that discuss both of the searched topics, use “AND”. A search term or notion is excluded by
“NOT”. Use it carefully to avoid accidentally missing important references. For instance, if
you search for "self-esteem NOT eating disorders," you'll see articles that discuss self-esteem
but not eating disorders.

vii. Citation Searching

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 Finding papers that have been referenced by other publications can be done by using
citation search. Make your literature review more thorough by using citation searching (or
cited reference searching) to:

• Determine whether articles have been cited by other authors

• Locate more recent papers on the same or related topics
• Learn how a well-known idea or innovation has been confirmed, applied, improved,
extended, or corrected
• Find more recent papers on the same or similar topics.

Searching referenced references is possible in the following databases:

• Ovid SP databases
• Google Scholar
• Web of Science
• Scopus

Your literature search can be complemented by looking for cited references.

However, take care not to only consider works that have received citations in isolation. To
reduce publication bias, a thorough search of the literature is also necessary.

REFINE YOUR SEARCH

Searches frequently return a lot of results. For a systematic review, when you must
make sure your search is really thorough, this might be a suitable quantity. However, there
are methods you may take to improve your search if it returns a lot of irrelevant results.
Ways to Restrict and Widen your Search

Consider the following if your search only yields a few references or if the majority
of the references are unrelated to your research topic:

• Double-check your spelling because databases rarely offer auto-correction and will only
find what you input.
• Make your search query more general.
• Do you need to check any further databases?
• Could you include further search terms? Search for alternative words and spelling
variations.
• Talk to your supervisor about your topic.

If there are too many results, you might need to narrow down and be more particular
with your search. Think about it:

• Have you successfully applied Boolean operators? Have you ever used AND when OR
was more appropriate, for instance?
• Could you restrict it by a time period?
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• Could you specify a language restriction, such as English only? Utilizing non-English
publications reduces bias, but only if the translations are reliable.

Use Search Limits

There are many restrictions available depending on the database. You can restrict
your searches in many databases based on the publication year, language, and type of
publication. Some might even let you limit your search to a certain kind of query. After you
have gathered all the information pertinent to your topic, apply limits to your search. Limits
should be applied one at a time so you may observe how they affect your outcomes. Your
search may become too narrow if you use too many restrictions. Instead, you might utilize
search filters in this situation. See the Medline workbook's "Using Limits" section.

How Search filters can improve your Search

Search filters are tried-and-true methods for locating particular material. Filters can
be used to search results to limit them to RCTs, observational studies, or economic
evaluations, among other search restrictions. The Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network
(SIGN) website and the Inter TASC website both have examples of search filters. The
Boolean operator "AND" is used to add search filters at the end of search strategies. Keep in
mind that search filters are database-specific and frequently do not function in other
databases. The Cochrane Collaboration created two expert filters for Ovid SP that allow
personal account holders to limit search results to randomized controlled trials.

Search by Hand to Catch anything you Have Missed

Hand searching entails choosing the most important journals in your field and
manually or electronically searching each one according to predetermined criteria.
Additionally, it can be used to look up sections and chapters in books. You gain access to
information that you might otherwise miss. There may be items that are not indexed or are
indexed incorrectly, and not all of the materials you need may be indexed by databases,
therefore no database search approach is perfect. Additionally, you might have erred a little
bit in your search.

STAGES OF THE LITERATURE SEARCH

A thorough literature search involves going through steps 1–5 in order:

1. Background reading and preparation

2. Working with your title - identifying search terms
3. Identifying the resources to search
4. Searching - using search techniques
5. Collating your results

1. Background reading and preparation

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 Start by reading background material, such as textbooks or subject encyclopedias, to
better understand the topic's context and the vocabulary that will be used to discuss it.

Questions you need to ask include:

• Why was this issue chosen for a lengthy study project?
• Is there a seminal book or journal article on it?
• Is the topic currently trending in the media?
• Do you have personal knowledge or experience with it?

Find a short bit of reading to give you a general understanding of the subject that is
informed by the aforementioned. An excellent seminal book or journal article on the subject
may offer insightful recommendations for additional reading.

2. Working with your title - identifying search terms

It's crucial to discover as much of the key terms related to the subject as you can
before beginning a literature search. This might comprise:

• Important writers,
• Theories/concepts,
• Significant research findings or laws,
• Major genres or movements

Spend some time considering the language for the draught title of your research; from
there, it should be feasible to discover many crucial parts. This is the simplest way to begin
identifying such terms. Consider the following for each of the title's essential components:

• Synonyms, or words that have the same meaning but are used differently, such as young
adults for youth.
• Related terminology or ideas, such as the words "girls," "boys," "teenagers," etc., when
referring to children.

3. Identifying the resources to search

Unfortunately, no matter what subject you are studying, there is not a single
informational resource that will provide you with all the information you need for your
literature search. However, the library offers a single search tool called One Search that
enables you to search a variety of sources at once. This provides access to a wide range of
online resources that meet the research requirements of all the many academic disciplines. In
reality, though, you should only need to search a relatively small number of resources, even
though you will need to carefully consider the sources that are most likely to have the
pertinent content.

Use One Search's search function to do a thorough search of all the journal material
we have online as an excellent place to start your search. Although this is helpful in locating
some beginning references, it does not constitute a thorough and exhaustive search of the

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literature. You must conduct a direct search within each resource on your own for this.
Choose a database from the A-Z list of databases to do this. The majority of databases mix
full text and abstract-only content, with the ability to limit your search to only return full text
results. However, other databases only contain full text articles.

Different types of databases:

Multi-disciplinary journal databases

Journal content for a variety of academic subject can be found in resources like
Academic Search Complete and JSTOR. Multidisciplinary databases frequently include both
academic peer-reviewed articles and professional and trade periodicals. However, you can
typically restrict your results to those from scholarly journals with peer review.

Subject specific databases

These databases contain journal articles and/or other types of content relevant to a
specific subject or group of related subjects. Examples include Psyc-ARTICLES, Education
Research Complete, Westlaw and International Index to Performing Arts.

Publishers’ databases

In databases like Science Direct, Sage Journals, and Emerald, you can find articles
from journals that were published by a certain publishing house. Such resources may be
multidisciplinary or specialized.

Other types of content

Your literature search may also benefit from using a variety of non-journal databases,
including those that contain encyclopedias, photos, audio, video, and e-books.

4. Searching - using search techniques

The following methods will be used to increase the quality of results after choosing
appropriate search terminology and databases to search.

Always use the advanced search (or multi-search box) option instead of the "simple"
or "basic" search option (just one text box). You can only use all of the following methods in
advanced search.

• Word endings

Search engines will not always look for synonyms for the same term; for instance,
looking for the word cinema will not always turn up cinematics. This might even be true for
straightforward variations like cinema and cinemas, which are the singular and plural forms
of the same word. Where a word's ending varies, an asterisk (*) will be used to automatically
search for all possible ends.
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• Linking terms together

When using the connecting words “AND” or “OR”, you can enter multiple terms in a
search engine at once. You can focus your search by using the AND operator to only return
results that include both terms. By using the OR operator to join two terms, you can obtain
results that include both terms or just one of them.

• Variant spellings

Only the particular term you enter will be matched in databases. In practise, this
means that they might not be able to handle alternate spellings like American/English
versions, therefore a search for "color" would not always return results with the American
spelling color. To locate either, use “OR” between the two alternative spellings.

• Exact phrase searching

You should enclose phrase-based search keywords in quotation marks, such as "crime
films," "United States," or "film noir." This guarantees that the terms will appear just next to
one another in the results' text.

• Currency

Most databases allow you to filter results to after, before, or between specified
publication dates if currency or a specific publication date range is crucial to the relevance of
the results retrieved. This might be an effective method for narrowing down the results to
those that are most pertinent to your topic.

• Keywords / subject terms:

The author or the database provider assigns keywords or subject terms to identify the
primary subjects covered in the publication. Again, the outcome should be more relevant to
your issue if your search terms appear as keywords or subject terms.

• Searching using more than one search box

Most databases will allow more structured searching by giving the option to use more
than one search box – usually the advanced search option.

5. Collating your results

Finally, it's vital to evaluate the information you discover and arrange it according to
priority. Remove any ancillary materials, and think about storing them apart from your main
references. Create an account and bookmark your favourites by using the customizing tools
in One Search or several of the different databases. Some allow you to set up email
notifications to notify you whenever future results fit your search strategy. Remember that

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you can utilise One Search to determine if the complete text of any of your main journal
references is still available from another database if it isn't available in full from the database
you've searched.

Consider ordering journal articles or volumes through the library's interlibrary loans
service if the online databases do not have what you require. It is imperative that you keep
thorough records of all searches, sources, and references utilized at every stage. This will be
vital for writing out your final bibliography and citations, as well as for maintaining control
of your study.

SAVE YOUR SEARCH

Keep copies of the relevant records you locate, and if at all possible, keep a copy of
your search plan. This will prevent you from having to do the same thing repeatedly.

Save the Articles You Find

Save or print any useful article records you come across. Most databases provide you
with a few choices, such as:
• Save, generally as a text or RIS file
• Print
• Email
• Direct export to reference management programmes like End Note.

The complete text of the documents typically cannot be downloaded straight from the
database. You will need to click on the "full text" links in several databases. You will have
the option to download the article if the Library has a subscription.

Save Your Search Strategy

You might be able to save a copy of your search plan using the database's free
personal account option. By saving your search strategy, you can run it again without having
to enter the same information.

Stay Up-To-Date With Database Alerts

To be informed of any new study, many databases will include auto-alerts. Learn
more about services for current awareness. To learn more about each of these features in the
Ovid SP databases

1.7 SUMMARY
A literature search gives the possibility to learn more about a topic of interest as well
as insight into how that topic has previously been explored by analysts. It helps in concept

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interpretation, problem detection, and opportunity recognition. In summary, organised and
systematic research can help in the creation of innovative studies.

1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1 Engine 6 primary
2 Narrows 7 Thesaurus
3 Widens 8 truncation symbol
4 literature search 9 citation search
5 elimination 10 literature search

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

• Differentiate between Browse and Search. Explain the different types of Literature
Search.
• Write a detailed note on the methods of Literature Search.
• Search Competencies have become necessary tools to search effective information.
Discuss.
1.10 REFERENCES
Brocke, J. V., Simons, A., Niehaves, B., Niehaves, B., Reimer, K., Plattfaut, R., &Cleven, A.
(2009). Reconstructing the giant: On the importance of rigour in documenting the
literature search process.
DAHLEN, R., BRUNDAGE, C. A., & ROTH, C. B. (1987). Guidelines for doing a
computerized literature search. Nurse Educator, 12(2), 17-21.
Grant, M. J. (2004). How does your searching grow? A survey of search preferences and the
use of optimal search strategies in the identification of qualitative research. Health
Information & Libraries Journal, 21(1), 21-32.
Grewal, A., Kataria, H., & Dhawan, I. (2016). Literature search for research planning and
identification of research problem. Indian journal of anaesthesia, 60(9), 635.
Hart, C. (2001). Doing a literature search: a comprehensive guide for the social sciences.
Sage.
McCabe, C., & Timmins, F. (2005). How to conduct an effective literature search. Nursing
Standard, 20(11), 41-48.
Poojary, S. A., &Bagadia, J. D. (2014). Reviewing literature for research: Doing it the right
way. Indian Journal of Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Aids, 35(2), 85.
Schoels, M., Knevel, R., Aletaha, D., Bijlsma, J. W., Breedveld, F. C., Boumpas, D. T., ... &
Smolen, J. S. (2010). Evidence for treating rheumatoid arthritis to target: results of a
systematic literature search. Annals of the rheumatic diseases, 69(4), 638-643.
Timmins, F., & McCabe, C. (2005). How to conduct an effective literature search. Nursing
standard, 20(11), 41-47.
University of Leeds. (2022, 8 10). Literature searching explained. Retrieved from
https://library.leeds.ac.uk/info/1404/literature_searching/14/literature_searching_explai
ned/.
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 LESSON- 5.3
DOCUMENTATION SERVICES AND TRANSLATION
SERVICES

Dr. Gururaj S. Hadagali

Associate Professor
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 Department of Library and Information Science
Karnatak University, Dharwad – 580 003
Karnataka State
Email: [email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Difference between Library, Documentation and Information Centre
1.4 Translation Service
1.5 Translation Centres
1.6 Summary
1.7 Answers to In-Text Questions
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, the student will be able to:
• Study the difference between the Documentation Centre and a library.
• Learn the importance of Translation Service in a Library.
• Familiarize with various types of Translation Services.
• Acquire skills in planning and management of information services and systems.
• Develop skills for creating new information services

1.2 INTRODUCTION
Civilization's development and advances in science and technology have led to a huge
expansion of literature. The explosion of knowledge in multi-disciplinary areas was
documented in macro documents such as books and in the most recent research magazines,
research and technical reports, patents, standards and specifications, trade transactions,
circulars, reprints, offprints, etc. The specialists need not just macro papers but also micro
materials, such as monthly articles published in specialized publications.

Definitions

A 'document' is a single written or printed article that provides proof or information

on any topic. It might be a written, audio, or visual record of an idea. The term
documentation was first used by Paul otlet for the presentation, collection, retrieval, and
exchange activities of documents at the International Economic Conference.In 1934, Paul
otlet composed the first treatise on the subject of documentation, the Treaty de
Documentation. Thus the term can be traced to the beginning of the 20th century

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 Documentation refers to the process of identifying, documenting, organizing,
storing, and disseminating intellectual material included in a printed or non-printed
document.

Documentation center play a crucial role in collecting micro-literature, indexing and

abstracting it, bringing it to the attention of users, and rapidly disseminating it to those who
require it. They are established at local, regional, national and international levels.

Need for Documentation

1. For research work - Government and prominent institutions began researching to satisfy
human needs, and for this research, scientists felt the need for various papers.

In addition to completing their study, researchers can also document their findings
and provide them to the public. Following the changing needs of the present, the emphasis
has shifted from basic research to behavioural research, and individual research has been
replaced by collaborative research. Not only has this increased the amount of literature, but it
has also given birth to several additional issues. Documentation efforts can only resolve these
issues.

2. Social need - Dr. S.R. Ranganathan, the Indian father of library science. He highlighted
societal need as the primary reason why documentation is necessary. In the past, research
depended on the requirements of the researcher, but now it is driven by societal and
economic factors. To accommodate the rising population and its requirements,
documentation is required. Currently, industrial output and research are dependent on the
documentation service. Researchers in one nation should also benefit from study undertaken
in other nations, and none of this is possible without documentation.

3. Communication problems -In the past, there was very little quantity of research, and as a
result, the number of users was also very small; as a result, there was no difficulty with the
conveyance of knowledge; but, as the amount of literature and research works have
expanded, this problem has arisen. Since then, information communication has encountered
problems. With the use of documentation services, the reader's communication problems may
be quickly resolved by supplying them with the necessary information.

4. Literary Explosion - Since the invention of the printing press and electronics, there has
been a dramatic increase in the publication of literature. It required considerable effort to
locate the substance of literature that is so necessary at the moment. Consequently, there was
a need for documentation service. Documentation techniques, such as abstracting, indexing,
photocopying, etc., were utilised to get information about their demand from this published
material collection.

5. Economic challenges - Literature is currently being written at such a quick rate that no
country or library can gather all published research.

6. Language barrier - Currently, literature is being produced in around 50 languages

throughout the globe, whereas no scientist or individual knows more than two or three.
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Objectives and Purpose

The primary purpose of a documentation service is to bring recent and current

material to the attention of specialized users. The primary objective of the documentation
service is to find, collect, organize, and preserve materials that have been indexed and
abstracted. It obtains and distributes the document when users request it.

Documentation service is identical to reference service, except that the emphasis

switches from macro-documents to micro-documents and from general to specialized
readers. The documentation service comprises the following tasks:

• Inform the reader that current information is available via the Current Awareness Service
(CAS) and Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI).
• Offering papers accessible at the center.
• Obtaining documents from other libraries via interlibrary lending.
• Reproducing and delivering photocopies of papers.
• Organizing the translation of papers from other foreign languages into the language
requested by the reader.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. The term document was first used by.........
2. Documentation service is identical to .......... service, except that the emphasis
switches from macro-documents to micro-documents and from general to specialized
readers.
3. ………… is an organization that (1) selects, acquires, stores and retrieves specific
documents in response to requests; (2) announces; abstracts, extracts, indexes
documents; and (3) disseminates documents in response to requests for documents or
for their contents.
4.…………offer a single access point to data from various places, nations .
5. The full form of VINITI is …….

Type of Documentation Centers

During the 1950s and 1960s, local, regional, national, and worldwide Documentation
Centers were created.

a) Local documentation centers are expected to offer information services that serve the
needs of their parent organization. These are tailored to the particular needs of the
consumers.

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b) National documentation centers are affiliated with research and development
organizations, commercial and industrial organizations, and government ministries. They
engage in actions outside the jurisdiction of local documentation centers.

c) International documentation centers gather, organize, analyze, and disseminate

specialized international literature to fulfil the information needs of researchers and
academics.

d) Regional documentation centers are often developed at the national or international

level. These are tailored to match the needs of users in a certain location.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, documentation became secondary to information. It
resulted from the proliferation of information sources, services, and digital databases. The
databases were remotely accessible. As a result, several new organizations arose to address
users' needs, and the emphasis switched from papers to the information inside them. In
addition, the information centers gathered, processed, and disseminated data from a single
business and other organizations. The information center deals with both published and
unpublished data. Currently, documentation and information are used synonymously.

Information Centre

An information center is an organization that: (a) chooses information, obtains it,

stores it, and retrieves it in response to requests; (b) creates information abstractions, extracts,
and indexes; and (c) disseminates information in anticipation of and in response to requests.
Research and development (R&D) organizations with a high level of specialization often
have information centres connected. The Information Center offers a wide range of services
to its numerous customers, including a referral service, literature searches, translations,
bibliographies, abstracting, etc.

There are varied forms of information centres viz. (a) Information Analysis Centres
(b) Clearing Houses (c) Data Centres and Data Banks.

• Information Analysis Centers: On request, they gather literature generated in a given

field, assess its value, and provide it in a form that is immediately useful to the experts
undertaking the research. Before disseminating the data, the center confirms it for
validity, dependability, and accuracy. These analysis centers’ reports are crucial for
identifying knowledge gaps and other weaknesses in research and for strengthening it.
• Clearing Houses: They can be established cooperatively or by a local, national, or
international organisation. They offer a single access point to data from various places,
nations, and tongues. They develop bibliographies of certain fields of study and
distribute them to organisations interested in them. If needed, a copy of the available
documentation is also supplied.
• Data Centres and Data Banks: To respond to specific requests, data centres gather,
organise, and store numerical data related to a certain topic area. They gather data to
foresee what their users may need in the future. Data banks typically focus on a wider
field. They take the acquired data and pertinent literature and extract the raw data. They
maintain these structured files at the ready to respond appropriately to user inquiries.
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 These centers are run by subject matter experts, librarians, and information specialists
who organize information for retrieval and dissemination for research. Though the exact
personnel vary, these centers may employ research officers, librarians, bibliographers, or
certified information officers. In addition to performing the duties of a special library, these
centers may also do auxiliary tasks, including technical writing, abstracting, SDI, and client
library research.

1.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LIBRARY, DOCUMENTATION

AND INFORMATION CENTRE

A library and a documentation/information center are very different. While

documentation/information centers offer micro-documents to their clients, libraries offer
macro-documents. The sorts of documents, types, and degrees of users, providing
information rather than the document, and the provision of services to both internal and
external users are some of the ways that libraries differ from documentation/information
centers. Documentation and information centers also do information analysis and
presentation in addition to the information collection, processing, and dissemination.
Thus, a significant distinction is that although a library merely offers the document's
URL, documentation/information centers additionally provide information about the
document's contents.

FUCTIONS OF DOCUMENTATION AND INFORMATION CENTRES

Distributing information material from macro and micro documents to potential users
is a key component of documentation and information centers. They carry out several tasks
to bring the appropriate information to the attention of the appropriate users at the
appropriate time.

• Conduct thorough searches via a variety of materials;

• identify documents/information from a variety of current as well as retrospective
literature;
• Gather and compile relevant information per the needs of the users;
• They process the acquired information by indexing and abstracting it,
• They store information appropriately, and
• Retrieve and distribute information to users upon request.

TYPES OF DOCUMENTATION AND INFORMATIONCENTRES

Documentation and Information Centers fall into three major groups, namely:

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• By ownership, i.e., centres owned by government agencies, academic societies,
professional organisations, or private organisations.
• By specialized interests, i.e., Centres that serve to professionals in various subject areas
of study, in mission-oriented initiatives, as well as individuals interested in specialised
resources or information.
• By different levels, i.e., Centres that operates at the international, regional, national, or
local levels.

SERVICES OF DOCUMENTATION/ INFORMATION CENTRES

With the primary goal of offering a range of information services,

documentation/information centers carry out their duties. These services are provided in
advance of or in response to user requests. In answer to the users' unique requests, responsive
services are given. Contrarily, anticipatory services are offered in advance of user
expectations. The different anticipatory and responsive services offered by
documentation/information centers include:
• Responsive Services
a) Answering queries
b) Referral services
c) Compilation of bibliographies
d) Retrospective search service
e) Document back-up service
f) Translation service

• Anticipatory Services
a) Current Awareness Service (CAS)
b) Selective Dissemination of Information service (SDI)
c) Preparation of indexes and abstracts
d) Compilation of directories, handbooks, etc.
e) Compilation of ad-hoc bibliographies
f) State-of-the art reports
We know that special libraries originated at the turn of the 20th century and
subsequently led to the establishment of documentation centers to meet the information
support needs of commerce, trade, and commercial organizations, government agencies, and
research organizations. Documentation centers represent a nation's information infrastructure
and contribute to improving information management, services, and use. Documentation
centres also aim to make information accessible to all types of users. There are several types
of Documentation centres, each of which plays a significant role and serves the primary
function of giving quick access to information on the relevant subject.

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 We must also consider the link between documentation centres and libraries from
other perspectives since their services and other activities are complementary. Well-
developed information and documentation centres have been built at the world, national,
regional, and local sectorial levels. Today's users cannot function without the computerised
modem services of documentation centres. With the use of computer and communication
technology, well-functioning documentation centres may establish a network that maximises
the use of resources and facilitates the flow of information throughout the country for the
benefit of the users.

1.4 TRANSLATION SERVICE

Access to published science and technology (S&T) literature is essential for
advancing science. Published scientific literature is a foundation for ongoing scientific
inquiry in any field. Therefore, researchers everywhere have a fundamental right to access
this literature. In practice, this is not the case. Over fifty per cent of the scientific literature is
written in languages outside English. This literature is inaccessible to scholars who speak
English unless it is translated into English. After World War II, when government-sponsored
research received a boost and gained significant impetus, this issue became increasingly
apparent. The seven primary languages in which most S&T literature was published were
English, Russian, German, French, and Japanese. No nation, regardless of its level of
development, could afford to disregard scientific information supplied by other nations.

Consequently, there has been a substantial demand among researchers for translations
of research results published in languages other than English. Numerous R&D-affiliated
documentation centres and special libraries have begun offering translation services to their
scientists on demand. The need for the translation of journal papers was very high. The major
abstracting services include S&T literature produced in languages outside English. These
abstracting services provide English abstracts of publications published in other languages so
that scientists can determine the article's relevance and have it translated if necessary.

Similarly, the key abstracting services in S&T for French- and Russian-speaking
scientists include 'PASCAL' and 'FRANCIS' from INIST- CNRS, France in the French
language, and 'RefratrivnylZhurnal' from VINITI, former the Soviet Union, in the Russian
language. When the former Soviet Union launched the first space satellite, the U.S.
administration sought various answers. The apparent Russian success was attributed, in part,
to the fact that Soviet scientists used western literature, whereas western scientists did not use
Russian literature because they could not understand the language. To address this issue, the
National Science Foundation launched a large-scale effort to fund the translation of Russian
publications from cover to cover. Since its start in 1952, NISCAIR (Formerly INSDOC) has
provided scientists in India with translation services from several foreign languages into
English.
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 The translators carry out document translation. For scientific translations, a translator
must have a strong command of both languages and the subject to comprehend the
terminology of the given field. Historically, the majority of translation work was performed
by human translators. In the 1950s, machine translation (MT) research began with the advent
of computers. The application of computers to the task of translating text from one natural
language to another is a machine translation. In the past seven decades, machine translation
research has produced many MT systems for mainframe computers, personal computers, and
the Internet.

The Meaning of Translation

According to its literal definition, translation is the expression of the ideas or meaning
of a sentence or passage in a language different from the original. The fundamental concept
included in a document remains untouched during this procedure; just the language is altered.
Transliteration, which involves writing the words of one language using the alphabet of
another, is distinct from translation. In transliteration, the pronunciation of the original words
is preserved; they are rendered using a different type of script. Researchers usually have
micro documents translated, while entries in a multilingual catalogue or bibliography are
transliterated.

Demand for Translation

Translation work may be performed based on either present demand or predicted
demand. When demand is infrequent and there is no pressing need to offer the material,
translation can be performed or acquired on demand. However, when demand is high and it
must be provided without delay, translation must be prepared or purchased in advance. To
anticipate demand, it is vital to understand the nature of the research projects that will be
supported. If necessary, a brief summary of each study can be collected and analysed, and
interviews with the researchers can be conducted.

Kinds of Translation
The same passage or document may be translated differently by different individuals.
The quality of a translation depends on the translator's ability to comprehend the meaning of
the original text, as well as his expressiveness and vocabulary. Five types of translation are
most prevalent:

Literal translation:This sort of translation corresponds precisely with the original text. Here,
words and phrases are understood in their customary and evident senses. The translator
cannot use his own judgement, allegory, or metaphor.

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Free translation: Here, words or phrases from the original language are given no weight.
The translator expresses in an appropriate language the general meaning and concepts of a
document. The translator enjoys freedom of speech.

Adapted or customised translation: Here, the translator considers the intended use of the
translation and shapes it accordingly. He may avoid unnecessary passage elaboration and, if
necessary, enlarge on some issues for the benefit of clarity.

Technical translation: In this sort of translation, subject-specific technical jargon is

substituted for everyday equivalents. This translation style is favoured by subject-matter
experts.

Translation into/from code language: Sometimes, a passage or document is turned into a

code language (e.g., shorthand) or a code language passage is translated into a spoken or
written language.

Mechanical translation: This kind of translation is done by a machine and is often an

"approximate" version of the original, not an exact one.

WHO'S JOB?
The translation task can be performed by a variety of individuals and organisations,
including: (1) the reader or researcher himself, (2) the librarian himself, (3) a professional
staff translator, (4) a professional freelance translator; (5) a translating agency, and (6) a
translating machine. Neither the reader nor the librarian should be expected to undertake the
task and unnecessarily spend their time, which could instead be utilised more effectively in
their respective fields. In addition, they may lack the expertise of a professional translator.
Therefore, the option should be selected from the remaining possibilities.

Certified translator
A professional translator is one who possesses the necessary skills and qualifications
to translate written content from one language to another, and has chosen translation as a full-
time or part-time occupation. These translators are frequently selected by numerous libraries.
If the volume of translation work in a library is substantial and the need for translations is
constant, professional translators may be hired. The alternative is to maintain a list or panel
of experienced freelance translators who may be contacted as needed. Even when full-time
translators are hired, part-time translators may be needed if the amount of translation or the
language are too much for the full-time translators to handle.

Qualifications
A person's understanding of a language alone is insufficient to qualify them as a
competent translator. Translation work, particularly of technical material, "is a highly
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specialised task that requires the combination of at least two skills: first, knowledge of the
language into which the text is to be translated (often referred to as the target language)," and
second, "an adequate and competent knowledge of the subject." It is always desirable for a
translator to translate exclusively into his mother tongue or a language in which he is equally
fluent. It must be emphasised that "subject knowledge" does not refer to a general
understanding of a subject but rather a comprehensive understanding of the specific field in
which the text to be translated resides. The translator must also be familiar with the subject
area's technical jargon. The independent professional translators must likewise possess the
same credentials.

TRANSLATION SERVICE IN S&T: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Science and technology (S&T) and newer multidisciplinary fields, such as
environmental studies, medical electronics, biotechnology, etc., outnumber humanities and
social sciences disciplines. Researchers must be informed of the latest developments in these
disciplines as soon as feasible. The majority of research and development (R&D) money is
likewise allocated to these domains of knowledge. However, the majority of S&T research is
conducted in non-English-speaking nations. Published works are the most efficient means of
distributing information. The sole answer to enabling access to multilingual information
resources is translation.
After World War II, translation services were in greater demand. Several government
agencies, public sector organisations, and R&D institutions throughout the globe have
implemented in-house translation services to meet their own translation needs. The
translation units were a vital aspect of the organization's documentation and information
centre. Within the information centre, two types of services were arranged. They are: (i) an
in-house translation service that meets the organization's local translation needs from a few
foreign languages into English, and (ii) a general translation service that provides translation
services from a large number of foreign languages into English or vice versa on a fee-for-
service basis to any individual or organisation (e.g., the Foreign Language Translation
Service of NISCAIR).

1.5 TRANSLATION CENTRES

The translation process is both expensive and time-consuming. If the translated
version of a document is destroyed after satisfying the specific demand, further resources
such as time and money may be required if a subsequent demand for the translation of the
same document arises. Translations acquired by any information centre may therefore be
stored for further use. The result is the creation of translation banks or translation pools or

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translation Centres. These translation Centres —maintained at national and international
levels—cooperate to share their holdings.

Important Centres

The following are some important translation centresoperating at various levels:

National Translation Centre (NTC):The NTC, formerly the SLA Translation Center, is
situated at the John Crerar Library in Chicago, Illinois, USA. It keeps up-to-date English
translations of materials on natural sciences, physical sciences, medical sciences, and social
sciences that have been published all over the world. It currently has over 20 million goods in
stock.

International Translations Centre (formerly European Translation Centre) - The

Technological University of Delft in the Netherlands is home to the International
Translations Centre (ITC), formerly the European Translation Centre. It is essentially a
global pool supported by 17 countries, including Canada, France, and the United Kingdom.
Australia, the United States, India, and other public and commercial institutions work
together with ETC.

British Library’s Lending Division (BLL)—The largest translation pool in Britain is located
at BLL at Boston Spa, formerly known as the National Lending Library. Translations of
Russian academic publications make up its core collection. It now has over 500,000
translations in its library.

Transom —It is a specialist translation pool on atomic energy that was jointly created by the
United States Atomic Energy Authority and the European Atomic Energy Community
(EURATOM) (USA). The Transom information centre is in Brussels.

Translation Indexes

The centres running the translation pools maintain or produce printed indexes for
simple and quick locations of translations. Also shown are union lists of translations. The
following is a brief description of several significant such indexes:

Aslib Index of Unpublished Translations—Since 1951, it has been kept on cards and has
included English translations of articles from all languages, mostly in the subject of science
and technology (now ceased).

British Reports, Translations and Theses-It replaces the NLL Transactions Bulletin and the
BLL Announcement Bulletin and gives a list of translations acquired in the BLL. It has been
issued since 1981 by the British Library's Lending Division. The BLL Review, which
includes book translations and cover-to-cover translations, is also published every three
months.

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Commonwealth Index to Unpublished Scientific and Technical Translations—Since 1951,
English translations of articles from many languages and across a range of fields, particularly
science and technology, have been maintained by ASLIB on cards in three sections: journals,
patents, and standards. Over 300 sources in Britain and other Commonwealth nations were
used to gather information. It gave location data for around 450,000 translations in 1973.
(now ceased).

Transom Bulletin—Since 1961, the Transom Information Centre has published a monthly
index of publications on nuclear research that have been translated into other languages. It
also provides a list of periodicals that have been completely translated.

Bibliography of Russian Scientific and Technical Literature— This NTC publication is a

retrospective bibliography for the years 1954 to 1956.

Consolidated Index to Translations into English—This index was published by NTC in

1969.

Index Translationum— It has been issued yearly by UNESCO since 1932 and only contains
translations of works that have been globally published. It has been available online since
1979.

Index Translationum Indicarum - It featured cumulative entries for India in the Index
Translationum, which were contributed by the National Library, Kolkata, India, and
published by UNESCO.

World Translation Index - It is a collaborative effort between the International Translation

Centre, the French Centre for Scientific Research, and the Commission of the European
Communities (in cooperation with National Translation Centre at the John Crerar Library,
University of Chicago, USA). It replaces World Transindex and Translations Register Index
and has been published since 1987.

World Index of Scientific Translations and List of Translations Notified to ETC - It is

published every month by the International Translation Centre and contains a list of the
center's acquisitions organised by journal titles in the original language.

National Index of Translations - It is a quarterly publication of INSDOC (formerly

NISCAIR) that offers data on all translations carried out in India by various organisations.

Bibliography of Translation - This online bibliography, which was created by the National
Translation Mission (India), includes translated works in both the literary and non-literary
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categories (http://www.ntm.org.in/languages/english/bibliography.aspx). In addition, several
of these indexes are no longer being published.

TRANSLATORS ASSOCIATIONS
Numerous nations have active national societies for terminologists, interpreters, and
translators that contribute significantly to raising the calibre of translation and creating
guidelines. The Indian Scientific Translators Association (ISTA) is committed to advancing
scientific translation throughout India. The association's main goals are to promote scientific
translation facilities in India, enhance the standing and working conditions of scientific
translators, promote scientific translation training facilities, host conferences or seminars on
scientific translation, publish materials, and collaborate with national and international
organisations with similar goals.

The International Federation of Translators, Interpreters, and Terminologists is one

such organisation at the global level (FIT). Over 100 translation associations from across the
world are represented among FIT members. These associations are brought together through
FIT, which enables them to gain from accumulated wisdom and expertise. It seeks uniformity
for translation quality criteria and strives to harmonise translation standards. Additionally, it
fosters the early formation of new translators associations and advocates their foundation in
nations where none already exist. FIT and UNESCO continue to conduct business together.
(http://www.fit-ift.org/).

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. A …………… is a single written or printed article that provides proof or
information on any topic
7. The full form of ISTA is
8. Who is the father of Library Movement in India?
9.Access to published …………………..literature is essential for advancing science.
10. The full form of NTC

LIBRARIAN’S ROLE

Should librarians or other information professionals be assigned the responsibility of

translating? Is a controversial topic. Some individuals still believe that a librarian or
information worker should be fluent in several languages so that he may translate books for
his clients. Some library schools used to teach a foreign language as part of their library
science curriculum not long ago. However, it is now widely believed that the actual work of
translation does not fall under the purview of the librarian or information worker because,

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first, they cannot be expected to be experts in every language and field in order to translate
every type of material, and second, they have a variety of other crucial tasks to complete.
Because of this, in Ranganathan's perspective, the translation did not properly qualify as a
"documentation activity"; rather, it belonged on the "periphery of our sphere of labour."
According to him, the librarian's role in this situation would be that of a liaison. In other
words, the information specialist or librarian should act as a liaison between the user and the
translator. He will accept translation requests or anticipate requests, obtain the translation
from an agency or pool, have it done by a qualified translator, and then provide the
translation to the user. In other words, the translator will perform the translation task, and the
library or information worker will offer the translation service.

TRANSLATION CENTRES AND TRANSLATION SERVICE IN INDIA

To address their own translation needs for a few languages, governments, public
sector organisations, and R&D institutions in science and technology in India have in-house
translation facilities. These organisations include BARC, DESIDOC, ONGC, BHEL,
MECON, and HAL, to name a few.

1.6 SUMMARY
One of the most accommodating services offered by libraries and information centres
is translation. There is no question that the phenomenal development of information
technology, the expanding Internet user base, the growth of international trade, and the
continuous expansion of scientific and cultural collaboration have raised the need for
translation services. However, the number of ad hoc translations has significantly decreased
due to cuts to financing for information services.

1.7 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1.Paul Otlet
2.Reference Service
3.Documentation centre.
4.Clearing houses.
5.VINITI - All Russian Scientific and Technical Information Institute
6.Document
7.The Indian Scientific Translators Association
8.Dr. S.R. Ranganathan
9.Science and Technology
10. National Translation Centre
1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1.Differentiate between the Documentation Centre and a Library.
2.Explain the different types of Translation Services.
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3.Translation Service is prerequisite in R & D Libraries. Discuss.
1.9 REFERENCES

Brown, D. (2003). Is This the End of Document Economy? A Strategic Review of Document
Delivery. Interlending and Document Supply. 31(4), 253-64.
Burke, M. E., & Hall, H. (1998). Navigating Business Information Sources: A Practical
Guide for Information Managers. London: Library Association Publishing.
Campbell, R. (2003). Document Delivery and Journal Publishers: The Looming End of ILL-
Ness? Logos. 19 (1), 16-19.
Cassell, K. A. & Hiremath, C.U. (2009). Reference and Information Services in the 21st
Century: An Introduction. London: Facet 2009.
Chowdhury, G.G., & Chowdhury, S. (2001). Searching CD-ROM and Online Information
Sources. London: Library Association Publishing.
Davis, E.B. (1981). Using the Biological Literature: A Practical Guide. NY: Marcel Dekker.
Egghe, L. & Rousseau, R. (1990). Introduction to Informetrics. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Eleaner, M. & Walters, S. A. (1995). Document Delivery Services: Issues and Answers.
Medford, N.J.: Learned Information Inc.
Fairthorne, R. A. (1969). Content Analysis, Specification, and Control. In: Williams, Martha
E. (ed). Annual Review of Information Science and Technology. New York: Elservier
Science Publishing Company Inc. Vol. 4

LESSON –5.4
CAS, SDI, DDS AND INTERNET SERVICES

Dr. Gururaj S. Hadagali

Associate Professor
Department of Library and Information Science
Karnatak University, Dharwad – 580 003
Karnataka State
Email: [email protected]

STRUCTURE
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 1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Current Awareness Services (CAS)
1.4 Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI)
1.5 Document Delivery Service (DDS)
1.6 Internet Based Library Services
1.7 Summary
1.8 Answers to In-Text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, the student will be able to:

• Outline the different information alert services like CAS, SDI.
• Study the different internet services
• Analyse the difference between Current Awareness Service and Selective Dissemination
Services
• Analyse the different Internet Services available for the benefit of the user’s community.
• Evaluate the internet services provided by the library staff.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Any competent researcher knows how important it is to always be abreast of the most
recent findings in one's area. Daily, works of literature in a wide range of styles and
languages are translated into English. Reading a small number of periodicals obtained at the
library is not enough to stay abreast of the complete body of literature. Let's say you're
curious about conducting a "information usage research." Now, he or she provides three
options: I searching the World Wide Web (henceforth Web), (ii) analysing papers that are
likely to contain articles on the problem, and (iii) searching abstracting and indexing services
available in the relevant field. A researcher using the Internet to gather information will
definitely come across useful articles. Because many articles will not be made available
online, this is unfortunately not meant to be an exhaustive collection.

It is expected that publications on this topic will appear in periodicals devoted to

library and information science. Multiple LIS (library and information science) periodicals
exist. There isn't enough room in any library to house all of these books. They may all be in
the same library, but we still won't be able to read them since they're written in different
languages.

There are abstracting and indexing services available. Some will be accessible online
for a price, and searching for them will involve a charge. In addition, the information we
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acquire from these sites will be many weeks to months out of date. The problem is shared by
researchers in all areas. The question now is, "What is the way out?" Historically, scientists
have faced this problem. As a result of the exponential growth of literature beginning in the
1960s, the difficulty became acute. A new service known as the current awareness service
emerged to combat the issue.

1.3 CURRENT AWARENESS SERVICE (CAS)

Library or documentation/information centre Clients' requirements are not identical.
Their requirements vary widely. While some are content with a few pieces of information,
others seek lengthy resources on their areas of interest; some come to update their knowledge
or abilities, and still others seek books to remain informed of the most recent advancements
in their fields of interest or job. Consequently, their information processing methods differ.
As stated earlier, there are four reader approaches: the current approach, the easy method, the
comprehensive approach, and the catching up or brushing up approach. These factors have a
substantial impact on the organisations that provide information services, since they must
develop methods to accommodate them.

Definition and Scope

Prior to the concept of the current awareness service (CAS), the Internet, the World
Wide Web, and electronic mail did not exist. The primary medium was print. It used to take
months to include current literature on indexing and abstracting services and their delivery
internationally, generally through sea mail. A monthly indexing service headquartered in the
United States formerly required one month for processing the literature, another month for
printing, binding, and shipping, and a fourth month for the document to reach India, China,
or Japan through ocean mail. After a minimum three-month wait, users in these areas had
access to the material in the fourth month. At the time, it was necessary for a service to notify
users about the most recent literature more quickly than standard abstracting or indexing
services. Consider a weekly service that might educate customers of the most current literary
works within a month. such a service would be appreciated. The situation created a demand
for such a service, which resulted in the emergence of services of various sizes, shapes, and
forms.

CAS was defined as an information service that alerted users to recently published
literature before it was indexed or abstracted by conventional services. Now, the
circumstances have changed. Every day, a considerable amount of contemporary literature is
added to the internet, and people from all around the world can access it virtually
instantaneously. The thought may immediately occur in our minds: Has CAS become
obsolete today? The answer is no, as the vast majority of current literature, particularly
literature from developing and non-anglophone nations, is unavailable on the Internet.
Current awareness services that originated before the Internet continue to operate.

Need for CAS

• Keeping experts and professionals informed in their particular fields of interest.
• Promoting and supporting research, study, education, and business
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• Assisting specialists and professionals in quickly identifying and accessing relevant data,
so saving them time, effort, and money.
• Offering data in a format that allows its reuse.

Characteristics of CAS
CAS possesses several properties. The following attributes are outlined:

1. It is primarily a written announcement service. Numerous libraries provide the service

under a variety of names, including accession list, documentation list, current awareness list,
current awareness service, etc. They are now capable of being transformed to digital format
and delivered over the Internet, intranet, extranet, and email.
2. Speed and intensity is essential to CAS. Therefore, the normal servicing frequency
rangesfrom weekly to monthly. Due to the short frequency, the service's literature seems to
be more timely than those of conventional abstracting and indexing services.
3.It aims to provide or develop a contemporary informational viewpoint among scholars. The
term "current approach" requires definition. According to study, researchers employ four
main techniques in their quest of knowledge. They are listed below: i) Comprehensive
strategy, ii) Everyday strategy, iii) Current strategy, and iv) Catching up or Refreshing
strategy. To keep ahead of changes in their respective domains, researchers employ the
current approach. The technique comprises mostly of a researcher-performed scanning
process.
4.It presents a summary of current events without answering any particular queries. Suppose
a researcher is interested in current user studies-related publications. She/he examines a
current awareness service on a larger subject and saves the bibliographical information of
user studies publications. In the next phase, he/she will gather these materials from libraries,
information centres, etc. and use them for her study.
5.The service is a formal channel that enhances data collected through informal channels.
Researchers frequently receive preprints and other resources from their colleagues. Even via
chat, email, and correspondence, they are aware of the most recent advancements in their
profession. These are all informal channels. Insufficient information gathered through
informal routes necessitates CAS.
6.Scanning is the purpose of the service. Typically, researchers read the pages of a CAS and
make note of any articles that capture their attention.
7.The service is designed for temporary usage only. What is included in CAS is then
included in indexing and abstracting services. In essence, it tells the researcher in advance. It
is comparable to a newspaper in certain ways. It gives the most latest news each morning.
Likewise, each issue of a CAS provides information on the most recent advances.

Prerequisites of CAS
There are four major requirements for a successful CAS.
• Understanding which topics to cover
• Understanding who desires what
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 • Knowing where to obtain the most recent information
• Providing the information consistently and dependably.

Not everyone has access to all informal channels, so most people must rely more on
traditional media.

Categories of CAS
With the rapid increase in the number of documents, it became increasingly difficult
to regularly scan the vast body of literature in a single field of knowledge and to monitor its
development. This increase also resulted in a decrease in the speed of the existing media. In
order to bridge the time gap between the generation of information and its dissemination
through formal channels such as indexing and abstracting journals, new media had to be
developed.

The following CAS is widely used around the world:

• Current awareness list

• Current contents
• Routing of periodicals
• Selective dissemination of information
• Research-in-progress
• Forthcoming meetings
• Newspaper clippings.

Current Awareness List

Current Awareness List (CAL), also referred to as "Title Announcement Service," is a
type of documentation list that typically contains information about articles in current issues
of periodicals, recently published research and technical reports, and other macro documents
on a broad subject field arranged in a way that facilitates quick and easy scanning. A Current
Awareness List illustrates the most current advancements in a field of study "through
judicious selection and presentation of the field's current literature." Such lists are not,
however, entirely novel. Before this distinct medium emerged in the 1950s, some libraries
had published periodic bulletins to inform their patrons of newly acquired materials.

Current Contents

This is the simplest and easiest way to provide CAS, often known as "contents-by-
journal." All current journal issues received by the library are duplicated, stitched together,
and delivered to the users on a regular basis. Because it involves little mental effort, the task
may be completed nearly automatically. The pages of the table of contents may be
photocopied and organised in any convenient manner. Current contents have the particular
benefit of being readily scanned, but it may psychologically encourage readers to just visit
the contents pages of journals they are already familiar with reading.

Circulating Periodicals

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 Forwarding of publications, or the circulation of journal issues among users, is a
further way of CAS that is not novel nor uncommon. It is vital to specify which titles are to
be transmitted, among whom, and in what order, for effective routing. The major restriction
of this strategy is that consumers cannot get the issue concurrently. Therefore, routing lists
should be designed such that a user's pertinent problem receives precedence. However, no
user should be authorised to keep an issue for longer than the allotted time; otherwise, the
entire process would be held down. Each user on the routing list is responsible for forwarding
an issue to the next person in line, with the last recipient returning it to the library. When a
magazine issue is made available for borrowing, any reader may borrow it for additional
research. While sending an issue to a user, if his relevant items are marked, the process will
be more efficient and save him time.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1 Information has become a …………now a days.
2 The full form of CAS is ……….
3 Current contents are one of the examples for…..
4 Matching of users profile of to that of ……………. Profile is called SDI.
5 …………. Developed the concept called SDI.
6 DDS, refers to the process of making original documents or copies of
documentsavailable to users on……..

Selective Dissemination of Information

As previously stated, SDI is structured to disseminate the most up-to-date information
to each reader in the quickest time possible, taking into account his specific area of interest.

Announcement of Research In Progress

Research-in-progress documents the many research initiatives carried out by a single
research organisation or a collection of such organisations. A particular field of expertise
might occasionally constrain its coverage. Such a publication's entries might each include the
information below: the name(s) of the research worker(s), the name(s) of the supporting
body, the target completion date, the source where the early results have been released or are
anticipated to be reported, and the (a) title of the research project. Research-in-progress
publications, such as directories or periodicals, can be used to (b) plan new research
programmes, (c) prevent research-in-parallel, and (d) foresees the emergence of new
information. As a result, information consumers may stay informed and quickly access new
information.

Forthcoming Meetings
In seminars, conferences, meetings, etc., a significant amount of new and practical
information is produced. Before some publications or proceedings cover this material, the
information consumers may directly gather by attending these events. For interested parties
to attend such meetings, information about the meetings should be made available in
advance. Recent years have seen the emergence of online directories that list upcoming
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conferences, such as Conal: Conference Alert (http://www.conferencealerts.com/), All-
ConferenceAlert.Com (http://www.allconferencealert.com/india.php), etc.

News Paper Clipping Service

The most recent sources of information on any incident are clippings. There is no
alternative to these until the news pieces are restructured and added to digestible publications
and yearbooks. Making arrangements at a library for regular clipping and their upkeep in a
suitable sequence is required to deliver current materials swiftly. Paper clippings are
typically kept in vertical file cabinets with folder tabs labelled with subject titles. These days,
many businesses offer this service, particularly online. These are a few instances of such
newspaper clipping services:

• NewspaperClips.com (http://www.newspaperclips.com/) this US news clipping service

monitors social media and traditional news sources, integrates this information with
extensive measurement and analysis techniques, and then provides it to clients online.
• The Government of India organisation Vigyan Prasar Information System (VIPRIS) has
released the VIPRIS Clip set, which offers selected news articles and feature articles on
science, technology, and the environment that have been compiled from more than 100
newspapers and news magazines and categorised under seventeen subject areas.
1.4 SELECTIVE DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION (SDI)
The Roman Stoic philosopher Seneca, Almost two millennia ago, said the following:
"What is the point of having many books and libraries if their owners cannot read all of the
titles in their lifetimes? It is preferable to devote yourself to a small number of authors than
to wander aimlessly through a large number." The situation is even more accurate now: We
are overwhelmed with information in this age. The volume of literature published and
disseminated annually is growing significantly. It is quite difficult for the scientist to remain
current in his current field of interest if he reads everything published. He must be quite
selective about what he reads. Before that, he must be aware of what is being publicised so
he can choose. Selective Dissemination of Information, or SDI for short, is one of the
library's services that address this demand.

In libraries, SDI is a manual information service in which librarians scan new issues
of journals and new books and notify users of items with potential relevance to their work.
Only in the late 1950s and 1960s did the term "Selective Dissemination of Information"
(SDI) gain attention in the literature of scientific communication. A Business Intelligence
System by Hans Peter Luhn was likely the first to describe a computer-based SDI system.
Luhn incorporated SDI into his wider "Business Intelligence System" design, including
information retrieval and a communication facility. Luhn's original system proposal was
never implemented, but it was the foundation for designing several computerised SDI
systems. In 1959, the IBM Corporation's Advanced Systems Development Division in New
York was the first to implement an automated SDI system based on Luhn's design; this
system was dubbed SDI-1. Additionally, SDI-2, SDI-3, SDI-4, and SDI-5 have been
produced and evaluated. SDI is currently an essential service in most specialised libraries and
information centres.

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Definitions of SDI
H Peter Luhn defined SDI for the first time in 1961: "The Selective Dissemination of
Information is the service within an organisation concerned with the machine-assisted
channelling of new edges of information, from whatever source, to those points within the
organisation where the likelihood of usefulness in relation to current work or interests is
high." Here, "machine assisted" refers to the use of computers, and "IT to whatever source"
refers to information from both within and outside the organisation. "new things" refers to
current information. "high utility" refers to the fact that the user or user group should find it
valuable. "inside the organisation" indicates that SDI is typically made about a particular
business or academic institution.

Edmund Weaving defined SDI as "the activity of providing clients with desired,
specified sorts of information on a regular basis - with an emphasis on the specific." Over
time, the definition of SDI has evolved; it is not always a service provided by an organisation
for internal use. Many publishers and information centres have begun to offer SDI to external
clients. The notions of cash, specificity, computer use, etc., continue to exist.

Need and Objectives of SDI

The information needs of two consumers are rarely identical. Occasionally, they may be
similar, but almost never identical. According to Luhn, their interests "do not conform to
conventional concepts of disciplines." Consequently, if a user desires to keep abreast of the
most recent developments in his/her field of interest, he/she will have to sift through a
tremendous quantity of content that may be accessible not only in the "umbral" zone but also
in the "penumbral" region. It is a monumental task that may be physically impossible. The
indexing and abstracting services and other CAS media may be of some use, but he/she will
still need to wade through the entire list to locate the needed contents. Moreover, by the time
indexing and abstracting journals cover the same material, their use may have reduced or
gone. As a result of these causes, a rising number of institutions are now adopting SDI.

Therefore, the main objectives of an SDI service are to:

• To keep a specialist personally informed of all documents pertinent to his or her area of
expertise;
• Eliminating unnecessary data saves time and makes the "information explosion"
manageable.
• Consequently, SDI assists users in overcoming the problem of information overload by
filtering information according to their needs.

Characteristics of SDI
As evident from the preceding discussions, SDI possesses the following important
characteristics. They are

• It is a customised service designed for an individual user or group of users with similar
areas of interest;
• It is a user-focused service offered with a good awareness of the users' particular
interests;

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• It is a quick gadget that delivers information well before it is included in the indexing and
abstracting magazines;
• It does not offer to scan because the service is targeted.

Workflow of SDI
An SDI system is primarily built on two types of profiles — user-profiles and
document profiles — which are analysed to determine the relevancy of any new documents
for a particular user.

Users ‘Profiles
While initiating an SDI service, the first decision addresses the intended audience.
The needs and interests of each user or group with similar interests are ascertained and
carefully analyzed. These are then expressed in terms of some keywords or code numbers.
The standard procedure is to incorporate keywords from an established thesaurus. The
resulting individual profiles are then filed together. It is known as the user's profile file. It
should be noted that the creation and maintenance of user profile files are essential
components of the system, without which SDI would be meaningless. The user may perform
the job with the assistance of a manual provided to them or by collaborating with SDI staff.

Documents Profiles
As documents are added to the library, their contents are explicitly examined, and
unit concepts or facets are described using the same keywords, symbols, or code numbers
included in user profiles, allowing for matching. Individual profiles of prepared documents
are filed together. This file is known as the document's profile. SDI workers perform this
task.

Profile Matching
The user profiles and document profiles are compared at regular intervals. When
satisfactory findings are obtained, that is, when a close likeness is discovered between
two profiles, the essential information from both pro- files is recorded. For effective
matching operations, it is necessary to determine the match level for each user in advance.
For this reason, it must be determined what minimum number of concepts (keywords) and
what combination of them are required for a document to be suitable for each user and
marked on their separate profiles. Instructions provided by users and analysis of their
responses may aid in determining the optimal level of match.

Notification

A notification is given to a specific user whose profile closely matches a document's.

Thus, he or she is alerted to the existence of a potentially relevant document in the library.
The notification may include only the minimal information required for the identification of
the document or an abstract/keywords of the document's content, coupled with
bibliographical information. Occasionally, the document itself or a document duplicate is
also sent.

Feedback

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 In the SDI system, there needs to be a mechanism for user feedback. Along with the
message, a printed card or page may be given to each user, on which he or she indicates the
extent to which the offered reference was helpful. A user's reaction can also be evaluated
based on whether bibliographical information was sufficient or whether he or she requested
an abstract or a copy of the document. Occasionally, the response may also take the form of a
referral response, in which a user advises the SDI unit that the material referred to him may
interest another user. Although feedback is a vital component that can increase the
effectiveness of an SDI system, it is sometimes ignored. This method enables the detection of
even the smallest change in user interests.

Readjustment
For the purpose of enhancing the service of an SDI system, it is required to examine
and, if necessary, adjust the user profiles obtained through the aforementioned techniques.
Such alterations are known as readjustment, rejuvenation, or updating. Continuous
readjustment of the profiles contributes unquestionably to the enhancement of the system's
effectiveness.

Operation of SDI
In his initial description of SDI, Luhn predicted the use of computers in SDI service.
Nevertheless, SDI systems may also be manually operated. If the number of users is
restricted and the coverage area is not broad, a manually controlled SDI system can offer
essentially adequate service. When several computerised information systems and large
indexing and abstracting services, such as the Institute of Scientific Information,
Philadelphia, Chemical Abstracts Service, and MEDLARS, began producing and making
available files of large volumes of documents in machine-readable forms, particularly on
magnetic tapes, the concept of a mechanised SDI system gained attention. These tapes, which
were less costly and had a greater scope than a single SDI system, could be utilised easily as
document profiles. By separately creating a user profile file, every institution might operate
its own SDI service with relative ease.

Advantages of SDI
The SDI service has several notable advantages over other library services. These are

• Individual users can receive customised services;

• The documents received by the library are distributed to those who will find them most
beneficial.
• The SDI system alerts users automatically when new literature is published in their
domains; thus, users do not need to be vigilant manually.
• The transmission of any information via an SDI system is far faster than any indexing or
abstracting service.
• Due to the individualised nature of the service, SDI provides the highest level of user
satisfaction.

Disadvantages of SDI
There are also a few disadvantages connected with the system, which are as follows

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• It might be challenging to discover the precise interests and demands of the users, since
they are usually unable to express themselves in the proper manner.
• It is difficult to satisfy a large number of clients with a manual approach, and if a
mechanical method is used, it may lose the personal approach, which is an essential
aspect;
• A large number of users are not vigilant enough to respond to all notifications, which
reduces the effectiveness of the feedback mechanism and the system.
• SDI service requires well-qualified personnel in significant numbers, which is typically
unavailable in a small library.

Comparison of CAS and SDI

It is frequently questioned whether SDI qualifies as a current awareness service. By
its very nature, CAS is not supplied in response to a particular need and spans a broad subject
matter. However, SDI is not of this sort. Nonetheless, it assists users in keeping aware of
current advancements in their respective professions, which is also the primary objective of
CAS.Therefore, SDI is essentially a tailored service that provides current awareness.

1.5 DOCUMENT DELIVERY SERVICE (DDS)

The basic purpose of any library is to serve the information requirements of its users
as effectively as feasible. To do this, the library develops its collection systematically and
offers a variety of information services to keep customers abreast of the most recent
publications in their respective fields of interest. The current awareness services (CAS) and
indexing and abstracting services (I/A) frequently bring to the attention of users the newly
published literature in their subject field, which is dispersed across a wide variety of primary
sources, including journal articles, research reports, conference proceedings, dissertations,
monographs, etc. These services examine freshly released material in original sources,
identify significant pieces, organise them with extensive bibliographical information, index
them, and bring them to the attention of users. Requests for the original copies of the content
presented in these publications are made by users of these services. It might be a book, a
journal article, a report, or anything similar. Before sending the desired material to the user,
libraries and information centres collect it from their own collections or obtain it from
additional sources. Document Supply Service (DSS) or Document Delivery Service (DDS) is
the service that provides the needed document to the customer upon request.

Online vendors offer document delivery services, i.e., they send copies of the
identified information resources from their bibliographic databases. Where a library does not
anticipate heavy use of a particular set of source materials (such as a journal title), it is
generally preferable for users to be able to request documents on an as-needed basis. For
instance, the ordering service has a network of locations from which copies of articles can be
obtained. In-house collections, large academic and government libraries, and specialised
document suppliers are examples of sources.

Frequently, commercial document delivery services offer the advantage of swiftness.

There is a perception that they are more expensive than inter-library loan cooperation, but

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library directors must be cautious with their cost estimates, as there may be no cost advantage
to using inter-library loans over commercial document delivery once staff time is factored in.

DEFINITION
Document delivery service, often known as DDS, refers to the process of making
original documents or copies of documents available to users on demand. DDS is "the
delivery of published or unpublished documents in hardcopy, microform, or digital format
upon request, often for a set rate," as stated in the Online Dictionary of Library and
Information Science (http://www.lu.com/odlis/), which may be accessed through this
website.

Due to the fact that its effectiveness influences the value and implications of all other
access services, DDS is an indispensable service. For instance, if a user who has been alerted
by a current awareness service insists on receiving an original document that was mentioned
in the service but no attempts are made to send the original document to the user in a timely
manner, then the CAS is of no use to the user and is of no benefit to the user. Other
information services are therefore enhanced as a result of DDS.

Historical background of DDS

Historically, the primary focus of DDS was on the lending of necessary materials to
the user for a specified amount of time by the library or information centre from its own
resources, and if those materials were not available, on the inter-library loan (ILL) borrowing
of the document from other libraries and the subsequent lending of it to the user. If neither of
these options were possible, DDS was primarily concerned with the availability of the
document. It wasn't until the middle of the 1950s that photocopying was invented, and it
wasn't until the 1970s that photocopiers became commonplace in libraries that anyone
realised that document delivery service (DDS) wasn't just limited to lending out publications;
it could also reproduce and permanently distribute documents to customers. The libraries
started making use of photocopiers so that they could provide copies of publications, most
commonly journal articles and book chapters and sections.

Document Delivery Facilities

Several international hubs offering DDS services have sprung up in response to the
growing need for centralised document distribution facilities. Some examples of document
supply centres around the world include the British Library Document Supply Centre
(BLDSC) in the United Kingdom, the National Library of Medicine in the United States, the
National Research Council-Canada Institute of Scientific and Technical Information (NRC-
CISTI) in Canada, the Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC now
NISCAIR) in India, and the Institute de I' Information Scientifique et Technique (INIST) in
France. The document distribution hubs furnish the service with resources, some of which
are gathered centrally while others are gathered at random.

Electronic Document Delivery Systems

As previously noted, the proliferation of electronic databases and the development of

communications networks have revolutionised the landscape of document distribution.
Emerging technologies have also impacted the transmission of requests and the delivery of
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documents. Previously utilised postal systems to communicate requests are being replaced by
telephone, fax, email, and web-based ordering. Similarly, the method of document
distribution from the provider to the requester is experiencing transformations. The
conventional document storage, retrieval, and duplicating operations are being replaced by
imaging technology. This technique utilises a number of equipment to scan and digitise paper
documents. The digital copy of the document is sent to the requester through email, fax, or
document delivery software such as Ariel. Electronic Document Delivery Systems (EDDS)
are developing systems that use electronic technology to receive and disseminate documents
in response to requests. A EDDS can provide instant access to the necessary data.

Effectiveness of DDS

Three elements influence the efficacy of DDS: speed, cost, and customer happiness. DDS
should ideally be cost-effective, supplied promptly, and accommodate all needs.

1. Speed
How requests are received and how documents are delivered have a direct influence
on the speed of service. You may submit requests by letter, phone, fax, email, or online. In
addition, papers can be transmitted by any of the aforementioned methods. Receiving the
request online and providing the document using an electronic document delivery system is
the quickest approach. In the traditional DDS, the speed of the service is determined by
factors such as the location of the document within the library, the time required to locate it if
it is unavailable, the transmission of the request, the processing of the request by the
supplying library, the receipt of the document by the requesting library, and, finally, delivery
to the user. These variables affect the document's delivery time. It might range from one
week to one month. Standard service for EDDS takes one day, whereas urgent service can be
completed in as short as two hours.

2. Cost
Document Delivery Service should be economical. When developing cost-effective
services, direct and indirect costs are considered. Direct costs are those associated with the
operation of the service, such as processing the request, duplicating the document, and
postage. Indirect costs include collection, building, staff salaries, equipment, etc. It is cost-
effective if the service is offered from a centralised collection and the number of requests is
high. In contrast, the service is less cost-effective when using the decentralised collection.
Increasingly, it is understood that the service can be more cost-effective if it is operated by
constructing a core collection to meet the users' primary needs and gaining rapid electronic
access to the remaining requests from external sources.

3. Satisfaction Level
Satisfaction in DDS is determined by the ratio of requests fulfilled to the total
requests received by a library or document delivery centre. Idealistically, a DDS should fulfil
all requests, but even the most comprehensive centralised collection cannot achieve this.
Generally, a 90 and 95 per cent satisfaction rate is considered satisfactory.

Document Supply Centres: Some Examples

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 Some of the document supply centres which offer DDS at the national as well as
international levels are:

• British Library Document Supply Centre (BLDSC), Boston Spa

• National Research Council – Canada Institute for Scientific and Technical Information
(NRC-CISTI), Canada
(http://cisti-icist.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/eng/ibp/cisti/about/index.html)
• Institute for Scientific and Technical Information (INIST), France
(http://www.inist.fr/)
• Document Delivery Service of INIST:
• Document Delivery Service of NISCAIR (Formerly INSDOC), Delhi
• Document Delivery Service of INFLIBNET Centre, Ahmedabad

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
7A well-designed …………..can contribute significantly to the library's reputation.
8 Google image is an example for ………….
9 RSS means……………
10 A weblog is a frequently updated website produced by an individual in a
…………diary format using specialised software.
11The full form of WWW is …………
12…………….. centre provides DDS in India.

1.6 Internet Based Library Services

Internet is currently becoming a vital component of library services. It has
revolutionized how libraries serve people with information sources and services. It serves as
a platform for providing access to licensed and unlicensed information beyond the four walls
of libraries. In addition, it supports the delivery of just-in-time services via virtual
referencing mode. The Internet has enabled libraries to create and distribute innovative
services and resources worldwide. Internet-based library services may be delivered as
follows:

• Access to library materials via web-OPACS and circulation services via the library's
website.
• Access to licensed online databases, full-text journals, and electronic books.
• Gateways and portals that provide access to non-library content for libraries
• Virtual reference and information services

Library Websites
Establishing the library's website is the beginning point for the Internet-based library
service. The Internet has created vast opportunities to develop and deliver library services. A
well-designed website can greatly assist library customers in gaining access to library
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materials and services at their convenience. Internet usage is now so widespread that the
majority of libraries strive to employ it to improve communication. Today, librarians provide
information to remote and local consumers via the Internet. Historically, library websites
were static, providing just factual information and links to external resources. Web portals
have grown increasingly dynamic, interactive, and service-oriented throughout time.
Understanding the user's needs and creating the site accordingly is the most crucial
component of establishing a library's website. With the transition of library OPACS to web
OPACs, service-oriented websites were first created. It was enhanced with the addition of
internet databases and licenced, internally-generated digital full-text material. Modern library
websites are extremely interactive and dynamic, with features like virtual citations and online
debates.

For the design of a library website, one must consider the following factors:
• The information submitted must be current and regularly updated.
• A user-friendly interface with sufficient navigational capabilities is required.
• If licensed content is made accessible, suitable security and authentication must be
implemented.
• The design must be appealing, and excessive information clutter must be avoided.
• The websites' links must be routinely examined to ensure they function properly.
• Important messages, information, and services must be highlighted to avoid the users'
notice.

There is no firm and fast rule on what a library website has to provide. Nevertheless,
the following aspects should be considered when building the website:

• Detailed information regarding the library's collection, services, regulations, policies, etc.
• Web OPACs will be integrated into the website with library holdings and user
information.
• Contact details
• The library's floor layouts and virtual tours.
• There must be links to all online resources and services on the homepage.
• Interactivity can be provided through e-mail, feedback forms, and a chat function.
• The website may be made dynamic by incorporating news updates, information about
special events, a list of recent library purchases, and announcements.
• The FAQs are required.
• Web forms may be used to provide online services such interlibrary loan, book and
journal requisition and reservation, etc.
• Provide connections to external websites that are pertinent.

A well-designed website can contribute significantly to the library's reputation. To

attract and retain user attention, the design must be aesthetically appealing. However,
excessive graphics should be avoided because they may impede the loading speed of the
homepage. The website must be centred on the user, and its components must appeal to their
needs.

LIBRARY PORTALS
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 A portal is a Web-based programme that offers an adaptable interface for getting
information from numerous sources. Portals provide access to many network services that
enable searching, harvesting, alerting, or a combination of these functions. They are
application-level interfaces that enable uniform access to information resources and
associated services and are based on software suites.

"Library portals often feature an online catalogue of materials and access to digital
resource collections. Library patrons can simultaneously search all of these sources using
broadcast search technologies with a single query. Portals may offer electronic reference
services ("ask a librarian"), personalization features ("my bookshelf," custom intelligent
searches), and additional research tools. The online catalogue can be supplemented with
enriched material, including author profiles and book critiques, table of contents, and photos
of book jackets. Some libraries have included interactive aspects in their portals, enabling the
formation regarding virtual communities. (Pasquinelli, 2002).

Library portals are highly specialized and offer a limited set of capabilities, such as
searching for and retrieving information and documents relevant to a certain topic from
different information resources both inside and outside of an institution. It's a web service
that helps people find relevant library-related information resources, conduct searches across
many resources using a unified interface, and gain instantaneous access to the results. Either
a standalone server or a shared Web server can host your portal's installation. The software
may be categorised as a portal server application in general.According to Ron Davies, a
library portal system must have the following features:

Resource discovery
Citation databases, abstracting and indexing services, electronic journal databases,
library catalogues, and digital collections are only some of the local and remote information
resources that users can traverse through in order to meet their information needs. Metadata
descriptions of information resources can be browsed in accordance with their respective
subjects or categories.

Common interface for search

It is necessary for a library portal to play the role of an intermediary by providing
users with the ability to search numerous resources (that have distinct search protocols and
metadata presented in a variety of formats) through a single search interface. This will allow
users to avoid having to commit to memory the specific search criteria of each resource.

Federated search
Additionally, it must enable users to select a variety of information sources and
conduct simultaneous searches across them. An integrated collection of search results that
may be combined, sorted, and perhaps exported as a single list of pertinent references will be
displayed to the user.

Direct access to content

It must feature an integrated context-sensitive dynamic linking service for a library
portal, allowing users to navigate from a document citation to the full text of the document in
electronic format with a single mouse click.
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Authentication
A library portal must allow access to licensed or commercial resources without
requiring users to log in separately for each resource.

A growing number of libraries are seeking automated library systems that incorporate
a portal that provides access to various electronic resources both within and outside the
library through a single user interface. According to Boss, a standard gateway must possess
the following characteristics:

Library Gateways
Subject Directories of approved websites are integrated into Library Gateways. They
are subject-organized collections of databases and webpages that have been examined and
recommended by specialists. They usually include high-quality, accurate content that has
been reviewed by subject-matter experts. Library Gateways are typically used for research
and reference materials. They provide access to subject-specific databases and high-quality
websites. Access anything from specialist collections and databases to quick-reference items
like handbooks, directories, and indexes via library gateways.

While gateways are collections of relevant links to information resources that appeal
to a certain user group, portals strive to offer this information inside a single environment
that the user may personalise and manage to some extent. This data might be compiled via a
cross-search of information databases, an alerting service that alerts users of new resources
on a certain topic, or a multi-channel newsfeed. Users in a portal may customise the
appearance and feel of the portal environment, pick the information resources they want to
explore and search for, and choose the topics for which they want to get alerts.

Notable Library Gateways are:

• Internet Public Library (http://www.ipl.org)

• New Canaan Library (http://www.newcanaanlibrary.org)
• Living Web Library (http://www.livingweb.com/library/search.htm)
• Digital Librarian (http://www.servtech.com/~mvail)

The Internet Public Library (IPL), which originated in 1995 as a graduate seminar at
the School of Information and Library Studies at the University of Michigan, is the first
library of and for the Internet community. It has corporate backing, grant funding, and a
salaried workforce. The IPL organises subjects by subject type, provides keyword searching,
and stems words automatically. It is also possible to conduct searches using the title,
publisher, description, and subject headers. The results are arranged alphabetically. In
addition to links to resources, the New Canaan Library offers a Ask a Librarian and Virtual
Reference Desk are available. Internet tutorials are also accessible.

Internet Based Document Transmission

The phrase "electronic document delivery systems" implies the distribution of an
electronic version of a document, which may need the duplication of an electronic copy if the

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document is not already accessible in an electronic format. The libraries have been
distributing copies of materials using fax machines and telephone lines. The original
electronic document delivery deployment employed scanning technology. As scanning
technology and equipment evolved, document supply companies began to scan documents as
bitmap page images. The application is programmed to automatically create a hard copy
along with a header page providing the applicant's address, which may be sent or faxed.
Several libraries in wealthier nations disseminate scanned publications through the Internet
using the "Ariel" software suite. A computer with Internet access and the Ariel application
installed may receive and transfer electronic information to and from other libraries having
the Ariel software installed. Developed in the late 1980s, the ADONIS system is an image-
based document delivery system.

An economically feasible electronic document delivery system has been established

as a result of the availability of the vast majority of peer-reviewed research journals in
electronic format, inexpensive article-scanning technology, and enhanced electronic
distribution methods. The bulk of secondary services that were formerly accessible via CD-
ROM or online search services may now be accessed via the Internet, where the publisher's
website is linked to the journals. Numerous Internet-based document delivery systems
already enable users to download full-text publications from their websites or get them as
email attachments. The majority of electronic publishers and aggregators, such as OCLC,
Blackwell, OVID, etc., offer full-text articles on their websites. Some suppliers charge per
journal access, while others demand an annual price for unlimited access. A user desiring to
send an item can input a credit card number, select a delivery mode (postal, UPS, fax, email,
etc.), and indicate whether the item is urgent (with a rush order fee attached.).

Some of the significant Web-based document delivery services are:

Uncover http://uncweb.carl.org/uncover/subtitle.html
Articles in Physics http://ojps.aip.org/
Bioline Publications http://bioline.bdt.org.br/journals
BioMedNet http://biomednet.com/library/
Chemporthttp://www.chemport.org/
ScienceDirect http://www.scienceDirect.com/
OCLC http://www.oclc.org/
Northern Light http://www.northernlight.com/

WEBLOGS AND RSS

A weblog is a frequently updated website produced by an individual in a

chronological diary format using specialised software (Winship). A blog can be a highly
personal or collaborative endeavour. Blogs are simple to develop and maintain, even for
those with minimal technological knowledge. The technique is as straightforward as writing
an email and requires no HTML code or file transfer. One need not even host the file on a
server. Logging on to the site, filling out a web form, and clicking a button are all required
for blog publication. The software for this purpose typically provides templates with various
designs from which to choose and allows users to create blogs in only minutes. Modern
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weblogs are not restricted to text alone. One can submit photographs, audio, video,
PowerPoint presentations, and Excel spreadsheets, among other file types. In general,
librarians utilise weblogs for three reasons: to keep themselves current, to inform users about
library resources and services, and to guide users to relevant resources. Numerous libraries in
the U.S. and the U.K. use blogs extensively on their websites. Weblogs can fulfil the
following objectives for libraries:

• Connect users with pertinent resources

• Inform them of local and national happenings.
• Provide information on the most recent library resources and services
• Utilize as a venue for collecting user feedback

To maintain the attention of the users, the blogs must be regularly updated. Utilizing
one of the free web-based platforms, such as Blogger at http://www.blogger.com, is the
simplest method to create a blog.

The majority of blogging software has RSS, often known as Real Simple Syndication
or Rich Site Summary. It enables the automatic collection and transmission of blog posts or
news website headlines to other websites. Weblogs automatically generate XML code
(Extensible Markup Language). The reader can subscribe to the blog's material using the
XML components referred to as feeds, which enables the delivery of the content to the
subscriber without the reader having to go to the blog's website. The user is required to select
the blogs or sources from which the newsfeed will be gathered and broadcast. When a user
logs in, the most recent headlines are shown. This newsfeed gathering and transmission is
carried out by a piece of equipment called an aggregator or newsfeed collector. The
aggregator examines the subscribing sites on a regular basis and saves all new content in a
folder for the user's review. An aggregator can be a PC programme installed programme like
Feed Reader (http://www.feedreader.com) or a web-based service accessible from anywhere
like Bloglines (http://www.bloglines.com). New technology called RSS will revolutionise
how all content on the Internet is received and digested. RSS feeds are frequently utilised
privately rather than for library reasons. Libraries may look into the possibilities of
integrating RSS feeds into their websites to keep users informed on topics of general interest.

1.6 SUMMARY
Libraries have been able to handle crucial challenges with the assistance of emerging
technology, such as increasing ease and speed, providing a variety of information formats
that overlap with one another, extending working hours, and reaching a bigger audience. In
the context of developing Internet technology, we talked about library services that are
accessible over the internet. We looked at how a well-designed website for a library may aid
in the institution's ability to communicate with folks regardless of their location. Users are
able to access information resources and services whenever they want and from wherever
they are located in the world thanks to this feature. In addition to that, we investigated the
doorways and entrances of the library. It is not beyond the realm of possibility for library
portals to perform the role of principal hub for all accessible databases, which would lead to
an increase in database utilisation.

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 Additionally, librarians utilise weblogs as a means of disseminating information to
patrons on the resources and services offered by the library. In addition, visitors can find
relevant websites using the links provided by these blogs. RSS is another tool that may be
utilised by libraries to keep their customers updated about topics that are of general interest.
Technology has also made it possible for libraries to provide patrons "virtual" services, one
of which is virtual reference. Virtual reference is one of these services. Libraries may be able
to provide services that are more user-centric by providing a range of Internet-based services,
and they may also reach a far larger audience.
1.7 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1 Commodity 7. Website
2 Current Awareness Services 8. Subject specific search engine
3 CAS 9. Really Simple Syndication
4 Document 10. Chronological
5 H P Luhn 11. World Wide Web
6 Demand 12. NISCAIR

1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

• Write a detailed note on the Alert Services.

• Explain the different types of Internet Services.
• Discuss the different types of Current Awareness Services (CAS).
1.9 REFERENCES
Amitabha, C. (2017). Elements of Information Organization and Dissemination, Chandos
Publishing.
Balas, J. L. (2003). Here a Blog, There a Blog, Even the Library has a Web Log. Computers
in Libraries, 23(10).
Cohen, S. M. (2002). RSS for Non-Techie Librarians.
Connor, J. H. (1967). Selective dissemination of information: a review of the literature and
the issues. The Library Quarterly, 37(4), 373-391.
Desale, S. K. (2009). Resource Sharing and Document Supply in India: INFLIBNET and the
Experience of JCC@UGC-INFONET at the University of Pune. Interlending and
Document Supply, 37(4), 208–214.
Elhence, D. (1976). Selective dissemination of information: Training Course in
Documentation and Information Services (Oct. 18–Dec. 13, 1975): Course Material,
INSDOC, New Delhi, 1976, Paper IV. 7.
Franco, A. (2003). Gateways to the Internet: Finding Quality Information on Internet.
Library Trends, 52(2).
Gillet, J. (2008). Sharing Resources, Networking and Document Delivery: The INIST
Experience. Inter-lending and Document Supply, 36(4), 196-202.
Guha, B. (1983). Documentation and information: Services, techniques and systems.

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Honghai, G.C. (2019). An Analysis of Current Awareness Services and Selective
Dissemination of Information in University of Jos Library. Villanova Journal of Science,
Technology and Management, 1(1).
Ivanovskii, A. A., &Tkacheva, E. V. (2018). Technological Features of the Renewed System
of Selective Dissemination of Information in the Library for Natural Sciences of the
RAS. Bibliotekovedenie [Library and Information Science (Russia)], 67(5), 513–522.
doi:10.25281/0869-608x-2018-67-5-513-522
Li Li, L. (2014). Academic and scholarly search in academic
libraries.doi.org/10.1016/C2013-0-18352-3
Linda, F., Margaret, B., & Heidi, N. (2012). A brief history of international interlibrary
lending and document supply (2nd ed.). doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-84334-625-8.50002-0.
Linda, F., Margaret, B., & Heidi, N. (2014). An introduction to global resource
sharing.doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-84334-625-8.50001-9
Luhn, H. P. (1958). A Business Intelligence System. IBM Journal of Research and
Development, 2(4), 314-319.
Luhn, H.P. (1961). Selective dissemination of new scientific information with the aid of
electronic processing equipment. American Documentation, 12, 131.
McGrath, M. (2009). Inter-lending and Document Supply: A Review of the Recent
Literature. Interlending and Document Supply 37(4), 199-207.
Ranganathan, S.R. (1963).Documentation and its Facets: Being a symposium of seventy
papers by thirty-two authors. Bombay: Asia Publishing House.
Strauss, L. J., Strauss, L. J., Shreve, I. M., & Brown, A. L. (1972). Scientific and technical
libraries: Their organization and administration. New York: Becker & Hayes.

Lesson -5.5
INFORMATION PRODUCTS: NEWS LETTER, IN-
HOUSE JOURNAL, STATE OF THE ART REPORT,
TREND REPORTS ETC.

Dr. Gururaj S. Hadagali

Associate Professor
Department of Library and Information Science
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 Karnatak University, Dharwad – 580 003
Karnataka State
Email: [email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Newsletters
1.4 House Journals
1.5 Trade and Product
1.6 Reviews And Related Publications
1.7 State-Of-The-Art Reports
1.8 Statistical Reviews
1.9 Trend Reports
1.10 Technical Digests
1.11 Summary
1.12 Answers to In-Text Questions
1.13 Self-Assessment Questions
1.14 Reference

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The main objectives of this lesson are to:
• Recognize the types and qualities of various information products;
• Recognize the significance of information products such as newsletters, house journals,
and trade and product bulletins;
• Describe the function of house journals and newsletters in enhancing an organization's
reputation;
• Determine the issues with these information products' bibliographical control; and
• Understand how technology has affected commercial organisations including
manufacturers, distributors, and others who produce, use, or provide various industrial
processes, materials, or services.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
For a person to succeed and for a country to thrive and develop, access to scientific,
technical, commercial, and health-related information is essential. This promotes sustainable
development, the reduction of poverty, and environmental protection. However, the majority
of the literature that is now available in the disciplines of science, technology, health,
business, education, and others is created by experts for experts and cannot be used directly
by non-experts or potential consumers in its original form. In other words, information is not

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presented in a way that potential users who would profit from it can understand, read, and
accept. Overabundance of knowledge on a subject is another issue with effective information
use. The sheer volume of information on any given topic makes it impossible for a busy user
to choose the information they need without spending too much time and effort. As a result,
information consumers of all levels need relevant information that they can quickly
understand, digest, and apply in the context of their working environment with a certain level
of confidence and dependability. Users need information presented in a way that they can
utilise right now. In other words, information that has been condensed is needed by users at
many levels.

"Consolidated information is 'public knowledge' that has been carefully chosen, analysed,
evaluated, and possibly restructured and repackaged to serve some of the immediate
decisions, problems, and immediate needs of a defined clientele or social group, who
otherwise may not be able to effectively and efficiently access and use this knowledge as
available in a great deal of documents or in its original form. The criteria for choosing,
assessing, reorganising, and repackaging this knowledge are drawn from the target market.
the year 1981 (Saracevic and Wood). The goal of consolidated information is to be more
relevant to users, their demands and levels, the capacities and time allotted for information
absorption, and other user-related activities. In other words, information consolidation and
repackaging refers to giving the appropriate information to the appropriate person in the
appropriate format at the appropriate time.

Organizations in the business, government, and other sectors produce information

products as marketing collateral for their target markets. These goods include trade and
product bulletins, house journals, and newsletters. These publications provide the general
public with information on an organization's performance, most recent activities, and
available goods and services. These informational products' primary objective is to improve
the organization's reputation and promote its goods and services. Newsletters quickly and
effectively inform the intended audience of the organization's most recent activity.
Employees and clients are informed by house diaries about the effectiveness and
management style of the company. Trade and product bulletins, which are typically
published by manufacturers, distributors, and business publications, have two purposes.These
publications advertise the sale of the products while also providing information on numerous
characteristics of the method, material, or service. The communication patterns of industrial,
commercial, and public service organisations are significantly impacted by developments in
computer and telecommunication technologies. Through electronic information products like
e-newsletters, company websites on the Internet, and e-commerce, they are promoting
themselves.

1.3 NEWSLETTERS

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 A newsletter is a periodic publication that is one or more pages long, issued in print,
electronic, or any other media, that contains recent news or information of interest to a
specific or niche audience. Organizations frequently send newsletters to their subscribers or
members.

History of Newsletters

Newsletters, which circulated news for general consumption in the 1600s and early
1700s, are the ancestors of modern newspapers. The earliest printed newsletters or
newssheets were distributed throughout the commercial hubs of Europe and were frequently
referred to as corantos, courants, occurrents, or intelligencers. These newsletters covered
business news as well as information on other public events that would be of interest to
bankers and business owners. Then came newsletters, and finally news sheets. In the 1500s,
official newssheets first appeared. Written notes, known as NotizieScritte, were displayed
throughout Venice's public spaces. On payment of a gazetta coin, they might be read. This
custom gave rise to the term "gazette," a traditional nickname for early newspapers. The
Avisa Relation or Zeitung appears to have been the first news source to be regularly
published. This news newspaper began appearing every week in Strasbourg in 1609 and then
moved to Germany. The Boston News-Letter, which later evolved into a newspaper, was the
first newsletter to publish in the United States in 1704. The majority of newsletters actually
died out in the 1800s, after having prospered in the 1700s along with newspapers.

In the early 1900s, newsletters allegedly made a resurgence because enterprises and
industries desperately needed a specialised information medium, which newsletters provided.
The first one was "Babson's Reports," an investing advice newsletter, which debuted in 1904.
The Kiplinger Letter came next in 1923. The most frequently read business forecasting
publication worldwide is still this newsletter. Corporate newsletters exploded into popularity
in the 1930s. In 1934, Telecommunications Reports (a newsletter for the telecommunications
sector) grabbed the lead, and a number of others soon followed. Newsletters of all kinds,
from farming to fashion, have become commonplace. The first newsletter devoted to other
newsletters, Newsletter on Newsletters, was published in 1964.

Various Newsletters

• R&D Organisations (National and International);

• Associations (National and International);
• Government Organisations;
• Public Sector Undertakings;
• Private Institutions; and
• Academic Institutions, etc.

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a)Functions / Purpose

Newsletters are periodicals with a straightforward layout that deliver quick information to a
specific target. The newsletters may be produced quickly, easily, and affordably. The
majority of organisations publish newsletters to quickly and effectively inform their target
audience of news about their activities.

The Newsletter serves as a medium to:

• Publicise or promote products and services of the institutions;

• Announce current and forthcoming events like conferences, seminars or workshops; and
• Communicate information about social and cultural activities, personne information,
• appointments, promotions, transfers, retirements, obituaries, etc. of the concerned
institution(s).

b) Contents

The purpose of a newsletter determines its purpose-based content. Different newsletter

formats contain a range of information. One such example is the International Sorghum and
Millet Newsletter by ICRISAT, which provides information about the organization's
programmes, grants and fellowships, awards and rewards, upcoming conferences, seminars,
and workshops, as well as news from research institutions, reports on seminars, conferences,
and other events, as well as technical and scientific articles (International Crops Research
Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics). Associations publish newsletters that include the president's
reports and remarks, association announcements, job and personnel news, and other news of
interest to the membership, such as the IASLIC Newsletter from the Association of Special
Libraries and Information Centers. Industrial businesses can publish two different sorts of
newsletters, one for internal distribution and the other for external distribution. The
newsletter intended for external distribution includes information on new goods and services,
celebrates organisational successes, and announces consumer discounts and perks, among
other things. While the one intended for internal distribution includes news about the staff,
such as promotions, transfers, weddings, etc., announcements of welfare measures for the
staff, social and cultural activities of the staff, including sports, etc., and occasionally well-
liked articles, short stories, jokes, etc. by the staff.

c) Electronic Newsletters

Electronic newsletters are those that are published and distributed electronically using
computer networks. E-newsletters first appeared in the 1990s and have since become widely

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available. People who willingly subscribe to them online receive these through email.
Initially, web page links were included in e-newsletters as a way for website owners to entice
readers to visit their pages. However, a number of studies on the use of e-newsletters
revealed that readers preferred to access material through their email accounts rather than
websites. Thus, e-newsletters developed into whole magazines with a wealth of content.
Businesses and professionals are increasingly using e-newsletters to market their goods
because they think these advertisements are more effective and more precisely targeted than
banner ads. The Association of Research Libraries (ARL), through its yearly "Directory of
Electronic Journals, Newsletters, and Academic Discussion Lists"
(http://www.arl.org/scomm/edir/archive.html), tracked the expansion of electronic
publications from 1991 to 2001. This directory projected the continuous dominance of
Internet publishing for scholarly as well as business communication and demonstrated the
incredible rise of e-serials over this ten-year period.

d) Benefits of e-mail Newsletters:

• Email newsletters are practical and can be sent right to a user's information desk.
• Email newsletters provide timely information and real-time delivery as features.
• Email newsletters keep readers up to date and informed; and
• Email newsletters receive a lot of emotional reactions from users. As they arrive in their
inboxes, users engage with them frequently. On occasion, if they find them worthwhile,
they may send them to colleagues or co-workers.

1.4 HOUSE JOURNALS

An industrial, commercial, public service, or other comparable organisation may
publish a house newspaper on a regular basis to inform the public about its operations and
management style. It also acts as a tool for gauging audience opinion and response to
performances. The people who have social control over an organisation are its members of
staff, clients, distributors, retailers of its goods, shareholders, and the government. The house
journal is a type of promotional literature since it aims to advertise and promote the
organization's goods and services or to project and improve the parent company's image to its
clients or staff. The home journal serves the following purposes:

• Enhance business and labour relations

• Keep consumers and staff in mind
• Act as a helpful forum for expressing management's viewpoints
• Promote and improve the organization's and the management's reputations among its
clients and employees;
• Offer a news service that is impartial.

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a) History of House Journals

Household notebooks date back to the Chinese Han Dynasty circa 200 B.C. These
internal messages were sent out to update the court. The Tang Dynasty in the seventeenth
century saw them develop into official gazettes, and they were the forerunners of modern
home journals. The NCR Factory News, the first corporate-sponsored internal journal in the
United States, was started in 1887 by National Cash Register Co. President John H Patterson.
NCR World is the still the name under which it is printed. For his publication, Patterson was
the first to adopt the term "house organ."

The Travelers Record, published on March 1, 1865, by Travelers Insurance

Companies in Hartford, Connecticut, was the first recognised external house newspaper.
Even though the name and substance of this publication have changed numerous times, it still
exists today. In 1965, this external house journal—now known as "Protection"—celebrated
its 100th birthday.

The Planters Chronicle, the first domestic periodical in India, was produced in 1905
by the United Planters Association of Southern India. The house journal industry has been
growing in three ways at once: increasing readership, adding pages, and releasing new
publications for the sponsoring organization's particular interest groups. The house journals
currently represent various special interest organisations such as business, industry, labour
unions, universities, colleges, or fraternities.

b) Categories of House Journals

House journals can be divided into three main groups: internal, external, and both. In
contrast to the external house journal, which is distributed to current and future consumers of
the organisation, the internal house journal is published for employees or members of the
organisation. Combination periodicals try to accomplish both.

i) Internal House Journal

An internal house diary is published for the organization's staff and is only intended
for internal usage. Its main objective is to tell the organization's employees about the welfare
policies and the care that the company has for them. Additionally, it strives to give
employees a platform to voice their opinions and complaints. As a result, it provides a
platform for two-way communication, supporting an organization's healthy growth. The
company also emphasises in the internal house newspaper that the management genuinely
cares about the welfare of its workers.

ii) External House Journal

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 The external house journals are created for current or potential clients of an organisation
and are circulated outside the company. They can be further generally divided into three
categories based on their contents:

• The first type is an academic journal, which is essentially identical to a typical

technical journal in every way.
• The publication falls within the second category. This provides broad information that
isn't technical as well as information about the company's products without going into
technical details.
• The periodical catalogue, which resembles a commerce catalogue, is the third
category. This differs significantly from a trade catalogue in that it is published on a
regular basis under the same title, much like a periodical publication.

c) Characteristics of House Journals

The following are some frequent traits of home journals:

• They are created by the sponsoring organisation to improve its reputation and to market
its goods and services;
• The majority of the time, potential clients and workers receive them for free;
• The sponsoring organisation budgets money to provide financial assistance;
• They are produced on fine art paper and are typically colourful and appealing; They
contain no advertisements other than those for the sponsoring organisation.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1) How many categories of House Journals arethere?................................................
2) Trend report provides the information on………………………………………..
3) Who gave the statement “Trend Report is an exposition of a subject”
4) Information products helps in……………………………………………………

1.5 TRADE AND PRODUCT

Publishers, producers, and distributors of various materials, goods, or services
produce trade and product bulletins as informational products. The trade and product
bulletins essentially cover every type of material, product, or service, from books,
medications, chemicals, household items, to incredibly complex technology and equipment
used in research and industry. The main objective of this kind of trade literature is to describe

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numerous characteristics of the good, material, or service and encourage potential buyers to
buy it. Trade catalogues are another name for them.

a) History of Trade Catalogues

Booklists given out by booksellers were the first trade catalogues. It is thought that
the first book catalogue was published in 1564 by George Willer, an Ausburg bookseller.
There were 256 books in this topic list. After that, bookshops in England and other European
nations began to publish book catalogues. The next step was the release of drug catalogues
by chemists and druggists. John Tweedy of Newport published the first American drug
catalogue in 1760, and John Day and Company followed suit in 1771. Metal producers in
Birmingham and Sheffield created illustrated product catalogues in the 1780s and sent them
to their representatives in France, Italy, America, and maybe in India and Russia. The
manufacturer's name was not given in previous British trade catalogues, forcing clients to
buy the goods through intermediaries. American trade catalogues, on the other hand, included
the name of the producer to make it easier to order directly from the manufacturer. Trade
catalogues have multiplied and expanded greatly along with industry growth. An annotated
guide to early American trade catalogues is available in Lawrence B. Romaine's book A
Guide to American Trade Catalogs, ISBN 17441900.

b) Characteristics of Trade and Product Bulletins

Trade and product bulletins come in a wide range of formats, sizes, types, and
informational content. It can be as simple as a brief advertisement in a magazine or booklet
introducing a single product or as complex as a multivolume work outlining thousands of
products from a single manufacturer or a large number of manufacturers. Editors frequently
mark product advertisements as "Advertisement" to distinguish them from the feature pieces
because some of them seem exactly like magazine articles. As an illustration, consider some
of the adverts in Reader's Digest.

Trade and product bulletins typically have the following general traits:

• With the exception of trade literature detailing medications and sophisticated scientific
equipment, they typically offer application-oriented descriptive material and do not
provide theoretical specifics of the study leading to the development of the product. In
trade and product bulletins for pharmaceuticals or scientific equipment, a concise
summary of the pertinent underlying research is frequently presented, often accompanied
by charts, graphs, equations, and literature references.
• Trade bulletins are primary sources where details about a method or product are revealed
before they are revealed in any other form of literature. In fact, a large portion of the

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 information presented regarding a particular commercial product is unlikely to be
published in any other form of literature.
• Because new goods and processes are continually being produced and existing ones
improved, a lot of the information contained in these newsletters soon becomes outdated.
• These publications are typically given away without charge. Manufacturers' trade
catalogues are not dated.
• The amount of information offered for products or processes varies significantly, from
simple announcements to in-depth descriptions of the respective items.

c) The type of information usually covered is as follows:

• Background information on the business;

• Background investigation leading to product creation;
• Product details, usage, functional specifications, etc;
• Information on setup, use, and maintenance;
• Illustrations, such as pictures, plans, circuit diagrams, etc.;
• The names and addresses of the distributors and agents;
• Recommendation letters or testimonials from pleased clients; and
• The item's price is often excluded.

d) Functions of Trade and Product Bulletins

Trade and product bulletins are generally released to encourage sales, but they are
also a vital source of information for specialised users including scientists, engineers,
technologists, chemists, and healthcare professionals.

Bulletins on Trade and Products:

• Give technologists the most recent information about industrial items and assist them in
determining whether or not a particular piece of equipment, machine component, or
product is on the market.
• Assist the technologists in comparing comparable items made by different manufacturers
and choose the best option.
• Make it simple to find the names and addresses of industrial product manufacturers and
distributors.
• Act as a vital conduit for communication among manufacturers, dealers, and customers.
• The articles in these bulletins have a wider audience since they include vibrant graphics,
charts, and graphs.

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• Back issues of these journals are a valuable resource for those researching industrial
archaeology, corporate history, and technological history..

e) Trade Literature Resources

There are several places to find trade literature. the following are the primary sources:

• Ads and announcements in trade publications and technical journals.

• Journal special issues and supplements.
• Product catalogues, home magazines, and newsletters.
• Product information provided during trade shows.
• Business, product, and industry directories.
• Online business portals and company websites.

1.6 REVIEWS AND RELATED PUBLICATIONS

Any discipline's primary literature is made up of an ever-growing number of journal
articles, reports, dissertations, conference papers, and other primary literature pieces that
have been dispersed around the globe in various languages and formats. By methodically
indexing or summarising (in the case of abstracting services) items published in primary
sources and arranging them in a helpful order for identification and location of individual
items, abstracting and indexing services, catalogues, and bibliographies provide
bibliographical control of the primary literature. It has been noted that as primary literature
has expanded, so too has the volume of indexing and abstracting services. It's getting harder
and harder to even use these gadgets to scan a subject's literature. Additionally, these services
present each item with complete bibliographical information separately, disconnected from
items, except it is placed along with other similar items, through subject grouping or system
of classification

a) Characteristics
Most reviews share three crucial qualities, which are more or less universal.
Integration, assessment, and compaction of primary literature are the first three. A review
article, as opposed to an annotated bibliography or an abstracting journal, integrates each of
the articles evaluated with the body of current knowledge in the topic. One crucial feature of
a review is some level of appraisal. Some reviews—like critical reviews—are primarily and
clearly evaluative in nature, whilst others—like a descriptive review—only hint at judgement
in passing. A review should have compaction as a key component. The average number of
references referenced per page of text in the review or the proportion of primary documents'
pages to the review document's pages can both be used to estimate this. The degree of
compaction varies between review articles and lengthy treatises, as well as from field to field
within a single field. Only significant contributions with complete bibliographical details are

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brought to the reader's notice after a review has sorted, evaluated, and placed each significant
contribution into its right context. This eliminates a substantial volume of primary material.
Reviews are shown to be more effective in transmitting ideas and knowledge than research
papers because the information they convey is examined, assessed, and related to the broader
body of knowledge by a third party. Reviews do not present any original research findings.
Reviews are secondary sources of information because they draw their information from
primary sources found in other publications. Reviews hold a key position among the
numerous information items. They are frequently regarded as the highest level of information
processing on an intellectual level. Reviews in this context are "critical," "evaluative," as
opposed to simple summaries, annotated bibliographies, factual reports, or book reviews.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5) Earlier News Papers were called as…………………………………
6) Which information products which are simple in format and provide speedy
information for a definite group of audience
7) First E-Newsletters was published in
8) Who published the first company-sponsored internal house journal……………

b) Types and Functions

In general, two types of reviews can be distinguished:

i) Bibliographic; and
ii) Instructional.

The first type of reviews focuses on choosing and analysing primary material that has
been written on a subject or topic within a certain time frame (e.g. annually, biannually or
five yearly, etc.). The second category of evaluations focuses on a specific technical or
scientific issue and offers a solution. Numerous reviews integrate the bibliographic and
educational functions into one; the percentage varies depending on the review's goal and
target audience.

Reviews perform two major functions:

i) Historical or subject related functions; and

ii) Contemporary or user related functions.

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Historical functions relate to the development of a subject or a topic. These functions are as
follows:

• A professional assessment of the material that has been published and the selection of the
works that merit preservation.
• Gathering data from diverse sources and placing it in the correct context.
• Compaction of existing knowledge, or the removal of previously known information in
favour of solely extracting new information from a variety of sources.
• The substitution of one document for numerous dispersed ones. sometimes serving as the
written record in place of the original documents.
• Suggestions for additional investigation. Reviews identify topics for more research by
critically analysing the state-of-the-art in a subject or topic.
• Determination of a new discipline. Reviews that include a variety of works may reveal
the emergence of a new field.

Contemporary or user related functions of reviews, are functions which are beneficial to
individual user. These functions are as follows:

• Current Awareness Function: Assists people in staying current on events in their own
field of study or a related one without having to sift through a tonne of primary source
literature.
• Informed Notification Function: In reviews, the most important contributions are
highlighted along with complete bibliographical information.
• Support for additional literature searches: Reviews with rich bibliographies can be used
as a jumping off point for more recent material that hasn't yet been addressed in reviews.
• Tutorial Function: Reviews help students learn new concepts and professionals and
researchers continue their education and get a general understanding of a subject outside
of their area of expertise.Inspiration: Reviews provide ideas and suggestions for further
research work.
• Comments: Reviews give an indication of a researcher's own published work because
each primary source is assessed and chosen for inclusion in the review by a subject
matter expert.
• Encourage Cross-Fertilization of Ideas: Reviews in a specialist's related fields of study
encourage the cross-fertilization of ideas and the development of new fields of study.

1.7 STATE-OF-THE ART REPORTS

These are the reviews that lack the broad scope and historical perspective that are typical of
regular "critical" reviews. Their primary goal is to represent the current and most recent state
of a situation, which may involve a technology, its application or its effects, etc. These
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impartial reports serve primarily as a tool for current awareness and are more timely than
traditional reviews. Modern reports are frequently produced as informal reports that are
created on demand, targeted at a small audience, and sold for a premium price in order to
acquire this currency. These reports quickly become outdated.
The majority of the cutting-edge reports are generated in the business and commerce
domains and on technological subjects.

a) State-of-the-Art of a Technology

These reports summarise, contrast, and assess the developments, properties, and/or
application of a certain technology, technological product, or technological process.
Depending on the users and the intended purpose, the breadth and emphasis vary. These
publications typically focus on a technology's advantages over others.

Technical and Engineering aspects: focused on technical professionals in general and

engineers in particular. These reports outline the new technology's technical specifications.
Such reports are helpful for a number of objectives, including technology design, providing
purchase recommendations, comparing uses with those of alternative technologies, and
staying current with technology.

Use aspects: geared toward a technology's users. These publications focus on the properties,
prerequisites, and usage economics of a certain technology. It provides details about a certain
technology's relative dependability, durability, operating circumstances, etc.

Management aspects: geared toward decision-makers at a higher level, such as government

representatives, planners, members of special delegations, and those in charge of allocating
funds for a particular technology. Such papers focus on the impact (social, environmental,
economic, etc.), strategic requirements, political concerns, global issues, experiences of other
nations in the application of technology in comparable circumstances, etc.
1.8 STATISTICAL REVIEWS
In these reviews, statistical correlations are shown over a wide range of technological,
financial, demographic, and other fields. Such evaluations are explicitly written and assessed
to demonstrate the interdependence of trends, circumstances, and outcomes. These reviews
may be published independently or in conjunction with any of the state-of-the-art reports
described above. Decision-makers are typically briefed using these data reports.

a) Methods of Evaluation

Determining the intrinsic value, authenticity, and dependability of the information

sources chosen for consolidation as well as the IAC product itself are all part of the review
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process. It is impossible to specify a single set of criteria for the selection of sources for
information consolidation that covers all types of products for all types of users. Different
IAC products with various purposes call for various requirements. On the other hand, the
selection of information sources for information consolidation as well as the evaluation of
IAC products can be done here using commonly accepted criteria that are used to assess the
merits of a scientific publication. These criteria are:

• Selecting peer reviewed publications; and

• User evaluation of information services.

Criteria in peer review Scientific and technological publications have long been used to
evaluate excellent work and reject work with little or no merit. The selection of S&T sources
for information aggregation can be done using an adaptation of these criteria. User
evaluations of information services are the other requirement. These standards can be used to
identify and assess information consolidation products that are already on the market. There
are five basic kinds of criteria that users use to assess information services, according to a
number of user studies. These are as follows:

i) Quality of Information, including Information precision and accuracy.

Availability of reliable sources
newness of the information.
ii) Scope of the Service/Product, including accuracy of the information.
covering of a subject or issue in its entirety.
iii) Appropriateness of Information, including
• satisfying the demand for information
• addressing the issue of information overload.
• Adapting to the language and intelligence levels that the consumers themselves
can handle.
• The service or product's level of opinions and unnecessary, irrelevant
information.
iv) Ease of Access of Service/Product, including
• Receiving the service takes time.
• Usability of the information received, or the
service's or product's format.
• It took work to receive a response.
• Support is given for using and accessing the
service or product.
v) Cost of the Service/Product, including
• The price paid directly for the service.

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 • Indirect costs associated with using and accessing the service as well as
information post-processing.
• Due of reviews' dual, historical and educational responsibilities, particular
evaluation criteria must be used in addition to the generic evaluation criteria
indicated above. These criteria are as follows:
• Completeness: The extent to which the topic is addressed in both the subject's
literature and other sources.
• Perspective: The degree of suitability for both a particular subject and a
particular audience.
• Analysis: The analysis's thoroughness, depth, and scope; the extent to which
information from various sources has been compiled, and the extent to which
analysis has been evaluated.
• Synthesis: The extent of replacing earlier information and literature on the issue,
the degree of evaluation used in synthesis, the degree of compaction and links
drawn
• Value added: Identification of developing specialties, the presentation of fresh
theories or hypotheses, and recommendations for future research, etc.
• Utility: The extent to which a review can fulfil the aforementioned various
purposes.
1.9 TREND REPORTS
Trend reports offer a methodical overview of recent advancements and ongoing
research trends in a field of study. The goal of trend reports is to succinctly summarise the
key trends in a certain field of study using an analysis of literature on the subject published
during a specific time period, ranging from two to five years or more. IAC's trend reports are
a very helpful tool for decision-makers and subject specialists. These papers also give
students and researchers a place to start as they look for new areas of research to pursue. The
definition of a trend report is given by Gopinath as follows: "A trend report is an exposition
of a subject, giving an account of the general direction of research in the field, based on a
review of the papers on current developments. The trend report service is intended to aid the
specialised reader in making the most of his time and in maintaining the potential for future
research. A documentalist's training prepares him to do this service successfully. However, it
is essential that the experts work together.

Need
• Trend reports give a broad overview of the most recent advancements and research
trends in a specific field of study. Trend reports are useful:
• Researchers should stay current on new advancements in their field of study, identify
new areas for research, and use their time and energy more effectively;
• Those who organise events, make decisions, and receive funds for study; and

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• Students should choose a topic for research.

The work involved in the preparation of trend report can be demarcated into three planes of
work namely:

i) The Idea Plane

ii) The Verbal Plane
iii) The Notational Plane

1) The work in Idea Plane involves:

• A detailed description of the topic, breadth, and duration of coverage, as well as the
categories of documents to be covered;
• Gathering pertinent information from sources;
• Evaluation of the sources of information;
• Recognizing and extracting the key messages that information sources communicate;
• Organization of the information that was extracted into a useful order; and
• Incorporating the retrieved data into a text that is organised.

2) The work in the Verbal Plane involves:

• The use of vocabulary devoid of homonyms and synonyms; and

• Other elements that affect how thoughts are expressed in a language.

3) The work in the Notational Plane involves:

• Preserving the logical order in which ideas were reached in the Idea Plane, and for this
reason;
• Creation and application of a notational system to organise the text.

The users for whom the product is intended will determine the optimal order, nevertheless.
The text and language utilised should be tailored to the concerned users' intellectual capacity,
comprehension, and needs.

A trend report as a final product contains:

• Title page;
• Content page;
• concise informative abstract;
• chapter-by-chapter text body;
• Expressive index;
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• Bibliography of references; and
• An appendix, with a glossary of technical words are all included..
1.10 TECHNICAL DIGESTS
Any industry's development depends on having access to the most recent marketing,
commercial, and technological information. To stay current with new developments and to
address technical issues related to the operation and management of an industrial
organisation, industry personnel need information about new goods, machinery, production
processes, management approaches, etc. However, technical workers and industry executives
find it challenging to keep up with the most recent advancements in product designs,
manufacturing processes, management techniques, etc. in their area of interest due to the
exponential growth and proliferation of S&T literature in a variety of sources. Technical
digest service is offered to satisfy their information needs. An information service called
Technical Digest analyses, rates, compiles, and disseminates the most recent technical
information to managerial, technical and operator level personnel in the industry.

a) Definition and Meaning

A digest is defined as "to condense a work of literature or a body of information into a brief
summary form, including the vital heart of the topic" in Webster's Dictionary.”
A digest is a written work that has been carefully condensed, frequently by someone other
than the original author. In general, it is longer than the synopsis and occasionally includes
headers and subheadings for ease of rapid reference. Guha asserts that a digest is essentially a
more thorough representation of a text, rewritten for a reason or to satisfy the needs of a new
group of individuals, but intended to serve as a full replacement for the original material.
Digests are typically periodicals that compile works from a variety of sources and arrange
them in a logical sequence.

A digest can be created on demand and tailored to a specific topic, or it can be published
often at regular intervals or in advance of demand.

The words "compendium" and/or "epitome" are interchangeable with the word "digest." The
definition of the digest is thus "Body of knowledge or written material, incorporating
information consolidation via condensation." It is a collection of data that was compiled from
many sources, organised methodically and systematically, and categorised under headings
and subheadings. It is prepared either on demand or in advance for easy access, with a
subject range that includes anything from literature to science and technology.”

The only difference between a technical digest and a digest is the topic matter. Technical
digests typically cover topics related to science, technology, and management. Technical

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digests are a result of the condensation process, claims Guha. It serves an accretion purpose.
It may be addressed to different user groups, such as managers, technicians, operators, etc.”

b) Need and Functions

Technical digests are valuable informational resources for managerial and technical industry
personnel. Managers and technical staff in industries can learn about technical expertise and
other material that is useful for their work by reading technical digests.
Different forms of information are needed by various industrial worker classifications.
Technical, commercial, and marketing knowledge that is focused on the product is needed by
managerial staff. A good technical digest not only helps the management make decisions
faster, but it also saves time.

Technical employees and operators need knowledge about new concepts and procedures that
can aid them in their day-to-day work. Technical digests targeted at this user group to
successfully fill their information needs.

Technical digests serve following functions:

• Keep all employees, regardless of level, up to date with new advancements in their fields.
• To keep them informed of current advancements in their fields of expertise, provide
timely, reliable information.
• The dissemination of cutting-edge technical knowledge; and
• Acting as a productive conduit between research and production facilities.
Categories
The following degrees of industry workers are taken into consideration when creating various
sorts of digests:
• Top Management
• Middle/Supervisory Management
• Operator Level Personnel
The digest for top management should cover information on the following topics:
• Corporate Management/Planning
• Finance
• Production
• Research and Development
• Personnel
• Sales
• Public Relations
• External Regulations

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Digests for middle/supervisory management should contain information, which can help
them in:
• Maximising the use of installed capacity;
• New production methods/techniques that may increase the usage of labourers and
facilities for production in order to increase output;
• Decision-making and problem-solving.
Digests for workers/operators should contain information, which they can easily understand
and put to use. Digests for workers/operators should help them in:
• Solving routine technological issues;
• A simulation of the modernization of current industrial processes and methods;
• Little adjustments to production/processing methods that result in significant industry
savings; and
• Automation of current work

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
9) First Trade Catalogues was published by………………………………………
10) The information product that provides an exposition of a subject, giving an
account of the general direction of research in the subject, based on a review of
the documents on current developments is
……………………………………………
11) Trend Report is useful for which category of the users………………………
12) Which information product information on new products, machinery,
manufacturing processes, management techniques,
etc………………………………

1.11 SUMMARY
This lesson describes information products for the target audience, such as
newsletters, house journals, trade and product bulletins published by commercial, industrial,
government, or similar organisations. Additionally, it provides a brief overview of the
background, purposes, varieties, and traits of house journals, trade, and product bulletins, as
well as newsletters. The communication patterns of industrial and commercial organisations
have evolved as a result of developments in computer and telecommunication technologies,
as this Unit demonstrates. It briefly outlines how these organisations are advertising
themselves using digital information products including e-newsletters, company websites,
and online shops.

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 It has been noted that the non-use or relatively low use of existing literature in the
fields of science and technology, health, business, education, and related fields is not only
due to the excess of literature and dispersal of information across sources, but also because
the information contained in them is not packaged in a way that is useful to the various
groups of users. Users with varying skill levels need relevant information that they can
quickly understand, process, and use with a certain level of assurance and dependability
within the confines of their working environment. In other words, customers need compiled
data that is packaged in a format they can utilise right away. IAC has released a variety of
products in response to this requirement. Some of these IAC products are intended for
specialists like scientists, engineers, government representatives, planners and policy makers,
managers in business and industry, etc.; whilst others are intended for a wider population like
farmers, labourers, technicians, etc. We covered four specialist-focused IAC products in this
unit, including Reviews, State-of-the-Art Reports, Trend Reports, and Technical Digests.
This unit explains the requirements, features, and purposes of these products; lists the
fundamental procedures involved in their production; and covers how to assess and provide
successful customer support for these products to the intended audience.
1.12 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1 Three
2 Recent developments and current research trends in a subject field
3 Gopinath
4 Delivering the material for the target audience
5 Corantos
6 News Letter
7 1990
8 John H Patterson

9 George Willer
10 Trend Reports
11 Special group of readers
12 Technical Digests
1.13 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1.What exactly is an online newsletter? What makes it superior than a print newsletter?
2.Differentiate between the internal and external home journals and describe their respective
purposes.
3.What are the functions of trade and product
4.Describe what you mean by consolidated information. Describe the values and advantages
of information consolidation.
5.Recognize the differences between reviews, cutting-edge reports, and trend reports.

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1.14 REFERENCES
Beach, Mark (1995). Editing Your Newsletter: How to Produce an Effective Publication
Using Traditional Tools and Computers. 4th ed. Cincinnati: F&W Publications.
Borowick, J. N. (1996). Technical Communication and Its Applications. 2nd ed. New Jersey,
Ohio: Prentice Hall.
Fjallbrant, Nancy (1997). Scholarly Communication: Historical Development and New
Possibilities. IATUL Conference on ‘ Scholarly Communications in Focus’, Tradheim,
Norway. 1997. (http://www.iatul.org/conferenceproceedings/).
Guha, B. (1983). Documentation and Information – Services, Techniques and Systems. 2nd
ed. Calcutta: World Press.
Houghton, Bernard (1975). Scientific Periodicals-Their Historical Development,
Characteristics and Control. London: Clive Bingley.
Naidu, Guruswamy N. (1994). Information Newsletters, House Bulletins, In-House
Communications.Revised by Kanungo, Neena Talwar. In: MLIS-04, Block-03,Unit9.
New Delhi:IGNOU.
Saracevic, Tefko (1985). Course on Information Consolidation: A Handbook for Education
and Training in Analysis, Synthesis and Repackaging of Information. Paris: UNESCO.
(PGI- 80/WS/14).
Seetharama, S. (1997). Information Consolidation and Repackaging. New Delhi: EssEss
Publication.
Subramanyam, K.(1980). Trade Catalogues: Technical Literature. In: Kent, A. (et.al.)
(eds.). Encyclopaedia of Library and Information Science. New York: Marcel
Dekker.Vol. 30, pp.190-98.

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UNITT–1 FUNDAMENTALS OF UDC

LESSON 1

TITLE OF THE LESSON

Dr. Aditi Rao
Assistant Professor
Campus of Open Learning
[email protected]
STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2Introduction
1.3 Genesis and Development of UDC
1.3.1 Development ofUDC(1919-1975)
1.3.2 Other Editions
1.3.3 Universal Decimal Classification Complete Edition
1.3.4 Main Features
1.4 Structure of UDC
1.4.1 Organization of Main Tables
1.4.2 Types of the Tables
1.4.3 Common Auxiliaries
1.4.4 Special Auxiliaries
1.4.5 Citation Order
1.4.6 FilingOrder
1.4.7 Notation and Layout
1.4.8 QualitiesofNotationusedinUDC
1.4.9 Alphabetical Index
1.4.10 Application in Automated System
1.5 Classification of Simple Documents
1.6 Classification of Compound Documents
1.6.1 Plus Sign (+)
1.6.2 Extension Sign (/)
1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Answers to In-text Questions
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions / Titles

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1.11 References
1.12Suggested Readings
1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

This lesson introduces you to genesis and development of UDC and some examples of
simple and compound documents with their appropriate class number.
After studying this lesson, you should be able to know about:
• Basic / fundamental knowledge about UDC
• Genesis and development of UDC
• Its structure, principles and organization; and
• How to prepare the class number for simple and compound documents.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Classification of knowledge is very important especially in the age

ofknowledge explosion and electronic environment. Knowledge is growing at
anexponential rate and without organizing the knowledge, it is very difficult to
makeuse of that knowledge. Classification is the only technique to organize
knowledgesystematically.Inotherwords,classificationisatechniqueforsystematicarrange
mentofknowledge.Classificationisnecessarytounderstandvarioussubjectsintheirproperp
erspectiveandtocorrelateonesubjectwiththeotherinso for as their proximity is
concerned, library classification in as essence hasdrawn many of its principles from
various philosophical schemes. However, thephysical nature of books, and the purpose
the classification is supposed to serve
inlibrariesnecessitatedcertainadjustment.AsSayersviews"thefoundationoflibraryisthebo
ok,thefoundationoflibrarianshipisclassification.Itisnotpossibletorun a library without
classification. Library classification is not an end. Itis only a means to an end.
Theuniversaldecimalclassification(UDC)istheworld'sforemostmultilingualclass
ificationschemeforallfieldsofknowledge,asophisticatedindexingand retrieval tool. It was
adapted by Paul Otletand Nobel prize winner Henri LaFontaine from the Decimal
Classification of Melvil Dewey, and first published (inFrench) between 1905 and
1907. Since then, it has been extensively revised anddeveloped, and has become a
highly flexible and effective system for
organizingbibliographicrecordsforallkindsofinformationinanymedium(itiswellsuitedto
multi-media information collections). It is structured in such a way that
newdeveloped,andnewfieldsofknowledgecanbereadilyincorporated.Thecodeitselfis
independent of any language or script (consisting of Arabic numeralsand common

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punctuation marks), and the accompanying class descriptions haveappeared in many

translated versions, UDC is in worldwide use, and has
beenpublishedinwholeorinpartin40differentlanguages.
UDC is used in bibliographic services, documentation centers and librariesin
around 130 countries world-wide. Library collections indexed by UDC can
befoundinlibraryOPACsanddatabases.Theinternationalfederationforinformationand
documentation (FID) managed UDC from its creation around 1900 until the1980s
when it became clear that a more broadly based and financially
autonomousorganization was needed to administer and exploit UDC. FID, together
with thepublishers of the Dutch, English, French, Japanese and Spanish editions,
becamethefoundermembersofanewbody:theUDCconsortium(UDCC).Theconsortiumass
umed ownership of UDC on January 1992. The UDCC appoints the
UDCeditorialteamandanadvisoryboardwithinternationalmembership,tooverseetheconte
ntofUDCandcontributetoitsrevision.
1.3 GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT OF UDC
UDCclassificationsuseArabicnumeralsandarebasedonthedecimalsystem.Everynumbe
risthoughtofasadecimalfractionwiththeinitialdecimalpointomitted,which determines filing
order. For ease of reading, a UDC identifier is usuallypunctuated after every third digit.
Thus, after 61 "medical sciences" come
thesubdivisions611to619;under611"Anatomy"comeitssubdivisions611.1to611.9;under
611.1 come all of its subdivisions before 611.2 occurs, and so on; after
619Comes620.Anadvantageofthissystemisthatitisinfinitelyextensible,andwhennew
subdivisions are introduced, they need not disturb the existing allocation ofnumbers.
AllbranchesofhumanknowledgehaveaplaceinUDC andaretreatedasapart of a
balanced whole.Becauseofthenatureofthesubjects,thelistedsubdivisionsin science and
technology outweigh those of the arts and social sciences, but thesesubjects demand
different criteria, and are also properly providedfor. UDC hasbeen modified and
extended over many years to cope with the increasing output inall disciplines and is
still under continuous review so as to take account of newdevelopments.
The bibliographic enterprise envisaged by Otlet and La-Fontaine,
whichresulted in the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC) being developed in
1895,and the subsequent history of the scheme is outlined. Relationship with
DeweyDecimal Classification (DDC) from which it was derived deteriorated in the
early20thcenturyandchangesinfunding,location,andeditorshipofDuyvisfrom1929-1959
had a profound effect on the scheme's development and management.
Lloyd,Duyvis'ssuccessor,reformedtherevisionstructure,andfurthermanagementchanges
from 1975 to the present day, culminated in the formation of the
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UDCconsortiumin1992.
The Universal Decimal Classification is known by many names such
asEuropean Dewey,Brussels Classification, andtheInternational
DecimalClassification. Since it was based on the Dewey's System, it was called
ExpandedDeweyinthebeginning.Nevertheless,itisthefirsttrulyinternationalclassification
designedforbibliographicinformationanddocumentationwork-
allearliersystemswerepurelylibraryclassificationswiththepurposeofshelfarrangement.Th
ougharetrievaltool,itisequallyefficientasalibraryclassification,andtoolfororganizingothe
r entities and objects. It has become a highly flexible and effective system
fororganizingbibliographicrecordsforallkindsofinformationinanymedium,especiallymulti
mediapackages.
UDCisageneralclassificationschemeforallfieldsofknowledgeavailablein various
languages. All branches of knowledge have a place in UDC,
thoughtraditionallyitisconsideredstrongerinscienceandtechnologysubjects. Brief
History of UDC
In 1895, some system of classification was required by the then newly
established International Institute of Bibliography (IIB). It was rechristened as
International Institute for Documentation in 1914; International Federation for
Documentation in 1958; and International Federation for Information and
Documentation (FID) in 1986. FID was closed in 2000 due to financial failures. Task
of the IIB was to compile a universal bibliography, a Repertoire Bibliographique
Universal.
It needed a system for arrangement of entries in this universal bibliography- a
systematic list of technical literature published anywhere in any subject and language,
and since antiquity. This bibliography could only be in a classified orderto transcend
the language barrier. By 1921, the IIB had collected 12 million references on cards.
Two Belgians, founders of the IIB, Paul Otlet (1868-1944) and Nobel laureate Hernri
La Fontaine (1864-1943) sought permission from Melvil Dewey (1851-1931) to use
and expand Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) for arranging items in the
bibliography. They then developed an expanded and powerful classification equipped
with more details and added synthetic equipment for class- number synthesis for micro
documents. They gave dimension, depth, and flexibility to the DDC. It was credited as
the first faceted classification, a harbinger of the Colon Classification (CC) in 1933
(though S.R. Ranganathan claimed his classification independent of the UDC). It has
proved an apt classification for information analysis and retrieval, especially for highly
specific subjects in documentation work.
First edition, based on the 5th edition of DDC (1894), appeared in French

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between 1905-1907 under the title Manual de ReperoireUniversale. It comprised

33,000 classes. The 2nd edition, again in French, Classification Decimal Universale.
The 3rd German and 4th English editions were published in 1933 and 1936,
respectively. Development of the UDC has been divided into the following four
historical periods by Reyward:
French period: foundation and grammar 1895-1933
German period: Details and expansion 1933-1952
English period: Research and practice 1936-1975
International period:Technical and organizational 1990- improvement
The completed English edition, published in numerous small fascicules, took
half-a-century to publish because of alleged neglect.
1.3.1Development of UDC (1919-1975):
Throughouttheearlypartofthepresentcentury,theclassificationwascloselylinkedwit
htheDeweyDecimalClassification,andDeweyhimself,andsubsequentlyhissonGodFrey,as
wellashisassistantDorcasFellows,remainedinclosecontactwith Otlet. Godfrey Dewey
and Miss Fellows attended a congress in Geneva in1924, when an attempt was made to
reestablish a direct concordance between
thenumbersusedinthetwoclassifications.BothDewey’s,fatherandson,wereanxiousthat
the two schemes should be harmonized but Miss Fellows took the oppositeview. Her
influence gradually prevailed and by the 1930s the two schemes
weredivergingonseparatepaths.
In the 1920s, the need was felt for additional assistance in the work on the2nd
France edition of the classification. DonkerDuyvis of the Dutch Patent
OfficebecameSecretaryoftheInternationalCommitteeoftheDecimalClassification,thegov
erningbodyfortheschemesetupbyOtletin1921,andheinitiallywasresponsibleforassistingthe
developmentofthenaturalsciences.In1929,theOfficeoftheIIBwasmovedfromBrusselstoth
eHague;in1931,theInstitutebecametheInternationalInstitute for Documentation (IIB),
and in 1937, the International Federation forDocumentation (FID). On relocation in the
Netherlands, Duyvis was employed asfull-
timeeditoroftheclassification,andremainedinthatofficefrom1929-1959.
ThesecondFrencheditionwaspublishedasClassificationDecimalUniversellein1927-
1933.WorkoneditionsinGermanandinEnglishbeganin1934,andtheGermaneditionwascom
pletedin1953(Dezimalclassifikation1934-
1953).ThatinEnglishremainsunfinishedandnowisunlikelytobecompletedinthelightofrec
entpolicydiscussedbelow.
The Central Classification Committee originally consisted of the editor ofthe
UDC and the Secretary General of FID. In 1965, as the direct result of
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Lloyd'stightening up of procedures, they were joined by representatives of the

nationalcommitteesresponsibleforthevariouslanguageeditions,andinthiswayanetworkw
asbuiltupthroughthoseconcernedatnationallevelwithspecificsubjectstotheir
representatives on the Central committee (Strachan, 1990). Lloyd remained editoruntil
his retirement in 1975, by which time the Central Classification Committeehad 25
members and parts of the classification had been published in editions
ofvaryingfullnessin22languages.
1.3.2 Other Editions
Throughoutitshistory,ithasbeenmadeavailableineditionsofvarieddetails.Till 1990,
there were full, medium, and abridged editions. Full edition comprisedover 2,00,000
terms, medium had 60,000 terms (about 30 per cent of the full)
andabridgedhadupto20,000terms(about10percentofthefulledition).Inadditiontotheearlie
ravailablefull,mediumandabridgededitions,abridgedandpocketeditionsinFrench,English,a
ndSpanishwerepublishedin1998,1999,and2004,respectively.Thisformatwassubsequently
publishedinotherlanguages(likeRussianand
Croatian)also.Now,onlystandardprintedversionof67,000terms,thepocketversion(alsopubli
shedas'abridged')of4100classesandtheSpanisheditionof20,000areofficiallyavailable.Ane
wEnglishpocketeditionisunderwaybytheBritishStandards Institution (BSI), while a
multilingual pocket edition to published by the UDCConsortiumis also being.
AstandardversionoftheUDC,containing67,000classes,ismaintainedbythe UDC
Consortium and is available in a database format. It is called the
UDCMasterReferenceFile(UDC-MRF).Currently,themainlanguageofUDC-
MRFisEnglish,though31,000recordsarealsoavailableinGerman.TheUDCConsortiumhas
plans to introduce a German. The UDC Consortium has plan to introduce aGerman
translation by 2010, and translation in other languages such as Spanish,French, or
Russian also. UDC MRF database was created in 1993 inCDS/ISISsoftware. Since
then, UDC database exports (in ISO 2709), and simple text exportshave been
distributed to the users in a file format. The UDC Consortium does
notpublishordistributetheUDC-MRFinprintedFormat.TheprintedformataswellasCD-
ROMorwebeditionscomeonlyasproductsfromdifferentpublisherswhoareeithermembers
oftheUDCconsortiumorpay-publishinglicense.
Since1993,therewereanumberofeditionsinvariouslanguagesbothprintedandelectro
nic(desktopandonline)
1.3.3 UniversalDecimalClassificationCompleteEdition
ThisisfirstcompleteupdateofUDCinhardcopysince1993.DerivedfromtheMasterR
eferenceFile(MRF)fromtheUDCConsortium,thisisthenewlyrevisedCompleteEdition,cont
ainingallavailablereferencesandclassifications.

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UDC complete edition contains over 65,000 entries and comes in twovolumes:
Volume1-SystematicTables
* Alltentables
* Completeauxiliarytables
* Summaryoftheclassification
Volume2-AlphabeticalIndex
* ProvidesaccesstoUDCtables
* EnablesfastaccesstoUDCtablesthroughspeciallyconstructedindexterms
* Must be used in conjunction with volume 1
AbridgedEdition
Formerly known as the Pocket Edition, UDC Abridged Edition contains
c.4,100classesandincorporatesmajorchangestotheschemesince1999.Itincludesthenewpr
opertiestable(1k-
02)andnewandrevisedclassesformanagement,religion,population,tourism,socialwelfare,e
nvironmentstudies,biotechnologyandcinema.
UDCOnline
TheonlineversionisthecompleteeditionofUDCavailableelectronically,andwithad
ditionalfunctionality.
1.3.4 Main Features
UDC is owned, managed, maintained, and distributed by an internationalconsortium of
publishers with its headquarters in the Hague. Its editorial team comprises six Associate
Editors lead by an Editor-in-Chief and supported by the UDC's Advisory Board of over
20 members. Salient features of UDC are:

* UDC is a practical bibliographic classification, truly international in efforts and

exposition of contents. It is considered as the first faceted classification and a
synthetic classification which is able to specify minute subjects, aspects, formats
and their varied viewpoints.

* It is the first officially internationally used classification system being published in

French, German and English.

* Its notation is independent of any language or script, and its translations have
appeared in about 39 languages.
* It lays more emphasis on subject analysis and document specification.

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* Its auxiliary apparatus of relations and synthesis is quite powerful. This makes the
UDC a truly multidimensional scheme.

* It is more suitable for micro documents, electronic information and information

retrieval in online and networked databases, and websites.

* Its structure is flexible to accommodate new subjects and change citation order for
flexibility of shelf arrangement and searching.

1.3.5 Structure of UDC

UDCisstructuredaccordingtotraditionaldisciplinesofstudy butishighlyflexible to
all one for constant revision to keep pace with development
ofknowledge.TheUDCMasterReferenceFile(MRF)isupdatedyearly.UDCmostininnovat
iveandinfluentialfeatureisitsabilitytoexpressnotjustsimplesubjectsbutrelations between
subjects. This facility in added to a hierarchic structure, in whichknowledge is divided
into ten classes, then each class in subdivided into its
logicalparts,eachsubdivisionisfurthersubdividedandsoon.
The original framework setup by Dewey had, for copy right reasons, to
bemaintained and even today, apart from the empty class 4, the
firstthousandsubdivisionsofthetwoclassificationschemesremaincomparable.But the
scheme as expanded and given added facility to combine any two numbersby using the
colon. This was the great step Forword. For the first time it becamepossible to express
facets of a subject other than those that recur commonly acrossthe whole of without
enumerating the compound concept within the structure
oftheclassification.Inotherwords,simpleconceptscouldbeidentifiedintellectually,verball
y, and rotationally, permitting the combination of compounds as
requiredandwithouttheneedfortheirbeingsetoutwiththetableoftheclassification.
1.3.6 Organization of Main Tables
In this scheme of classification universe of knowledge is taken as a subdivided into 10
divisions. These divisions in similar to the Dewey's scheme. Each of the 10 divisions
are further subdivided. The 10 divisions are numbered 0-9 except 4, which class is
presently vacant. Originally class 4 was allotted for linguistics and now linguistics is
grouped under class 8 by leaving 4 blanks. The main tables in the UDC are as:

0GeneralitiesMetaphysics
.1 Philosophy.Metaphysics.Psychology.Logic.EthicsandMorals
.2 Religion.Theology
.3 SocialScience.Law.Governmentetc
.4 Philology.Linguistics.Languages(Vacant)
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.5 MathematicsandNaturalSciences
.6 AppliedSciences.Medicine.Technology
.7 TheArts.Reaerations.Entertainment.Sports
.8 Literature.Bells-Letters
.9 Geography.Biography.History
Eachmainclassisdividedintoagain10divisionsas:
00
Prolegomena.Fundamentalsofknowledgeandculture001The
scienceandknowledgeingeneral
02 Documentation
03 Semiotics,Syntactic,Semantics,Writing,Scripts,Notations,
Signsandsymbols.
004 -------
005OrganizationStudy.Methodology,AnalysisandsystematizationGenerally
006
07 ActivityandOrganizing
08 Civilization, Culture,
Progress009TheHumanities.
Again,dividedinto10subdivisionsas:
01 Prolegomena. Fundamentals of Knowledge andculture
01Bibliography.Catalogue
02 Libraries.Librarianship
03 Encyclopaedias.Dictionaries.ReferenceBooks
04 CollectionsofEssays.Offprints.Reprints.Pamphlets,Brochure
05 Periodicals.Reviews
06 Organizations Associations. Congress. Museums
07 Newspapers.Journalism
08 Polygraphies.Collectiveworks.Varia
09 Manuscripts.RareandRemarkableworks
A dot has been put after the third digit. In fact, a dot in put after
everythirddigitofthesamefacte.g.
022librarysiteandpremises.
.1 Site
.2 Buildingmaterials,protections

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.3 Planningingeneral
.4 Storagespace,shelvingstacks
.5 Readingroom.Roomsforstudy
.6 Spaceforadministrativeandaccessoryservices
.7 Lighting
.8 Heatingandventilation
.9 Variousfixturesandfittings
OtherExamples
Thisisanotherexampleofputtingthedotafterthreedigitsineachstepundersamefacet.
159.9 Psychology
159.95 HigherMentalProcesses
159.952 Attentionandinattention,concentration
.1 Conditioningfactors
.2 Varietiesofattention
.3 Physicalreactions
.4 Clearnessandstrengthofattention
.5 Scopeandduration
.6 Acquiredinattention,Failureofconcentrate

1.3.7 Types of the Tables

TherearetwokindsoftablesinUDC:
(i) The main tables, these contain the outline of the various disciplines
ofknowledge, arranged in 10 classes and hierarchically divided. They
arenumberedfrom0to9.Thistableiscalledschedules.
(ii) Auxiliarytablesincludingcertainauxiliarysigns.Thesignsareusedtolinktwoormore
numbers.Theenumerativetabledenoterecurrentcharacteristics,applicableoveraran
geofsubjectstheauxiliaryissimplyaddedattheendofthe number for the subject.
These tables are also called common auxiliariestables.
OGeneralities
000 Computerscience,knowledge&systems
001 Scienceandknowledgeingeneral
002 Documentation. Books. Writings.Authorship

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003 Semiotics, SyntacticsSemantics.Writing

004 Computerscienceandtechnology.Computing
005 Organization Study.MethodologyManagement(Revisionfrom2001)
006 Standardizationofproducts,operations, weights,measuresandtime
007 Activityandorganizing.Information.
Communicationandcontroltheorygenerally(cybernetics)
008 Civilization.Culture.Progress
009 Humanities.Artssubjectsingeneral
010 Bibliographies
020 Libraryandinformationsciences
030 Encyclopedias&booksoffacts
040 [Unassigned]
050 Magazines,journals,periodicals&serials
060 Associationsandorganizations&museums
070 Newsmedia,journalism,Massmedia&publishing
080 Quotations
090 Manuscripts&rarebooks
Philosophy
100 Philosophy
110 Metaphysics
120 Epistemology
130 Parapsychology
140 Philosophicalschoolsofthought
159.9 Psychology
1 Religion.Theology
21 NaturalTheology
22 HolyScripture.TheBible
23 DogmaticTheology
24 TheReligiousLife.PracticalTheology
25 PastoralTheology
26 TheChristianChurchingeneral
27 GeneralhistoryofChristianChurch
28 ChristianChurchesorworshipingbodies
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29 Non-ChristianReligionsandcults
2 Social Sciences
300 Socialsciences,sociology&anthropology
310 Statistics
320 Politicalscience
330 Economics
340 Law
350 Publicadministration&militaryscience
360 Socialproblems&socialservices
370 Education
380 Commerce,communications&transportation
390 Customs,etiquette&folklore
MathematicsandNaturalSciences
500 Science
510 Mathematics
510 Fundamentalandgeneralconsiderationofmathematics
511 Numbertheory
512 Algebra
514 Geometry
515.1 Topology
517 Analysis
519.1 Combinatorialanalysis.Graphtheory
520 Astronomy
530 Physics
531 Generalmechanics. Mechanicsofsolidrigidbodies
532 Fluidmechanicsingeneral.Mechanicsofliquids(hydro
mechanics)
533 Mechanicsofgases.Aeromechanics.Plasmaphysics
534 Vibrations.Acoustics
535 Optics
536 Heat.Thermodynamics
537 Electricity.Magnetism.Electromagnetism
539 Physicalnatureofmatter
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540 Chemistry
542 Practicallaboratorychemistry
543 Analyticalchemistry
544 Physicalchemistry
546 Inorganicchemistry
547 Organicchemistry
548 Crystallography
550 Earthsciences&geology
560 Fossils&prehistoriclife
570 Lifesciences;biology
580 Botany
590 Zoology
AppliedSciences.Medicine.Technology
600 Technology
610 Medicine&health
620 Engineering.Technologyingeneral
630 Agriculture
640 DomesticScience
650 Management,organization ofIndustryandcommerce
660 ChemicalIndustry.ChemicalTechnology
670 Manufacturers
680 SpecializedTrades
690 BuildingIndustry.Materials.Trades.construction
1.3.8 CommonAuxiliaries
Thecommonauxiliariesareapplicablethroughoutthevariousmainschedules or
tables. The various tables of common auxiliaries and their
connectingsymbolsaregivenbelow-
S.N. AuxiliaryTables Symbol Denoteas
(a) Additionandextensionsign Plusandstroke +and/
(b) Relationsign Colon :
(c) CommonauxiliariesofLanguage EqualSign =
(d) Commonauxiliariesoffrom Zeroinsquarebracket (0…….)
(e) CommonauxiliariesofPlace Indo-Arabicnumeralsin (1to9)
squarebracket

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(f) Commonauxiliariesof Withequalsignunder (=----)

RaceandNationality squarebracket
(g) CommonauxiliariesofTime Invertedcoma "-------"
(h) Alphabeticalandnon-U.D.C. AtoZ,I,II,III.etc. A/ZI,II,III
Numericalspecification
(i) CommonauxiliaryofPointofview Pointdoublenaught .00……
(k) Special(auxiliary) subdivisions Dash zero to dash -0/-9,.0
nine,pointzeroandApostro and'...
phe

1.3.9 SpecialAuxiliaries
The special auxiliaries are those," which express aspects are recurrent, butin more limited
subject range. They are therefore, listed only in particular sectionsofthemaintable
SpecialAux. Indicatordigit Rangeofdigits
Hyphen — -00/-009,-0/-09,-1/-9
Pointnaught .0.01/.09
Apostrophe , ,
(i) UseofHyphen(-)
Thefollowingexamplesshowtheuseofhyphen(-):
Example-
Metalboardsandstrip 669-41
Timberboards,planks,etc. 674-41
Coppersheets 669.3-41
Preventionofeyediseases 617.7-084
(ii)USEofPointNaught(.0)
Example-
Philosophyofmusic 78.01
Measurement 53.08
Structureoforganiccompounds 547.022
(i) Use ofApostrophe (,)
Example-
Preparationofacidalcoholesters

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547.29'26.07Frenchl
anguageusagespoken811.133.1'271.1andwrittenformandHeat
treatmentofquenchedmetalalloysofcobalt,iron669.14'25=156.04.

1.3.10 CitationOrder
Two or moreauxiliariescanbeaddedtoagivenclassnumber.The UDC follows the
principle of inversion that is the order of facets in the classnumber is reverse of their
arrangement on the shelves. A broader order is:
classNumber+specialauxiliaries+commonauxiliaries.Thecommonauxiliariesaretobeadd
edintheorderoftheirdecreasingspecificity,i.e.moreimportantauxiliariesare to be added
first and the least specific to be added last. Common
auxiliariesshouldbearrangedasfollowingorder-
Viewpoint Place Time Form language
.00 (1/a) "---" (0) =….

Themechanicalformulaforcitationorderisthattheauxiliarytableshouldbeaddedint
heorder1kto1c
Example-
Unemployed medical librarianship graduates in Brazil in 2010: A motion picture in German
language- 026:61-577.19(81)"2010"(084.122)=30

1.3.11 Filling Order

Theordinalvalueofusedvariousconnectingsymbolsneedstobespecifiedso that
filing of compounds of UDC numbers is easily possible. The generalintension of the
filing order in to achieve general beforespecial sequence. Thisrequires the principles of
inversion. The symbols in table 1a, the + and / (Plus andstroke) extend rather than
restrict the meaning of a number and compound numberwith these symbols’ files
before the simple number itself. Filing order is givenschematicas:
677+687TextilesandclothingIndustries
676/679Paperandpulp,Rubberandplastic,processablematerialindustry
SimpleNumber
676 PaperandpulpIndustries
: 676:382.6 PaperandpulpExports
[] 676[37] PaperandpulpIndustry, InstructionandTruancy
=676=914 PaperandpulpIndustry,(DocumentsinHindi)
(0)676(05) Journal of Paper and Pulp

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Industry(1/9)676(540)
PaperandPulpIndustryinIndia(=..)676(=96
) Paper and Pulp Industry of
Africans".."676"199" Paper and Pulp Industries in
1990'sA/Z676 NPPC
Nationalpaperandpulpcorporation
.00676.007 PaperandpulpIndustry:Manpower
- 676-78 PaperandpulpIndustry:ProtectionandSafety
.0 676 PaperandpulpIndustry:ProcessingandSafety
.1/.8676.5 WallPapers
676.7 Paperandboardwares

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

(1) Equal sign = is used for common auxiliary of ---------

(2) If 540 is written under parenthesis, it indicates forcommon auxiliary of place or
common auxiliary of forms
(3) Notation for time is written in bracket or double inverted coma or with equal sign in
parenthesis.
(4) Point double zero .00 is used for --------------

1.3.12 Notation andLayout

Thenotationalsysteminanyschemeofclassificationisofgreatsignificance.A bad
notational system decreases the value of the scheme of classification. TheUDC
notation is a mix of decimal number, punctuation signs and symbols
withpermissibleuseofalphabets,orothernon-UDCsymbols.Theuseofdecimalnotationhas
made it a truly international classification with many technical advantages. Insome
classification schemes, the notation consists of all letters, such a notation
istermedaspurenotation.Thenotationconsistingofbothlettersandnumbersistermedas mixed
notation. A pure notation cannot accommodate compound and
complexsubject,Hospitalityinfacet,
arrayandchaincannotbemaintainedinapurenotation.To overcome these problems, mixed
notation has been employed by many
aclassificationscheme.ThustheUDCusesthemixedbaseconsistingofthefollowingfivecateg
ories-
1. Romanalphabets-26(capitalandsmallletters)
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2. Indo-Arabicnumerals-10
3. Punctuationmarks;and04;and
4. Mathematicalsymbols-07
1.3.12.1 QualitiesofNotationusedinUDC
MainqualitiesofnotationinUDC are as follows:

1. Simplicity
UDCmainschedulesaredividedbased onIndo-ArabicNumeralsalone.This scheme
has mixed notation because for common auxiliaries and specialauxiliaries several
indicators and symbols were used which make the
notationmixed.So,thenotationundoubtedlybecomecomplicatedinnature.
2. Brevity
This quality has not in UDC due to small base of ten Indo-Arabic
numeralsasdecimalsandpoorallocationofnumbersofclasses.Manyclassnumbersexceedsi
x digits in length. The aim of several synthetic devices in to achieve co-
extensiveclassnumberandconsequentlytheclassnumberstendtobeverylengthy.
3. Hospitality
A notation of the any scheme should be hospitable to emerging new subjects and concepts.
These are two types of hospitality i.e. hospitality in array and chain.

Hospitalityinarraymakesubordinatedclasses.HospitalityinarrayisachievedinUD
Cbyusingcentesimaldevice-alphabeticaldeviceisalsousedi.e.namesofplaces,persons,
plants and industrial products etc to extend any array. Sometimes zero
isalsousedtorepresentarrayofclasses.Infinitehospitalityinchainisachievedduetodecimalfr
actionnotation.
4. Flexibility
Flexibilityqualitymeansthatthosequalitieswhoallowsandsupportsalternativearrange
mentofsubjects.Thisqualityisachieved:
(i) Usingdistinctsignsasfacetindicators.
(ii) Theuseofcolon(:)asagenerallinkingsign
(iii) Theuseofintercalatingdevices-
forgeneralintercalation,()and"…"forintercalatingspaceandtime.
(iv) Thepointofviewnumbers.
5. SubordinationtoOrder
The notation reflects the process of division from general to specific

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andsubordination to order. The above examples demonstrate this order. But becauseof
enumerative nature and limited base, the class number for minute subjects islengthy.
1.3.13Alphabetical Index
Theentriesintheindexreflecttheterminologyusedintheschedules.Sometermsoccur
morethanonceintheschedulesindifferentcontext.
Current terminology uses British spellings and idiom. In the index of
theabridged edition there are 9500 main and 3500 subentries a total of 13,000
entriescontained in 107 pages. It gives an average of three access points per entry in
thetables. Index entries culled from the electronic files are arranged in word-by-
wordordertoconformtotheBSISO999Standard.SpecificnamesareenteredfollowingAAC
R2specifications.Itincludesalltheprincipaldivisions,inclusionnotes,commonandspecialaux
iliaries,andbuilt-incompoundnumbers.Collocationoftermsdepictsrelations and qualifiers
are added to homonymous words to show the context,
e.g.,axes(tools),672.7;axes(plants),581.4orline(art),7.013.Incaseofasynonymallitspopul
artermsareindexedtoavoidsee-
references,e.g.,bothAvesandBirdshaveindexed.Indexistidyandeasytouse.
Example
Books. Cf. Editions, printing publishing accountancy 657.3 binding
seebookbinding form of documents (02), (03) reference 03 school instruction
371.32Booksellingtrade655.4/.5branchesandtypes655.42.
1.3.14 ApplicationinAutomatedSystems
Again,inthe1960s,theUDCwasperceived,despitecertainproblemswithsome of
the notational symbols, (problems, incidentally, which remain) ashaving great potential
for use with automated systems which were at that timebeing developed. Work was
undertaken to investigate the possibilities by PaulineAtherton (now Cochrane) and
Robert R. Freeman at the American Institute
ofPhysics(Freeman&Atherton,1968;MelgaardHansen&Rigby,1969),andseveralpapers
on the possibilities of UDC in an automated world were presented at
theFIDConferenceheldatWashingtonin1665.ThisprojectwasnamedAUDACIOUS
automatic Direct Access to information with the online UDC system. Many of
theconclusions reached by Freeman and Atherton in this work, such as the value thata
notated system provides for international exchange networks where the problemof
language might otherwise prove a serious barrier, and the possibility of
usingUDCinconjunctionwithathesaurus,aretopicsthatarebeingveryactivelypursued,and
are central to several projects that the UDC is engaged upon at the presenttime.
Thisprovidesasalutarywarning,fortherearemanyenterprisesbeingundertaken in the
information world today that have already been tackled, albeitnot in an automated
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environment, and the results of earlier research often

suggestsolutionstoproblemsinanonlinecontext.LackofStandardRulesforApplication
Unfortunately,asfarasrapiddevelopmentisconcerned,UDCisaclassification that
is used in hundreds of libraries in a whole range of
differentversions,andtherefore,althoughfrequentlypublishedbyStandardsOrganizations,i
t can in no way be described as a standard. Although there are rules for
filingorder,norulesareprescribedforthecombinationoffacets,asituationwhichleavesthein
dividualfreetoadoptthepracticebestsuitedtoaparticularneed.Thismeansthat it is possible
to construct a variety of different combinations to express acompound concept, each of
which may be correct according to the rules of UDC,but none of which corresponds
precisely with another. There is, therefore, nostandard for application, only a standard
for the symbol representing a simpleconcept. There are also a great many places in the
scheme where the
facetedapproachbreaksdownandenumeratedcompoundsremain.Consequently,itisquitep
ossibletocreatetwo"correct"yetquitedifferentclassmarksforthesameconcept,even if the
construction of the class mark is based on the same analysis of thesubject and even, in
places, the same application of citation order. Traditionally,this has been perceived to
be an advantage, since it permits the individual to
adapttheclassificationtothearrangementthatbestsuitsanindividualcollection.Nowadays,
standardization and correspondence in records is seen as much
moredesirable,andinanautomatedenvironment,thereisfargreaterpressureforconformity.
Unless a strict order for the combination of concepts is rigidly appliedand universally
adhered to, it is difficult to claim the title of "standard" for thescheme. It means that a
standard citation order must be imposed, a suggestion
thatisunpopularwithusers.Thisisamajorproblemthatthoseresponsibleformaintaining and
developing the classification are attempting to tackle in as non-
disruptiveamanneraspossible.Toridtheschemeofalltheseenumeratedcompoundscannotbe
accomplishedinahurry,sinceitwillaffecttheclassificationpractices of those hundreds of
users who are locked into its structure in their
shelfandindexingarrangements.Untilitaccomplished,therewillremainthepossibilityof
constructing class marks for compound concepts that are enumerated in thetables either
by using the enumerated notation or by combining the same
conceptsingly,throughtheuseofauxiliarytables.Addition intwodifferentwaysispossible,
e.g.
597.553.2-113.2 Salmon-digestion
591.132-755.32 Digestion-salmon
34(410.5)3.21 Law-Scotland-criminallaw
343.21(410.5) CriminallawScotland
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Thisfacilitymakesmachineretrievalofsingleconceptsimpossible.Itisnotcleartoam
achine,orindeedtotheaverageuser,thatthesetwosetsofclassmarkseachconsistofthesameno
tationscombinedindeferentorder.
1.3.15 Limitations
Althoughthisisgoodschemeofclassificationdespiteitsconstantandenduringsuccess,it
hasbeencriticizedoncertainpoints:
(i) Lackofstandardrulesforitsapplication
(ii) Mainclass4hasstillnotbeenfilledup.
(iii) ItsDDCbasehasalwaysbeencriticized.
(iv) Itsauxiliariesarestilldevelopingwithchangesinsomenotationalsymbols.
(v) Somenotationaldevices,althoughapparentlylogicalandsatisfactory,
(vi) causeproblemsinsearchingandbrowsing.e.g.,symbolslike-
and0overlapinfunctionandmayleadtoconfusion.
(vii) Therearecertaincitationorderproblems,asnodefinitestandardhasbeenprescribed.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
(5) How many mathematical symbols are used in UDC?
(6) Henri La Fontaine was a ……….
(7) Notation 383/388 means………..
(8) Dash zero -0 indicates to………..

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SIMPLE DOCUMENTS

Simple document means only one subject, but common isolate may be come with the subject
who justify the nature of that publication / document.
Some worked out examples have listed here—
1. Fundamentals of knowledge and culture 00
2. Compiling, sorting and methodical arrangement 002
3. Origin of transliteration 003.034
4. Information theory 007.001.1
5. Civilization 008
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6. Universal bibliography 011

7. Bibliography of anonymous and pseudonymous works 014.1
8. National bibliography 015
9. Bibliography of specific subject 016
10. Dictionary catalogue of public libraries 019.1

1I. Library co-operation 021.6

12.lnter-library loans 024.68
13. Book selection 025.21
14. Colon classification scheme 025.49
15. Yearbooks and directories 058.7
16. Annual reports of an organization 06.055.5
17. Association of International level 061 (100)
18. Furniture and equipment ‘of museum 069.3
19. Manuscript in English 091=20
20. Technical libraries 027.021
21. General management in libraries 025.1
22. Collection of popular literature 087.6
23. Relation between Individual sciences 001.2
24. Extension work and services in libraries 021.422
25. Sense Perceptional theory 159.930
26. Magically Occultism 133.4
27. Ethical stand points and trends in ethics 17.03
28. Tobacco use ethics 178.7
29. Ethics in relation between employer and employee. 174.8
30. History of knowledge: from mythology to science 165.9
31. Plant and animal behavior- a biopsychology 159.929

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32. Ethics and recreation in India 175(540) 1.

33. Origin and development and history of language 401
34. Phonetics 414
35. Sources of Philology 418
36. Spelling reforms 411.4
37. Etymology 415.4
38.. Nomography 518.3
39. Geometric topology 513.83
40. Seasons of Earth 525.5
41. Telescopes of practical astronomy 522.2
42. The calculation of time in general 529.2
43. Aerodynamics 533.6
44. Principles of constancy and variability 530.13
45. Mathematical theory of mechanics 531.01
46. Electromagnetic theory of light 535.13
47. Theory of vibrations in sound 534.01
48. Hydrogen compounds - a chemical compounds 541.44
49. Chemistry of qualitative analysis 543.061
50. Petroleum deposits in Saudi Arabia. 553.98 (532)
51. Wildflowers of Great Britain and Southern Europe· 581.46 (410+4-13)
52. Smallpox 616.9
53. Gynecology 618
54. Electronics transistor 621.382.3-21
55. Powder Metallurgy 621.762-39

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUND DOCUMENTS

1.5.1 Plus Sign (+)

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The symbol plus (+) and stroke (/) extend the meaning of number by denoting the
sum of meaning of several UDC numbers. The coordination sign + connects two or more
non-consecutive UDC numbers to denote commonly associated concepts in the same
compound subject for which no single number exists, e.g.

1.Plant biology and field crops 581+ 633

2.India and Spain (540) +633
3.Zoology and animal breeding 59+636
4. Chemistry and chemical technology 54+66
5. Mining and metallurgy 622+699
6. India and Pakistan (54+549)
7. France and Spain (44+46)
8.Spain, China and Mexico (46 + 510 + 72)
9. East and North area (-11) +(-17)
10. Past and future “311+313”
11. Economics and management 33+65

1.5.2 Extension Sign (/)

This symbol is used for two or more than two numbers in continue. This sign means
from- to- . It is used to connect/denote the first and last number of a series of consecutive
U.D.C numbers. In other words, this symbol is used to denote a broad subject or range of
concepts by connecting first and last od a series of consecutive numbers.
For instance:

1. Christian religion 22/28

2. Communication and Transport 383/388
3. Science and Technology 5/6
4. From 1984 to 1996 “1984/1986”
5. AC and DC electric machines 621.313.2/.3
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6. Heat, light and sound 534/536

7. Electricity and Electromagnetism 537/538
8. Logical standpoints and Trends 165.6/.8
9. Carbohydrates, Fates and Proteins for health 12.396/.398
10. Maths, Astronomy and Physics 51/53
11. Arithmatic, Algebra and Geometry 511/513
12. Systematic Paleozoology 562/569
13. Mineralogical Sciences, Crystallography, Mineralogy 548/549

1.6 SUMMARY

In this lesson you have studies the fundamentals of Universal Decimal Classification.
Although this scheme of classification is based on Dewey Decimal Classification but also
differ from DDC too. This is almost faceted scheme. Main divisions and common auxiliaries
are given in this lesson. Many examples of simple documents and compound documents have
given with their appropriate class numbers. Though we are familiar with genesis and
development of UDC, editions in various languages and different versions like full, abridged
etc. Now you can classify the simple and compound documents.

1.7 GLOSSARY

Common auxiliaries: Common auxiliaries are applicable throughout the main tables, and
represent notations such as language, place of the text and physical form of the document,
which may occur in almost any subject

Compound subject: A subject with a basic subject and one or more an isolate ideas as
components.
Special Auxiliary: The special auxiliaries are those,which express aspects are recurrent, but
in more limited subject range.

1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

(1)Common auxiliary of Languages .(5) Seven (07)

(2) Common auxiliary of Place (6) A Belgium International Lawyer
(3) Double Inverted Coma (7) 383/388 means all concepts are
(4) Common Auxiliary of Point of View covered which have given between 383-388.
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(8) Special Auxiliary

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Classify these titles-

(a) Dewey Decimal Classification, 22nd Edition
(b) English grammar
(c) Applied biology
(d) British Air transport System
(e) German Literature
(f) National Libraries
(g) Higher Education
(h) British National Bibliography
(i) Hindu Religion
(j) Financial Economics
(k) Exchange rate of money
(l) Architecture
(m) Systematic zoology
(n) Mathematics, astronomy and physics
(o) Secondary and higher education
(p) Mathematical and civil engineering
(q) French drama of 17th and 19th century
(r) Lung disease

1.10 REFERENCES

Bose, H (1987). Universal Decimal Classification: theory and practice. New Delhi, Sterling
Publishers.
British Standards Institution (1961). Universal Decimal Classification, Abridged English
edition BS 1000A. Ed3. London, BSI.
Dahlberg, I (1971). Possibilities for a New Universal Decimal Classification. "Journal of
Documentation", 27, 18-36.
International Federation for Documentation (FID) (1968). Universal Decimal Classification
Classification (UDC): Revision and Publication Procedure. The Hague, FID.
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Foskett, A C (1973). Universal Decimal Classification. London, Clive Bingley.

Hindson, Richard (1979). Reflections on the utilization of the Universal Decimal
Classification. Aslib Proceedings, 31 (6), 305-311.
Husain, Sabahat (2004). Library Classification: Facets and Analysis. Delhi, B. R. Publishing
Corporation.
Gautam. J N and Singh, Niranjan (2015). A Practical Manual of Universal Decimal
Classification. Agra, Associated Publishing House.
Llyod, G A (1970). Universal Decimal Classification. In Maltby, Arthur, ed. "Classification
in the 1970's. London: Clive Bingley, 147-165.
Mills, J (1962). Modern Outline of Library Classification. Bombay, Asia publishing House.
Raju, A A N (1984). Decimal, Universal Decimal and Colon Classification: a study of
comparison. Delhi: Ajanta Publications.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Husain, Sabahat (2004). Library Classification: Facets and Analysis. Delhi, B. R. Publishing
Corporation.

Gautam. J N and Singh, Niranjan (2015). A Practical Manual of Universal Decimal

Classification. Agra, Associated Publishing House.

Llyod, G A (1970). Universal Decimal Classification. In Maltby, Arthur, ed. "Classification

in the 1970's. London: Clive Bingley, 147-165.
Mills, J (1962). Modern Outline of Library Classification. Bombay, Asia publishing House.

Raju, A A N (1984). Decimal, Universal Decimal and Colon Classification: a study of

comparison. Delhi: Ajanta Publications.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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 MASTER OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

UNIT- II: Advance Applications of Universal Decimal

Classification (UDC)

CHAPTER –1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMON

AUXILIARIES AND SPECIAL AUXILIARIES

Dr P K Bhattacharya
Associate Director and Senior Fellow
The Energy and Resources Institute
New Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Overview of Universal Decimal Classification
1.3.1 Concept of Classification
1.3.2 System of Classification
1.3.3 UDC Notation
1.4 Structure of UDC
1.4.1 Main Tables
1.4.2 Auxiliary Tables
1.4.2.1 Common Auxiliary
1.4.2.2 Special Auxiliary
1.5 Summary
1.6 Glossary
1.7 Answers to In-text Questions
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References
1.10 Suggested Readings

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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will learn:

• An overview of the common auxiliaries usage and other complexities
associated with universal decimal classification method
• Introduction to the universal decimal classification method
• Explanation, usage and process to be followed while using UDC notations
• Insights into the characteristics of UDC classification system
• Introduction to UDC main and auxiliary tables
• Concepts of common and special auxiliaries

1.2 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter you will learn in detail the basic tenets of Universal
Decimal Classification system. The chapter will provide insights to the very
concept of classification, various schemes of classification along with a detail
overview of UDC system including its notation, structure, and auxiliaries.

Classification is the process wherby similar things are grouped together

and dissimilar things are separated. UDC is one of the most widely used
knowledge organization systems in libraries. It is used both for content indexing
of documents in libraries and also for shelf arrangement of documents highly
popular in special libraries with specialized collection.
UDC is a hybrid of two kinds of documentary classification namely
enumerative and analytico-synthetic. The UDC system arestrutured using two
kinds of tables or classes, Main Tables and Auxiliary tables or classes. The
auxiliary tables as the name suggest complements to provide concepts that are
generalized and common to several subjects in the main table. These concepts
may be related to the language of the text, the place or physical form of the
document or any other facet that is common to a large number of subjects in the
main classes.

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1.3 OVERVIEW OF UDC

The Universal Decimal Classification (UDC) is an indexing and retrieval

language in the form of a classification for the whole of recorded knowledge, in
which subjects are symbolized by a code based on Arabic numerals. This system
of knowledge organizationwas developed by Paul Otlet and Henry
LaFontaine,they began working on UDC in 1889. UDC was built upon the
foundation of the DDC while Dewey conceived his scheme to be applied to the
arrangement of books on shelves, Otlet and LaFontaine, expand the scheme usage
and its application to varied document types like journal articles, news items, etc,
and how to access them. Thus, it developed into a detailed system with wider
scope and perspective. Otlet and LaFontaine augmented Dewey’s system with
numerous devices that they later described as synthetic. UDC thus allows
systematic arrangement of all branches of human knowledge. It is based on a
coherent system of knowledge wherein the knowledge fields are related and inter-
linked. UDC also includes syntax that allows detailed content indexing and also
information retrieval from large collections of documents.

UDC was managed by the organization known as the International Federation of

Information and Documentation (FID). It was first published, in French, from
1904 to 1907. The publication included many features that changed the way
document classification wad done and viewed. One of the distinct feature was the
inclusion of the common auxiliary tables, which were tables that described
generally used concepts. Another feature was the special auxiliary tables. These
tables described reusable attributes in a particular field of knowledge. UDC also
included an expressive notational system with connecting symbols and syntax
rules.

UDC is one of the most widely used knowledge organization systems in libraries.
It is used both for content indexing of documents in libraries and also for shelf

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arrangement of documents highly popular in special libraries with specialized

collection. Please note this study unit discusses the UDC system based on the
third edition by British Standard Institution published in 2005.

Typographic presentation layout

It is fundamental to understand that a UDC entry consists of three main elements:

The class number (notation), which appears in the number column at the left
The class description (caption), which appears in the text column at the right
Various amplifications, which appear indented within the text column.
The latter includes notes, cross-references, and instructions for synthesizing and
examples of compound notation obtained. Class description can be extended with
other concepts that are included in the class.

Sample entry layout

Class descriptions
Class 675.8 Industries based on the processing of
number leather and fur production waste.
Industries based on the processing of by-
products of slaughtering (carcass by- including…
products). Including Waste collection,
reprocessing, utilization
note Use the .0… auxiliaries from 675.0…
where appropriate

Example (s) ◊ 675.862.026.1 Dyeing, bleaching ivory

of ◊ 675.862.08 Wastes of the ivory industry
combination

⇒ 637.6 See also…

⇒ 675.08

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Special auxiliary tables, usually placed at the beginning of the main class in
which they are valid, are marked with a vertical line to the left of the class
number.

Summary of symbols used

sign meaning
⇒ (double arrow) See also
◊ (diamond) Example(s) of combination
(square) Including
≅ (approximately equal to) Subdivision as
 (side lining) Special auxiliaries
∗ (asterisk) Non-UDC notation

1.3.1 Characteristics of UDC:

By now you are well acquainted with the concept thatClassification is a means of
bringing order to a multiplicity of concepts or items of information, by arranging
them into classes. A class is a group of concepts that have at least one thing in
common. This shared property gives the class its identity. A class my further be
divided into smaller classes or subclasses, and so on, until no further subdivision
is feasible. So classification is likely to be hierarchic, with each level of division
except the lowest divided into its logical subsets.

Classes may consist of various kinds of concept, such as physical things (objects,
person, places etc.) and their parts expressed as activities, processes, abstract
ideas; for example:

• Things- buildings (schools, churches, houses, etc.)

• Parts- parts of buildings (doors, walls, stairways, etc.)
• Activities- buildings services (joinery, glazing, plumbing, etc.)
• Abstract ideas-architectural styles (classical, Georgian, etc.)
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1.3.2 System of classification:

Classifications may be designed for various purposes in other words concepts are
classified based on various events. They can be Special, Scientific, General, and
Documentary Classifications.
• Special classification: It is applied to cover a certain subject used for
laying emphasis on it.
• Scientific classification – As the term denotes it concerns with the
phenomena of the natural world as an aid to systematic study. They
include the arrangements in systematic botany and zoology, and the table
of chemical elements, and they often form the basis of field guides.
• Documentary classification: Pertains to information organization and
retrieval, in other words, for locating knowledge recorded in various
information resources (objects, images, sounds, printed or digital
documents).
The Documentary classification is further divided into two main categories
Library Classification and Bibliographic Classification:
• Library Classification – the physical arrangement of library holdings and
guidance to their contents.
• Bibliographic Classification- the description and indexing of the holdings
or the documents in general.
These categories of classification scheme are not mutually exclusive but
complementary to each other. Scientific classification may be incorporated into
documentary ones, for example at 549 and though not explicitly parts of 58 and
59. Bibliographic and library classifications may each incorporate some of the
other’s features, and in practice are not limited to a single application.

• General classification- This encompasses all recorded knowledge or the universe of

information.
It may be of the following three types:
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• Enumerative Classification- universe of information where categories are divided and

exhaustively listed.
• Faceted or analytico-synthetic classification- This type of classification involves
identification of common categories which are then listed. Each list represents a facet.
Subjects are thus analyzed into their elements enabling the user to recombine or synthesized
it.
• Aspect Classification- Phenomena of the natural world are classified in the context or the
discipline in which it appears.

The Universal Decimal Classification tends to align with an aspect classification where a
phenomenon is classed according to the context or discipline in which it is considered (so
that its various aspects occur at many different places). For example, ‘coal’ has no single
place in UDC. Aspects of Coal covered in UDC:

Petrological aspect - 552.574,

Economic geology aspect - 553.94,
Mining aspect - 622.33, or as dust at 622.411.52,
Soil mechanics aspect - 624.131.27,
Agricultural aspect (fertilizers) - 631.878,
Fuels aspect - 662.66 and 662.75, or as briquettes at 662.814,
Pig iron production - 669.162.16

More peripheral aspects are at still other numbers. Theoretically, general documents
covering all of those aspects should be classed at all of those numbers; but in a given
collection, with a particular bias, it is often possible to select on number as the main place
for a subject.

Further the documentary classifications tend to be either for library use- for the
physical arrangement of an actual collection and as a guide to its coverage; or
bibliographic- for the detailed indexing and description of documents, not
confined to any one collection. They will often be enumerative-exhaustively

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listing the categories into which the universe of knowledge has been divide; or
faceted- identifying characteristic common to many categories and arranging
them in lists or tables each representing a facet (that is, the total concepts
obtained by applying a particular characteristic of division). Thus, the compiler
has analyzed subjects into their elements for the user to recombine or synthesize,
and faceted classification is also called analytico-synthetic. UDC has evolved
from a project to develop an enumerative into a faceted classification.

Classification thus may be special- concentrating on, or biased towards, a

particular subject; or general – covering the universe of knowledge. UDC is a
general classification scheme that is particularly detailed and sophisticated. It can
therefore be used both for information organization in covering all subjects, or
most of them, and in document collections which are more specialized but still
cover a range of other subjects in less detail. UDC was designed for bibliographic
use, but has proved eminently suitable for library use.

1.3.3 UDC Notations:

Notation is a code that symbolizes the subject of each class and its place in the
sequence. It has an inherent order, such as numerals, alphabetic notation or a
mixture (alpha-numeric). When such a code is assigned to each class, it expresses
and fixes the order of classes (that is the filing order), and enables automatic
sorting of entries. Notation with variable length can also express the position in
the hierarchy, with each extra character representing a lower level; this is called
expressive notation. Arabic numerals, arranged as decimal fractions, are ideal for
this purpose and are the basis of the notation in UDC.

Notation is an artificial language from which many of the ambiguities of natural

language have been eliminated. For example, the term ‘paraffin’ has both a technical sense
(a series of saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons of the general formula C n H 2n+ 2) and a popular
one (=kerosene, a petroleum fraction with a particular boiling range), while ‘kerosine’ has at
times been known as ‘petroleum’, a term now used as the general name for mineral oils.

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The use of notation frees UDC from such ambiguity; in the context of mineral oil
technology, ‘mineral oil’ generally (petroleum) is at 665.6, ‘production of paraffin’s’ is at
665.637.2, and ‘production of kerosine’ is at 665.634. Similarly, ‘power’ in mechanical
engineering (the output of an engine) is 621.1.018.7, and ‘power’ in electrically engineering
is at 621.311. Other aspects of these subjects may occur elsewhere, but in each case the class
number represents a clearly defined concept, not a word or phrase whose meaning may vary
according to context.

UDC notation is based on Arabic numerals including few other common

symbols. The numbers are arranged as decimal fractions, and this determines their filing
order. One can think of them as following an imaginary nought and point, which for
convenience are omitted (for example, 5 stands for 0.5). So they do not have the same order
as integers, in which 6 would precede 59 by a long way; 5 is followed not immediately by 6,
but by 50 to 59. Similarly, 59 is followed by all its subdivisions from 591 to 599 before you
reach 6; and between 591 and 592 come all the subdivisions of 591 up to 591.9. After the
third digit, there is a point, but it is not a decimal point- merely punctuation for ease of
reading. A long code is easier to read if it is broken into small groups, so a point is added
after every third digit; for example, in the UDC database the eleven-digit number
62138233332 becomes 621.382.333.32, which is far more manageable. As the whole class
number is a decimal fraction, including the part before the first point, it is preferable to
pronounce it not as an integer but as a series of digits (‘six-two-one point three…’ rather than
‘six hundred and twenty-one point three…’).

As an example, the following numbers would be in this order if they were

integers (or integers plus decimals): 1, 02, 3, 6, 22, 37, 66, 82, 94, 210, 543, 655,
681.81, 728.1, 811, 929; but if they are UDC class numbers, they file as if they
were all decimal fractions, thus:

class number as if
02 0.02

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1 0.1
210 0.210
22 0.22
3 0.3
37 0.37
543 0.543
6 0.6
655 0.655
66 0.66
681.81 0.68181
728.1 0.7281
811 0.811
82 0.82
929 0.929
94 0.94

Because decimal fractions are infinitely extensible, it is always possible to

introduce further subdivisions without altering the ordinal value of the rest of the
sequence. New development, or increasingly detailed information, can therefore
be accommodated in the scheme by the creation of new classes while preserving
the stability of the rest. Such notation is said to be hospitable.

1.4 STRUCTURE OF UDC

UDC its Structure
UDC is a hybrid of two kinds of documentary classification scheme i.e., enumerative
and analytico-synthetic. There are two kinds of table: the main and auxiliary tables also
called the ‘schedules’ and ‘tables’ respectively, and though the distinction is not hard
and fast, they exemplify to some extent the enumerative and analytico-synthetic
elements in UDC, and their associated notation.

Combine with

MAIN TABLES
SPECIAL ,
Combine using relators AUXILIARY
TABLES -1/-9
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Symbols
outside
UDC

Place Form Languages

(1/9) (0….) =……

Figure 1: UDC macrostructure

1.4.1 Main tables

The main tables or the primary notation, in UDC are the ones most closely related
to DDC. In Dewey’s scheme, the universe was divided into ten classes, each of
which was then further divided. In UDC, one class is now vacant, since class 4
was cancelled in 1963 to make room for future developments, and its subject,
linguistics, was merged into class 8 with literature. UDC therefore comprises the
following top classes:

0 Generalities, Science and Knowledge. Organization.

Information. Documentation. Librarianship. Institutions.
Publications.
1 Philosophy. Psychology.
2 Religion. Theology.
3 Social Sciences. Statistics. Politics. Economics. Trade. Law.
Government. Military affairs. Welfare. Insurance. Education.
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Folklore
4 [Vacant]
5 Mathematics and natural sciences.
6 Applied sciences. Medicine. Technology.
7 The arts. Recreation. Entertainment. Sport.
8 Language. Linguistics. Literature.
9 Geography. Biography. History.

Thus, each of these broadest classes is denoted by a single-digit Arabic number.

Each of the ten theoretical classes, or nine occupied classes, may in turn be
divided to form ten narrower classes or subclasses. The subclasses accommodate
more restricted concepts, as represented by longer numbers. For example, class 5
is divided into the following subclasses:

50 Generalities about the pure sciences

51 Mathematics
52 Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space research, Geodesy
53 Physics
54 Chemistry. Crystallography. Mineralogy
55 Earth Sciences. Geology, meteorology etc.
56 Palaeontology
57 Biological sciences in general
58 Botany
59 Zoology

The next level of division gives three digits; for example, 57 is divided into:

572 Anthropology
573 General and theoretical biology
574 General ecology and biodiversity …
575 General genetics. General cytogenetics… Evolution etc.

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576 Cellular and subcellular biology. Cytology

577 Material bases of life. Biochemistry… Biophysics
578 Virology
579 Microbiology

Other details one should know while practicing UDC

a) Each of these is a logical subdivision of the content of class 5 and 57
respectively, and each is denoted by a number beginning with 5; but each is
also a more restrictive class than 5, and has a class number one digit longer.
The main tables, in other words are divided hierarchically, with the numeric
hierarchy reflecting the conceptual hierarchy; the broadest classes are at the
highest level, and the narrowest or most restrictive classes are at the lowest
level, of the hierarchy.

b) The length of the class number is indicative of the degree of detail. Class
numbers of the same length, denoting a similar level of generality (or
extension) are coordinates.

c) Classes with shorter numbers, denoting greater extension, are superordinate.

Classes with longer numbers, denoting greater specificity (or intension) are
subordinate. 58 and 59 are coordinate. 5 is superordinate to 58 and 59. 591 is
subordinate to 59. An exhaustive set of coordinate classes (containing the full
logical subdivisions of the superordinate class) is an array.

The parsing of an example will show the structure of a long class number from
the main tables:
621.397.132.125 Phase Alternating Line (PAL) system

This string of twelve digits represents a chain in a hierarchy of concepts, in which

each successive place implies a choice from the possible subclasses:

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6 Applied sciences. Medicine. Technology

62 Engineering. Technology in general
621 Mechanical engineering… Electrical engineering.
Machinery
621.3 Electrical engineering
621.39 Telecommunication … Telecontrol
621.397 Video technology. Television engineering
621.397.13 Television
621.397.132 Colour television
621.397.132.1 Simultaneous colour systems
621.397.132.12 With common transmission channel for the primary
colour signals
621.397.132.125 Phase Alternating Line (PAL) system

The first digit, 6, denotes ‘Applied sciences. Medicine.Technology’. A start has been
made along a path down the hierarchy, which branches at each successive level: out of
the universe of information, a class of concepts has been selected that belong to the
applied sciences. The second digit, 2, shows that, of the ten possible subclasses 60 to
69, the one selected is 62, restricting to engineering. Each succeeding digit futher
specifies the preceding concept, and symbolizes a more restrictive class, until the
lowest level is reached. The meaning of each digit is determined by its place in the
chain. The full number exhibits increasing specificity going towards the right.

1.4.2 Auxiliary Tables

UDC’s most innovative and influential feature was its auxiliary notation, the signs and
subdivisions provided to allow for the construction of compound numbers, or synthesis. A
simple number constitutes a number taken from a single place in the tables and cited on its
own; it can be either a main number or an independent auxiliary. A compound number is
always constructed by synthesizing elements from more than one place in the tables.

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There are two kinds of auxiliary notation: Common and Special.

The Common auxiliaries provides a means of expressing interrelation between subjects, it
denotes generally recurrent characteristics applicable in the main tables. The Special
auxiliaries denote locally recurrent characteristic i.e. those that are applicable in a limited
range of the main table.

1.4.2.1 Common Auxiliary: Common auxiliaries establish interrelations between subjects.

These consist of two kinds of symbols, i.e., signs and sub-divisions.

The common auxiliary signs are a number of symbols which relate UDC numbers by
linking them through coordination and aggregation to denote compound numbers.

As regards common auxiliary sub-divisions, they differ from auxiliary signs in two respects:
firstly, these comprise numeric tables, and similar to the main tables, concepts in it are
enumerated and the arrangement is hierarchical. Secondly, these concepts are followed,
preceded by or prefixed to common auxiliary signs.

These common subdivisions can theoretically be attached to every class number in the main
table for denoting any concept in the scheme more specifically. When these sub- divisions
are isolated and cited independently, the characteristics of division can be identified by the
addition of an extra symbol. This symbol is known as the facet indicator.

For example, the digit 20 has several shades of meaning in the tables. But, the
addition of an extra symbol (or facet indicator) determines the facet. The digit 20
when enclosed
within parentheses indicates place facet, i.e., (20) means ecosphere; with
quotation marks “20", means twenty-first century AD: with equal sign=20
signifies English language, and so on.

These common auxiliary subdivisions are divided into two groups; independent
auxiliary tables, and dependent auxiliary tables. Functions of these two kinds of

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table can be enumerated as follows:

• Independent auxiliary tables-These are affixed to UDC numbers when

needed, and also used in isolation to form class numbers for documents.
These are the auxiliaries of language, form, place, race and time. These
tables have biterminal signs, i.e, signs that enclose the number and
demarcate it from adjacent ones. These biterminal signs enable the
auxiliaries to be affixed anywhere within a UDC number with a few
exceptions.
• Dependent auxiliary tables- These are not used in isolation, but always
affixed to UDC numbers.

1.4.2.2 Special auxiliaries

Special auxiliaries denote those characteristics which are recurrent locally, and
such being the case, these can be applied in a limited range of main tables.
Differing from common auxiliaries which are listed at one place, these auxiliaries
are dispersed throughout the table, and have limited applicability. Wherever valid
for application, they are discernible by their appearance under main tables. These
auxiliaries are enumerative, denoted by notations, and the same notations can be
applicable in other parts of tables with different shades of meaning. As regards
the principle of their use, these sub-divisions are affixed as suffixes to class
numbers, and also to their direct subdivisions even in the absence of instructions.

The structure of the UDC, in the form of an up-turned tree, is given below:

Universal Decimal Classification

Main tables Auxiliaries

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Common auxiliaries
Special
auxiliary

Signs Common auxiliary sub-

divisions

Independent auxiliary Dependent

tables auxiliary tables (as
suffixes)

1.5 SUMMARY

The UDC was developed as a bibliographic classification system based on

DDC. It was therefore found to be eminently suitable for use in libraries. The
UDC although belonging to general classification schemes, can be used for
formulating special subject classifications, and many specialized editions have
been derived from it. The UDC can be termed as a blend of two categories of
classification, i.e., enumerative and analytico-synthetic. It contains two types of
table’s i.e. main tables and auxiliary tables. The former may be said to be
enumerative, while the latter is a combination of analytico-synthetic elements and
the UDC aligns with aspect classification system.

1.6 GLOSSARY

Class Identifier: It is a unique identifier assigned to each class. It identifies the

meaning of the relationship between the representation of the class and its
notational number or UDC number.

Broader Class: It represents a class, which is super-ordinate class,i.e., the class

above the given class in the hierarchy.

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Sub-division:These are three-digit numbers derived from two-digit subclasses.

e.g., (504) Environment.

Simple Number:A number taken from a single place in the table and cited on its
own whether a main number or an independent auxiliary.

Compound Subject:In a compound subject, more than one element within a

conventional class gets reflected within it. A compound subject can accordingly
be represented by a number.

Analytico-Synthetic: A freely faceted classification based on postulates and

classification principles for analysis and synthesis of the subjects.

Common Auxiliaries:Schedules of supplementary facets to be used with main

schedules for construction of class numbers. A faceted classification has many
such schedules. Examples of auxiliaries are separate tables for form divisions,
geographical divisions, chronological divisions, languages,materials, etc.

1.7 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Enumerate the principles on which UDC system operates.

Some of the main principles of UDC are as follows:

o UDCapplication is not limited to classifying recorded documents and
knowledge or for arranging documents. Its application is based on
analysis of data,content and relationships that exist between the concepts
and its existing facets.
o UDC is a universal classification system that falls under the general
classification system. It encompassesthe universe of knowledge and forms

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intelligent linking of concepts by identifying similar concepts on the basis

of integrated patterns
and correlated subjects.
o Like every classification scheme UDC proceeds from general to specific,
broader, related to narrower concepts of knowledge domains.
o UDC accounts for detailed specifications of a main subject rather than on
the order of the subjects or the documents it classifies.
o UDC also takes into account the principles of mutually exclusive
classes,collection of related subjects and consistency of approach.
o Use of notation which consists of Indo-Arabic numerals used decimally
frees it from ambiguity while enabling infinite hospitality by linking main
class to the auxiliaries in an easy manner.

2. What are Special Features of UDC?

UDC is a practical bibliographic classification international in scope often

considered as the first faceted and synthetic classification. It is flexible
and canclassify universe of knowledge, every subject from broader to
narrower categoryin appropriate context or aspects, which can be in
various formats and point of views. It is officially the first internationally
adopted classification system published in French, German and English.,
(Satija, 2008)
o UDC lays more emphasis on subject analysis broader to narrower and
document specification.
o UDC common and special auxiliary offers multidimensional approach
to classification.
o Its usage is wider in scope and application, various formats of recorded
knowledge both online and offline can be classified systematically with
enabling retrieval.
o UDC structure is flexible to accommodate emerging subjects.

3. Do you find any merits of UDC in complex classifications of

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resources?
As UDC is a common scheme of classification, it covers the whole field of
humanknowledge. The procedure of dividing a class into ten subclasses is
accepted to the
required degree of specificity. The required degree of detail is achieved with
the help ofgeneral and special auxiliaries. The resultant subject account is of
utmost precision.
o UDC notation which consists of alpha numeric signs and symbols frees it
of ambiguity that may arise in language usage.Its decimal notation enables
accommodation of new/ hybrid subject areas.
o UDC can be customized as per the specific requirement of the knowledge
center.
o It is amenable to computerization.

4. What are demerits of UDC in classifications?

o UDC notation often tends to be extensive and seems clumsy.
o Handling complex classifications in UDC notations often found to be
difficult for novices
o User participation in revision has created unevenness in the scheme at
spaces.

5. What are UDC Numbers or Notations?

UDC notation is a combination of symbols,numerals, signs and letters that
represent a class, the position of theclass in the hierarchy and also the
relation of the class to other classes.Notation is a language-independent
indexing term that enables mechanicalsorting and filing of subjects.

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1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Write a short note on the universal decimal classification.

2. Write a short note on UDC notation.
3. What are the distinguishing features between main table and auxiliary
table of the UDC?
4. Define Common Auxiliaries.
5. Which class in UDC is left blank and why?

1.10 REFERENCES

(1) Bose, H. (1987). Universal Decimal Classification: Theory and Practice. New
Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited

(2) Ranganathan, SR. (1965). Prolegomena to Library Classification, Second

Edition. London: Library Association

(3) M.P. Satija, M.P (2008) Universal Decimal Classification: Past and Present.
DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology, 28(6), 3-10.

(4) UDC International Standard Edition Volume 1: Systematic Tables, 2005.

Volume 2: Alphabetical Subject Index (2005). London: British Standards
Institution

(5) UDC Consortium. Major changes to the UDC 1993-2013

Retrieved July 20, 2022 from
https://udcc.org/index.php/site/page?view=major_revisions

(6) Universal Decimal Classification, 3rd Edition(2005). British Standards

Institution, London: British Standards Institution

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

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1. FOSKET (A C). Universal Decimal Classification. 1973. Clive Bingley,

London.

2. McLLWAINE (I C). The Universal Decimal Classification: a guide to its use.

2007. UDC Consortium, The Hague, Netherlands.

3. UNIVERSAL DECIMAL CLASSIFICATION.(Latest Edition).British

standards institution, London.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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UNIT- II: Advance Applications of Universal Decimal

Classification (UDC)

Application of common auxiliaries, special auxiliaries,

parallel devices, filing order, citation order, intercalation

Dr P K Bhattacharya
Associate Director and Senior Fellow
The Energy and Resources Institute
New Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Common Auxiliaries
1.3.1 Kinds of Common Auxiliaries
1.3.2 Group of Common Auxialiaries
1.4 Special Auxiliaries
1.5 Parallel Devices
1.6 Filing Order
1.7 Citation Order
1.8 Intercalation
1.9 Summary
1.10 Glossary
1.11 Answers to In-text Questions
1.12 Self-Assessment Questions
1.13 References
1.14 Suggested Readings

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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will learn:

• How you can use common auxiliaries along with their different divisions and
subdivisions and special auxiliaries usage and their complexities associated
• Introduction to the parallel devices, filing order, citation order, intercalation in UDC
method
• Examples of use of auxiliaries and other associated parameters
1.2 INTRODUCTION

As mentioned in the previous unit, the first edition of UDC was launched in 1905
which included several features that greatly enhanced the scope of classification. One of this
distinct feature marked the introduction of Common and Special Auxiliaries. Common
Auxiliary tables are used todescribed generally used concepts and Special Auxiliaryenabling
description of reusable attributes in a particular field of knowledge. The common auxiliaries
comprise two kinds of symbol: the signs and sub-divisions. It is further divided into two
groups Independent and the dependent auxiliary tables. The special auxiliaries occur at
various places in the tables, and express concepts that are recurrent, but in a more subject
range.

Other features discussed in this unit include the Parallel device which are not an auxiliary
table at all yet it is similar to special auxiliaries. It results in the same notation being used to
denote a given concept in more than one place.The filing order of UDC symbols is based on
a progression from the general to the particular, a common auxiliary used as an independent
number is filed before a main number. Intercalation is the use of the auxiliary as an infix.
Genenally, an auxiliary is prefixedor suffixed to a main number. In UDC, it can also be
infixed to interrupt a mainnumber.

1.3 COMMON AUXILIARIES

The
common auxiliaries comprise two kinds of symbol:the signs and sub-divisions.

1.3.1 Common auxiliary signs: The common auxiliary signs are the plus, the stroke, the
colon, the square brackets and the double colon, which serve as relators, linking UDC

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numbers either main or auxiliary), but are not themselves numbers, they do not represent
classes, and cannot be subdivided.

Not many kinds of relation are distinguished: the plus (+) and the stroke (/) represents kinds
of aggregation which is the sum of meanings of several UDC numbers. The colon (:) serves
for most other relations, it merely shows that subjects denoted by numbers are related to each
other in some way without specifying or showing the influence exerted.

This lack of specificity in the common auxiliary notably the colon implies a correspondingly
extensive usefulness: this device enables any concept in the whole classification to be related
to any other, and so in a sense to qualify it.

Signs Example

(+) Plus 622+ 669 Mining and metallurgy

(/) Stroke from ...to ... (7/8) North and Central America and South
America
(:) Colon reversible relation - 17:7 Ethics 'in relation to art or 7:17 Art
in relation to ethics

(::) Double Colon Irreversible relation 77.044:: 355 War photography. Since it is
irreversible, it cannot be 355::77.044

[ ] Square brackets Subgrouping as understood in Algebra [622+669].(485)

Mining and metallurgy in Sweden

2.1.2. Common Auxiliary sub-divisions:The common auxiliary subdivisions consists of

numeric tables, in which concepts are enumerated and arranged hierarchically; to this extent,
they resemble the main tables, but they are distinguished by their own symbols either
prefixed to, or enclosing, the number. Common auxiliary tables are as follows:

concept symbol
the linking signs- Table 1a and 1b +, /, :
language of the document-Table 1c =…
form of the document- Table 1d (0/09)
place- Table 1e (1/9)
race, nationality etc.- Table 1f (=…)

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time-Table 1g “…”
non-UDC codes etc.- Table 1h #, A/Z
general characteristics-Table 1k, includes -0…
properties -02…
materials -03…
processes -04…
persons -05…

It may be noted language table 1c denotes the characteristic of the document, the language in
which it is written or spoken. Form table 1d denotes the material or person involved.

Some features, such as time and space, are relevant to practically all phenomena, while
others, such as language and documentary form, become relevant as soon as a phenomenon
becomes the subject of a document. When a given characteristics of division recurs
throughout a classification, it is convenient and mnemonic if the resultant facet is expressed
in the same notation wherever it occurs; but this also makes it possible for the digits
expressing it to be detached and separately listed hence they can be affixed, theoretically to
every class number. If a class number is removed from their context, they require an extra
symbol to identify the characteristic of division.

1.3.2 Independent and dependent auxiliary tables

The common auxiliary is further divided into two groups: Independent and the dependent
auxiliary tables.

Independent auxiliary tables, though they may be affixed to any UDC numbers where
appropriate, may also be used on their own, to form the whole class number of a document.
These are Tables 1c to 1g, the auxiliaries of language, form, place, race and time. These
tables have biterminal signs (see 2.1.4) that enclose the number and demarcate it from
adjacent ones. For example, if it were decided that the place facet was the only one that
needed to be expressed (e.g. in classifying maps), a way of doing this would be to cite the
place auxiliary alone, from Table 1e..

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Dependent auxiliarytables as the name denotes must always be affixed to a UDC number;
these are officially, Table 1k common auxiliaries of general characteristics: properties,
processes, materials, persons. Additionally, Table 1h, which specifies means of adding non-
UDC notation, is in practice dependent though not described as such), since the asterisk and
alphabetic extensions must be added to a UDC number.

Biterminal Signs: Most of the independent auxiliary tables have symbols that enclose the
number, thus demarcating it from adjacent numbers. These are biterminal signs- signs with
both an opening and closing element. Table 1d, 1e and 1f have parentheses, while Table 1g
has quotation marks. The exception is Table 1c, which has only an equal sign; this is
compensated for by adding a colon at the end of the language notation in some positions e.g.
=133.1:641.5(083.1) given in the preamble to Table 1c. Because of their demarcation,
auxiliaries with biterminal signs can be affixed to any part of a UDC number, at the
beginning, middle or end (prefixed, infixed or suffixed, as well as being usable
independently, e.g. of

(410) Great Britain. United Kingdom of Great Britain and

Northern Ireland
(410)622.33 Britain- Coal mining
622(410).33 Mining-Britain-coal
622.33(410) Coal mining-Britain

Dependent auxiliaries can only be used as suffixes, e.g.

622.33-022.316 Coal mining- sustainable

622.33-022.316(410) Coal mining-sustainable-Britain

The asterisk, the point and the hyphen, therefore, can never occur at the beginning of a
number.

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1.4 SPECIAL AUXILIARIES:

The special auxiliaries, unlike the common auxiliaries, are not listed in one place, and by
definition do not have such extensive applicability. They occur at various places in the tables,
and express concepts that are recurrent, but in a more subject range.

Special auxiliaries use three main kinds of notation: the hyphen series -1/-9, the point-nought
series .01/.09 and the apostrophe series’1/”9. (.0 is almost always used to introduce special
auxiliary subdivisions, but there are a few exceptions, such as 626.0 and 669.05.). The
special auxiliary numbers are recognizable by side-lining, for example under UDC53:

53 Physics
53.02 General laws of phenomena
53.05 Observation and recording of phenomena. Visual
indication of phenomena…

The number before the side-lining is main number, 53 ‘Physics’. The auxiliary
notation.0… may be used either in the form, i.e.

53.05 Observation and recording of phenomena etc. (in general)

or detached and added to any direct decimal subdivision of the main number, e.g.

531 Mechanics
531.05 Observation and recording of mechanical phenomena
531.5 Gravity…
531.5.05 Observation and recording of gravitational
phenomena

Special auxiliaries denote those characteristics which are recurrent locally hence can be
applied in a limited range of main table. It differs from common auxiliaries which are listed
at one place as they are dispersed throughout the table. Special auxiliaries possess
enumerative quality, except for the apostrophe which is a synthesizing sign. They are always
listed as suffixes to other numbers and cannot be used independently. A common form of
presentation is a list immediately under the main number where they are valid. If no other
indication is given, they are applicable also to all the direct division of that number. For
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example, at 621.3.01 to .095.4, the .0 element is applicable anywhere from 621.31 to

621.398, as well as 621.3 itself.

Special auxiliaries are applicable only when indicated, and the same notation may be used
elsewhere with the different meaning. In a few cases, they have either an extended or a
reduced range of applicability. This is always indicated by a note, e.g. at 52-1/-8 or 616. For
instance, hyphen auxiliaries under 62 are applicable throughout the range 62 to 69, and the
point-nought auxiliaries listed at 7, applicable throughout the class except under77.

Special auxiliaries may also occur within other series of auxiliaries, as they do, for example,
at the beginning of Table 1d: Common auxiliaries of form. The principle is the same: they
may be used in the form in which they appear e.g.

(0.035.22) Transparent, strip-form [documents]. Microfilm

or the special auxiliary element (beginning with .0) may be detached and affixed to
any of the direct divisions of (0) , e.g.
(05) Serial publications. Periodicals
(05.035.22) Periodicals on microfilm.

The compound thus formed is still a common auxiliary, which may qualify a main number,
e.g.
5(05.035.22) Science periodicals on microfilm

The -6 auxiliaries at 66.041 are an example of special auxiliaries within other special
auxiliaries.

1.5 PARALLEL DEVICES

Parallel device are not an auxiliary table at all it is similar to special auxiliaries in that it
results in the same notation being used to denote a given concept in more than one place. It is
signalled in the tables by the subdivided-as sign≅. This sign has wide ramifications and use.
Parallel divisions are possible with auxiliary numbers drawn from main numbers, also main
numbers derived from auxiliary numbers; a number may also serve as the source number for
the parallel division of its own subdivision. This simply means that the number preceding ≅

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may be subdivided in a manner analogous to the number following it; this will result in an
exactly analogous array, with the same concepts expressed by the same sequences of digits.

A simple example is in 611’Anatomy’, parts of which are parallel to 616’Pathology’, where

both are subdivided into particular organs. They are parallel, and to enumerate organs fully in
both places would be a waste of space and effort. Instead there are instructions such as that
under 611.2 ‘Respiratory system’:611.21/.26, or under 611.3 ‘Digestive system’: 611.3
≅616.3. In these cases, the 616 subdivisions are the source numbers, from which digits may
be detached and added to the target number under 611; thus 616.21 gives the analogous
611.21, while 616.31 gives 611.31, and so on. The parallel arrays may be represented
symmetrically:

611.21 Nose. Sinuses 616.21

.22 Larynx (voice-box) .22
.23 Trachea (windpipe) .23
.24 Lungs .24
.25 Pleurae .25
.26 Diaphragm .26

The number is the left-hand column represents these items in the context of anatomy, while
those in the right-hand column represent them in the context pathology.

1.6 FILING ORDER

The filing order of UDC symbols is based on a progression from the general to the particular.
Thus, the common auxiliaries come first, and an independent auxiliary used alone or cited
first files before a main number. Next, an aggregation of several numbers has a broader
meaning than a simple number, so compounds with the plus and the stroke- Table 1a – file
before a single component number (622+669) comes before 622). Finally a shorter number
files before a longer number, because a number followed by an auxiliary is more specific
than the simple number, while in simple hierarchic division each successive digit further
specifies the concept, increasing the particularity. Table 1 shows the filing order of both
simple and compound numbers.

Table 1 . Filing order

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symbol example
= =112.2 German language
(0…) (0.035.2) Microform documents
(1/9) (430) Germany
(=…) (=1.410) British nationals
“…” “18” Nineteenth century
+ 622+669 Mining and metallurgy
/ 622/623 Mining and military engineering
Simple number 622 Mining
: 622:338.3 Productivity in mining
= 622=122.2 Documents in German about mining
(0..) 622(0.035.2) Microform documents about mining
(1/9) 622(430) Mining in Germany
(=..) 622(=1.366) Mining among the ancient British
“…” 622”18” Mining in the nineteenth century
* 622*Fe 2 O 3 Mining of red haematite (Fe 2 O 3 )
A/Z 622GOE Mining of named ores: goethite
-0 622-057.2 Manual workers in mining
-1/-9 622-78 Protective devices and measures in mining
.0 622.03 Geological character of ore deposits
‘ 622’17 Tailings, waste, residues from mining
Next simple number 622.3 Mining (extraction) of specific minerals…

The algebraic subgrouping sign (square brackets) does not affect the filing order, and may be
ignored for this purpose, except where class numbers would be identical but for the square
brackets. Then one may apply rule of nothing-before-something, so that the one without
brackets files first:

658.512.2:004-051 Industrial design in relation to: practitioners of data processing

(e.g. designing for convenience of computer operators)

[658.512.2:004]-051 Practitioners of: industrial design in relation to data processing

(e.g. practitioners of computer-aided design)

In general, the filing order of UDC symbols is that in which they are displayed in the tables.
The exceptions are (i) that the simple number comes between compounds with the colon, and
(ii) that square brackets have no inherent filing order.

1.7 CITATION ORDER

Facet Formula: When an element of notation is selected as representing an aspect of a

document’s subject, and is incorporated into a class number for the subject, it is said to be
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cited. The order in which the elements are combines to make a compound number is the
citation order (as an element symbolizes a facet of the subject, the citation order is also
known as the facet formula).

Principle of Inversion: In order to ensure a sequence from general to special, it is necessary

that the filing order should be the reverse of the citation order; it is called the principle of
inversion. In theory, either might be taken as the starting point, but a specified filing order
with both tables as a whole, and examples of synthesis given within the tables displayed in
this order is available. The simplest rule for citing elements in a compound is:

The citation order is the reverse of the filing order. For example:
=122.2 and (430) and “18” and ’17, all qualifying 622.341.1, the standard order would be:
’17; “18”; (430); =112.2, thus:

622.341.1’17.”18”(430)=112.2 Iron-ore mining-waste-nineteenth century-Germany-

in German

The standard citation order may not be satisfactory for all purposes. The reason would be the
need, in particular collections, to bring together (or collocate) all references to a particular
aspect of a subject, which would be separated if the standard order were followed. For
example, in the standard citation order, time “…” would precede place (1/9) (the reverse of
the filing order), and so, following the main number, a sequence of entries would be arranged
primarily according to time, with any given time aspect divided secondarily according to
place:

622”-…” Mining at various times BC

622”-…”(1/9) Mining, BC, in various places
622”-…”(410.197) Mining, BC, in Cornwall
622” +…” Mining at various times AD
622” +…”(1/9) Mining, AD, in various places
622”+…”(410.197) Mining, AD, in Cornwall
622”17” Mining in the eighteenth century
622”17”(1/9) Mining, eighteenth century, in various
places

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622”17”(410.197) Mining, eighteenth century, in Cornwall

In this example, reference to Cornwall are scattered through the sequence, separated by, first,
the time element, and, second, most of the place sequence, since (1/9) represents many
individual entries. If, for a particular purpose, it were necessary to collocate references to
mining in Cornwall, it would be necessary to exchange the positions of the time and place
auxiliaries in the citation order. Then the division would be primarily according to place and
secondarily according to time:

622(1/9) Mining at various places

622 (1/9)”-…” Mining in various places, BC
622(1/9)”+…” Mining in various places, AD
622(1/9)”17” Mining at various places, eighteenth century
622(410.197) Mining in Cornwall
622(410.197)”-…” Mining in Cornwall, BC
622(410.197)”+…” Mining in Cornwall, AD
622(410.197)”17” Mining in Cornwall, eighteenth century

In this example, references to Cornwall are brought together, but references to the eighteenth
century are scattered.

If there is no other preference, follow the standard citation order as follows. If there is no
other preference, follow the standard citation order (reverse of filing order). But to bring
together aspects that would otherwise be scattered, vary the citation order so as to place the
relevant notation nearer the beginning of the compound (so affecting the filing order of the
class number). The filing order is prescribed, but the citation order is optional.

1.8 INTERCALATION
It is
the use of an auxiliary as an infix rather than a prefix or suffix. In other words, certain
auxiliaries may interrupt a main number, creating a compound such as 622(430).341.1. The
reason for this would be to create a more helpful arrangement of documents, or references to

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them, when classed. It is merely and extreme case of varying the citation order to produce a
different sequence. In the example given in 2.4.4.3, the place auxiliary (410.197) was
brought forward to precede the time auxiliary “17”, giving 622(410.197)”17”.Theoretically,
it might be brought still further forward, and intercalated into the main number, giving
62(410.197)2”17”. This would be useful only if one wanted to group all information on the
subject 62 ‘Engineering’, then subdivision it according to place (1/9) before proceeding to
…2 ‘Mining’. In practice, this is not likely, but there might be a need to group information
about a more specific activity, such as mining, in a given area:

622(410) Mining-Britain
622(410).333 Mining-Britain-coal
622(410).34 Mining-Britain-metal ores
622(430) Mining-Germany
622(430).333 Mining-Germany-coal
622(430).34 Mining-Germany –metal ores
or about institutions, such as laws, that vary from country to country:

1.9 SUMMARY

UDC has developed both common auxiliaries and special auxiliaries. Its adoption of several
connective devices proves it to be highly synthetic in application and usage. These auxiliaries
form the vital connecting link between different facets of compound and complex numbers.

UDC has identified several relations between subjects and has established mechanisms to
vary the order of facets such as independent auxiliaries, reversible relation and intercalation.
These notation allows it to be highly accommodative and hospitable to a great extent. Since
the division of classes is based on hierarchic enumeration the notation is expressive. It is
capable of displaying numeric hierarchy. The notation contains a number of synthetic devices
and is capable of allowing alternative approaches.

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1.10 GLOSSARY

Citation Order: The order in which facets are cited in a number.

Dependent Auxiliary: A common auxiliary in UDC so called because it can appear only in
conjunction with a main number. (see also Independent Auxiliary).

Generally Recurrent:Featurescommontoallsubjects,e.g.,form,language,etc.Common
auxiliaries listed only once (see also Locally Recurrent).

Independent Auxiliary: A common auxiliary in UDC that may be used as a class number
also. For example, it is possible to build a collection
ofareastudiesbystartingthenumberwiththerelevantspace number. Here, the space facet is an
independent auxiliary (see also Dependent Auxiliary).

Infix: Anelementoranumberthatinterruptsanothernumber,e.g., 622 is miningand 333 is coal

so that 622:333 is coalmining. This number can be interrupted by infixing (410). Thus, in
622(410):333, (410) is an infix.

Intercalation:ThedevicethatfacilitatesinfixingexplainedunderInfixabove.
IrreversibleRelation: Therelationthatcannotbereversed.Therelationthatdoes not allow
permutation of the concepts in a compound number (see also Reversible Relation).

Locally Recurrent: Featuresspecialtocertainsubjectsonlyandnotapplicableto all, e.g.,

personnel in industry and the like. They are listed where applicable in the scheme (see also
Generally Recurrent).

Parallel Division:When the same set of concepts appears at two places, or under two
classes, in a classification, these concepts are listed only
onceandreferenceismadetothemfromtheotherplacewhere
theyaretoberepresentedinasimilarfashion.Thesetwo
divisionsundertwoclassesareparalleltoeachother.

Reversible relation: Therelationthatcanbereversed.The-twoelementsina compound number

in a classification can be permuted or rotatediftherelationbetweenthemisreversible(seealso
Irreversible Relation).

Specificity:Akin to particularity: If particularity is achieved through

enumeration,specificityisachievedthroughsynthesis.The capability of a classification to
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represent all elements in a subject (see also Particularity).

1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Define Faceted or Analytico-Synthetic Classification.

In a faceted or analytico-synthetic classification system characteristics common to many

categories are identified. These are then arranged into lists each of which represents a facet.
The given subject are identified, and thus analysed into their common elements which can
further be arranged together, recombined or synthesized by the user.

2. Parallel Division

It consists in the use of the same notationto denote a given concept in more than one
placesignaled in the tables by the sub-divide sign as. This sign indicates that the
numberpreceding it has to be divided as the number following it. This device produces
ananalogous array with the same concepts expressed by the same sequence of digits.

3. Mnemonics

Mnemonics results from the use of the same notationrepresenting a given concept wherever
that concept occurs in the scheme.

4. UDC Notation
As discussed the UDC notation are alpha numeric symbol following are the sets of
symbols:

i) The ten lndo-Arabic numerals: 0, 1.to 9.

ii) The Roman alphabets both capital and lower case.
iii) Punctuation marks like point, semi-colon, colon and inverted commas.
iv) Mathematical signs: the plus and the equals.
v)It also includes parentheses, square brackets, the stroke and the apostrophe.

5. What do you understand by dependent common auxiliaries tables?

The dependent common auxiliary tables have no independent status and are always suffixed
to the main class numbers. They cannot be used at the beginning and in the middleof the
class number. It is generally used when there is need to expand a base number forlocal

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variation to represent a specific concept in the classification. In such an occasion theasterisk

mark (* ) is to be used as notation for such non-UDC number.

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Describe the kinds and groups of Common auxiliaries?

2. What is the usefulness of Special Auxiliary in classification?
3. Define process of classifying a document using common auxiliaries in the universal
decimal classification?
4. Elucidate with an example the function of parallel division in UDC classification.
5. What is interlacation?

1.10 REFERENCES

(1) Bose, H. (1987). Universal Decimal Classification: Theory and Practice. New Delhi:
Sterling Publishers Private Limited

(2) Ranganathan, SR. (1965). Prolegomena to Library Classification, Second

Edition. London: Library Association

(3) UDC International Standard Edition Volume 1: Systematic Tables, 2005. Volume 2:
Alphabetical Subject Index (2005). London: British Standards Institution

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. FOSKET (A C). Universal Decimal Classification. 1973. Clive Bingley, London.

2. McLLWAINE (I C). The Universal Decimal Classification: a guide to its use.
2007. UDC Consortium, The Hague, Netherlands.

3. UNIVERSAL DECIMAL CLASSIFICATION. (Latest Edition). British

Standards Institution, London.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************
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UNIT- II: Advance Applications of Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPLEX SUBJECT

DOCUMENTS

Dr P K Bhattacharya
Associate Director and Senior Fellow
The Energy and Resources Institute
New Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Classification
1.3.1 Practical Classification Methodology
1.3.2 Principles of Classification
1.4 Classification Process
1.4.1Steps to Classification
1.4.2 The Layout
1.4.3 The Procedure
1.5 Examples and Exercises
1.6 Summary
1.7 Answers to In-text Questions
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References
1.10 Suggested Readings

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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Steps to Classifications, layout and standard procedures

• Practical examples and practical learning of UDC classifications using common and
special auxiliaries, citation order and other associated parameters

1.2 INTRODUCTION

UDC is primarily an analytico-synthetic numerical classification system. It belongs to that

category of scheme which gives the classifier the maximum autonomy in constructing
numbers for new specific subjects not enumerated in the schedules.

The methodology of practical classification is largely dependent on the facets into which the
subject of a document is analysed. These methods are governed by certain principles which
are discussed in this chapter.

In actual practice the entire exercise of classification is done mentally first, while identifying
the subject category before drawing the whole class number in written. This chapter
discusses the steps, approaches, procedures involved in classification with work out
examples.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION

Classification is the process whereby similar things are grouped together, while dissimilar
ones are separated. This Principle can be extended to ideas contained in documents and when
it is applied there emerges the field of library or document classification. Thereforthe term
ideas denote a diversity of concepts, perceptions or items of information. This implies that
when things (i.e. ideas) have some common or distinctive features, which differentiate them
from others, the former can be grouped together into a class. Things which do not have the
common feature are excluded. This class can, in turn, be divided into smaller classes on the
basis of common distinctiveness. The process is continued until the entire gamut from the
universe of knowledge toa class with only one number is, theoretically, covered. All useful
classescontaining groups of related things lie between these two ‘extreme ends.

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For division of classes into mutually exclusive classes, the principles of division
(characteristics) are brought into play. Classes are then divided into subclasses by the
application of one characteristic of division at a time. A second characteristic is next applied
to the subclasses to yield further subclasses. The process continues till the characteristics are
exhausted and the subject has been classified to its minute details.

UDC is primarily an analytico-synthetic numerical classification system. This implies that

the UDC belongs to that category of scheme which gives the classifier the maximum
autonomy in constructing numbers for new specific subjects not enumerated in the schedules.
In fact, all modern schemes of classification are faceted to a certain degree, i.e., they provide
tables of constant numbers for divisions relating to time and to space. In other words, a
classification scheme which allows the classifier to build up the notation for a particular
document from various unit schedules is called an analytico-synthetic classification. The
faceted classification is also called analytico-synthetic because the subjects are analysed into
their elements which have to be recombined or re-synthesised. It may be repeated here that
the UDC is analytico-synthetic because it is the result of an endeavour to develop an
enumerative scheme, i.e., DDC, into a faceted classification making UDC an ideal tool for
subject classification. Documents when classified by the UDC can be arranged in their
respective subject areas so that the information contained in them can be retrieved quickly
and easily. Further, the UDC is invaluable in classifying the subject areas of science and
technology. Due to non-dependence on alphabet or language it has been accepted
internationally. Its constant amplification and modification to meet the emerging needs spans
the ever-increasing universe of knowledge.

1.3.1 Practical Classification Methodology:

The methodology of practical classification is largely dependent on the facets into which the
subject of a document is analysed. The meaning of ‘facet’ needs to be made explicit. It may
be recalled that the totality of divisions of a basic class according to a single train of
characteristics is said to constitute one of its facets. The concept of facet may not be
comprehensible to those who are not familiar with the theory of classification.

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To them, the facet will appear as synonymous with the ‘element’ or ‘aspect’ of a subject.
They are advised to consider the basic class as a cut gem; a cut gem has many faces each of
which can be called as its facets. Similarly, the subject of a document has many faces; these
faces may be considered as facets of the basic class of a subject. The problem of practical
classification can be viewed as the process of analysis and synthesis of concepts underlying
the subjects. So, the process of analysing subjects into their facets (or categories) and the
subsequent operation of combining terms from different facets to constitute a subject,
compound or complex, will now be described. Thus when these facets are represented by
numbers and then combined, the number for the subject as a whole is obtained.

As discussed in 2.3.2.The subject of a document having more than one aspect or elements is
considered as being made up of facets and a subject with more than one aspect (or facet) may
be considered. In such case, when these different aspects so selected as to represent multiple
facets of a subject are represented by numbers and these in turn are integrated to form the
class number of the subject the facets are said to have been cited. In other words, each facet
symbolises a particular aspect of the subject. Thereafter, these aspects (or facets) can be
aligned in a certain prescribed sequence. This prescribed sequence (or order) of alignment of
facets is known as the citation order; it is also known as the facet formula.

1.3.2 Principlesof Classification

The British standard attempts to provide a theoretical base for the UDC classification. In
doing so, it lays down a number of principles for deciding upon an acceptable citation order
of facets. These principles, which are somewhat hypothetical, are outlined as follows:

(i) Subject factors will have precedence over others, e.g.

547 (031) Organic chemistry: encyclopaedia

Here, the subject factor ‘organic chemistry’ is cited first, followed by the ‘encyclopaedia’,
which, being merely the form of presentation is the secondary aspect of the subject. But, if it

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is desired to have all these forms (e.g. encyclopaedia at one place in the interest of users, then
the document will have the following class number;

03:547 Encyclopaedias: organic chemistry

(ii)Traditional way of looking at subjects, e.g.

820—1 English poetry

As the users expect to find ‘poetry’ under literature which is the traditional way of looking at
subjects, the number 820-1 will be appropriate.

The other alternative is to classify the subject under linguistics by allotting the number 802;
82-1 which represents English poetry from a linguistic viewpoint. The number is not suitable
because poetry is related more to literature than linguistics.

(iii) Most concrete to least concrete

This principle of citing more concrete facets before less concrete ones had been formulated
by Ranganathan in Colon classification and is expressed through his facet formula PMEST,
i.e. Personality—Matter—Energy—Space—Time.

But, the conceptual preciseness of the term ‘concrete’ is elusive due to the following reasons.
According to this principle of decreasing concreteness, the facet ‘time’ is the least concrete in
the facet formula, PMEST. But the ‘time’ is an important factor in all the fine arts, i.e.,
paintings, architecture etc, It may, therefore, find precedence over other facets which are
more concrete than the ‘time’ facet.

The citation order of the UDC scheme is flexible enough to accommodate such eventualities,
as will be evident from the following example:

Twentieth century jazz music in the U.S.A,

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This subject can be represented by any of the following numbers:

"19" 785. 16 (73)
785 “19" 16 (73)
785. 16 "19" (73)

In the UDC scheme, the time auxiliary is usually cited after the main number. But, as the
quotations are biterminal, they permit reversal of the order of intercalation.

(iv)Means to be subordinated to ends:

The principle of subordinating means to ends is based on the fact that to get an end-product,
some kind of operation is necessary, e.g.

671.202 Fancy jewellery: Manufacturing process,

from 671.2 Fancy jewellery
and 67.02 Manufacturing process

In this number, the operation ‘manufacturing process’ has been subordinated to the end-
product ‘fancy jewellery’,

(v) Subordination or dependence one facet to the other

This principle which is a corollary of (iv), can be explained: as follows: when ‘part’ is
dependent on ‘kind’, and ‘kind’ is, in turn, dependent on ‘whole’, then the citation order will
be ‘whole-kind-part’ and not the other way around, e.g.

629.735.3.035.5 Propellers of landplanes

The subject can be analysed in terms of standard facet formula as follows:

Aircraft—Landplanes—propellers

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The citation order, if based on the aforesaid principles is supposed to reflect users’ interests,
consistency of approach and ensure a helpful order of elements within a class number. Based
on this hypothesis, the following standard facet formula for the citation of elements has been
propounded in the BS, 1000C (1963):

Whole thing—Kinds—Parts—Materials—Properties—
Processes—Operations—Agents.

All these elements are unlikely to get reflected at-a time in the subject matter of a single or
all documents. But, the chances do exist that some of these elements will occur in nearly all
documents. So, it is surmised that if classifiers follow this standard facet formula, they will
arrive at correct conclusions regarding the citation order of facets and be able to formulate
numbers consistent with the subject of documents.

This standard facet formula contains such terms denoting multiple aspects of a subject which
may appear as overlapping to many. Nevertheless, the array of these aspects in the standard
facet formula stresses the basic principle of alignment whereby the ‘most concrete’ is
followed by the ‘least concrete’. This idea is an offshoot of Ranganathan’s chain indexing.

1.4 CLASSIFICATION PROCESS

1.4.1Steps to Classification:

In ‘Prologomena to Library Classification’, Ranganathan has proposed for the adoption of

nine successive steps for the classification of documents. It was proposed in the context of
colon classification but this may serve as a base for other classification scheme as well.
Step 0 Raw title: Name of the subject as is found in the title page of a document
Step 1 Expressive title (to be derived from the Raw title)
Step 2 Title in Kernel terms (to be derived from the Expressive title)
Step 3 Analysedtitle (to be derived from the Kernel title)
Step 4 Transformed title (to be derived from the Analysed tithe)
Step 5 Title in ‘Standard terms (to be derived from the Analysed title)
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Step 6 Title in Facet terms (to be derived from the title in Standard terms)
Step 7 Class number (to be derived from the title in Facet terms)
Step 8 Verification (the synthesised class number has to be translated, analysed, interpreted
and verified)

Conciliatory Approach: As discussed in 1.3.2. A class number is built up of elements starting

from the “most concrete’ to ‘least concrete’ aspect. In contrast to it, the primary index entry
with full-length chain based on it, has the sequence of elements aligned from the ‘least
concrete’ to “most concrete’ aspect. If this order is reversed, then the elements will get
aligned in the same order as that of those in the class number. This alignment of elements in
the order of decreasing concreteness may be termed as the chain index in reverse. It,
therefore, becomes logical that such an alignment of elements, which follows the “most
concrete’ to ‘least concrete” sequence be chosen for practical classification. Thus, the
reversed order of elements in a primary index entry with full-length chain is the base on
which class numbers should be built. For example, the following subject may be considered:

Maintenance of diesel engines.

If the subject is chain indexed, then the primary index entry with full-length chain will
assume the following form:

Maintenances: Internal combustion engines (diesel type): Mechanical engineering:

Engineering.

When the chain is reversed, the following form emerges-

Engineering: Mechanical engineering:
Internal combustion engine (diesel type):
Maintenance

After these elements are substituted by respective class numbers, the following sequence is
derived:
62:621: 621:4:621.43: 621.436.1:62—7

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In an evolutionary process, the lower species get extinct and complex ones survive. The
analogy, though rather far-fetched, can be cited when one sees how classes, subclasses and
subdivisions gradually fade away evolving into a number, which may be simple, compound
or complex.
Thus, in the following example, these individual numbers ultimately merge into621.436.1
which, when joined with 62-7 by colon becomes a complex number, i.e.
621.436.1:62—7 Maintenance of diesel engines,

The facet indicator can be eliminated, and integrated class number expressed as follows:
621.436.1—7 Maintenance of diesel engines.

Thus it should be noted that the entire classification analysis has to be conducted through a
mental exercise before actually the documents are classified. However, for the understanding
of the users, the steps will be traced in the examples that will follow. While doing actual
classification work, these intermediate steps need not be written down. With a little practice
on these lines, the classifier will be ableto comprehend all the steps and arrive at the
appropriate class number.

1.4.2The layout:
The principal divisions are preceded by special auxiliary subdivisions in all the classes. The
implications of such a layout of special auxiliary subdivisions will be apparent from some
examples which have been derived. We will dwell on exposition explaining the process of
formulation of these numbers with the help of special auxiliary sub divisions. These
auxiliaries are used for constructing numbers for subjects not enumerated in the schedule.

Few examples are as follows:

Example- 1.
621.922.2.025 Abrasive wheels with carborandum

from 621.922.2 Abrasive tool with carborundum

and 621.922.025 Abrasive wheels

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(special auxiliary)

The number 621.922.2 has, in turn, been, formulated with the help of parallel division
621.922.1/.8≅ 621.92.1/.8 as shown below:
621.922.2 Abrasive tool with carboarandum

from 621.922 Abrasive tools

and 621.921.2 Carborundum

Example- 2:
621.924.924.37. 046 Internal face-grinding machine for
centerless grinding

from 621.924.37 Internal face-grinding machine

and 621.923.046 Centreless grinding

(Special auxiliary)

The number 621.924.37 has been formulated with the help of parallel division
621.924.3≅621.924.5 through a process as shown below:
621.924.3 Internal face-grinding machine

from 621.924.3 Face-grinding machine

and 621.924.57 Internal grinding machine

Example- 3.
621.927.4.084 Fine crushing plant with rollers

from 621.927.4 Crushing plant with rollers

and 621.927.0684 Fine crashing

(special auxiliary)

It is interesting to note that the special auxiliary subdivision 621.927.084 has been derived
from the parallel division 621.927.082/. 086≅621.926.082/.086 throughthe following process:
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621.927.084 Fine crushing

from 621.927 Crushing

and 671.926.084 Reduction to granular form.

1.4.3The Procedure:
The methodology presented in section 3.1.1 requires to be tested against problems which a
classifier faces while classifying some compound subjects embodying scientific and
technological advancements. The ease and clarity with which these problems can be solved is
construed as the merit of the scheme. To that end subjects have been selected at random for
classification from different sources and presented. Work out examples has been so chosen as
to represent a cross-section of subjects and diverse techniques used in classifying them.
These examples have been selected from various published sources. This entire exercise is
designed to arouse interest in all categories of users of the UDC Scheme.

Again it is stressed that in actual practice the entire exercise is done mentally first while
identifying the subject category before the end result in the form of whole class number is
written down. This applies to professionals and classifiers as well. Students areadvised that
subject analysis be done on a paper to avoid missing links in the class number before arriving
at the class number. The overall result will be the elimination of possible errors and arrival at
the appropriate class number.

1.5 EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES

As stated in the preceding paragraphs, the following examples have been selected for
illustrating the points discussed so far:

(1) The commonwealth conference on apartheid in South Africa, held in 1986

Subject analysis:
Commonwealth Apartheid South Africa 1986
Conference

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061.3(41-44) 323.118 (680) "1986"

Class number: 061.3(41 —44):323.118(680) "1980"

(2) Effects of chemical fertiliser on the growth and development of high yielding variety
(HYV) rice plants; case studies inexperiments.
Subject analysis:
Rice plants Variations, Fertilisers (artificial).
mutations
633.18 581.5 631.82

Class number: — 633.18:581.15:631.82

(3) Technology of large-scale vacuum drying of corn flakes

Subject analysis:
Corn flakes Vacuum drying Mass production
664.784 - 8 66.047.2 658.526

Class number: 664.784.8:66.047.2:658.526

Note: The term ‘mass production’ can be considered as equivalent to ‘large-scale

production’.

(4) Steel for earthquake resistant structures.

Subject analysis:
Steel Foundations resistant to earth tremors
691.714 624.159.1

Class number:— 691.714:624.159.1

(5) Energy spectra produced by the interaction of antiprotons with other particles.

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Subject analysis:

Antiprotons Interaction with other particles Energy spectra

539. 125.4 539.12…17 539.12…164

Class number: — 539.125.417.164

(6) Review of dry land agricultural research in India during 1971-81: Progress Reports
Subject analysis:
Dry farming Research in India during 1971-81 Progress reports
631.586 001.5(540) "197 1/1981" (047.1)

Class number— 631.586.001.5(540) "1971/1981" (047.1)

(7) English language bibliography of research in strategic guided missile system of the
U.S.A.

Subject analysis:
Strategic guided U.S.A Bibliography English language
missile system
632.462.14 (73) (01) =20

Class number: — 632.462.14(73)(01)=20

(8) Self-sealing tyres for use with police vehicles.

Subject analysis:
Police vehicles Self-sealing tyres
629.114.476 629.11.012.558.4

Class number:— 629.114.476.012.558.4

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Note:—The number 629.11.476 for police vehicles has been derived with the help of the
parallel division 629.114≅629.1-4 as follows:

629.11.476 Police vehicles

from 629.11 Road vehicles
and 629.1-476 Vehicles for police

(9) Incidence of encephalitis among infants of low-lying areas of Assam: A bibliographical

study.
Subject analysis:
Encephalitis: Children: Assam, below level Bibliographic
description
616.831 - 002 - 053.6 (541.1—197.2) (048.1)

Class number: - 616.831 —002—053.6 (541.1—197.2)(048.1)

Note: - The number for the low-lying areas of Assam has been formulated as under:

(541.1—197.2) Low-lying areas of Assam.

from (541.1) Assam
and (I - 197.2) Below level

(10) Impact of informatics on vocational and continuing education in India.

Subject analysis:
Information work Vocational education India
techniques
659.21 377.4 (540)

Class number:- 659.21:377.4(540)

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11) Papers and proceedings of the International Conference on the effects of environmental
pollution on human life.

Subject analysis:
Pollution depredations on on humans International
humans Conference
502.57 061.3(100) (061.3)

Class number: — 502.57:061.3(100)(061.3)

Note: It may be noted here that the number (061.3) has been derived with the help of the
parallel division (061/069)≅061.1/ 9 as shown below:

(061.3) Conference publications

From (061/069) Publications of a particular kind of
society or organisation
and (061.3) Conferences etc,

12) Social welfare schemes for leather industry personnel of Tamil Nadu: A bibliography.
Subject analysis:
Leather industry Social welfare Tamil Nadu Bibliography
personnel scheme
675—051 36.07 (548.1) (O48)

Class number: — 675—051:36.07(548.1) (048)

Note: The number 675—051 has been formulated through the following process:

675-051 Leather industry personnel

from 675 Leather industry
and - 051 Persons as practitioners

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13) Measurement theory and its application in library research.

Subject analysis:
Measurement theory Library functions etc Research
Class number:- 303.21:021.001.5

(18) Current research topics in clinical and community psychology (a bibliographical serial
published in the U.S.A. since 1972).
Subject analysis:
Clinical and community psychology, research in U.S.A
159.91.922.27.07 (73)
Class number: -159.91.922.27.07(73) "1972/1986"

Note:The following points may be noted here:

(i) The number for ‘research in clinical and community psychology, has been formulated
through the following process:

159.91.922.27.07 Research in clinical and community psychology

from 159.91 Clinical psychology
and 159.922.27 Community psychology
and 159.07 Research in psychology

(ii) The year ‘since 1972" may be considered as the continuation of it, i.e, 1972-1986, So, the
time can be written as “1972/1986.”

(iii) The auxiliary (05:048.1) has been formulated through the synthesis of two different
auxiliaries as shown below: —

(05:048.1) Bibliographical serial.

from (05) Serial publications

and (048.1) Bibliographic descriptions.

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(19) Fusion reactors using high-temperature rotating Plasma.

Subject analysis:

Fusion reactors:rotating plasma High temperature plasma.

type

621.039.629 533.921.6

Class number:— 621.039.629:533.921.9

Note-— The number 533.921.6 has been formulated: through the following process:

533.921.6 High temperature plasma

from 533.92 Plasma reactors

and 533.9...16 High-temperature plasma.

1.6 SUMMARY

UDC is an analytico-synthetic- classification with the added advantage of flexibility

in the citation order for facets. This flexibility, in citation order is due to the provision of
devices of intercalation and reversible relation. The UDC-includes two kinds of tables: main
and auxiliary. While the former represent its enumerative character, the latter lend it its
analytico-synthetic character. As discussed above the auxiliary tables comprises Common
and Special Auxiliaries. While the common auxiliaries are generally recurrent, the special
auxiliaries are locally recurrent. The degree of detail achieved by UDC through hierarchical
enumeration in the main tables and through facetisation with the help of auxiliaries makes it
a truly bibliographic classification.It is extremely flexible where a library can adjust and
develop special classification series with relative ease. This is because the citation order in
any given class often allows several alternative treatments (intercalation and reversible
relation).It is ideally suited to special libraries, as its full edition contains subject schedules of
minute description. Special subject editions are also 'separately available. The standard
edition can take care of almost all subjects. The UDC is an international effort and caters to
universal needs. It is at once suitable '.for general and special collections. UDC is the

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preferred scheme of classification especially with science libraries both nationally and
internationally.

1.7 GLOSSARY

Class Identifier: It is a unique identifier assigned to each class. It identifies the meaning of
the relationship between the representation of the class and its notational number or UDC
number.

Broader Class: It represents a class, which is super-ordinate class,i.e., the class above the
given class in the hierarchy.

Sub-division:These are three-digit numbers derived from two-digit subclasses. e.g., (504)
Environment.

Simple Number:A number taken from a single place in the table and cited on its own
whether a main number or an independent auxiliary.

Compound Subject:In a compound subject, more than one element within a conventional
class gets reflected within it. A compound subject can accordingly be represented by a
number.

Analytico-Synthetic: A freely faceted classification based on postulates and classification

principles for analysis and synthesis of the subjects.

1.7 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Soviet economic aid to India, an analysis and evaluation

Law -34

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International law -341

Economic aid - 341.232.3
Russia- (47)
Economic development -330.34
India - (540)
Evaluation- 001.818
Class number- 341.232.3(47):330.34(540):001.818

2. Proceedings of wood heating seminar

Fuel technology of wood -662.71
Class number - 662.71(08)

3. Handbook of energy conservation for mechanical systems in building

Economics of Energy -620.9
Building -69
Class number: 620.9:69(035)

4. Agricultural biotechnology in developing countries

Biotechnology - 606
Agriculture - 63
Developing country- (1-773)
Class number - 606:63(1-773)

5. The ‘project tiger’ campaign in India, and its aftermath

Tigers- 599.742.7
Wildlife Conservation-502.2
India- (540)
Class number- 599.742.7:502.2(540)

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

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1. UDC is known for its flexibility and hospitality explain.

2. Discuss in brief the principles of classification.
3. List out the classification process.
4. Classify the title “Climate resilience in India in last decade using renewable
technology application”.
5. Classify the title “Wealth from Waste”.

1.10 REFERENCES

(1) Bose, H. (1987). Universal Decimal Classification: Theory and Practice. New Delhi:
Sterling Publishers Private Limited

(2) Ranganathan, SR. (1965). Prolegomena to Library Classification, Second

Edition. London: Library Association

(3) M.P. Satija, M.P (2008) Universal Decimal Classification: Past and Present.
DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology, 28(6), 3-10.

(4) UDC International Standard Edition Volume 1: Systematic Tables, 2005. Volume 2:
Alphabetical Subject Index (2005). London: British Standards Institution

(5) UDC Consortium. Major changes to the UDC 1993-2013

Retrieved July 20, 2022 from
https://udcc.org/index.php/site/page?view=major_revisions

(6) Universal Decimal Classification, 3rd Edition(2005). British Standards Institution,

London: British Standards Institution

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. FOSKET (A C). Universal Decimal Classification. 1973. Clive Bingley, London.

2. McLLWAINE (I C). The Universal Decimal Classification: a guide to its use. 2007. UDC
Consortium, The Hague, Netherlands.

3. UNIVERSAL DECIMAL CLASSIFICATION.(Latest Edition).British standards

institution, London.
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 Name of the Course

LESSON 1

NON-BOOK MATERIALS

Saloni Priya
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Non Book Materials: Definiton& Types
1.3.1 Uses of non book materials
1.3.2 Chief sources of information
1.3.3 Levels of description
1.4 Complexity of Periodicals
1.4.1 Problems in cataloguing periodicals
1.4.2 Rules and procedures for cataloguing periodicals
1.5 Manuscripts
1.6 Cartographic Materials
1.7 Microforms
1.8 Graphic Materials
1.9 Summary
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to:

• describe non-print media;
• categorise different types of non print media;
• discuss the bibliographic description of non-print media, their structure and sources of
information
• learn cataloguing of various non book materials

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1.2 INTRODUCTION

You have learned about various aspects of cataloguing in previous lessons. These are
discussed in the context of print material cataloguing. Libraries are acquiring an increasing
number of non-print materials these days. Though there are many similarities between these
two media, there are many unique characteristics of non-print media in terms of cataloguing
details. This lesson will cover the cataloguing of various non-book materials.

1.3 NON - BOOK MATERIALS: DEFINITION & TYPES

Non Book Materials (NBM) are materials that do not fit the definition of a book, periodical,
or pamphlet and require special storage, such as audio-visual materials, microforms or
computer files, or electronic resources. It is commonly understood to be any non-printed
book resource material that contributes to the learning process. In order to exploit
information from those formats, the NBM require special treatment in terms of bibliographic
description. "Non-book" is defined as "something other than a book; being a manuscript,
microfilm, map, or other library holding that is not a book" by Webster's Third New
International Dictionary. According to Harrold's Librarian's Glossary, NBM is "those library
materials that fall under the definition of special holding, such as audio-visual materials,
vertical file materials, microforms, or computer files."

The cataloguer faces a challenge with non-print material due to its diverse nature and
physical characteristics. Cataloguing aids in the acquisition of bibliographic control over
non-print media. It also improves access to materials in the library and across networks.

Cataloguing non-print media necessitates familiarity with a wide range of information,

including the General Material Designation (GMD), specific physical characteristics of
individual formats, and the software and hardware associated with the item's uses. The
library/information centre must make decisions on the following issues in order to establish
cataloguing procedures for non-print media.
There are various types of non-book materials like:

Cartographic Materials
- Ariel Chart - Map
- Leaf - Plan
- Ariel Remote Sensing image - Relief Model
- Atlas - Remote Sensing Image
- Celestial Globe - Space Sensing Image
- Chart - Topographic Drawings
- Globes

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Sound Recordings
- Sound Disc
- Sound Cartridge
- Sound Cassette
- Sound Track Film
Reel(Cassette)

Music
- Score
- Condensed
- Minature Score
- Chorus Score
Manuscripts
- Item (for collection of manscripts.)
- Box

Motion Pictures and Video Recordings

- Film Catridge
- Cassette
- Video Cassette
- Video Disc
- Video Reel

Graphic Materials
- Art Original - Photograph
- Art Print - Picture
- Art Reproduction - Post Card
- Chart - Slide.
- Film Strip - Technical Drawing
- Kit - Transparency

Computer Files
- Data Files
- Program File

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- Object Program

Microform
- Aperture Card
- Microfiche
- Micro Film Cartridge Cassette Reel

Three-Dimensional Artefacts and Realia

- Art Original
- Realia
- Game
- Diorama
- Model

1.3.1 Uses of Non- Book Materials:

Some of the uses of Non Book Materials are:

• NBM as a storage medium offers a potential alternative access to information because

of its enormous information storage capacity at a low cost.
• With NBM, data damage is greatly reduced, and information can be retrieved and
transferred quickly and accurately.
• Their durability quality allows for repeated use of information without deterioration
or loss.
• There is currently a trend toward compressing information carriers so that they take
up less space and are easier to store and distribute.
• They provide security, accessibility, portability, dependability, economy, easy
retrieval, and easy updating.
• Microform can be used to store rare books. A CD-ROM can hold the entire set of
Encyclopedia Britannica, Chemical Abstracts, and Biological Abstracts.

There are different types of non-book materials. They are found in various forms such as
cartographic materials, motion pictures, sound recording, graphic and other computer files.
AACR-2R provides specific rules for cataloguing such materials.AACR-2 specifies the
sources of information to be used in describing a publication; for example, in the case of a
printed monograph, such sources include the title page, the verso of the title page, and so on.
The chief source of information is the source of bibliographic data to be given first
preferences as the source from which a bibliographic description is prepared. For each type
of material, the rules identify a primary source of information.

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1.3.2 Problems of Cataloguing Non-Book Material

• Information may be difficult to obtain from the documents to be catalogued than with
• conventional documents having title page.
• Information collected from one source in the NBM may differ with that obtained
from another source of documents.
• It may be harder to reach the cataloguing decisions with reference to choice of access
point i.e. determination of heading or in other words to decide the person who is
chiefly responsible for the intellectual content of the document, which is less
experienced in case of books and serials.
• Information about physical description of different types of NBM definitely creates
problems for cataloguer rather than that for conventional documents.
• Not possible to obtain information through the naked eyes as it requires special
equipments.
• John Horner at the same time in his book Special Cataloguing has discussed a number
of possible problems along with the two above problems as stated by Hunter. The
problems stated by Horner are:
 The materials may be more fragile, rare and expensive than normal book-form
materials.
 Special subject knowledge and that of the relevant rules in catalogue code may be
needed to catalogue the materials thoroughly and quickly.
 Special knowledge and experience of the physical form may be needed.
 Special cataloguing tools that is, codes and thesauri may be needed.
 Hence, it may be necessary to compile one’s own aids because of the variety of
the type of material.
 With the publication of AACR-2, Amendments and AACR-2002, the cataloguing
of NBM has become easy, clear and standardised.
1.3.3Chief sources of information:

Type of materials Sources

Cartographic materials Cartographic item itself Container or case, the cradle
and stand of globe, etc
Manuscripts Title page and Colophon
Music Title page
Sound recordings
Disc Label
Tapes Reel and Label
Tape cassette Cassette label
Tape cartridge Cartridge and label
Sound recording on film Container and label

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Motion picture and video Film and its container

recordings
Graphic materials Item itself including any labels and the container
Computer files Internal user label Information issued by publisher,
creator, etc.
Microforms Title frame

1.3.4 Levels of Description

One of the significant features of the ISBD is a set of prescribed punctuation. Theprescribed
punctuation mark precedes each element in the description and signifies thenature of that
element. The prescribed punctuation marks are used as a device ofrecognition for both
machine and human manipulation of bibliographic records.Specific and detailed rules with
regard to prescribed punctuation are given in eachchapter in AACR-2.
Besides some punctuation marks necessary for NBM have been given below:

Parentheses ( )
Parentheses are used to:

• enclose physical details of accompanying material.

• enclose the number of logical records after the designation for a data file; the number
of statements and the name of programming language the designation for a program
file; the number of logical records, or statements in each file after the designation for
a multipart file; or the name, number, etc. mentioned after the designation for an
object program.
• enclose the number of frames of microforms a filmstrip and the speed of a film or
recording.

Plus Sign +

• precedes a statement of accompanying material.

• is used to indicate the Northern Hemisphere when giving the declination of the center
of a celestial chart.

Square Brackets [ ]

• enclose information taken from outside the prescribed source or sources.

• enclose the general material designation.

Areas of Description
AACR-2 prescribes detailed rules for each area of description.In presenting data in the
bibliographic description, information taken from the chief source of information is

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preferred. If the information required is not available or is insufficient from the chief source,
other sources are used.

1.3.5 Structure of Description

The bibliographic description of NBM follows the same norms as for books and
othermaterials. The main structure of the bibliographic entry comprises the heading,
thedescription and the subject description. The structure of the bibliographic
descriptionaccording to AACR 2R is given below(International Standard Bibliographic
Description for Non-Book Materials).

First Level
The level was designed for minor-item and for entries in catalogues with a policy ofminimum
description. The bibliographic elements to be included are set forth in thefollowing schematic
illustration.

Title proper/First statement of responsibility, if different from main entry heading in formof
number or if there is no main entry heading. Edition statement. Material (or type
ofpublication) specific details first publisher, etc., date of publication, etc. Extent of item –

Second Level
This level was designed for the standard range of item found in the library and for entries in
catalogues with a policy of standard description. The following elements are included: Title
proper [General material designation] = Parallel title: other title information/First statement
of responsibility, Each subsequent statement of responsibility. –Edition statement/First
statement of responsibility relating to the edition,- material (or type of publication) specific
details,-first place of publication, etc.: First publisher, etc., Date of publication, etc.. – extent
of item: other physical details; Dimensions. –(Title proper of series/Statement of
responsibility relating to series, ISSN of series; Numbering within the series. Title of sub-
series, ISSN of sub-series; Numbering within sub-series) – Note(s). –Standard number. This
level might appropriately be used in medium sized library

Third Level
It includes all the rules applicable to the item being catalogued. This level represents full
description and is recommended for items which, in the context of the catalogue are
considered to be important and rare. All elements set forth in the rules which are applicable
to the item being described are included, it is appropriate to large libraries and research
collections.

Entry Structure

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Call No

Heading
Title proper [GMD] = parallel title: other title information/
first statement of responsibility; each subsequent statement of
responsibility. - Ed. statement / first statement of responsibility of
the edition. - Material Specific Details. - first place of
publication: first publisher, date of publication.

Physical Description (Number of physical units, Dimensions,

Accompanying Material etc. ). - (series).
Notes.
Standard Number and terms of availability
1. Subject headings. I. Added entries (series)

1.4 COMPLEXITY OF PERIODICALS

A publication with a distinctive title which appears at stated or regular intervals, without
prior decision as to when the last issue shall appear. It contains articles, stories or other
writings, by several contributors. Newspapers, whose chief function is to disseminate news,
and the memoirs, proceedings, journals, etc. of societies are not considered periodicals under
the cataloguing rule. At the General Conference of UNESCO, held in Paris on 19th
November, 1964, it was agreed that a publication is a periodical, if it constitutes one issue in
a continuous series under the same title, published at regular or irregular intervals, over an
indefinite period, individual issues in the series being numbered consecutively or each issue
being dated. In statistical records, a periodical publication with a single system of numeration
whether or not the title has changed. Where a change of numeration occurs, a new sequence
starting at one irrespective of any change of title, is considered to be a separate Unit.
The following are some of the features of Periodicals:
• Every periodical is identified by its Title. For example India Today, Business India,
are titles of periodicals.
• Periodicity — Periodicals are published at regular intervals, e.g.,
Daily - Newspapers are published after one day, i.e., daily.
Weekly- Published after a week.
Monthly- Published after a month.
Quarterly- Published after 3 months.
Six monthly- Published after 6 months.
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Annual- Published after one year.

• Issues - we receive various issues of a periodical, e.g., we receive 12 issues of a
monthly magazine in a year. Every issue has a volume number, issue number and date
or month.
• Every issue contains articles, papers written by different authors. Besides articles and
papers, the journal may include book reviews, news and events, announcements,
letters to the editor, short'communications and advertisements of products', services
or contents of other periodicals.
• It is expected that the periodical will continue for a long time. However, sometimes
the periodicals are discontinued, e.g., the famous magazine Illustrated Weekly of
India.
• At the end of the year, all the issues of a periodical are collected together, arranged
sequentially by issue number and sent for binding. While binding, the title page,
contents page and index. (generally published after the year separately) are collected
and bound along with the volume.
• These bound volumes are accessioned in the accession register.
• Generally one volume is published in a year. This volume has a serial number, period
covered and year. Sometimes two or more volumes may he published in a year
• Periodicals are to be classified and catalogued.
• In many libraries, periodicals catalogue is kept separately. Printed catalogue of
holdings of periodical publications is also brought out by many institutions.
• National Documentation Centres compile Union Catalogue of Periodicals, and
publish them for public use.
• Union list of periodicals currently received in a city/region/state are also published for
input into city based library networks like DELNET, PUNENET, etc
1.4.1 Problems in cataloguing periodicals
Cataloguing of periodical publications poses several problems because of their complexity,
CCC describes that "their vagaries may transcend all imagination and anticipation. It looks as
if nothing relating to a periodical publication can escape the sport of caprice-sponsor, name,
periodicity, format, pagination, excrescential attachments to all or stray volumes, and, as but
not least, span of life and resurrection". Some of the common problems faced by the
cataloguer are, change in the name of the publication, while volume numbers continue,
irregularity in publication, irregularity in volume number, change of sponsor, amalgamation
of two or more periodicals into one, splitting of a periodical into two or more periodicals,
change in frequency of publications and so on.

1.4.2 Rules and procedures for cataloguing periodicals

Some of the common elements which are applicable to catalogue the periodical publications
are discussed in this section. Like any other document the Main Entry and Added Entry (i.e.,
Class Index Entries) are to be prepared. for Periodicals.

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Main Entry
Main Entry will have the following sections:

1) Leading Section
2) Heading Section
3) Periodicity Section
4) Series Note Section
5) Holdings-in-Brief Section
6) Tracing Section
7) Holdings-in-Full Section
1) Leading Section: In the Main Entry the leading section will have only the Class
Number.In case of books you write both Class Number and Book Number. But for a
periodical publication Book Number is not written in the leading section for the reason
that the entry stands not for one volume but for all the volumes that are added to the
library from time to time. The Class Number to be written with pencil. No full stop is to
written after it.
2) Heading Section: Title is to be written in the heading section. This means entry is to be
prepared under title of the periodical and not under editor of the periodical or publisher
of the periodical, e.g., READERS DIGEST, BUSINESS INDIA, NATURE, SPAN,
NAVANEET, SAPTAHIK HINDUSTHAN. First two words in the title are to be
'written in capitals.
If the periodical is an organ of an institution or sponsored by an organization and if the name
of the sponsoring body is not included in the title of the periodical.
1) Title of the periodical should be written first.
2) Followed by a comma, and
3) Name of the institution/sponsoring body to be written in circular brackets.
4) Full stop is to be written after circular bracket.

Entry Structure

Call No

Heading
Title proper [GMD] = parallel title: other title information/
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first statement of responsibility; each subsequent statement of

responsibility. - Ed. statement / first statement of responsibility of
the edition. - Material Specific Details. - first place of
publication: first publisher, date of publication.

Physical Description (Number of physical units, Dimensions

Accompanying Material etc. ). - (series).

Notes.
ISSN
Tracing

S.R. Ranganathan has recognized as many as 20 types of complexities of periodicals under 7

main headings(E-PGPathshala):

1. Irregularities in volume number

2. Irregularities in publication
3. Change of title and sponsor
4. Amalgamation
5. Splitting
6. Supplement
7. Difference of places of periodical conferences

1.5 MANUSCRIPTS

Scope :
The rules cover the description of manuscripts (including type-script)materials of all kinds,
including manuscript books, dissertations, letters, speeches, etc.,legal papers (including
printed forms completed in manuscript), and collections of suchmanuscripts for
reproductions of manuscripts published in multiple copies.
Chief Source of Information
The chief source of information for manuscripts is the manuscript itself. Within manuscripts,
use (in this order of preference) information from the : Title page, Colophon, Caption,
heading etc. Content of the manuscript If information is not available from the chief source,
take it from the following sources (in this order of preference) : Another manuscript copy of
the item, A published edition of the item, Reference sources, Other sources.

Determination of Heading

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The entry is prepared same as works of personal authorship,. Rule 21.1A 1 statesthat “A
personal author is the person chiefly responsible for the creation of theintellectual or artistic
content of a work”. Also the main entry can be done under ‘Title’ according to Rules.
Edition statement:

Transcribe a statement relating to a version of a manuscript that is different from

otherversions.
Rule 4.4B. Date of manuscript
Rule 4.5B1. Give the number of leaves or pages
e.g. VII, 18 leaves; leaves 43-43; [3] , 122 p.
Rule 4.5C1. (Physical Details):
Name the material on which the item being described is written if it is other than paper
e.g. [2] leaves : vellum; [1] leaf : parchment.
Rule 4.5 D for dimensions

Rule 4.6. Series area :

This area is not used for manuscripts
Rule 4.7B Notes area

Edition, place of publication, name of publisher, series, ISBN and materials are notused as
these are irrelevant to manuscript. If it is handwritten, the word is used asholograph (s). Ms
will be used for manuscript and Mss for collections of manuscripts.
HamareDeshbashiyon. Manuscript. Hindi Poems.
8 leaves. 2 leaves stained by water. There is a signed holograph on the manuscript.
Author- Ganpati Roy

Cataloguing entry

VastuShastra
(1940-1950)

By
Ganpati Roy

Other information:
Call no.: 494.5 ROY
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Leaves: 25 in 5 lines
Size: 30×5 cm.
Accession no. 7651
In Hindi
Contains coloured illustrations

Note: this manuscript is available with Ramachandra Goyal

Main entry:
494.5
ROY

Roy, Ganpati
VastuShastra [manuscript]/by Ganpati Roy. – 1940-1950.
25 leaves (5 lines): col. Ill.; 30 × 5 cm.
Ms. in Hindi.
Available with Ramachandra Goyal..

1. Hindi - Manuscripts. I. Title.

7651

Added entry (Subject):

494.5 HINDI-MANUSCRIPTS
ROY

Roy, Ganpati
VastuShastra [manuscript]/by Ganpati Roy. – 1940-1950.
25 leaves (5 lines): col. Ill.; 30 × 5 cm.
Ms. in Hindi.
7651

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Available with Ramachandra Goyal..

1. Hindi - Manuscripts. I. Title.

Added entry (Title):

494.5 VastuShastra
ROY

Roy, Ganpati
VastuShastra [manuscript]/by Ganpati Roy. – 1940-1950.
25 leaves (5 lines): col. Ill.; 30 × 5 cm.
Ms. in Hindi.
Available with Ramachandra Goyal..

1. Hindi - Manuscripts. I. Title.

7651

1.6 CARTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS

Cartographic materials include two and three-dimensional maps and plans, aeronautical,
navigational, and celestial charts, atlases, and globes, and all materials that represent the
earth or any celestial body, in whole or in part. Block diagrams, sections, aerial photographs
for cartographic purposes, and so on. The item itself or the container are the primary sources
of information. The terms globe and maps. In the GMD section, are designated for all types
of cartographic material. For cartographic materials, the 'Mathematical data area' is
designated as the material or type of publication specific details area. This section contains
statements about scales and projections. A cartographic item's scale is usually included in the
item. If not, this can be established.The word'scale' should come before the word

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'the/information.' If the item is a multipart item with different scales, write'scales vary.'
Similarly, information about 'Projections' is usually available in the item. The physical
description area should include specific material designation and other physical details such
as the number of maps in the atlas, colour, material, and mounting.

Cataloguing structure:

Call No

Heading
Title proper [GMD] = parallel title: other title information/
first statement of responsibility; each subsequent statement of
responsibility. - Ed. statement /first statement of responsibility. -
Statement of scale; Statement of projection. - first place of
publication, distriutionetc: first publisher, distributor etc.; date
of publication etc.
Extent of item: other physical details; dimensions +
accompanyingmaterial etc. ). - (series).

Notes.
Standard Number and terms of availability
Tracing

Fig: structure of the bibliographic description for cartographic materials

Cataloguing entry:
Maps:

Map of India

4th edition
Reprinted with minor corrections

New Delhi
Goyal Printing Press
1996

Other information:
Call number: 917.54 GOY
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Scale: 1 inch= 500 miles

Accession number: 8550
Size: 70 × 30 cm.

Note: 1 coloured plastic map.

Main entry

917.54
GOY

Goyal Printing Press (New Delhi).

Map of India [map]. – 4th rev. ed. – scale 1 inch: 500 miles. –
New Delhi: Goyal, 1996.
1 map: col. plastic; 70 × 30 cm

1. India - Maps. I. Title.

8550

Added entry-Subject

917.54 INDIA- MAPS

GOY

Goyal Printing Press (New Delhi).

Map of India [map]. – 4th rev. ed. – scale 1 inch: 500 miles. –
New Delhi: Goyal, 1996.
1 map: col. plastic; 70 × 30 cm

8550

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1. India - Maps. I. Title.

Added entry- Title

917.54 Map of India

GOY

Goyal Printing Press (New Delhi).

Map of India [map]. – 4th rev. ed. – scale 1 inch: 500 miles. –
New Delhi: Goyal, 1996.
1 map: col. plastic; 70 × 30 cm

1. India - Maps. I. Title.

8550

Atlases:

Collins World Atlas

Prepared by
Atlas Subcommittee
National Atlas Company, New Delhi

HarperCollins Publishers
Copyright 1956.

Hardcover Rs. 550

Other information:
Call number: 940 NAT
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Scale of all Maps: 1:200,000.

Accession number: 5884
Size: 12 × 8 inches.

Note:60 textual pages, out of which 10 belongs to

preliminary matters followed by 50 maps some of
which are coloured.

Main entry

940
NAT

National Atlas Company (New Delhi).Atlas Sub-committee.

Collins World Atlas [atlas] / prepared by Atlas Subcommittee
of the National Atlas Company; –Scale 1: 200,000. – New
Delhi: Goyal, c1956.
1 atlas (x, 60 p.): 50 maps: some col.; 12 × 8 in.

Hardcover Rs. 550

1. World - Maps. I. Title.

5884

Added entry (Subject)

940 WORLD- MAPS

NAT

National Atlas Company (New Delhi). Atlas Sub-committee.

Collins World Atlas [atlas] / prepared by Atlas Subcommittee
of the National Atlas Company; – Scale 1: 200,000. – New
Delhi: Goyal, c1956.
1 atlas (x, 60 p.): 50 maps: some col.; 12 × 8 in.
5884

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Hardcover Rs. 550

1. India - Maps. I. Title.

Added entry (Title)

940 Collins World Atlas

NAT

National Atlas Company (New Delhi). Atlas Sub-committee.

Collins World Atlas [atlas] / prepared by Atlas Subcommittee
of the National Atlas Company; – Scale 1: 200,000. – New
Delhi: Goyal, c1956.
1 atlas (x, 60 p.): 50 maps: some col.; 12 × 8 in.

Hardcover Rs. 550

1. India - Maps. I. Title.

5884

1.7 MICROFORMS

Rule 11.0A Scope

It includes microfilms, microfiches, microopaques and aperture cards. Microformsmay be
reproductions of existing textual or graphic material or they may be originalpublications.

Rule 11.0B1 : Chief Source of Information

The title frame is the primary source of information for microfilms (i.e. a frame, usually at
the beginning of the item, bearing the full title and, normally, publication details of the item.)
In the case of a set of cards, the main source of information is the title card, or in the case of a
set of cards, microfiche, and microopaques is the title frame. If such information is

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unavailable or insufficient, consider the eye-readable data printed at the top of the fische or
opaque as the primary source of information.

Cataloguing entry

Fifth Seminar on Shift to Electric Mobility was held at

Goa. 2014. Proceedings.

The seminar proceedings was edited by Rohit Tuli and

Ryan Mathew.

Total no. of microfiches-2. It is a negative copy having size

12 × 15 cm and 14 × 17 cm.

Main entry

Seminar on shift to electric mobility (5th : 2014: Goa).

Proceedings [microform] / edited by Rohit Tuliand Ryan
Mathew.- Goa, 2014.
2 microfiches: negative, 12 × 15 cm and 14 × 17 cm.

5884
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I. Tuli, Rohit II. Mathew, Ryan III. Title.

1.8 GRAPHIC MATERIALS

Rule 8.0A. Scope

It covers the description of graphic materials of all kinds whether opaque (e.g.
twodimensional art originals and reproductions, charts, photographs, technical drawings)or
intended to be projected or viewed (e.g. filmstrips, radiographs, slides) and collectionsof such
graphic materials.

Rule 8.0B1. Chief Source of Information:

It is the item itself including any labels, etc. that are permanently affixed to the item or
acontainer that is an integral part of the item. If the item being described consists of twoor
more separate physical parts (slide set, etc), treat a container that is the unifyingelement as
the chief source of information if it furnishes a collective title and the itemsthemselves and
their labels do not. If the information is not available form the chiefsource, take it form the
following source (in order of preference):
Container (box, frame, etc.)
Accompanying textural materials (manuals, leaflets, etc.)
Other sources
Rule 8.4: Publication, Distribution etc. Area.
Rule 8.4 F2

Record the date of creation of an art original, unpublished photograph, or

otherunpublishedgraphic item.
Portrait of Charles Dickens – 1964
Garden flowers [GMD]/Geoff Arnold. — [1898]
Fair Resemund. — [1910-1973]
(Unpublished photographs)
Rule 8.4. G : Place of manufacture, name of the manufactures, date of manufacture.

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Rule 8.4 G 1 : If the name of publisher is unknown, give the name of place andmanufacturer
as instructed in 1.4 G, if they are found in the item and have not beenrecorded in a statement
of responsibility.
Fig. : (s.l. :s.n. , 1966) (London: Allen press )
Rule 8.5 B 1 : Record the number of physical units of a graphic item.
4 wall charts 1 filmstrip catridge
200 slides 6 stereograph reels
Rule 8.5 B 2 : Add to the designation for a filmslip, filmstrip, etc. like
1 filmstrip (26 fr.)
1 flip chart (6 sheets)
Rule 8.5 C : Other physical details.

Cataloguing entry

Jack and Jill

by
Samuel Arnold

New York
Hamilton Films
1937

Other information:
Call number: 640.1 A475
Accession number: 6021
No. of filmstrips- 2 (40 frames each), coloured and black &
white + 4 sound cassettes (20 min. each).
Size: 30 mm.
Intended for audience grade 2-4

Main entry

640.1

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A475
Arnold, Samuel

Jack and Jill [filmstrip] / Samuel Taylor.- New York:

Hamilton Films, 1937.
2 filmstrips (40 fr. each): col. and b & w; 30 mm. + 4
sound cassettes (20 min. each).
Intended audience:Grades 2-4.

1. Nursery rhymes. I. Title.

6021

Added entry (Subject)

640.1 NURSERY RHYMES

A475
Arnold, Samuel

Jack and Jill [filmstrip] / Samuel Taylor.- New York:

Hamilton Films, 1937.
2 filmstrips (40 fr. each): col. and b & w; 30 mm. + 4
sound cassettes (20 min. each).
Intended audience:Grades 2-4.

1. Nursery rhymes. I. Title.

6021

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Added entry (Title)

640.1 Jack and Jill

A475
Arnold, Samuel

Jack and Jill [filmstrip] / Samuel Taylor.- New York:

Hamilton Films, 1937.
2 filmstrips (40 fr. each): col. and b & w; 30 mm. + 4
sound cassettes (20 min. each).
Intended audience:Grades 2-4.

1. Nursery rhymes. I. Title.

6021

1.9 SUMMARY

In this lesson, an attempt has been made to describe the cataloguing rules item-wise
for each of the non-book materials as laid down in AACR-2. Also many appropriate and
relevant examples are provided along with each area of bibliographic description for easy
understanding. Besides, the physical description of each type of non-documentary resource
which differ from one another are also mentioned exhaustively after explaining rules vividly
and clearly. Even in many cases, entries are prepared citing the information about a non-book
material following the rules for cataloguing (including the choice of access point and areas of
description) for quick and easy understanding.

1.12 REFERENCES

International Standard Bibliographic Description for Non-Book Materials. (n.d.). 84.

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

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American Library Association. (2005). Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, 2nd Revised

Edition (2nd 2002 ed.). New York: American Library Association.

Lal, C., & Kumar, K. (2006). Practical Cataloguing AACR-2. New Delhi:
EssEssPublications.

Pradhan, S. (2019). Cataloguing of Non-Print Resources: A Practical Manual. New Delhi:

EssEss Publications.
Ranganathan, S. R. (1964). Classified Catalogue Code: With Additional Rules for Dictionary
Catalogue Code. New York: Asia Pub. House.

Weihs, J. R., Lewis, S., & Macdonald, J. (1989). Nonbook Materials: The Organization
of Integrated Collections (3rd ed.). Ottawa: Canadian Library Association.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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 Master of Library & Information Science

LESSON 1

CATALOGUING OF ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

Dr Shehbaz Husain
Naqvi
Associate Professor
Jamia Millia Islamia
Dr Zakir Husain Library
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Rules for Description of Electronic Resources
1.3.1 Chief Source of Information
1.3.2 Organization of bibliographic information
1.3.3 Levels of description
1.4Sound Recordings
1.5Motion Pictures & Video recordings
1.6Electronic Resources (Computer Files &Web Resources)
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In BLIS Course you were taught cataloguing of various kinds of print resources. In this
Unit, you will be taught about the cataloguing of Electronic Resources. Like other non-print
material, the difference in the cataloguing of Electronic Resources is with respect to physical
media only, i.e., the same information may be available both in print or non-print media (e.g.,
microform) whereas, in some, the information content is intrinsic to the media (music,
computer files, etc.)
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
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• know different types of information sources for cataloguing the Electronic Resources;
• prepare the various entries of a for different types of Electronic Resources; and
• list data elements associated with Electronic Resources.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

AACR-2R provides specific rules for cataloguing different types of print and non-print
materials including electronic resources. The General Rules for Description are given in
Chapter 1 of AACR- 2R, which is for the description of all types of library material, both
print, and non-print. The following steps are followed in the cataloguing of electronic
resources:
• Identify the type of format;
• Identify the material it belongs to; and
• Then refer to the rules given in the specific chapter for that type of material.
Cataloguers are directed to the General Rules in Part I, Chapter 1 by the individual chapters
for the description of non-print material.
In this Unit, we will restrict our learning to the description of electronic resources especially
Sound Recordings, Motion Pictures and Video recordings, Computer Files, and Web
Resources only.
It is not possible to provide complete AACR rules in this Unit. We will give a brief outline of these rules for

1.3RULES FOR DESCRIPTION OF ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

Chapter 1, Part 1 of AACR-2R 2002 Edition provides general rules for the description
of all types of material- print and non-print both. Rules for specific kinds of materials are
found in chapters 3 to 12.The rules for sound recordings are in chapter 6, motion pictures and
video recordings in chapter 7, and electronic resources rules are in chapter 9.
In this Unit, we will confine ourselves to specific rules which are relevant for cataloguing
non-print materials, especially for Sound Recordings, Motion Pictures and Video
recordings, Computer Files, and Web Resources.
According to AACR-II, 2002 Edition, Chapter Number 9 has been renamed as “Electronic
Resources” to include “all types of data (information representation numbers, text, graphics,
images, maps, moving images, music, sounds, etc.) programs (instruction, etc., that process

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the data for use), or combinations of data and programs.”1 Therefore this study material also
we have to describe rules for cataloguing both Computer Files and Web Resources in one
place as prescribed in AACR-II, 2002 Edition.
1.2.1 CHIEF SOURCE OF INFORMATION
AACR-2R provides guidelines for the chief source of information for each type of
non-print material separately. It has given a list to guide which source of information should
be given first preference. These are given as follows:
(a) The material itself including the container where this forms an integral part of the item,
for example, a cassette, or cartridge.
(b) The container where this is completely separate from the item for example; a box.
(c) Accompany data that is guides and other leaflets issued with the item.
(d) Other sources for example reference work.
If required information cannot be found in the sources mentioned above, the information is to
be taken from the following sources, in order of preference:
a) any other source that, forms part of the item
b) accompanying item
c) any available source
d) compose yourself.
As you already know, if any information is taken from outside the item, it is to be enclosed in
square brackets.

1.2.2 ORGANIZATION OF BIBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

The main entry of a catalogue according to AACR-II, consist of the following areas:
Title and statement of responsibility
Edition
Material (or type of publication)
Publication, distribution, etc
Physical distribution
Series
Note
Standard number and terms of availability
Each of these areas is further divided into a number of elements.
1.2.3 LEVELS OF DESCRIPTION

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The rules in AACR-2R has provision of three levels of description of bibliographic

information in an entry. The first level gives the minimum information, necessary to identify
a resource.It is generally used in small libraries. The second level of description gives all the
dataof the resource. It is used in for medium size libraries. The third level of description
gives each element available in the resource under cataloguing. This level is mostly used in
large libraries.
(i) The first level of Description
“Title proper/first statement of responsibility, if different from main entry heading in
form or number or if there is no main entry heading. - Edition statement. - Materials
(or type of publication) specific details. - First publisher, etc., date of publication, etc. -
Extent of the item. - Note(s). - Standard number.” 1
Example:
971.2
Kurelek, William
Kur
Selections from A prairie boy's summer [filmstrip]. - Random
c1982. House,

456 147 fr. + 1 sound cassette + 1 sheet.

I. Title 1. Prairie Provinces- Social life and customs 2. Children Prairie

Provinces
(ii) Second Level of Description
“Title proper (general material designation)- parallel title: other title information/first
statement of responsibility relative to the edition: Material (or type of publication)
specific details-First place of publication, etc.: first publisher, etc., date of publication
etc.-Extent of item: other physical details; dimensions. - (Title proper of series/
statement of responsibility relating to series, ISSN of series: numbering within the
series. Title of subseries, ISSN of subseries; numbering within subseries). -Note(s).
Standard number.” 1

971.2
Kurelek, William
Kur
Selections from A prairie boy's summer [filmstrip] / paintings and
stories by William Kurelek. Westminster, Md.: Md.: Random House, c1982.
456
1 filmstrip (147 fr.): col.; 35 mm. + 1 sound cassette (17 min., 58
sec.) + 1 sheet. (Children's literature series)
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Prairie Provinces. I. Title
 Master of Library & Information Science

Based on a book published in 1975

Cassette has 1 side manual, 1 side automatic advance signals.

(iii) Third Level of Description

971.2
Kurelek, William
Kur
Selections from A prairie boy's summer [filmstrip] / paintings and
stories by William Kurelek; Random House/Miller-Brody Productions.
Westminster, Md.: Random House School Division, c1982.
1 filmstrip (147 fr.): col.; 35 mm. in container 23 x 19 x 5 cm. + 1
sound cassette (17 min., 58 sec.) + 1 sheet (28 cm.). - (Children's literature

456 Credits: Music, John Pearce; narration, Richard Davidson; editor and
designer, Sara Kurtz. --Based on the book published: Montreal: Tundra;
U.S.A.: Houghton-Mifflin, 1975. - Cassette has 1 side manual, 1 side
automatic advance signals.- Summary: A boy's summer in the 1930s on the
Canadian prairies. - Producer's no.: 0-394-62944-2.
1. Prairie Provinces - Social life and customs. 2. Children-Prairie
Provinces. I. Title

IN-TEXT QUESTION
1. How many levels of description are provided in AACR-II?
(a) Four (b) Three (c) One (d) None of these

1.4 SOUND RECORDINGS

According to the glossary of AACR II, sound recording is described as "the recording on
which sound vibration has been registered by mechanical or electronic means so that the
sound may be reproduced". 1Itincludes following items: Tapes, Rolls, Discs, sound pages,
and sound recordings on film".
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1.4.1 Chief Sources of Information

The AACR-II has prescribed the following chief sources of information for Sound
Recordings. These are given in Table 2.
Table 2: Chief Sources of Information for Sound Recordings
Type Chief Source
Disc Disc and label
Tape (open reel to reel) Reel and label
Tape cassette Cassette and label
Tape cartridge Cartridge and label
Roll Label
Soundrecording on film Container and label

1.4.2 Main Entry

The main entry for sound recordings is based on the same principles of authorship governing
other types of library materials; entry will be under "the person chiefly responsible for the
creation of the intellectual or artistic content of a work".
1.4.2.1. Sound Recording of one work
The work(s) of one composer or author are entered under the name of that composer or
author.
1.4.2.2. Sound Recording of a Collection when the principal performer is indicated
A sound recording that contains musical or literary works composed or written by two or
more persons is entered under the principal performer or group of performers as the case may
be.
1.3.2.3. Sound Recording of a Collection when the principal performer is not indicated
A sound recording that contains musical or literary works composed or written by two or
more persons and has no principal performers or more than three principal performers is
entered:
(a) Under the title, if the sound recording has a collective title for the component parts.
(b) Under the heading appropriate to the first work; e.g., that on side 1, band 1 of a sound
disc, if the item does not have a collective title for the component parts.
1.4.2.4. Items without a collective title
These may be described in either of two ways:
(a) As a unit.
(b) In separate entries for each work.
These entries are linked by a "With" note.

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1.4.3Statement of Responsibility
If a person or group of persons are responsible for creating the intellectual content of the
sound recording or who have contributed more to the recording than performance, then their
names are recorded in the Statement of responsibility area. However, if they have merely
performed, executed, and interpreted, then their names are given in the Note area only. This
is as per Rule Number 6.1F of AACR-II.
1.4.4 Physical Description Area
1.4.4.1 Extent of Item (including SMD)
Record the number of physical units of a sound recording by giving the number of parts in
arabic numerals and one of the following terms as appropriate: (Rule No. 6.5B1 of AACR-II)
Sound cartridge
Sound cassette
Sound disc
Sound tape reel
Soundtrack film
Example: 1 sound disc
1.4.4.2 Playing Time
Give the playing time of a sound recording. (Rule No. 6.5B2 of AACR-II)
Example: 1 sound disc (50 min.)
1.4.5 Other Physical Details
1.4.5.1 Type of recording:(Rule No. 6.5C1 of AACR-II)
Give, for a disc or tape, the type of recording.
Example: 1 sound disc (4.1) min.): analog
1 sound disc (56 min.): digital
1.4.5.2 Playing speed:(Rule No. 6.5C2 of AACR-II)
i) Give the playing speed of an analog disc in revolutions per minute (rpm).
Example: I sound disc (45 min.): analog, 33 1/3 rpm
ii) Give the playing speed of a digital disc in meters per second (m. per sec.).
Example: 1 sound disc (16 min.): digital, 71/2 m. per sec
iii) Give the playing speed of an analog tape in inches per second (ips).
Example: 1 sound tape reel (16 min.): analog, 71/2 ips
iv) Give the playing speed of the soundtrack film in frames per second (fps).
Example: 1 sound track film reel (to min.): magnetic, 24 fps

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1.4.5.3 Groove characteristic:(Rule No. 6.5C4 of AACR-II)

Give the groove characteristic of an analog disc, if it is not standard for the type of disc.
Example: 1 sound disc (7 min.): analog 78 rpm. microgroove
1.4.5.4 Track configuration:(Rule No. 6.5C5 of AACR-II)
For sound track films, give the track configuration (e.g., centre track, edge track).
Example: 1 sound track film reel (10 min.): magnetic, 25 fps, centre track
1.4.5.5Number of sound channels: Give the number of sound channels, if the information is
readily available, using one or more of the following terms as appropriate: (Rule No. 6.5C7
of AACR-II)
mono
stereo
quard
Example:
1 sound dis (56 min.): digital, stereo.
2 sound disc (66 min.): analog, 331, rpm, mono., stereo.

1.3.5.6Dimensions
Give the dimensions of a sound recording as set out in the following rules.
Sound discs: Give the diameter of a disc in inches. (Rule No. 6.5D2 of AACR-II)
Example: 1 sound disc (20 min.): analog, 33 rpm, stereo.; 12 in.
Sound track films: Give the gauge (width) of a film in millimeters. (Rule No. 6.5D3 of
AACR-II)
Example: 1 sound track film reel (10 min.): magnetic. 25 fps, center track:16 mm.
Sound cartridges: Give the dimensions of a cartridge in inches if other than the standard
dimensions (5% x 3 7/8 in). Give the width of the tape in fractions of an inch if other than the
standard width (in). (Rule No. 6.5D4 of AACR-II)
Sound cassettes: Give the dimensions of a cassette if other than the standard dimensions
(e.g., the standard "dimensions of an analog cassette are 3 7/8 x 2%. in.). Give the width of a
tape if other than the standard width (e.g., the standard width of an analog tape is 1/8 in).
(Rule No. 6.5D5 of AACR-II)
Example: 1 sound cassette (85 min.): analog, mono.; 7 1/4 x 31/2 in., 1/4in. tape
Sound tape reels: Give the diameter of a reel in inches. Give the width of a tape in fractions
of an inch if other than the standard width (in.). (Rule No. 6.5D6 of AACR-II)

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Example: 1 sound tape reel (60 min.): analog, 7 ½ ips. 2 tracks, mono; 7 in., ½ in. tape
1.4.6 Accompanying Material
Give the details of the accompanying material if available. (Rule No. 6.5E1 of AACR-II)
Example: 1 sound tape reel (60 min.): analog, 7 ½ ips. 2 tracks, mono; 7 in., ½ in. tape +
1 pamphlet (12 cm)
1.4.7Note Area
General rules for descriptive information are also applied here. Other important things to be
recorded in the note area are as follows:
(i) If the medium of performance for a musical work is not clear. from the title or the uniform
title, it is given in notes; or if appropriate, these can be combined with contents note, e.g.:
The second work for violin and string orchestra.
(ii) Date of recording is given.
(iii) Source of title paper. e.g.: Title on container:
(iv) Names of the performers, if considered important, are included in notes.
(v) Duration time may be given for a multipart item without a collective title that has been
described as a unit, e.g.: Durations: 31 min.; 28 min.
(vi) A brief summary may be given for the contents of a spoken sound recording, e.g.:
Summary: Store is and poems, told by Miranda with booklet for the child to read along with
the recording.
(vii) Contents: Titles of the individual works catalogued under a collective title, if considered
important may be recorded. If time is given for individual works, include this information.
(viii) Notes on publisher numbers: Serial album and record numbers are given as notes. The
number is to be preceded by the label name and a colon, eg.: K-Tel: NU 9580

EXAMPLE 1
MODERN VOICES PRESENTS
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
The Lewis Carroll Classic-Complete

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Music composed by
Alec Wilder

Released by
Bill Graurer Productions

New York
1957
Other Information:
Information on container
4 analog sound discs, total playing time 2 hrs. 56 min., 33 1D 3 revolution per minute, Mono
track Size of each disc: 12 inches.

MAIN ENTRY

323
WIL
Wilder, Alec
Alice's adventures in Wonderland [sound recording]: the LewisCarroll
classic-complete / music composed by Alec Wilder; produced by Modern
Voices. - New York: Released by Bill Graurer Productions, p1957.

4 sound discs (176 min.): analog, 33 1D 3 rpm, mono 12 in.

1589 Based on Lewis Carroll's classic 'Alice's adventures in Wonderland'.

1 Fantasy-England-fiction 2 Children fiction I Title

Example 2The Mikado

By
Sir Arthur Benjamin And
Sir Gilbert William
New York
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Moss Music Group

1977
Other Information:
Call Number: 782.8 BEN
No. of disc: 1
Duration: 7 min. 58 Sec.
Note: Sound Recording.
Accession Number 9002
Size: 7 inch; Type and speed: Analog, 45 rpm.

MAIN ENTRY

In both examples 1 & 2, the main entry is prepared according to rules mentioned in Chapter 6
of AACR-II. Since the composer has been named on the title page, therefore, the main entry
is prepared in his name. As per Rule Number 6.1F1, the name of the composer is also written
in the statement of responsibility area. The physical description area has also been written as
per the rules mentioned in Rule Number 6.5. In both cases following added entries will be
prepared:
1) Subject Entry (s)
2) Title Entry
3) Joint Author, in case of Example 2

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IN-TEXT QUESTION

2. The playing speed of a digital disc is mentioned in

(a) meters per second (b) feet per second (c) inch per second (d) revolution per second

1.5 MOTION PICTURE & VIDEO RECORDING

According to the glossary of AACR 2 Motion pictures are described as “a length of

the film, with or without record sound, bearing a sequence of images that create the illusion
of movement when projected in rapid succession”. Loops, cartridges, Cassettes, Kinescopes,
Strockshots, trailers, etc., are included under this heading and designated by the term “motion
pictures”.
The following Table 3 depicts the General Material Descriptions (GMDs) and
Specific Material Descriptions (SMDs) prescribed by AACR2.
Table 3: General Material Descriptions (GMDs) and Specific Material Descriptions (SMDs) are
prescribed by AACR2 in the case of Motion Picture & Video Recording

General Material Descriptions (GMD) Specific Material Descriptions (SMD)

Motion picture film cartridge
film cassette
film loop
film reel

Videorecording video cartridge

videocassette
videodisc
video reel
1.5.1 Chief Source of Information
The chief source of information for motion pictures and video recordings is the film
itself (e.g., the title frames) and its container (and its label) if the container is an integral part
of the piece (e.g., a cassette).
If the information is not available from the chief source, take it from the following sources in
the order of preference accompanying textual material (e.g., scripts, shots list, publicity
materials), container (if not an integral part of the piece), and other sources.

1.5.2 Main Entry

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If authorship responsibility can be attributed to definitions and rules of “Personal

authorship” (Rule 21.1) then the main entry will be under personal or corporate author. In the
case of animated films, there is one person who is clearly the creator. So the main entry will
be under his personal name.
1.5.3 Statement of Responsibility
Generally, the producer and director are given in the statement of responsibility area.
The animator and the writer may also be included in this area. Other persons or bodies who
have contributed to the work may be recorded in the note area.
1.5.4Physical Description Area
1.5.4.1 Extent of item
Record the number of physical units of motion pictures and video recordings,
followed by one of the specific material designations is the first element. (Rule Number
7.5B1 of AACR-II)
Film cartridge
Film loops
Film cassette
Videocassettes
Video cartridge
Film reel
Videodisc
Video reel
Example:
1 film cartridge
2 film loops
1 film cassette

1.5.4.2 Playing Time

Give the playing time of motion pictures and video recordings. (Rule Number 7.5B1
of AACR-II)
Example:
1 film reel (27 min.)
1 videocassette (15 min.)

1.5.5 Other physical details

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1.5.5.1 Special projection ratio: If a film has a Special projection ratio, give it. (Rule
Number 7.5C2 of AACR-II)
Example: Panavision, multi-projector
1.5.5.2 Sound characteristics: Indicate whether the film is sound (sd) or silent, (si). (Rule
Number 7.5C3 of AACR-II)
Example:
1 film reel (52 min.); sd., 25 fps
1.5.5.3 Colour: (Rule Number 7.5C4 of AACR-II)
Give whether it is in colour or black and white
Example:
1 film reel (52 min.); sd., b & w, 25 fps
1.5.5.4Projection speed: (Rule Number 7.5C5 of AACR-II)
Give projection speed in frames per second (fps)
Example:
1 film reel (52 min.) Panavision; sd., col., 25 fps
1.5.5.5 Dimension
The dimensions are the width of a film (in millimeters) and the width of a videotape (in
inches). A videodisc dimension is a diameter in inches.
Examples:
2 film reels (152 min.) Panavision; sd., col., 25 fps; 35 mm.
1 videodisc (4i nun.) sd., col., 1500 rpm; 8 in.

1.5.6Note Area
(i) The name of a person such as performers or other participants not included in the
statement of responsibility but likely to be of interest. The names are prefixed by an
appropriate term such as Cast, Presenter, Narrator, Credits, and if appropriate, a statement of
functions.
(ii) Date of original production if it differs from the date (s) listed in the publication,
distribution area.
(iii) A brief, objective summary of the content and intended use is necessary in order to judge
the suitability. If appropriate, information on technique, cast, and audience level may also be
included.

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EXAMPLE 3
The Mission
Directed by
Roland Joffé

Produced by
Fernando Ghia and David Puttnam

Written by
Robert Bolt

Enigma production
Burbank, CA
Warner Home Video
2003
Other Information:
Call Number: 791.43 MIS
Accession Number: 45896
2 videodiscs of 125 minutes, with sound and colour, widescreen presentation;
Dimension: 4 3/4 in.
Credits: Director of photography, Chris Menges; production designer, Stuart Craig;
costume designer, Enrico Sabbatini; editor, Jim Clark; music composed, orchestrated and
conducted by Ennio Morricone.

MAIN ENTRY
791.43
MIS The Mission [motion picture] /

directed byRoland Joffé ; produced byFernando Ghia and David

Puttnam; written byRobert Bolt. - Burbank, CA: Warner Home Video, 2003.

2 videodiscs (125 min.): sd., col., widescreen; 4 3/4 in.

Credits:Director of photography, Chris Menges; production
designer, Stuart Craig; costume designer, Enrico Sabbatini; editor, Jim
Clark; music composed, orchestrated and conducted by Ennio Morricone.
45896

1. Motion Picture

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EXAMPLE 4
Mission possible
A film on post super-cyclone Orissa 1999

Director
Bhaskar Parichha

Bhubaneswar
Sanchar Films Production for Orissa State Mitigation Authority
2003

Other Information:
Call Number: 658.47754 MIS
Accession Number: 45896
1 videodisc of 26 minute duration with sound and colour
Dimension: 4 3/4 in.
Script & narration: Satya N. Mishra, Editing: Ajaya Mishra, Concept: Aurobindo Behera.
In English and Oriya with some English subtitles
Relief and rehabilitation measures for the cyclone in Orissa, India, October 29, 1999

MAIN ENTRY

658.47754
MIS Mission possible [motion picture]; a film on post super-cyclone Orissa 1999/

directed by Bhaskar Parichha. – Bhubaneswar: Sanchar Films

Production for Orissa State Mitigation Authority, 2003
1 videodisc (26 min.); sd., col.; 4 3/4 in.
Script & narration: Satya N. Mishra, Editing: Ajaya Mishra, Concept:
Aurobindo Behera.
45986
In English and Oriya with some English subtitles
Relief and rehabilitation measures for the cyclone in Orissa, India,
October 29, 1999.

1. Cyclone-Rehabilitation

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 Master of Library & Information Science

EXAMPLE 5
BBC Home Entertainment
FROZEN PLANET
THE COMPLETE SERIES

Narrated by
David Attenborough
Alec Baldwin

Produced By
BBC Natural History Unit

Released by
British Broadcasting Corporation
Home Entertainment

Bristol, UK
2012
Other Information:
Call Number: 508.311 BRI
Accession Number: 457896
Subtitles English, French, Spanish
Container 3 video discs of 350 minutes of playing coloured with sound and dimension 43/4
inches.
ISBN 9781846079627
Formats, AC-3, Box set, Colour, Dolby digital, NTSC, Subtitled, Widescreen
Note: The Frozen Planet DVD and Blu-ray will feature the original BBC broadcast version,
with narration by world-renowned naturalist David Attenborough (Planet Earth, Life, The
Blue Planet).
Summary: This is a documentary film originally broadcast on the Discovery channel in eight
episodes in 2011 and it focuses on the life and the environment in Polar Regions.

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MAIN
ENTRY

Continued

In the above catalogued examples 3, 4, and 5, the main entry is prepared according to the
rules mentioned in Chapter 7 of AACR-II. In the case of Motion Pictures and Video
recordings, it is very difficult to contribute responsibility to any one of them, therefore the
main entry is generally prepared under the Title. In our examples also the main entries have
been prepared under the Title. Since the composer has been named on the title page,
therefore, the main entry is prepared in his name. As perRule Number 7.1F1, the names of all
the persons mentioned on the title page are entered in the statement of responsibility area.
The physical description area has also been written as per the rules mentioned at Rule
Number 7.5. In both cases following added entries will be prepared:
1) Subject Entry (s)
2) Collaborator (s)
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3) Production House (s)

IN-TEXT QUESTION
3. The presence of Sound in motion pictures is denoted in catalogue by
(a) Sound (b) si (c) sd (d) None of these

In AACR-II, 2002 Edition, the Chapter 9 has been renamed from "Computer File" to
"Electronic Resources". The Chapter 9 describes the electronic resources as:“Electronic
resources consist of data (information representing numbers, text, graphics, images, maps,
moving images, music, sounds, etc.), programs (instructions, etc., that process the data for
use), or combinations of data and programs.(Rule No. 9.0A1 of AACR-2R)”

” In this Chapter, you will be taught rules for cataloguing Electronic Resources instead of
rules for cataloguing Computer Files and Web resources separately. The GMD [computer
file] has been changed to [electronic resource].
1.6.1 Chief source of information
For electronic resources, the resource itself and the information from any formally presented
evidence within the entire resource.
1.6.2 Type of resource
The term for the electronic resource to be catalogued is indicated. E.g. Electronic data and
program (s) Extent of Resource: The number of records be given electronic data (1 file: 100
records, 10,000 bytes) Electronic program (4 files: 650 statements) Electronic data (2 files:
950, 1550 records) and programs (1 file: 505 and 290 bytes) Electronic data (2 files : 1,6
megabytes)
1.6.3 Extent of item
For direct access electronic resources, record the number of physical units of the carrier by
giving the number of them in Arabic numerals and one of the following terms as appropriate.

1.6 ELECTRONIC RESOURCES (COMPUTER FILES & WEB RESOURCES)

(Rule Number 9.5B1 of AACR-II)
Computer chip cartridge
Computer disk
Computer optical disc
Computer tape cartridge
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 Master of Library & Information Science

Computer tape cassette

Computer tape reel
Example: 1 computer disk
1.6.4 Other physical details
1.6.4.1If the resource is specified to have sound, give sd. If it is specified to display in two or
more colours, give col. (Rule Number 9.5C1 of AACR-II)
Example: 2 computer disks: sd., col.,
1.6.4.2Give other physical characteristics. (Rule Number 9.5C2 of AACR-II)
Examples: 3 computer disks: sd., col., single sided, single density, soft sectored
1.6.4.3When recording the extent of an electronic resource that is available only by remote
access, give other details about the resource (e.g., file types) if readily available and
considered to be important. (Rule Number 9.5C3 of AACR-II)
Example: 2 photographs: digital, JPEG file
54 p.: digital, PDF file
1.6.5 Dimensions
Give the dimensions of the physical carrier as instructed below. (Rule Number 9.5D1 of
AACR-II)
a) Discs/Disks. Give the diameter of the disc or disk in inches, to the next ¼/4 inch up.
Example: 3 computer disks: col.; 7 in.
b) Cartridges. Give, in inches to the next 4 inch up, the length of the side of the cartridge
that is to be inserted into the machine.
Example: 2 computer chip cartridges; 3/4 in.
c) Cassettes. Give the length and height of the face of the cassette in inches, to the next inch
up.
Example: 1 computer tape cassette; 3 X 5 in.
d) Reels. Do not give dimensions for reels.
e) Other carriers. Give the appropriate dimensions of other physical carriers in inches or in
centimetres, rounding up as appropriate.
Example: 1 computer card; 7 X 4 cm.
If the item consists of more than one physical carrier and they differ in size, give the smallest
or smaller and the largest or larger size, separated by a hyphen. (Rule Number 9.5D2 of
AACR-II)
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 Master of Library & Information Science

Example: 2 computer disks; 3-5 in.

Give the details of the accompanying material as follows: (Rule Number 9.5E1 of AACR-II)
Example: 1 computer disk; 5 ½ in. +1 user manual + 1 e-book +2 sound cassettes (25
min.: analog, stereo).
1.6.6 Note Area
Nature and scope, system requirement, and mode of access: (Rule Number 9.7B1 of
AACR-II)
a)System requirements: Make a note of the system requirements when describing an
electronic resource that is readily available. Precede the note with "System requirements:"
Example:
System requirements: LINUX
System requirements: UNIX workstation with Mosaic software
System requirements: HP PC; 32K; colour card; 1HDD

b)Mode of Access: If a resource is available only by remote access, always specify the mode
of access.
Example:
Mode of access; DELNET
Mode of access: INTERNET

c) Type and extent of resources: (Rule Number 9.7B8 of AACR-II)

Example: Hierarchical fill structure, File size: 420, 310 records, File size: unknown
d) Other formats:(Rule Number 9.7B16 of AACR-II)
Example: Issued also for HP PC
e) Numbers: (Rule Number 9.7B19 of AACR-II)
Give important numbers associated with the item other than ISBN or ISSN.
f) Copy being described, library’s holdings and restrictions use. (Rule Number 9.7B20 of
AACR-II)
Example: Library’s set lacks disk 19
Restricted to research scholars
g) Item described: For remote access resources, always give the date on which the resource
was viewed for description. (Rule Number 9.7B22 of AACR-II)
Example: Description based on contents viewed Jan. 28, 2013.
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 Master of Library & Information Science

EXAMPLE 6 (DIRECT ACCESS)

AN INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA RESOURCE IN CD-ROM

HUTCHINSON
EDUCATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA
1999
CD-ROM
Epic Group Plc.
Senior Producer
David Roughton

Program Design
Martin Rees

Helicon publishing
Oxford
Other information:
Call Number: 030 HUT
Accession Number: 56423
1 CD ROM contains electronic data and program consisting 7 files of 655 megabytes with
sound and coloured illustration.

MAIN ENTRY

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 Master of Library & Information Science

Example 7 (Remote Access)

SCHEMES OF COCONUT DEVELOPMENT BOARD

Developed by Technology Mission on Coconut
COCONUT DEVELOPMENT BOARD
Kochi
2013
Other Information:
Call Number: 634.6150954 IND
Accession Number: 89896
Available at: World Wide Web: http://coconutboard.nic.in/tech.htm
Viewed on July 18, 2022
This website is based on “Technology Mission on Coconut”, a project undertaken by Coconut
Development Board, Government of India.

MAIN ENTRY

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 Master of Library & Information Science

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
4. Which two chapters were renamed in 2001 by AACR-II?
(a) Chapter 5 & 6 (b) Chapter 9 & 12 (c) Chapter 10 & 11 (d) None
5. To note down the System requirement in “Electronic Resources” is now:
(a) Mandatory (b) Optional (c) Not required at all (d) Depends on the decision of a
cataloguer
6. The earlier known GMD “Computer File” is now known as:
(a) Continuing Resources (b) Remote Access (c) Electronic Resources (d) None of
these

1.7 SUMMARY

In this chapter problems faced by the cataloguers in cataloguing non-book materials

especially Sound Recordings, Motion Pictures, and Video recordings, Electronic Resources
(Computer Files and Web Resources) were discussed. The rules for cataloguing these
resources in the light of AACR-II, 2002 edition were described in brief. Illustrative examples
were also provided to help the students in making entries for such types of non-book
materials.

1.8 GLOSSARY

Non-book materials Any document which is not in traditional

printed form. It needs a special device to
get information from it.

Sound Recordings Any type of resource in which sound is

stored so that can be reproduced later.

Motion Pictures and Video recordings a length of the film, with or without
recorded sound, bearing a sequence of
images that create the illusion of
movement when projected in rapid

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 Master of Library & Information Science

succession

Electronic Resources It covers all the resources which are

available in electronic format.

Computer Files Files that were used to get data on the

computer

Web Resources Resources which be accessed online or

remotely. They do not reside on a
computer.

AACR-II The Cataloguing Code was developed in

1976.

1.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Three
2. meters per second
3. sd
4. Chapter 9 & 12
5. Optional
6. Electronic Resources

1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Describe the level of description which is suitable for the National library by giving a
suitable example.
2. Catalogue the following title:

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 Master of Library & Information Science

MOZART
MASTERPIECE CLASSICAL

Midas
Delhi
1987

Other Information:
Call No.: 782.1073 MOZ
Accession No.: 4856
Contents: 1st Movement - Allegro Molto
2nd Movement- Andante

It is a 60-minute audio cassette, analog and stereophonic sound. The cassette is of 4 ¾ inch

Note: i) Make a catalogue card of Size 12.5 X 7.5 inch in your notebook.

3. Catalogue the following title:

ARROW TO THE SUN
A PUEBLO INDIAN TALE
Designed and directed by
Gerald McDermott
Music
Thomas Wagner
Camera
Frank Koenig
Voice of the boy
Joquin Brant
Produced by Gerald McDermott and Texture Films Inc.
Arrow to the Sun © 1973, Texture Films Inc.
Other Information:
Call Number: 813.54
Accession Number: 7896
Container information: 1 film reel of 15 minutes playing with sound and colour.
Projection speed is 24 frames per second (standard)
Dimension is 16 millimetres.
Note: i) Make a catalogue card of Size 12.5 X 7.5 inch in your notebook.

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 Master of Library & Information Science

4. Catalogue the following title:

Collected Software for Your IBM PC

Compiled by
Jim God

Tejaras
Apple Software Company
1991
Other Information:
Call No.: 006.43 GOD
Accession No.: 45689
3 program files, 650 statements
1 codebook (100p., 25 cm.) with coloured illustrations + 1 Manual
2 CD both sides recorded, 8 in. diameter
System Requirements: IBM PC IV, Windows XP, 2.6 GB, Colour Monitor
Contents: Ms. Office, Mail Merge, SPSS
Note: i) Make a catalogue card of Size 12.5 X 7.5 inch in your notebook.
1.11 REFERENCES

1. American Library Association. (2005). Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, 2nd

Revised Edition (2nd 2002 ed.). New York: American Library Association.
2. Weihs, J. R., Lewis, S., & Macdonald, J. (1989). Nonbook Materials: The
Organization of Integrated Collections (3rd ed.). Ottawa: Canadian Library
Association.

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Lal, C., & Kumar, K. (2006). Practical Cataloguing AACR-2. New Delhi: Ess Ess
Publications.
2. Pradhan, S. (2019). Cataloguing of Non-Print Resources: A Practical Manual. New
Delhi: Ess Ess Publications.
3. Ranganathan, S. R. (1964). Classified Catalogue Code: With Additional Rules for
Dictionary Catalogue Code. New York: Asia Pub. House.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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LESSON 1.1

IMPLICATION OF WWW ON LIBRARY WEBSITES,

WEB OPACs

Saloni Priya
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 The World Wide Web (WWW)
1.3.1 Benefits of using Web
1.3.2 Objective of different library websites
1.4 Web based library services
1.5 Web OPAC
1.5.1 Advantages of Web OPAC
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

• familiarise yourself with the new ICT enabled library and information services,
particularly in a web-based environment
• Know about different web based library services
• Understand Web OPAC and its advantages in the library

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1.2 INTRODUCTION

'The Internet and its associated technologies have resulted in the rapid expansion of
electronic information. The web has seen a remarkable increase in the number of all forms of
publications. It has expanded to include a wide range of information sources, including
electronic journals, electronic pre-prints, e-prints, technical e-ports, databases, library
catalogues, educational materials, career resources, and so on.The World Wide Web has
transformed how individuals access information and created new opportunities in fields such
as digital libraries, virtual libraries, scientific information retrieval, and dissemination

The functions of libraries and the Internet in providing information in the twenty-first century
are inextricably linked. Any librarian working today should grasp not only how to find things
on the World Wide Web, but also how it works in general. Librarians will be asked to
become information architects, capable of developing Web sites with clearly stated goals,
that are aesthetically beautiful and rich with relevant content and usefulness. As more
libraries create comprehensive Web sites, there is a growing demand for librarians who
understand HTML as well as other sorts of Internet programming skills including javascript,
SQL etc.over a hundred searchable databases are frequently available on library websites.
These databases, often known as "Electronic Resources," enable users to search library
catalogues, journal articles, company financial data, and a wide range of other data from a
wide range of information providers, each with its own searching interface.

1.3 THE WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)

The
World Wide Web (WWW) or Web is a practical and existing real-world application of the
age-old dream of a universal information database - information that is not only accessible to
people all over the world, but also links to other pieces of information so that only the most
useful information is quickly found by a user. The World Wide Web, which was created by
Tim Berners-Lee of the European Particle Physics Laboratory (CERN), is a "distributed
heterogeneous collaborative multimedia information system."

The World Wide Web is a collection of websites or web pages stored in web servers and
linked to local computers via the internet. These websites include text pages, digital photos,
audios, and videos, among other things. Users can access the content of these sites through
the internet from anywhere in the world using devices such as computers, laptops, cell
phones, and so on. The WWW, like the internet, allows you to retrieve and display text and
media on your device.Web pages formatted in HTML and linked by "hypertext" or
hyperlinks and accessed over HTTP are the building blocks of the Web. These are electronic
linkages that connect relevant pieces of information so that users can easily get the needed
information. The ability to select a word or phrase from text and so visit other sites that
provide further information on that word or phrase is a benefit of hypertext.

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A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is assigned to a web page (URL). A website is a distinct
collection of online pages that belong to a single URL, such as www.yahoo.com,
www.google.com, and so on. As a result, the World Wide Web is analogous to a massive
electronic book, with pages saved on many servers throughout the world.
WWW performs following task:

• It is a navigational tool that enables browsing information linked to other

relatedinformation.
• It is Hyperlinks/ Hypertext/ Hypermedia based.
• Itprovides unlimited access to large universe of e-documents
The World Wide Web is everyone's initial source of information, including students, research
scholars, faculty, practitioners, Information Officers, and so on. The information in web
resources is in the form of Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs), and therefore is not machine
readable. People use keywords to search for information about a specific topic on a web
portal.The Internet and the World Wide Web are extremely powerful and are influencing not
just librarianship but also his daily professional operations.

Since the creation of the United States Machine Readable Cataloguing (USMARC) record in
the late 1960s, and the subsequent proliferation of online catalogues, librarians have been
spurred by technological advancements to become more efficient organisers, indexers,
abstractors, and archivists, in addition to assuming new roles such as intermediary, facilitator,
end-user trainer/educator, web organiser & designer, researcher, interface designer,
knowledge manager/professional aficionado. While the librarian serves several functions in
an organisation, it is difficult to pinpoint a core function because it varies depending on the
business's aims and requirements.

1.3.1 Benefits of using Web

The Web's most fundamental and powerful properties are:

• The ability to distribute information across multiple sites on the Internet.

• The ability to incorporate all types of media objects (video, sound, images, text, etc.)
into a single document.
• The use of hypertext or hypermedia-oriented architecture, in which a document
contains embedded links to other documents that can exist locally or anywhere in the
world.
• A data object stored on virtually any server platform that supports almost all protocol
types, such as email (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), Telnet (Telnet Protocol), FTP
(File Transfer Protocol), USENET (Network News Transfer Protocol), Gopher
(Gopher Protocol), and Web pages (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), can be viewed
from any client platform (DOS, UNIX, etc.)
• Capability to assist the creation of information resources throughout the Internet

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• Revolutionizing the way people access information and bringing up new

opportunities in fields such as digital libraries, virtual libraries, scientific information
retrieval and distribution, education, commerce, entertainment, government, and
health care.

Many libraries are transitioning from traditional to digital formats. Not only are modern
publications being digitised, but so are many older library holdings. These digital collections
enable users to consult the material from anywhere at any time without causing any harm to
the fragile materials.

The tools used by librarians in their daily job have evolved dramatically in recent years. In
addition to traditional card catalogues and microfiche readers, most libraries now include an
Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC), as well as public PCs with CD-ROM drives, DVD
drives, scanners, or Internet terminals. A growing number of libraries are creating home sites
on the World Wide Web from which visitors can access a range of services without having to
physically enter a library. Furthermore, information push and pull technologies have enabled
librarians to automate the necessary information gathering and dissemination to users.

1.3.2 Objective of different library websites:

Librarians should understand the fundamentals of establishing an effective information
resource. As the Internet becomes more interactive, there is a desire to make databases
available online; the library card catalogue is the clearest example of this.Other interactive
choices include e-mail and bulletin board service, as well as a shift away from CD-ROMs
and toward online subscriptions.A library Web site is more than just a presence on the
Internet. It can function as a virtual extension of the existing library organisation, reaching
out to patrons 24 hours a day and delivering essential information resources. A library's
website is also a significant source of information about the library. Internet policies, special
programming, and new materials can all be accessed on the library's website at any time.
Libraries, too, should create their own Web sites that serve as portals to fascinating sites
assessed and annotated by professional librarians. Librarians will continue to play an
important role as information professionals well into the twenty-first century in the
Information Age.

Every library now has their own webpage to represent their resources. Every library and
documentation centre describes numerous web libraries and information services, as well as
the ongoing process of upgrading from time to time. It describes various facts about the
library's genesis, working hours, holidays, building layout plan, library rules and regulations
for different kinds of members, circulation rules, and details about the various staffs. Web
OPAC provides multiple methods of document access by author, title, publisher, accession
number, collaborators, etc. in the specified library

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Everyone should understand that the mission of a library Web site is linked to the type of
library represented. As a result, academic, public, and special library Web sites will all serve
various functions.

• The academic library's website can help with research in higher education by offering
access to Internet research tools and full-text databases. It can help with teaching by
providing online full-text reserves and other resources. It can also help public service
by allowing the public to use its online resources, such as the online public access
catalogue.
• Public library websites provide a variety of functions. A typical public library could
seek to give free and open access to information for all local inhabitants, which could
be reflected on the library Web site through links to community information
resources, job posting links, access to the library's online catalogue, and so on. While
a public library may wish to provide unrestricted access to its Web resources,
licencing constraints on some electronic databases may limit this scenario.
• When it comes to developing a website, special libraries have still another mission.
Special libraries must typically service their parent company or organisation, and the
library Web site will reflect this by focusing nearly entirely on the parent firm's
workers and clientele. This can take the shape of a tightly passworded Web site, or it
can prevent the library from even appearing on the publicly accessible Web page,
limiting it to a locally accessible Intranet.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. A computer on internet is identified by?
a) IP address
b) Email address
c) Street address
d) Server address
2. Computer webpages are written in _______ language.

1.4 WEB BASED LIBRARY SERVICES

Any type of development requires access to information. However, information is growing

by leaps and bounds these days. In terms of knowledge propagation, a person who needs to
collect information will find it difficult. Internet plays a significant role in resolving these
issues in libraries and information centres. The following are the effects of the internet on
library and information services. Web-based services are becoming more popular in libraries,

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offering users a more robust search and retrieval experience. Web resources are e-resources
obtained directly by libraries or through participation in consortiums. These web resources
are full-text resources that exist outside of the physical library space and are accessible
through the Internet as virtual resources. Authorized users can connect to them via the
Internet from any location, including their home or office, 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

The use of online portals into library services has altered and improved the process of
providing or making information available to users, and the benefits are:

• It has reduced the time required to look for and retrieve information.
• It has promoted resource sharing between two or more libraries.
• It has increased the value of information professionals.
• It has increased user patronage in terms of access to library collections.
• It allows for the rapid transmission and reception of information.
• It has simplified the arranging and processing of library contents.

1.4.1Digital Library
A digital library, like any other, is a collection of books and reference resources. However,
unlike a traditional library, the collection of a digital library is digital and is typically served
via the World Wide Web. Virtual library, library without boundaries, and, more recently,
digital library are some of the phrases that have been used to depict these electronic libraries
at various times.

A digital library includes both electronic (digital) and print items, as well as additional
elements (such as audio, video, graphics, animation, and so on). These resources are
organised and made available to the user community. The Internet and web technologies are
the primary processes used in a digital library to search for, navigate, and transmit electronic
resources worldwide. It provides users with immediate, ubiquitous access to a massive
amount of information, regardless of their location.

1.4.2 Subject Gateway

Subject gateways are web search engines that specialise in a single topic. Subject gateways
are websites that compile comprehensive information on the numerous resources available on
a specific topic. Subject gateways facilitate access to network-based resources in a particular
subject area. They provide a straightforward web-based interface for searching databases and
indexes. They are subject-centric in the sense that they only host information on a single
topic. The high-quality resources gathered by topic gateway experts are appropriately
catalogued and classified using data organisation and categorization systems based on classic
and well-established library science concepts.

These are peer-reviewed sites that are typically used to ensure that the gateway is current and
relevant. It may avoid a significant site that has recently appeared but has not yet been

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reviewed because it has been peer reviewed. Among the advantages are relevance, efficacy,
and overall high content quality. Their weaknesses include a lack of depth in their subject
coverage. Such websites are also known as portals.For Example:

• Intute (http://www.intute.ac.uk/)
• LibrarySpot.com: (http://www.libraryspot.com/)
• Librarians’ Index to the Internet (LII) (http://lii.org/)
• Argus Clearing House (http://www.clearinghouse.net/)
• Galaxy (http://galaxy.einet.net/)
• Direct Search (http://gwis2.circ.gwu.edu/~gprice/direct.htm)
• Academic Info (http://www.academicinfo.com/)
• BUBL (http://bubl.ac.uk/)
• BIOME (http://biome.ac.uk/)
• The Scout Report (http://scout.cs.wisc.edu/report/sr/current/)
• LivingInternet.com (http://www.livinginternet.com/)
• Edinburgh Engineering Virtual Library (EEVL) (http://www.eevl.ac.uk)
• Social Science Information Gateway (SOSIG) (http://sosig.ac.uk/)
• Digital Librarian (http://www.digital-librarian.com/)
• QUEST.net (http://www.re-quest.net/)
• BioMedNet (http://www.bmn.com/)

1.4.3 Bulletin Board

For their web-based library services, several libraries use bulletin boards. Bulletin or message
boards allow for conversation on a variety of topics. They enable users to respond to existing
topics or threads in the group, or to start a new topic or thread by posting a comment or
query. Messages posted to a discussion board are visible to everyone who has access to it
indefinitely. On the Internet, there are millions of bulletin boards. Many libraries and
information services have bulletin boards on their websites where users can discuss ideas and
share information. They offer a forum for conversation under numerous topic headings, but
not in real time. They enable people to comment to issues or start new ones. Any message
sent to a discussion group is visible to everyone who has access to it indefinitely. Many news
websites, search engines, social networking websites, and special interest sites, such as
people using a specific type of computer or sharing an interest, hobby, or political topic, have
bulletin boards. For example: INFLIBNET Bulletin Board
(http://www.inflibnet.ac.in/forum)
1.4.4 Developing websites
We'll need a domain name (for example, www.du.ac.in) and a web host to get your website
up and running. You must also be aware of the content that will be hosted on that site. The
content of a website is the information that the user can access. While hosting your library's
website, for example, you may want to include the following attributes: about, who's who,
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collection, services, user details, and so on. The more information content you have and how
well it is organised for search engine retrieval, the more likely it is that people will visit your
page.A library website should primarily serve as

• a venue for publicising the library,

• a resource for answering frequently asked questions (FAQs) about the library, and
• a tool for accessing web resources or providing web-based information services.

1.4.5 Union Catalogue

Librarians, as the first users of the Internet and the online, began publishing their content on
the web. The libraries not only created meta resources for their home pages, but they also
web-enabled their library catalogues. The catalogues in the majority of mainstream library
software programmes feature web interfaces. Several integrated library packages are now
shifting to using Internet clients for all operations.

1.4.6 Electronic Journals/ E-Books

Electronic journals make up a sizable portion of a library's web-based resource collection,

and their availability is an important web-based service. Many journals are now available
online, some with full text and others only with bibliographic information and abstracts. The
main advantage of electronic journals is that they are constantly updated and easy to access;
however, there is a high risk of copyright infringement. For Example: Major e-journal portal
‘J-Stor’ (https://www.jstor.org/)

An e-book is a text similar to a book that is in digital form and may be seen on a computer
screen. E-books can be read just like paper books, either with a dedicated E-book reader
like Kindle or on a computer screen after downloading it. There are also some newer
technologies in development, such as electronic paper, which is similar to paper but has the
ability to modify the text and talking books in MP3 format. E-books have benefits such as
portability, 24-hour access, text search, annotation, linking, and multimedia and self-
publishing options. The development of eBooks is still in its early stages, and difficulties
such as compatibility, e-book readers availability, and intellectual property rights must be
addressed before it can be widely used.

1.4.7 Electronic Theses and Dissertations

University dissertations and theses are vital sources of information and knowledge for future
research. Many universities have converted their theses and dissertations collections into
digital libraries and made them available on the Internet for worldwide access. Several
universities have also adopted Electronic Theses and Dissertation programmes, in which
researchers submit theses in electronic form. Some noteworthy initiatives include the
Networked Digital Library of Dissertations and Theses (NDLTD) (http://www.ndltd.org)

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in the building of web-based union catalogues of ETDs supplied by over 100 libraries
worldwide.

1.4.8 Listservers
Mailing lists, discussion lists, and listservs are services that make it simple to send e-mails to
a large group of people. These many titles all refer to the same procedure of sending e-mail
to a wide group of people, similar to how CC capability is given by various mail systems.
They are usually fully or partially automated using software such as GNU's Mailman,
Listserv, Mailbase, and so on.On the Internet, the most common methods for mass email
communication are mailing lists, listservers (called after the software used to host electronic
mailing and discussion lists), and list forums, which allow mail recipients to discuss matters
of common interest.

The listserv address and the list address are the two e-mail addresses of a listserver. The
former normally accepts commands for joining/exiting a list, receiving acknowledgements,
and so on, whereas the latter allows messages of genuine conversation, which are scanned by
a list moderator (optional) and delivered to all list members. Any message sent to the e-mail
list address will be distributed to all members of that list. Members can reply or comment on
these messages based on their interests; they do not have to actively engage by sending
messages all the time; alternatively they can just browse the debate and remain a silent
spectator to the activity; they are also free to exit the list at their discretion. To participate in
a forum, the user does not need to be an expert in software and hardware. A person who
understands the fundamentals of sending and receiving e-mail messages can successfully join
and communicate with a list forum of her/his choice. Because of the speed with which
electronic mail is transmitted, electronic mailing lists can accomplish far more than
traditional paper distribution lists.
Some examples of Indian listserv in the field of library & information science are:
1) LIS-FORUM
List address: [email protected]
List server address: [email protected]
Website: http://ncsi.iisc.ernet.in/mailman/listinfo/lis-forum
2) INDIA-LIS
List address: [email protected]
Listserver address: [email protected]
Websites: http://infoserv.inist.fr/wwsympa.fcgi/info/india-lis
3) Yahoo Groups

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Some yahoogroups of interest to library science community [email protected],

[email protected],[email protected],[email protected]
m, etc.

1.4.9 E-Publishing
Traditional players supplying electronic copies of their printed resources, as well as various
new firms delivering new goods and services that are digital are among the publishers of
electronic information resources. Several subscription agents are also operating in the
industry as electronic aggregators. Higher education institutions, particularly distance and
continuing education departments, are actively supporting and contributing to the
development and implementation of computer-assisted instruction and multimedia interactive
educational courseware.

Some well-known commercial publishers of printed resources, such as Elsevier Science,

Kluwer Academic Press, Academic Press, Springer, Wiley, and Sage Publications, offer
electronic versions of their printed resources through their web sites or through special
interfaces and web-based services developed for this purpose. For example:

• Elsevier Science Publishers offer electronic versions of theirjournals, onlinedatabases

and other products through a separate interface calledScienceDirect
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/)
• Springer offers their electronic resources including e-journalsthrough their interface
called Link Information Services (http:/flink.springer.de/)
• MCB University Press offers their electronic resources through theirinterface called
Emerald(http://www.emeraldinsight.com/)
• Institute of Scientific Information (ISI) provides their web-based productsand
services including citation indices through their interface called "Webof Science"
(http://www.webofscience.com/)
1.4.10 Current Awareness Services
Publishers post journal updates on their websites on a regular basis, and they distribute
journal content pages to libraries and end users informing them of new papers that have
recently been published. They also provide information about new articles that have appeared
in respective magazines. Book reviews and book categorization are available on online
retailers such as Amazon.com. These tools from publishers and online retailers help libraries
make better title selections. Publishers frequently track which titles customers buy on the
internet. They use such user data to promote and market their titles. Libraries can capitalise
on such marketing characteristics of web resources by appropriately adjusting and modifying
them at the institutional level to provide Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI)
services using library user profiles.

1.4.11Document Delivery Service

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Libraries cannot possibly have all that their clients may require. Libraries use document
delivery services from other libraries and commercial organisations to obtain copies of
research papers and other materials that they do not own. Finding a source and obtaining the
document takes time and effort, and the process is fraught with uncertainty. ICT has
simplified and increased the reliability of document distribution services. The usage of ICT
has benefited everything from searching the holdings to ordering and delivery. Many
libraries now have up-to-date holdings on their websites, which can be searched on the
Internet. Many library networks, like INFLIBNET and DELNET, maintain a centralised
database of their members' journal collections. They also provide union catalogues of books,
serials and theses.Since 1952, INSDOC has been providing Document Delivery Service
(DDS) at the national level. The service is supplied by employing all of the country's
resources, including those of the National Science Library and the INSDOC Pilot Electronic
Library. Requests are accepted via mail, fax, telex, and e-mail.

1.4.12Virtual Library Tour

Individuals and businesses can use web technology to advertise their products and services in
order to expand their client base and compete with others. Libraries are also recognising the
need to reach out to their customers and are investigating ways to do so via the Internet. A
virtual library tour is a web page on a library's website. It is a virtual guide to the physical
facilities in a library that familiarises you with the library and helps you find your way
around. It includes maps, layouts, and floor plans for libraries, as well as photographs of
collections, services, and infrastructure.

1.4.13Ask a Librarian
Through Internet-based question and answer services, Ask-a-Librarian services connect
people with librarians. Users are encouraged to submit inquiries through web forms, e-mail,
or live chat. When the service provider in charge receives an inquiry, it is routed to a specific
expert for response. An expert responds to the inquiry by e-mail or online, providing accurate
information and/or a list of information resources.

1.4.14Web OPAC
The library catalogue is, without a doubt, the most significant instrument for locating
materials in the library. Unfortunately, until recently, its worth was limited by its physical
form, which was typically a big card catalogue or a collection of printed volumes. With the
advent of computers and their ability to handle enormous amounts of information and output
in a number of forms, the library has finally come to the consumer, wherever he or she may
be, in the form of OPAC.Another benefit of OPAC is access from outside the library using a
computer connected to the library's Local Area Network (LAN). With modern library
systems providing interfaces to OPAC, it is also possible to enable access over the Internet
from anywhere in the globe. Web OPAC is an Internet-enabled OPAC. Any common
browser, such as Microsoft Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator, can be used to search
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the Web OPAC. Aside from searching the OPAC, some libraries offer online services such as
book reservations, loan requests, loan renewals, membership applications, address changes,
book suggestions, and so on.

1.5 WEB OPAC

Web OPAC is an online catalogue of a library's or libraries' resources on the Internet. It is a

library's primary tool for locating material inside its collections. Web OPAC, which is
integrated into a Library Management System, allows users to access and search the library
catalogue from anywhere on the internet. Web OPACs have also emerged as standalone
online catalogues accessible to users all over the world via a server. "A Web OPAC
interfaces, which uses the World Wide Web protocol to act as an OPAC," according to
Washington University in St. Louis. "An Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) that uses a
graphical user interface (GUI) accessible via the World Wide Web, as opposed to a text-
based interface accessible via telnet," according to ODLIS. The Web Online Public Access
Catalogue (Web-OPAC) allows users to search for resources, request materials online, and
receive e-mail notifications when materials are overdue. You can also download or scan
content pages from books or journals using Web OPAC.Web OPAC has the following
features:

• It has the ability to link to full text

• You can search individually by "Author," "Keyword" in title, or "Year."
• Hypertext links can be used to navigate around bibliographic records
• It provides complete bibliographic information and is available via the internet.
• It is simple to search for items in the library.

Web OPAC is no longer a tool for discovering what a library has, but rather for discovering
everything to which a library has access. This can guide visitors to an electronic resource that
is located outside of the actual library area, as well as develop links to resources such as
ejournals and e-books. Web OPAC is more beneficial because it displays electronic resource
results together with their URL (web address). This can direct users to resources outside of
the physical library and create links to resources like ejournals and e-books.

Web OPAC outperforms local OPAC systems in many ways. It has progressed from a simple
list to a sophisticated method of distribution. Web OPAC provides remote access, online
reservations, borrower status, and consolidates print, electronic, and digital documents into a
single interface.

Users can explore or search the catalogue using Web OPAC from any web browser. Web-
based OPAC interfaces are easier to use. The majority of web OPACs provide both basic and
advanced search capabilities. Simple searches are used to look up required fields such as
author, title, subject, accession number, keyword, and so on. Users can use advanced search
to search the database on a single field or a combination of fields, as well as proximity and
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truncation features.In addition to these, users can search indexed fields. For example, if you
want to know all of Ranganathan's books, simply type 'Ran' into the author index, and the
author index will reveal all writers whose names begin with these words; scroll down the list,
select the author of your choice, and then browse the collection. You can mark individual
items in the web OPAC and create a list of marked records from all of your searches in a
given session. These records can then be viewed in your browser or directly emailed to you
via the web OPAC. Web OPAC has emerged as a service portal for libraries. Major web
OPACs include INNOPAC, WebCat, Voyager, GeoWeb, and ALEPH.The following are
some Web OPACs in India:
• Central Library, Indian Institute of Bombay
http://www.library.iitb.ac.in/newsearchbook/opac_s.php?m_memchk_flg=&m_summarN
• National Social Science Documentation Centre (NASDOC)
http://www.icssr.org/doc_main.htm
• JRD Tata Memorial Library, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
http://www.library.iisc.ernet.in/
• American Centre Information Resource Centers in India
http://americanlibrary.in.library.net/
• British Council Libraries in India
http://library.britishcouncil.org.in/simplecatsearch.asp
• Indian Institute of Ahmadabad
http://vslopac.iimahd.ernet.in/
• Indian Institute of Delhi
http://10.217.116.6:8080/webopac/sso
• Indian Institute of Management Kolkata
http://203.197.126.103/BCRoylibrary/catalog.asp
• Indian Institute of Science Library, Bangalore
http://anagha.library.iisc.ernet.in/
• Indian Institute of Technology Library, Delhi
http://www.iitd.ernet.in/search/index.html#site
• Indian Statistical Institute Library, Delhi

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http://www.isid.ac.in/~library/new_search_lib.html
• Indian Statistical Institute Library, Kolkata
http://library.isical.ac.in/
• Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Library, Mumbai
http://www.igidr.ac.in/lib/opac.htm
• NAL Information Centre for Aerospace Science and Technology, Bangalore
http://www.icast.org.in/opac.html
• National Science Library, New Delhi
http://www.niscair.res.in/InformationResou rces/nsl/BookSearch.asp
• Tata Institute of Social Sciences Library Mumbai
http://202.141.154.107/slim/Default.php

1.5.1 Advantages of Web OPAC

The following are the advantages of the Web OPACs:
• It is available at any time and through the entire web.

• The status of each document may be known as required documents issued or not,
lost/transferred, and so on. An acquisition order's status may be viewed at both staff and
public terminals positioned throughout the library.

• Users can send reprint requests via e-mail promptly and compiling diverse lists of reprints
becomes very simple.

• There are no space or time constraints for document searches. Anyone can search a
document in any networked library, not just his or her own.

1.6 SUMMARY

With the advent of information technology, the applications of web technologies in libraries
and documentation centres have altered. Every library and documentation centre is
developing a library portal. It is the responsibility of library and information professionals to
stay up to date on the latest advances in order to provide web-based services to their users
and to provide personal attention during the service lifetime.The library's online page offers
web-enabled services. Access to the Internet and Internet-based tools and services, as well as
access to electronic information sources and a digital library of local and institutional

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records, are among the new offerings. OPAC and Web OPAC employ computers to identify
library materials and give numerous extra features such as online book reservations, remote
access, requesting books for loan, loan renewals, book suggestions, and so on.Web OPACs
helps libraries improve the quality, speed, and performance of their services. The usage of e-
mail and the web makes interlibrary loan easier. Members can view the collection and issue
status of each information centre document. They might reserve or request the document of
their choice online.

1.7 GLOSSARY

WWW: A system of Internet servers that support specially formatted documents. The
documents are formatted in a language called HTML (HyperText Markup Language) that
supports links to other documents, as well as graphics, audio, and video files.
http: Short for HyperText Transfer Protocol, the underlying protocol used by the World
Wide Web.
Hypertext: Hypertext simply means non linear text. A novel or magazine article is an
example of linear text because it is meant to be read from beginning to end. Non linear
communication is much harder to create because you must allow for the possibility of each
reader accessing the material in a different order.
HTML: Short for HyperText Markup Language, the authoring language used to create
documents on the World Wide Web. Hypertext, for easy navigation among resources.
Web page: A document on the WWW. Every web page is identified by a unique URL
(Uniform Resource Locator)
Web site: A site (location) on the World Wide Web. Each Web site contains a home page,
which is the first document users see when they enter the site. The site might also contain
additional documents and files. Each site is owned and managed by an individual, company
or organization.
Home page: The main page of a Web site. Typically, the home page serves as an index or
table of contents to other documents stored at the site.

1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. IP address 9. Conversational style

2. Hypertext

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain in detail various web based library services.

2. What is Web OPAC? What are the advantages of using web OPAC?

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1.10 REFERENCES

BRADLEY (Phil). 2007. How to use web 2.0 in your library. Facet Publishing, London.
CLYDE (Laurel). 2004. Weblogs and libraries. Chandos Publishing, Oxford.

EVANS (Woody). 2009. Building library 3.0: issues in creating a culture of participation.
Chandos Publishing, Oxford.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

BRADLEY (Phil). 2007. How to use web 2.0 in your library. Facet Publishing, London.
CLYDE (Laurel). 2004. Weblogs and libraries. Chandos Publishing, Oxford.

EVANS (Woody). 2009. Building library 3.0: issues in creating a culture of participation.
Chandos Publishing, Oxford.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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LESSON 1.2

WEB 2.0 AND WEB 3.0: FEATURES AND FUNCTIONS

Saloni Priya
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]
STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Web 2.0: Definition
1.3.1 Features of Web 2.0
1.4 Web 2.0 Technologies used in libraries
1.5 Web 3.0
1.5.1 Features of web 3.0
1.6 Comparison between Web 1.0, Web 2.0 and web 3.0
1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Answers to In-text Questions
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions
1.11 References
1.12 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, you will:

• attain knowledge on tools and techniques of Web 2.0

• understand how libraries can foster a collaborative and participatory environment
through the use of user-centric web 2.0 library services and tools such as wikis, blogs,
podcasts, vodcast, file sharing, tagging, mashups, instant messaging, social
networking, social bookmarking, and so on.
• understand the features of Web 3.0
• different between Web 1.0, Web 2.0 and Web 3.0

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1.2 INTRODUCTION

Over the last few years, the World Wide Web has undergone yet another profound upheaval.
A new web environment (Web 2.0) emerged as a result of the merging of social web, web
application, and technology.
Social Web + Web Application + Technology = Web 2.0

Libraries and information services are functioning in a constantly changing world where
technology and social developments bring new opportunities, difficulties, and issues. The
current information landscape is fragmented, with Google, Amazon, and Wikipedia
perceiving "good enough" for what they need to perform for the user. This could pose new
issues for library services. To meet these issues, Web 2.0 concepts and technology provide
libraries with several chances to serve their customers and to go out beyond the institution's
walls and web sites to prospective beneficiaries wherever they may be undertaking.

1.3 WEB 2.0

Darcy DiNucci coined the term "Web 2.0" in 2004, following the First Web 2.0 conference
(later known as the Web 2.0 summit) hosted by Tim O'Reilly and Dale Dougherty. Web 2.0
websites are those that emphasise user-generated content, usability, and interoperability for
end users. The participatory social web is another name for Web 2.0. It does not refer to a
change in technical specifications, but rather to a shift in how Web sites are built and used.
The transition is smooth, though this does not appear to be the case while the changes are
being implemented. As the creation of user-generated content in a virtual community, Web
2.0 allows for interaction and cooperation in a social media discussion.

Web 2.0 is a term used to separate the new Web from the old Web (1.0). It denotes web
applications that enable interactive information exchange, interoperability, user-centered
design, and collaboration on the Internet. It gives its users the freedom to connect or
cooperate with one another in a social network as creators of user-generated content in a
virtual community, as opposed to websites that limit users to passive viewing of content
provided for them or being simple consumers of information. Social networking sites
(Orkut,Facebook, twitter), blogs, wikis, video-sharing sites, hosted services, online apps,
mashups, and folksonomies are examples of Web 2.0.Web 2.0 development makes advantage
of web browser technologies such as AJAX and JavaScript frameworks. AJAX and
JavaScript frameworks have recently gained popularity as a technique of constructing web
2.0 sites.

Instead of simply reading a Web 2.0 site, users are encouraged to contribute to its content by
commenting on published articles or creating a user account or profile on the site, which may
allow for increased participation. They urge users to rely more on their browser for user

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interface, application software, and file storage by putting more focus on these already-
existing capabilities. This is known as "network as platform" computing.
Examples: eBay, craigslist, Wikipedia, skype, lodgeball and Google AdSense.
The added advantage of Web 2.0 over predecessor Web 1.0:

Collaboration: Web 2.0 has opened up new possibilities for collaborative networked
services in web based environments.
Flexibility: Web 2.0 environments are always open for changes, updates, remixing and reuse.

Architecture of participation: Web 2.0 is structured around open programming interfaces

that allow widespread and greater levels of participation where users act simultaneously as
readers and writers.

Interactivity: Web 2.0 also encourages significantly more interaction between users which is
vital in e-learning. Web 2.0 encourages a more human approach to interactivity on the Web,
supports group interaction and fosters a greater sense of community in a potentially social
environment.

1.3.1 Features of Web 2.0

Web 2.0 is a strategy for liberating and reusing data and services that were previously locked
into specific web pages for human viewing. It has resulted in a global information
explosion.Web 2.0 websites generally include some of the following features/techniques,
which Andrew McAfee referred to as SLATES:

• Search: the ease of finding information throughkeyword search which makes the
platformvaluable.
• Links: they guide us to the important piece ofinformation and connects information
together through meaningful links.
• Authoring: the ability to create continually updated content on a platform that has
transitioned from being the creativity of a few to many. The content in Wikis is
continuous in the sense that users undo and redo each other's work.
• Tags: Categorise material by establishing tags that are basic, one-word descriptions
to make searching easier and to avoid inflexible, pre-made categories.
• Extensions: automation of some of the work and pattern matching by using
algorithms e.g. amazon.com recommendations.
• Signals: The use of RSS (Really Simple Syndication) technology to notify consumers
of changes to the content via e-mail.
The following are other key features of Web 2.0:

• User as Contributor

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In traditional web, the site owner frequently provides the information, and the user is always
the receiver. One Way was the information model. Web 2.0 users, on the other hand,
contribute to the content through evaluation, review, and commenting. The most common
examples are Amazon.com's customer review section and Google's Page Rank algorithm.

• Multimedia character
It provides the multimedia experiences (both the collection and services of Web 2.0). It
should be used by user to record his/her experiences or intellect in library.

• Rich user experience

Traditional websites are built with HTML and CSSCGI and are available as static pages.
Web 2.0, on the other hand, employs Ajax (Asynchronous JavaScript + XML) and HTML5
(for interactive video and audio) to provide users with a dynamic, rich user experience. These
technologies replace traditional SWF Flash media and enable webmasters to embed dynamic
video directly into HTML code. If everything is done correctly, videos will play in any web
browser and on any device, such as with the help of this HTML5 video converter. Because
Web 2.0 does not limit webmasters with tools, modern user experience is more accessible
than ever.For example, Google Provided Google Maps and Google Suggest.

1.4 WEB 2.0 TECHNOLOGIES

Web 2.0 tools are web-based services that enable users to access, contribute, and describe
web-mediated material in a variety of formats, including text, video, audio, photos, and
graphs. Popular Web 2.0-based websites include Flickr, which can be used to share photos,
YouTube, which can be used to share videos, Last.fm, which can be used to share audio, and
MySpace, which can be used to publish text-based content. Users can use these sites to
produce, describe, post, search, discuss, share, and communicate online material in a variety
of formats. Libraries employ Web 2.0 tools to teach patrons about information literacy.

Blogs can be used by libraries to update clients about changes, additions, and other
advancements in library services and collections. Using podcasts and vodcasts, libraries can
disseminate images, events, and instructions. Libraries are also aggressively embracing the
usage of these tools to better serve its customers and attract new ones. These tools assist
libraries in providing proactive resources and services to its users.

Library Portals
The library portals serve as a portal to information, services from various sources, and access
to the organization's resources. The integration of Semantic Web technologies in the
development of Library portals makes it easier for users to search for, access, and retrieve
learning resources. The portal should attempt to enable access to a coalition of learning
repositories that provide learning content in various formats. Implementing Library portals

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with Semantic Web services will help libraries realise their vision. Large collections of
learning resources are semantically annotated using various technologies, allowing users to
access the information in one or more learning repositories. Ontologies are used to annotate
web material with information and convey its semantics in a machine-readable fashion.

The Ontology schema will allow for greater flexibility in giving semantic descriptions of
information in learning object repositories while also facilitating automated functions and
task delegation to intelligent agents. The search interface of the library portal should be
capable of searching across heterogeneous materials. The Semantic Library portal should
have automatic interaction with a search engine at the resource, combined with web
ontologies, and information tagged content. Technology adoption and execution will enable
ontology-enabled sharing and reuse of learning resources. A gateway like this will enable the
library to provide the finest services possible.

Web Directories
There are two types of search services offered to the Web community: web directories and
search engines. They are used to retrieve relevant information from the internet. Web
directories, often known as subject directories, are designed to help visitors identify all
relevant websites within specific categories or subcategories. Web directories route users to a
list of websites by utilising layers of categories and subcategories, which users may then
select to find a list of all relevant websites.Web directories differ in terms of coverage, size,
and purpose. Some directories, such as Yahoo! or the Open Directory Project, are enormous
and provide extensive coverage of all types of websites on the Internet. Some directories are
intended for specific types of searches, such as academic resources or professional
information sources. Some directories, such as phone books, concentrate on a small range of
information, such as phone numbers and addresses.

Human editors help web directories construct their indexes. Expert volunteers update many
human-edited directories, including the Open Directory Project and the World Wide Web
Virtual Library. The World Wide Web virtual Library web directory, has been active since
1991, making it the oldest web directory online. Tim Berners-Lee, the man who invented
HTML and the web, built it. Volunteers oversee compiling pages in their areas of expertise,
resulting in a directory widely recognised as among the best accessible.
Librarians' Internet Index: LII (Librarians' Internet Index) is an online directory that
public librarians maintain and index. It has approximately 20,000 entries in thirteen major
categories that are evaluated by public librarians. Each entry includes a brief description of
the site as well as the website's URL. The sites listed are for general interest.
LII was founded in the early 1990s by Carole Leta, a reference librarian, and was combined
with Berkeley Public Library in 1994, when it was renamed Berkeley Public Library Index to
the Internet. The directory was relocated to UC Berkeley SunSITE in 1997 and renamed
Librarians' Index to the Internet.
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Subject Gateways:
Subject gateways are web-based services that provide searchable and browsable catalogues
of information from the Internet. Subject gateways frequently focus on a subset of academic
subject areas. Subject gateways in their most basic form are collections of websites that
provide lists of links to resources. Some gateways index their link lists and provide a
straightforward search function. Some offer additional services, such as a resource database
and numerous indexes that can be searched via a web-based interface. The majority of
gateways allow the end user to search or browse the resource description database. Other
names for these include subject-based information gateways, clearing houses, subject trees,
pathfinders, and so on.

Subject gateways are intended to provide the user community with high-quality information.
They are valuable sources of information for users because they are subject-specific. The
primary benefit of such sites is that they are man-made. The content is handcrafted by
someone who is knowledgeable about the subject and its complexities. As a result, the
generated resource entries are frequently superior to those provided by a traditional search
engine.

With the advent of the Internet, many libraries are eager to go online. They frequently
discover that the amount of material available on the Internet is enormous, and that if only
that amount of material could be handled and made available to the user community, it would
meet its information needs. In order to do so, they developed subject-based portals known as
Subject Gateways in the information society. A subject gateway is not required to run a
library. It can be managed by people who are interested in information and want to share
useful information.The main idea behind subject gateways arose from search engines'
inefficiency in providing focused information, and because of the information explosion, it is
difficult for academics and researchers to sit and browse the internet for information.

Features of Subject Gateways:

Following are the features of subject gateways(Thomas, 2017):

• Each resource selected is evaluated explicitly defined quality selection criteria.

• Resources are classified using a range of schemes, e.g., DDC-MESH
• Metadata (Standard resource description) are provided based on a particular standard
e.g., Dublin Core.
• Written resources descriptions are provided for each resource often by library subject
specialist.
• Currency of resources is checked by link checking software (e.g., ROADS), database
such as OMNI.
• Institutional commitments are the vital component for continued development of
subject gateway.

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Weblogs (blogs)
Blogs are nothing more than an online diary, a website where entries are posted in
chronological order and are typically presented in reverse chronological order. Individuals
usually maintain blogs with regular updates of comments, event descriptions, or additional
material such as images or video. Most blogs are interactive, allowing users to leave
comments and even message one another via widgets, and it is this interaction that
distinguishes them from other static websites. A typical blog includes text, photographs, and
links to other blogs, websites, and media. Many blogs allow readers to leave comments in a
more interactive format.
Blogs can be used by libraries to exchange information, solicit user feedback, promote
information services, notify readers about the availability of new resources or the
establishment of new facilities, and so on. When used wisely, blogs can be effective
marketing tools, bridging the gap between people and libraries. To improve the user-
centeredness and service features of libraries, we can simply solicit user feedback and make
it participatory and collaborative.
Application of Blog in libraries:

• Blogs serve as a platform where the users can file their concerns, queries and
suggestions regarding the services and activities of the library.
• Blogs can also be used for the collection development where the users request the
resources.
• Blogs can be used as a tool for marketing of the information as well as the library.
• Blogs can serve as discussion forum.

Podcasts
Podcasts are MP3 audio recordings of talks, interviews, and lectures that can be listened to
on a desktop computer or a variety of handheld MP3 players. A podcast is a collection of
digital-media audio or video files that are distributed over the Internet via syndicated
download, Web feeds, portable media players, and personal computers. Although the same
content can be obtained through direct download or streaming, a podcast differs from other
forms of digital media in that it can be syndicated, subscribed to, and automatically
downloaded when new content is added.
Application of Podcasting in Libraries:

• The library that works hard to produce audio content such as recordings of programs
or library tours, podcasting can be an effective means of making that content more
widely available.
• Podcast highlights about new resources
• Podcasts enable librarians to share information with anyone at any time.

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• Podcasting can be a publishing tool for users and librarians’ oral presentations

RSS Feeds
RSS (Really Simple Syndication or Rich Site Summary) is a web content delivery format
used to provide frequently changing and updated web content such as blog posts, news
headlines, audio, and video. It is basically a way of alerting people to changes and sharing
new developments with others who are interested in the same. Web feeds help publishers by
allowing them to automatically syndicate content. They serve readers by providing timely
updates from favourite websites or by aggregating feeds from multiple sites into a single
location. Many news sites, blogs, and other online publishers syndicate their information as
an RSS Feed to anyone who requests it. It allows us to simply stay up to date by retrieving
the most recent content. Not only does it save time, but it also protects your privacy by not
signing up for e-mail newsletters.

RSS feeds can be read using RSS reader, feed reader, or aggregator software, which can be
web-based, desktop-based, or mobile-device-based. Feed Reader or News Aggregator
software collects and displays RSS feeds from multiple websites. Amphetadesk (Windows,
Linux), FeedReader (Windows), and NewsGator are some prominent feed readers (Windows
- integrates with Outlook). RSS feeds are used by libraries to keep up with blogs, world and
local news, images, podcasts, weather forecasts, product price changes and sales, new
publications from favourite authors or publishers, social bookmarks, professional
organisation announcements, and so on. There are hundreds of electronic journals that have
RSS feeds that notify users when new content is updated or published. RSS updates, in
particular, news regarding the world of writing, such as new books published that are of
interest to our readers.For example:

• Edmonton Public Library (http://www.epl.ca/RSSFeeds/EPLRSSFeeds.cfm)

• Hennepin County Library (http://www.hclib.org/pub/search/RSS.cfm)
Application of RSS in Libraries:

• Announcement of the availability of new books and other resources in a given subject
area.
• Librarians can subscribe to RSS from the sources for compiling their customized
alerts.
• Promote events organized in the library for Library Users.
• Enhance Library Instruction for different Web 2.0, Library 2.0, Blogs, Wikis, RSS,
Tagging, Podcasting, IM programs/courses by integrating appropriate resources.
• Announce availability of new research and learning opportunities in various
academic/ research

Instant Messaging

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Instant Messaging (IM) allows two or more people to communicate in real time online by
sending text-based brief messages over the internet. The reference staff can respond to ready
reference questions, directions, or policy-related inquiries via IM and SMS. The reference
staff must be brief and to the point when responding to instant messaging (IM) and short text
messaging (SMS) queries. If the response to a query is lengthy, the staff may request an e-
mail address and provide more context on the topic, or the reader may be encouraged to visit
the library. Users value IM and SMS for their convenience, anonymity, and quick assistance.
Instant messaging is used in academic libraries to provide virtual reference services and
improve access.

Wikis
A website that each reader can personalise. Wikis enable anyone to share knowledge and
information, but they are not typically considered "authoritative" or "scholarly." They contain
a lot of information because users can make up facts or pass off ideas as facts on a wiki.
Despite the fact that some major wikis (such as Wikipedia) attempt to verify information or
reference sources, these sites are not regarded as credible or trustworthy. If you find
information on a wiki, cross-reference it with data from another source, such as an
encyclopaedia, dictionary, or index. Example: The most prominent example is Wikipedia
(http://en.wikipedia.org/), which has approximately 3.4 million articles available on the
Internet for free use.

Flickr
Flickr is a digital media platform that allows people all over the world to share and manage
online images. This application was developed by Ludicorp in 2004, and it has since been
used by both professional and amateur photographers. They can share their high-resolution
photographs and Flickr photos with this software. The site has a variety of features; simply
create a free account on this media platform and upload your photos using your Flickr
account. This platform is used by several professional bloggers and researchers to host
photographs that are used in social media and online blogs.

Social Networking
Individuals are classified as members of social networks. Although social networking can
occur in person, particularly in the workplace, universities, colleges, and schools, it is most
common online because there are so many people looking to meet others on the Internet.
MySpace, Facebook, Orkut, Twitter, and LinkedIn are all popular social networking sites. On
these platforms, you can now see not only people, but also businesses and products. Social
networking sites function in the same way as an online community of Internet users. We can
begin socialising after joining a social networking website by reading other members' profile
pages and possibly contacting them. Making new friends from different social, economic,
religious, and cultural backgrounds is just one of the many benefits of social networking
online.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Web 2.0 term was invented by _______________.
2. Web 2.0 has given vendors more power over unhappy customers. True /
False
3. Which among these is not a Web browser?
a) www
b) Chrome
c) Opera
d) Netsurf

1.5 WEB 3.0

Web 3.0 refers to the increased use and interaction with the web, which involves
transforming the web into a database with the integration of DLT (Distributed Ledger
Technology blockchain, for example), and that data can be used to create Smart Contracts
based on the individual's needs. It enables the advancement of the web's back end following a
period of emphasis on the front end (Web 2.0 has mainly been about AJAX, tagging, and
other front-end user-experience innovation). Web 3.0 is a concept used to describe multiple
evolutions of web usage and interaction between different paths. In this case, data is shared
rather than owned, with services displaying different views of the same web / data.
The Semantic Web (3.0) promises to establish "the world's information" in a more logical
manner than Google's current engine schema. This is especially true when comparing
machine conception to human comprehension. Instead of simply matching keywords, the
Semantic Web requires the use of a declarative ontological language, such as OWL, to create
domain-specific ontologies that machines can use to reason about information and draw new
conclusions.
1.5.1 Main features of Web 3.0:
1. Semantic Web
The Semantic Web is the next step in the evolution of the Web. The semantic web
enhances web technologies in demand for creating, sharing, and connecting
content via search and analysis based on the ability to comprehend the meaning of
words rather than keywords or numbers.
2. Artificial Intelligence
Combining this capability with natural language processing, in Web 3.0,

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computers can distinguish information like humans to provide faster and more
relevant results. They become more intelligent to fulfill the requirements of users.
3. 3D Graphics
In Web 3.0, three-dimensional design is widely used in websites and services.
Museum guides, computer games, e-commerce, geospatial contexts, and other
applications that use 3D graphics are all examples.
4. Connectivity
Because of semantic metadata, information is more connected in Web 3.0. As a
result, the user experience evolves to a higher level of connectivity that makes use
of all available data.
5. Ubiquity
Content is accessible by multiple applications, every device is connected to the
web, and the services can be used everywhere.
6. DLT and Smart Contracts
With the help of DLT, we can have a nearly impossible to hack database from
which one can have value to their content and things they can own virtually; this
is the technology that enables a trustless society by the integration of smart
contracts that do not require a middle man to be a guarantor to make that contract
occur on a specific date because it is based on data from that DLT. It's a powerful
tool that has the potential to make the world a better place by creating more
opportunities for everyone on the internet.

1.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN WEB 1.0, WEB 2.0 AND WEB 3.0

Table 1.1: Comparison between Web 1.0, Web 2.0 and web 3.0 (Source:“Comparison
Between Web 1.0, Web 2.0 and Web 3.0,” 2018)

Web 1.0 Web 2.0 Web 3.0

Mostly Read-Only Wildly Read-Write Portable and Personal
Home Pages Blogs / Wikis Live-streams / Waves
Company Focus Community Focus Individual Focus
Owning Content Sharing Content Consolidating Content
WebForms Web Applications Smart Applications
Directories Tagging User behavior
Page Views Cost Per Click User Engagement
Banner Advertising Interactive Advertising Behavioral Advertising
Britannica Online Wikipedia The Semantic Web
HTML/Portals XML / RSS RDF / RDFS / OWL
Data was not Focused. Data of many was controlled by Data was personalized and no
some mediatory. use of mediatory.
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Information sharing is the Interaction is the goal. Immersion is the goal.

goal.
It connects information as It aims to connect people. Focuses on relating knowledge.
its primary goal.
Static websites Introduction of web applications Intelligent web-based functions
and apps
A simpler, more passive An enhanced social Web A semantic web exists.
web.
Web and File Servers, AJAX, JavaScript, CSS, and Web 3.0 technologies include
HTML, and Portals are HTML5 are examples of related blockchain, artificial
technologies connected to technology. intelligence, and decentralized
Web 1.0. protocols.
Associated Technologies:- Associated Technologies:- Associated Technologies:-
• Web and File • Frameworks for Ajax • Searching Using
Servers and JavaScript Semantics
• Search • Microsoft.NET • Databases of
Engines • Blogs Information
(including • Wikis and others. • Ontologies
AltaVista and • Intelligent Digital
Yahoo!) Personal Assistants
• E-mail and others.
accounts
(Yahoo!,
Hotmail)
• Peer-to-Peer
File Sharing
(Napster,
BitTorrent)
and others.

1.7 SUMMARY

In this lesson, we learnt how the web evolved from its original static form to its dynamic
form known as Web 2.0. This is also known as a Read/Write web. You were given an
overview of web 2.0 technology and standards. We also looked at major web 2.0 concepts as
well as some essential tools. Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 will attract and draw attention to the
world by offering interactive web services. Libraries have positioned themselves to quickly
and expertly absorb its successors. The text-based aspect of instant messaging applications is
giving way to more multimedia experiences, with audio and video messaging becoming more
common. It has become more common as they provide more multisensory experiences.

1.8 GLOSSARY

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Blogs:is an abbreviation for ‘web log’. It is a type of website that people use to update
regularly, where entries are shown on date wise as in a diary.
Social networking: is a set of software system that provides people to join, share,
interact and build a communication network on the web.
Tagging: is a process of giving keyword (tag) by the user to an object on the Internet.

Wiki: is a website that allows the easy creation and editing of any number ofinterlinked web
pages via a web browser using a simplified markup language or aWYSIWYG text editor.

1.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Tim O'Reilly 3. www

2. True
1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is Web 2.0? Elaborate the Web 2.0 tools.

2. Explain the features of Web 3.0.

1.11 REFERENCES

Comparison Between Web 1.0, Web 2.0 and Web 3.0. (2018, September 24). GeeksforGeeks.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/web-1-0-web-2-0-and-web-3-0-with-their-difference/

Thomas, R. (2017). IMPACT OF WEB TECHNOLOGIES ON LIBRARY AND

DOCUMENTATION CENTRES. 11.

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bradley, Phil (2007). How to use web 2.0 in your library. Facet Publishing,London.

Kroski, Ellyssa (2008). Web 2.0 for librarians and information professionals. Neal Schuman
Publishers, New York.

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LESSON 1.3

WEB DIRECTORIES, SUBJECT GATEWAYS,

LIBRARY PORTALS, etc.

Saloni Priya
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Web based library services
1.4 Web Directories
1.5 Subject Gateways
1.6 Library Portals
1.7 Summary
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References
1.10 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

 discuss the importance of library portals and gateway

 Learn about web directories

1.2 INTRODUCTION

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Subject gateways or portals refine the work of subject directories by presenting subject
specific information channels governed by strict quality criteria, usually compiled by human
experts. Resources included in gateways cover a wide spectrum, from electronic journals and
books to academic and government reports, as well as referring users to relevant web sites.

Gateways are usually constructed at academic institutions and follow the principle of open
access.

1.3 WEB BASED LIBRARY SERVICES

Web-based library services are primarily delivered via the library portal, which serves
as a special type of portal to web-based library resources. It enables seamless access to the
metadata of a library's various databases. It compiles a variety of useful information
resources into a single webpage, allowing users to customise their information resources by
selecting and viewing information they find personally useful.

1.4 WEB DIRECTORIES

A web directory is a collection of websites that have been organised to make navigation
easier. These web address links are classified using specific criteria, such as alphabetical
order. This assists users in searching for information in a specific manner. Before search
engines, the only way to find websites on the internet was through web directories.

A web directory is an online directory that lists websites, businesses, and industry-related
content. Although web directories used to focus on general website links, modern web
directories focus on specific industries such as local businesses, travel, and used goods,
among many others. Because most directories include a search engine on their website, web
directories are becoming an increasingly important part of vertical search.

Web directories are used for a variety of reasons, including improved search results, more
relevant search results, and greater variety within a broader topic. Their primary benefits in
marketing and SEO include driving traffic to a website, improving a company's reputation,
and increasing a site's visibility in the SERPs.

Web directories were once an important part of the link-building process because they
enabled the creation of backlinks to a site. They are now used more for building local
citations and increasing topical relevance than for link building. Nonetheless, they continue
to be an important part of off-page SEO.

Web directories, also known as subject directories, are designed to help users find all relevant
websites within specific categories or subcategories. Web directories direct users to a list of

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websites by utilising layers of categories and subcategories, which users can then select to
find a list of all relevant websites.

The outcome of a search engine search is determined by key words. Search engines, like
computers, only respond to specific terms that many users may not be familiar with. Users
must understand what the web directory allows and does not allow among search techniques
such as phrase searching, Boolean logic, truncation, and field searching because each subject
directory has slightly different search mechanisms. (What Is Web Directory - Definition,
Meaning and Examples, 2021)
Types of web directories (https://www.arimetrics.com/en/digital-glossary/web-directory):
We can classify web directories in different ways according to their typology:
 According to the cost: si these allow us to include the link to our website without any
cost, we will talk about free directories, if on the contrary it is necessary to pay to
register our website we will refer to paid directories. The latter are usually much more
beneficial for SEO as a general rule, since they are less saturated and transmit greater
authority, while with free ones the opposite happens in many and can even be as
webspam issuers. There is a variant within the payment directories known as bid
directories in which this payment method is used to define the visibility that our
website will have within the directory.
 According to the correspondence: there are numerous directories that are free, but in
exchange for including our website they demand in return a link to it, which is known
as reciprocal directories, normally these are more relevant than free non-reciprocal
directories.
 According to the geographical area: if it is a web directory that includes only web
pages from a certain geographical region, we are talking about a local directory, if it
does not have any type of geographical limitation, it is a global directory.
 According to the specialization: if it is a directory that is not specialized in any
specific topic, it is called a general directory, when if it is it is a thematic directory.
Thematic directories are as varied as disciplines exist and we can find directories of
sports, news, health, technology, shopping, etc … Within the thematic directories we
can highlight the academic directories that focus on certain subjects as support for
research or teaching.
The main advantages of web directories are:

• You may delegate authority to our website.

• They include website descriptions.
• They present the classified data.
• They categorise websites based on their content.
• They increase the visibility of our website.
The disadvantages of web directories are:
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• In most cases, they do not provide a significant benefit to our website's increased
traffic.
• They are not usually updated very frequently.
• Their databases are much smaller than search engine databases.
• The descriptions they provide about websites are usually quite generalist and do not
provide too much detail; and many of them are no longer in use.

Some examples of web directories are

(https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Web_directory):

Yahoo! Directory
The Yahoo! Directory is a web directory that rivals the size of the Open Directory Project.
Yahoo's first product was a directory. When Yahoo! switched to crawler-based listings for its
main results in October 2002, the significance of the human-edited directory diminished, but
it is still being updated. The Yahoo! Directory provides two options for submitting websites
for possible inclusion: "Standard," which is free, and a paid submission process with
expedited review. When recommending a commercial site, payment is required.

Yahoo! offers both a search engine and a directory service, with the directory searchable
independently of the rest of the search engine results.

Open Directory Project

The Open Directory Project (ODP), also known as demos (from its original domain name,
directory.mozilla.org), is a multilingual open content directory of World Wide Web links
owned by Netscape and built and maintained by a community of volunteer editors.

For organising site listings, ODP employs a hierarchical ontology scheme. Listings on a
similar topic are grouped into categories, which can then be subdivided further.

Librarians' Internet Index

LII (Librarians' Internet Index) is a web directory maintained and indexed by public
librarians. Over 20,000 entries are evaluated by public librarians in thirteen major categories.
Each entry contains a brief description of the site as well as the URL. The listed websites are
of general interest. A well-known example is the LII.

Carole Leta, a reference librarian, founded LII in the early 1990s, and it was merged with
Berkeley Public Library in 1994, when it was renamed Berkeley Public Library Index to the
Internet. In 1997, the directory was moved to UC Berkeley SunSITE and renamed Librarians'
Index to the Internet. (Web Directory - New World Encyclopedia)

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1.5 SUBJECT GATEWAYS

A subject gateway is an organised collection of resources on a specific topic that includes a

retrieval mechanism. This essentially means that the search domain's scope is well defined
and limited to a subset of what is available in general. In its most basic form, the resources
may be made available as a structured hyper-linked directory, as some search engine sites
that provide directory services do. (https://lispweb.wordpress.com/subject-gateways/)

According to Lorcan Dempsey: “Subject gateways are internet services which support
systematic resource discovery. They provide links to resources (documents, objects, sites or
services) predominantly accessible via the internet. The service is based on resource
description. Browsing access to the resource via a subject structure is an important feature".
Subject gateways are characterized by two key factors:
a) They are selective, pointing only to Internet resources that meet with quality selection
criteria.
b) They are built by subject and information specialists- often librarians.
Some examples of subject gateways are:

 AERADE: Reports Archive

AERADE is a Gateway for aerospace and defence devised and maintained by
information professionals at Cranfield University Library and the Royal Military
College of Science Library.
http://aerade.cranfield.ac.uk/

 ELDIS
Eldis is an online information service providing free access to relevant, up-to-date
and diverse research on international development issues. Eldis includes over 30,000

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summaries and links to free full-text research and policy documents from over 8,000
publishers. Each document is selected by the team of editors for maintaining
relevance and quality.
http://www.eldis.org/

 INFOMINE: Scholarly Internet Resource Collection

INFOMINE is a virtual library of Internet resources relevant to faculty, students, and
research staff at the university level. It contains useful Internet resources such as
databases, electronic journals, electronic books, bulletin boards, mailing lists, online
library card catalogues, articles, directories of researchers, and many other types of
information.
http://infomine.ucr.edu/

 Internet Public Library (ipl2) – Information you can trust

ipl2 is a public service organization and a learning/teaching environment and it the
first public library of and for the Internet community. Started as an an experiment,
now trying to discover and promote the most effective roles and contributions of
librarians to the Internet and vice versa. A group of highly talented, creative, strong-
willed people, working hard for collecting, organising and providing access to
Internet based resources.
http://www.ipl.org/
 Intute
Intute is a free online service that helps you to find the best web resources for your
studies and research. Intute is the internet Guide to Engineering, Mathematics,
Computing, Agriculture, Law, Physical Science, Social Science, Management,
Biological Science, Geography, Medicine and many more. With millions of resources
available on the Internet, it can be difficult to find useful material. We have reviewed
and evaluated thousands of resources to help you choose key websites in your subject.
http://www.intute.ac.uk/

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 SciCentral: Gateway to the best science news sources

SciCentral provides aggregated breaking science research news from the most
reputable and reliable sources.SciCentral is a gateway to thousands of online
resources, grouped by science area (Biological, Health, Engineering, Physical &
Chemical, etc.) and then subdivided by resource type (directories, specialized
resources, databases, special reports, articles).
http://www.scicentral.com/

 Science Accelerator
Science Accelerator is a gateway to science, including R&D results, project
descriptions, accomplishments, and more, via resources from the Office of Scientific
and Technical Information (OSTI), U.S. Department of Energy.
http://www.scienceaccelerator.gov/
 Scout Report Archives
Scout Research Group (Scout) has focused on developing better tools and services for
finding, filtering, and presenting online information and metadata. Scout has access to
highly educated content specialists and a world-class array of computer science and
library resources.
https://scout.wisc.edu/archives/

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 TechXtra
TechXtra is a free service which can help you find articles, books, the best websites,
the latest industry news, job announcements, technical reports, technical data, full text
e-prints, the latest research, thesis & dissertations, teaching and learning resources
and more, in engineering, mathematics and computing.
http://www.techxtra.ac.uk/
 Vifamath: the Virtual Library of Mathematics
Vifamath, the Virtual Library of Mathematics is the central access point for your
search for mathematical information. It allows to search both for conventional forms
of media and for electronic resources.
http://vifamath.de/
 WorldWideScience.org: One-stop searching of worldwide science sources
WorldWideScience.org is a global science gateway comprised of national and
international scientific databases and portals. WorldWideScience.org accelerates
scientific discovery and progress by providing one-stop searching of databases from
around the world. Multilingual WorldWideScience.org provides real-time searching
and translation of globally dispersed multilingual scientific literature.
http://worldwidescience.org/

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 WWW Virtual Library

The WWW Virtual Library (VL) is the oldest catalogue of the Web. It is individual
indexes live on hundreds of different servers around the world.
http://vlib.org/

Other subject gateways

 LibrarySpot.com: (http://www.libraryspot.com/)
 Librarians’ Index to the Internet (LII) (http://lii.org/)
 Argus Clearing House (http://www.clearinghouse.net/)
 Galaxy (http://galaxy.einet.net/)
 Direct Search (http://gwis2.circ.gwu.edu/~gprice/direct.htm)
 Academic Info (http://www.academicinfo.com/)
 BUBL (http://bubl.ac.uk/)
 BIOME (http://biome.ac.uk/)
 The Scout Report (http://scout.cs.wisc.edu/report/sr/current/)
 LivingInternet.com (http://www.livinginternet.com/)
 Edinburgh Engineering Virtual Library (EEVL) (http://www.eevl.ac.uk)
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 Social Science Information Gateway (SOSIG) (http://sosig.ac.uk/)

 Digital Librarian (http://www.digital-librarian.com/)
 QUEST.net (http://www.re-quest.net/)
 BioMedNet (http://www.bmn.com/)
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SUBJECT GATEWAY
 An online service that provides links to numerous other sites or documents on the
internet
 Manual creation/intervention, often by information and/or subject specialists
 Selection of resources according to published quality and scope criteria
 Intellectually produced content descriptions, ranging in length from short annotation
to review
 Search and browse access, and
 Collection management policy, supported by maintenance and updating procedures
SEARCH ENGINES V/S SUBJECT GATEWAYS

(https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-search-engine-and-subject-directory/)

SEARCH ENGINE SUBJECT GATEWAY

It is an online tool that is used to locate or It is an online database of websites and
search for information on WWW. online information set up by subject and
category.

It is generally maintained and reviewed by It is created, maintained, and reviewed by

computer robotics. human editors or experts.

It allows users to find or locate information

It allows users to find or locate information on the internet using hierarchy.
on the internet using phrases and keywords.
General resource is available. It is a “gathering place of discipline
specific resources”
It totally depends on the powerfulness of High level of human input is there, as the
the search-engines algorithms. selected resources must meet a number. Of
criteria applied by a librarian or academic,
who ensures that only high quality,
relevant resources are included in the
database.
The results can be overwhelming, The results are specific, precise, and linked
unmanageable, full of irrelevant references to relevant documents.
and are often too prolific to meet user
needs.

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Records are created by an automatic Records are created by a cataloguer, which

process and typically consist of a mixture is designed to highlight the main features
of metadata offered by the author of the of resource in an easily readable, concise
page (if this is available) and text picked up fashion.
from the page itself.

1.5 LIBRARY PORTALS

A portal is a website or web service that provides information content to serve a specific
community. It is derived from the Medieval Latin word ‘portale’, meaning ‘city gate’.
American Heritage Dictionary defines a portal as “a doorway or an entrance, or a gate,
especially one that is large and imposing”. Library Portals are the subset of web portals and
serve specific academic research communities. Library portals typically provide a gateway to
an institution’s resources by listing them for users and creating a direct link to the interface of
each resource. Library portals in this digital era enhance the value and function of electronic
resources with the facility of searching multiple resources. Library portals offer access to a
broad array of resources and services to libraries such as e- journals, online databases, web-
OPAC, new addition and any other static information about library services.
Library Portal:

A library portal is an interface to access library resources and services through a single
access and management point for users: for example, by combining the circulation and
catalog functions of an integrated library system (ILS) with additional tools and facilities.

According to Wikipedia, A library portal is defined as "a combination of software

components that unify the user experience of discovering and accessing information" in
contrast to a "single technology" to provide "services that support discovery, access and
effective use of information." (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_portal)

The term Portal describes a variety of web based interfaces, everything from a relatively
static homepage with generally product and contact information to a dynamic one "stop
homepage where users can customize the content to meet their needs. or many portal is the
epicenter of the web experience, a place to return to when you get lost, a place to keep your
information, a place from which to communicate with others. The point -information
%systems 4ommittee defines a portal as Ha network service that brings together content from
diverse distributed resources using technologies such as cross searching, harvesting altering,
and collates this into an amalgamated form for presentation !ia a web browser to the user. &
Library portal is a single access point combining the library catalogues, subscription
database, subject gateways, electronic journals etc. Library portal meets in individual needs

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of users, which either the system itself can tailor the delivery and presentation of information
content or the users themselves can customize the type and format of information displayed.
Library portal is now the standard interface to generate library resources and services through
a single access a management point for users.

Significance of Library portal

Librarians have become increasingly aware that the multiplication of electronic resources is a
problem for end-users. Users find it difficult to locate the most appropriate database or
resources to search for information relevant to their need. Even if they locate the right
resources, since each service tends to have its own unique interface, they may struggle to
search it effectively. -f information is difficult to find using library tools and services, users
are looking for alternative sources. This new reality translates into the need for making
library web environments effective and useful. This trend is especially challenging for
librarians, who were and continue to see themselves as the traditional keepers of knowledge,
which until!ery recently was housed in many millions of books and journals that are rapidly
becoming digitized. Portals are transformational environments that address the problem of
information glut by customizing information content to meet specific end-user needs. Library
Portal is growing in its importance as the preferred way of organizing and using information.
Web portals are seen as positive potential frameworks for achieving order out of chaos. &s
portals become a primary means for transacting information and commerce, libraries of all
types are becoming involved in thinking, planning and building various frameworks and
services. Library portals reduce the barrier of users having to remember multiple log-ons.
The portal gives the library a tool to channel users towards preferred resources. -t increases
the ability of the library to ensure that costly electronic journals and databases are used by
offering a simple way to browse the available resources. supports searching by carrying users
through from bibliographic searches to full text options.

 Ease-of Use
One of the most important features to consider is ease of use, which can be determined by an
effectively organised home page. The ease with which users find information is determined
by the number of paths provided to find information while keeping the number of clicks to a
minimum in finding relevant information. To interact with the system frequently, the user
should perceive ease-of-use with the accessibility and usability of the library portal. Text
should be kept brief and clear so that users can scan and find the needed information quickly
and, in some cases, obscured information.

 Search and Navigation

In addition to a consistent and logical navigation framework, the homepage must include
effective search functionality and site maps. The library portal should provide direct access to
commonly used services, as users expect to be able to complete tasks online. Search boxes
are preferable to search buttons and should be placed prominently.
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 Resource Linking
A library can seamlessly connect electronic resources by using resource linking. An index or
abstract, for example, can be linked to a full-text database, while a bibliographic record can
be linked to a review or an e-book. Users may prefer to have more than one path to the same
information; cross linking ensures that users find the information they seek.

 Personalization
Each individual user or a community and/or group of users can have settings for each of the
portal functions that they use. A portal provides a framework for users to store the settings
and tailor the content that they are interested in seeing. A portal can be personalized using
user-profile to deliver personalized content. Each user can gain a view that is tailored to his
or her access privileges. User has to sign on with a username and Personal Identification
Number on entry to the library portal to access personal profile information and tailor the
design based on customization feature. Or else, a portal may give users the ability to create
their personalized pages by selecting what they want to see whenever they get access to the
library portal. This personal page may keep track of resources for a user, his library account,
queries kept until the session ends, request and reserves and also renewals.

 User Authentication
User authentication also known as patron's authentication determines whether patrons are
eligible for service by checking patrons against a library database. This authentication is
usually done with a proxy server to limit access to resources the patron is authorized to use.
For example, a library may allow anyone to access its catalogue, its community information
file and other locally created files on its web server, or it may limit access to subscription
databases to only registered borrowers.

 Interactive Services
Although most portals can support interactive services, only a few academic libraries have
incorporated interactive services in to their portal. Typical of such services are e-mail, chat
rooms and forums. Library portal should facilitate knowledge sharing online by providing
collaborative space for interactive tools. However, in order to assist the users in the fair use
of tools and services offered, library portal should facilitate web-based information literacy
programs.

Core functionality of Library Portal

90% searching would be fare easier for the user if the library could present resources in a
consistent, organized gateway. This should be customized for different user groups.98;'sers
would learn to search more effectively if there is one fully functional library-maintained
search interface available for any database they wanted to use. It should often be convenient
to search multiple databases from one search box. This implies the ability, in a single search,

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to interrogate databases that use different metadata standards, especially in different

curatorial domains specifically the system should be able to search databases of images and a
proliferating array of multimedia types, and ideally show thumbnails or previews in search
results. The search results from spread searches need to be presented in an intelligible way to
the user, ideally with duplication and sorting of results. The user should be able to sale hits or
searches, including for reuse on databases other than the one it was first created for.

The system must provide central management tools for handling a variety of http-based
query syntaxes, since standards are developing rapidly to meet the needs of specific domains.

1.6 SUMMARY

The main points and themes covered in the lesson must be reviewed and highlighted
at the end of the lesson in the form of a summary. Please note that 'this is not a conclusion:
rather it will help the learners in remembering the main points of the lesson and therefore it is
written at the end of the lesson. It should be one paragraph and should not be too long.
Further, if the author feels the need, key points can be given as a numbered or bulleted list or
a diagram chart.

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the concept of learning. Discuss personal factors that influence learning, with
suitable examples.
2. Discuss some effective methods of learning that you would like your students to
practice in class and at home. Illustrate your answer with relevant examples.

1.10 REFERENCES

Web directory—New World Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved October 6, 2022, from

https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Web_directory

What is Web Directory—Definition, meaning and examples. (2021, November 16).

https://www.arimetrics.com/en/digital-glossary/web-directory

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1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

HARAVU (L J). 2004. Library automation design, principles and practice. . Allied
Publishers, New Delhi.

INFLIBNET. Software for university libraries user manual. 2003. INFLIBNET,

Ahmedabad.

NEELAMEGHAN (A) and LALITHA (S K). Tutor +: A learning and teaching package
on hypertext link commands in WINISIS. 2001. Sarada Ranganathan Endowment for
Library Science, Bangalore. 5. NEGUS (Christopher). Linux bible. 2005. John Wiley,
New York

**************LMS Feedback: [email protected]**************

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LESSON 1.4

WEBLOGS (BLOGS), PODCASTS, RSS FEEDS,

INSTANT MESSAGING, WIKIS, FLICKR, ETC.

Saloni Priya
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Web 2.0 Applications in Library
1.3.1 Synchronous Communication
1.3.1.1 Instant Messaging (IM) and Virtual Meetings
1.3.2 Content Delivery
1.3.2.1 RSS Feeds
1.3.2.2 Streaming Media
1.3.2.3 Podcasting
1.3.2.4 Vodcasting
1.3.2.5 SMS Enquiry Service
1.3.3 Collaborative Publishing Tools
1.3.3.1 Blogs
1.3.3.2 Wikis
1.3.4 Collaborative Service Platforms
1.3.4.1 Social Networks
1.3.4.2 Tagging
1.3.4.3 Social Bookmarking Services
1.3.5 Hybrid Applications, Programs and Programming Tools
1.3.5.1 Mashups
1.3.5.2 Ajax (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML)
1.3.5.3 Application Programming Interface (API)
1.3.5.4 Library Tool Bars
1.4 Summary
1.5 Glossary

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1.6 Answers to In-text Questions

1.7 Self-Assessment Questions
1.8 References
1.9 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

• Know about Instant Messaging (IM) and Virtual Meetings
• Understand content delivery tools like RSS feeds, Podcasting, Vodcasting, SMS
• Understand collaborative publishing tools like Blog, Wiki.
• Familiarize with different platforms like socia networks, tagging.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

The World Wide Web (WWW) was originally intended as a visual medium for publishing
ideas and information to a potentially large audience online. Users could only read and learn
from websites created by individuals or institutions in the web 1.0 environment. As a result,
it is referred to as "read-only" media. With the advancement of technology, the "read-only"
web has evolved into the "read and write" web, also known as Web 2.0. It enables the general
public to interact, contribute, coordinate, and collaborate in the collaborative delivery of
web-based services and products. In comparison to the traditional web 1.0 model, web 2.0
technologies represent a revolutionary approach to managing and repurposing online
information and knowledge repositories.Web 2.0 is being extended to several sectors,
resulting in newer concepts such as Travel 2.0, Business 2.0, and Library 2.0. With their
responsibilities of facilitating access to information resources and providing services to their
user communities, libraries found this interactive platform most suitable and were thus early
adopters. Library 2.0 is commonly regarded as the selective use of Web 2.0 tools and
techniques with an emphasis on user services. The module describes Web 2.0 and Library 2.0
applications, as well as their application in libraries to facilitate collaborative services for
users.

1.3 WEB 2.0 APPLICATION IN LIBRARY

A
librarian can not only provide user-centric services, but also foster a collaborative and
participatory environment through the use of web 2.0 technologies, resulting in the creation
of new resources and the expansion of existing ones through the collective intelligence of
users. "Library 2.0" refers to the application of Web 2.0 concepts and technologies to library
services and collections. To meet the needs and expectations of today's library users, a new
generation of library services and activities can be designed or built in the library 2.0

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environment with active participation and feedback from the user community.The term
"Library 2.0," coined by Michael Casey in 2006 on his blog "Library Crunch," refers to a
number of social and technological changes that are having an increasing impact on libraries,
their staff, and their patrons, as well as how they interact.

1.3.1 Synchronous Communication:

The content should be broken down into smaller chunks and organised using headings and
sub-headings. The goal is to present subject matter in a logical and graded order. The
language should be simple and straightforward. It should not be stuffy or full of jargon. The
language used should be appropriate for the learner's level.

Instant Messaging (IM) and Virtual Meetings

Instant messaging (IM) is a type of real-time, nearly instantaneous communication between
two or more people. It allows users to send images, audio and video files, and other
attachments to one another. IM client software includes Paltalk, Google Talk, Windows Live
Messenger, and Yahoo Messenger. Using Instant Messaging, libraries can provide "real-time
assistance" to their patrons. Hundreds of people can participate in a real-time audio and video
conference as well as textual conversations. Libraries can also use Amrita University's A-
View (Amrita Virtual Interactive E-learning World) Classroom to provide an interactive
social environment for E-Learning. The software used in libraries for "live reference
services" is typically far more robust than the simple IM applications.

1.3.2 Content Delivery

RSS Feeds
RSS, which stands for Real Simple Syndication or Rich Site Summary, is a set of XML-
based web-content distribution and republication/syndication protocols used to announce
recent content/updates to a website, such as the arrival of new articles, blog entries, news,
audio, video, and so on. It enables the free exchange of content between applications and
websites. On the one hand, the technology enables a web site (or e-publisher) to list the most
recently published updates (such as table of contents of journals or new articles) via XML;
on the other hand, it enables a web user to keep track of new updates on a chosen website (s).
Users can get timely updates from their favourite website or aggregate data from multiple
websites.RSS feed readers visit pre-defined websites, look for updated information, and
download it to the user's desktop automatically. RSS can be processed by
NewsGator(http://www.newsgator.com/home.aspx), a web-based RSS aggregator, Feedster
(http://www.feedster.com/), and the latest versions of Windows Internet Explorer and
Mozilla Firefox.

Streaming Media

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Streaming multimedia is the sequential delivery of multimedia content over a computer

network to the end user, which is displayed as it is delivered by the provider. Streaming
video and audio media is an important application that existed prior to Web 1.0 and continues
to exist in Web 2.0. It refers to the medium's delivery method. The static, text-based tutorials
are being transformed into interactive multimedia tutorials. Several tutorials combine media
presentations with interactive quizzing, using Flash programming, screen-cast software, or
streaming audio or video. Tutorials were the first library applications to evolve into more
socially rich Web 2.0 environments.

Podcasting
The term "podcasting" is a combination of two words: "broadcasting" and "iPod" (popular
MP3 player from Apple Computer). Podcasting is defined as "the process of capturing audio
digital-media files for distribution over the Internet via RSS feeds for playback on portable
media players and computers." Podcast is defined by Merriam Webster Dictionary as "a
programme made available in digital format for automatic download over the Internet." It's
also referred to as a time and location independent digital file. Users can subscribe to such
feeds and have the files automatically downloaded into an audio management programme on
their PCs.A podcast differs from other digital media formats in that it can be syndicated,
subscribed to, and downloaded automatically when new content is added, using an
aggregator or feed reader that supports feed formats such as RSS or Atom. Podcasts are used
by several libraries to supplement library orientation programmes. Using podcasting and
other consumer technologies (for example, PDAs, iPods, and other MP3 players) to deliver
library content and services is a significant step forward for the library profession.

Vodcasting
The term "VODcasting" refers to "video-on-demand." It is the same as podcasting. Unlike
podcasting, which is used to deliver audio files, vodcasting is used to deliver video content.
Vodcasts, like podcasts, can be listened to on a laptop or a personal media assistant (PMA).

SMS Enquiry Service

Short Message Service (SMS) is a method of sending short messages over mobile networks.
Patrons can use their mobile phones to SMS their inquiries to a library's SMS enquiry
services. The reference staff assigned to handle such inquiries can respond immediately with
answers or links to more detailed answers.

1.3.3 Collaborative Publishing Tools

Blogs
A blog (a shortened version of the term web log) is a discussion or informational website
published on the World Wide Web that consists of discrete entries displayed in reverse
chronological order. (Wikipedia, 2014). It is simple to update diaries or online journals.

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Blogs are regarded as simple publishing tools. Blogs give an individual or group of
individuals control over publishing content or making comments on it.Blogs are more user-
friendly, platform-independent, and accessible via the Internet. Blogs, in general, can be
described as online diaries; however, thousands of blogs are maintained by experts in various
subject areas who are willing to share their knowledge, understanding, and opinions with
others. Multi-author blogs have recently emerged, with posts written by a large number of
authors. The rise of Twitter and other "micro blogging" systems aids in the integration of
multi-author and single-author blogs into a new societal stream.

LibraryCrunch is a blog on Library 2.0 maintained by Michal Casey. A blog on Open Access
is being maintained by Peter Suber. Blogs are easy to create using free services like
LiveJournal (http://www. livejournal.com/) and Google Blogger (http:// www.blogger.com/).
Some services like NETCIPIA (http://www.netcipia.com/) allow the creation of blogs with
wiki support (blikis). The founder of Wikipedia is now offering Openserving
(http://www.openserving.com/), another service featuring free tools for building community
sites. The most obvious application of blogs for libraries is to use it as a tool for promotion,
publicity and for outreach services. Libraries can disseminate information to their users,
make announcements for its new resources and events through its blogs. Blogs can be used to
initiate debates and interaction amongst users and staff. Moreover, library staff and user can
be encouraged to use Library blogs to get to know each other and interact at personal level.

Wikis
A wiki is a web application which allows people to add, modify, or delete content in
collaboration with others. In a typical wiki, text is written using a simplified markup
language or a rich-text editor. (Wikipedia, 2014). A wiki is a collaborative software that
allows users to add content that can be edited by anybody. Ward Cunningham, developer of
the first wiki software called WikiWikiWeb, originally described it as “the simplest online
database that could possibly work” (Wikipedia, 2014). Wikis can essentially be equated to
open web-pages, where anyone registered with it can publish on to it, add to it, amend it and
change it. As in case of blogs, Wikis do not have reliability as traditional resources. Inspite of
this, their value as information resource cannot be undermined. Libraries can use wiki as a
communication tool to enable social interaction among librarians and patrons. Users can
share information, ask and answer questions, and librarians can do the same within a wiki.
Moreover, a record of these transactions can be archived for perpetuity. Transcripts of such
question-answer sessions would serve as a resource for the library to provide as reference.
Furthermore, wikis (as well as blogs) will ultimately evolve into a multi-media environment,
where both synchronous and asynchronous audio and video collaborations will take place.

1.3.4 Collaborative Service Platforms

Social Networks

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A social networking service is a platform to build social networks or social relations among
people who, share interests, activities, backgrounds or real-life connections. It allows users to
locate links with people through mutual friends or acquaintances, build profiles, and update
address books. Social networks are relatively new kinds of virtual communities that delineate
and build on member relationships by virtue of their being part of that community (Barsky
and Purdon, 2006). Most social network services are web-based interfaces that facilitate
community of users to interact with each other deploying tools such as chat, messaging,
email, video, voice chat, file sharing, blogging, discussion groups, etc. Facebook, Google+,
YouTube, LinkedIn, Instagram, Pinterest, Tumblr and Twitter are some of the social
networking services that are very popular. There are a number of projects that aim to develop
free and open source software to use for social networking services. The projects include
Anahita Social Networking Engine, Diaspora, Appleseed Project, OneSocialWeb, Kune,
Movim. These technologies are often referred to as Social engine or Social networking
engine software. Social networking services could enable librarians and patrons not only to
interact, but to share and exchange resources dynamically in electronic environment. Users
can create accounts with the library network service, see what other users have in common to
their information needs, recommend resources to one another. Besides, libraries can also
recommend resources to users through their network, based on similar profiles,
demographics, previously-accessed resources, and a host of data that users provide.

Tagging
A tag is a non-hierarchical keyword or term assigned to a piece of information such as an
Internet bookmark, digital image, or computer file. This kind of metadata helps describe an
item and allows it to be found again by browsing or searching. Tags are generally chosen
informally and personally by the item's creator or by its viewer, depending on the system
(Wikipedia, 2014). Tags are typically used for resources such as computer files, web pages,
digital images, and Internet bookmarks. The user can define and categorize information
based on his or her own perception and assigned keyword to a given piece of information. In
Library 2.0, users could tag the library’s collection and thereby participate in the cataloguing
process. The best thing about tagging is that everyone is allowed to categorize the
information the way they want. The catalogues of Library 2.0 would enable users to follow
both standardized and user tagged subjects, whichever is more convenient or makes better
sense to a user. In turn, they can add tags to resources. This tagged catalogue would be an
open catalogue, a customized, user centered catalogue. The University of Huddersfield, West
Yorkshire, UK, for example, has introduced Web 2.0 features into their library catalogue and
options for rating the books as well as dynamic floor plans showing locations of subject areas
with an aim to make the catalogue more interactive tool.

Social Bookmarking Services

Social bookmarking is a method of storing, organizing, searching and managing bookmarks
of web sites using descriptive metadata. In a social bookmarking system, users can save links
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to web pages that they want to remember and /or share with other users. These bookmarks
can be made public, or saved privately or shared only with specified people or groups of
people. Visitors to social bookmarking sites can search for resources by keyword (tag),
person, or popularity and see the public bookmarks, tags, and classification schemes
(folksonomies = ‘folk taxonomies’ made of tags) that registered users have created and
saved. The authorized people can usually view these bookmarks chronologically, by category
or tags, or via a search engine. Most social bookmark services encourage users to organize
their bookmarks with informal tags instead of traditional browser-based system of folders,
although some services feature categories / folders or a combination of folders and tags.
These services also enable viewing of bookmarks associated with a chosen tag, and include
information about the number of users who have bookmarked them. Some social
bookmarking services also draw inferences from the relationship of tags to create clusters of
tags or bookmarks. itList, Blinklist, Clip2, ClickMarks, HotLinks, del.icio.us, Furl, Simpy,
Citeulike and Connotea, Stumbleupon, Ma.gnolia, Blue Dot, Diigo, etc. are some of the
popular bookmarking services. Libraries can make use of social bookmarking sites using
RSS feeds for subject disciplines or in areas of specialization relevant to them.

1.3.5 Hybrid Applications, Programs and Programming Tools

Mashups
A Mashup is a web application that uses content from more than one source to create a single
new service displayed in a single graphical interface. (Wikipedia, 2014). Mashup originally
referred to the practice in pop music (notably hip-hop) of producing a new song by mixing
two or more existing pieces. Content used in mashups is typically sourced from a third party
via a public interface or API (web services). Other methods of sourcing content for mashups
include Web feeds (example RSS or Atom), and screen scraping. Many people are
experimenting with mashups using Amazon, eBay, Flickr, Google, Microsoft, Yahoo,
YouTube and APIs, which has led to the creation of mashup editor (Wikipedia, 2014).
Mashup is a hybrid of blogs, wikis, streaming media, content aggregators, instant messaging,
and social networks. Mashups are applications, where two or more technologies or services
are merged into a completely new, novel service. For example: WikiBios, a site where users
create online biographies of one another, essentially blending blogs with social networks.
Mashup in Library 2.0 environment remembers a user when they log in. It allows the user to
edit OPAC data and metadata, saves the user’s tags, IM conversations with librarians, wiki
entries with other users (and catalogues all of these for others to use), and the user is able to
make all or part of their profile public; users can see what other users have, similar items
checked-out, borrow and lend tags, and a giant user-driven catalogue is created and mashed
with the traditional catalogue. There are a number of mashup platforms that can be used to
create mashups, For example, Intel Mash Maker, Google Mashup Editor, LiquidApps,
Microsoft Popfly, Serena Mashup Editor, Yahoo pipes, etc.

Ajax (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML)

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Ajax (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) or AJAX, is a group of inter-related web

development techniques used for creating interactive web applications. The technology
facilitates web pages to interact with users by exchanging small amounts of data with the
server “behind the scene” so that entire web pages do not have to be reloaded each time when
there is a need to fetch data from the server. This is intended to increase the web page’s
interactivity, speed, functionality and usability. The term Ajax has come to represent a broad
group of Web technologies that can be used to implement a Web application that
communicates with a server in the background, without interfering with the current state of
the page. Ajax is a cross-platform technique usable on many different operating systems,
computer architectures, and web browsers as it is based on open standards such as JavaScript
and the Document Object Model (DOM). There are free and open source implementations of
suitable frameworks and libraries.

Application Programming Interface (API)

An application programming interface (API) is a source code interface provided by an
operating system, library or service to support requests made by computer programs.
Language-dependent APIs are available only in a particular programming language. They
utilize the syntax and elements of the programming language to make the API convenient to
use in this particular context. Languageindependent APIs are written in a way that they can
be called from several programming languages. This is a desired feature for a service style
API which is not bound to a particular process or system and is available as a remote
procedure call. Examples of API are Windows API, Scopus API that enables a user to select
Scopus data elements into a mashup.

Library Tool Bars

A toolbar is a graphical user interface consisting of a panel of buttons, icons, menus or
commands that are used more often in an application. Toolbars are used in common
applications such as Microsoft Word, and as add-ons for web browsers such as Internet
Explorer and Mozilla Firefox.

1.4 SUMMARY

Web 2.0 services could enable librarians and patrons not only to interact, but to
share and exchange resources dynamically in electronic environment. Using instant
messaging, libraries can provide “real-time assistance” to their patrons. Library can also
provide latest published update in their user’s favorite areas using RSS Feed. Blog is the
most obvious application which can be used as a tool for promotion, publicity and for
outreach services. Libraries can disseminate information to their users, make announcements
for its new resources and events through its blogs. Wiki can also be used as a communication

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tool to enable social interaction among librarians and patrons. Using tagging services,
libraries can allow their users to categorize the information the way they want by tagging the
library’s collection. The SMS enquiry services in a library allow patrons to use their mobile
phones to SMS their inquiries to the library. Several libraries use podcasts to support library
orientations programmes. Library can merge two or more web 2.0 technologies or services
into a completely new service by developing web application called mashups which allows
the user to edit OPAC data and metadata, saves the user’s tags, IM conversations with
librarians, wiki entries with other users etc

1.5 GLOSSARY

Blogs: also known as Web logs, these allow users to post thoughts and updates about their
life on the Web.
Wikis: sites like Wikipedia and others enable users from around the world to add and update
online content.
Social networking: sites like Facebook and MySpace allow users to build and customize
their own profiles and communicate with friends.
Web applications: a broad range of new applications make it possible for users to run
programs directly in a Web browser.

1.6 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Discuss in detail web 2.0 technologies application in the library.

1.7 REFERENCES

Barsky, E. & Purdon, M. Introducing.2006. Web 2.0: social networking and

socialbookmarking for health librarians. Journal of Canadian Health LibraryAssociation, 27,
65–7.

Blyberg, John. 2006. 11 reasons why Library 2.0 exists and matters,
Blyberg.net,.(http://www.blyberg.net/2006/01/09/11-reasons-why-library-20-exists-
andmatters/)
Casey, Michael. October 2005. Working towards a definition of Library 2.0.LibraryCrunch.

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

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Bradley, Phil (2007). How to use web 2.0 in your library. Facet Publishing, London.

Kroski, Ellyssa (2008). Web 2.0 for librarians and information professionals. Neal Schuman
Publishers, New York.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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LESSON 1

OPEN SOURCE LIBRARY SOFTWARE AND

APPLICATIONS

Vikas Bhushan Rajarshi Das

Information Officer Librarian
WB National University of Juridical Sciences Banwarilal Bhalotia College
(WBNUJS) Asansol, WB
Kolkata [email protected]
[email protected]
STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 The Open Source Initiative (OSI)
1.4 Why Open Source Library Software
1.4.1 Benefits
1.4.2 Demerits
1.5 Use cases of Open Source Library Automation Software
1.5.1 ABCD
1.5.2 BiblioteQ
1.5.3 CDS/ ISIS and WINISIS
1.5.4 Espabiblio
1.5.5 Evergreen
1.5.6 Jayuya
1.5.7 Koha
1.5.8 Kobli Koha
1.5.9 Kuali Open Library Environment (OLE)
1.5.10 Learning Access ILS
1.5.11 DB Librarian
1.5.12 NewGenLib
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.10 Suggested Readings

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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• To explore Open Source Library Software

• To find out Why Open Source Library Software
• To explore some Open Source Library Software

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Open source software is computer software that has its "source-code" made freely
accessible under a licence (OSS). In the 1970s, when open source first started to take shape,
MIT professor Richard Stallman used the term "free software" for the first time. Growing
dissatisfaction with the restrictions placed by proprietary software led to the creation of the
free software movement. Software that is "closed" or proprietary is managed by a company
or an individual.

Commercial businesses frequently place access limitations on their source code to

protect their intellectual property. Although the "source-code" is not distributed, public
copies of the "binary" are. Open source software (OSS) is software that is given along with
its source code. There are licences available that let programmers and users use, modify, and
share the code. Nevertheless, "free" was usually taken to mean "no cost." As a less
controversial and more "business-friendly" name, "open source software" was developed as a
result. According to Richard Stallman's Free Software Foundation (FSF), the term "free"
should not be taken as "free-of-charge," but rather as the user's freedom:

• To utilise the application for any purpose.

• To evaluate the program's functionality and alter it to serve a specific purpose.
• Distributing copies of the program's original or unaltered version.
• The ability to modify programmes as desired and make those modifications available
to the public so that the entire community can benefit. This requires having access to
the source code (www.gnu.org/philosophy/freesw.html).

1.3 THE OPEN SOURCE INITIATIVE (OSI)

The Open Source Initiative (OSI), which is tasked with maintaining the Open Source
Definition (OSD), is in charge of examining and approving licences that follow the OSD.
Although the requirements that each licence imposes can vary substantially, they all satisfy
the OSD. Eleven standards were developed by the OSD to identify open source software.

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• Free redistribution: The programme must be accessible for free distribution.

• Source code: The software should either be made available with the source code
or with well-publicized access to it.
• Derived works: The licence must permit derivative works and modifications, and
it must permit their distribution under the same conditions as the licence of the
original software.
• To maintain the integrity of the author's source code, it is acceptable to distribute
"patch files" that are used to reconstruct derived works.
• There must be no discrimination against any individuals or groups of individuals
in the licence.
• There must be no prejudice against professions; for instance, the programme
cannot be utilised to conduct genetic research or to run a business.
• License distribution: All parties to whom the programme is transferred must be
covered by the rights connected to it without the requirement for them to execute
a separate licence.
• Licenses must not be product-specific, meaning that they cannot be contingent on
the programme being delivered along with any other particular software.
• The licence must not impose restrictions on any other software that is distributed
with the licenced software.
• License must be technology-neutral: No licence clause may be based on a specific
technology or interface design.

1.4 WHY OPEN SOURCE LIBRARY SOFTWARE

Library users are evolving with the passage of time and changes in the knowledge
society. In more recent pandemic-affected societies, the transition is more noticeable. There
are several causes for the transformation, but in recent years, emphasis has been placed on
the growing use of ICT to manage and remotely access knowledge resources. Given the
financial difficulties that the entire library system is experiencing, using open source
software can be shown to be extremely beneficial for the survival of the library. In the
context of libraries, applications of Open Source Software (OSS) have a number of benefits
above those of commercially distributed software.

1.4.1 Benefits:

• Despite significant financial outlay, a library's housekeeping operation requires

the implementation of library automation. The primary task of the library would
become quicker, more precise, and user-friendly if OSS could be used to automate
cleaning.

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• Access to the source code allows for the modification, improvement, and
customization of a practical and affordable solution. Liberty to examine the logic
of the application
• Localization in accordance with a person's unique and particular needs
• Compared to commercial products, development is quicker and more responsive.
• There are lower maintenance costs and no download or installation fees.
• Simple evaluation Freedom from licensing restrictions imposed by a vendor's
lock-in, freedom to innovate, and freedom to redistribute in a supportive setting.
• Choices for implementing user-cantered customisation
• It narrows the gap in automation between libraries. Open Source Software
Difficulties.

1.4.2 Demerits:
The following are considered to be the disadvantages of Open Source software

• If done by a business, the initial cost of OSS implementation may be considerable. If

the setup and annual upkeep are contracted out to a service provider, the cost could be
high.
• Progress in fixing the problems may be delayed if community interaction is
terminated and individual accountability for bugs and errors is not prioritised.
• The degree of personalization will be relatively minimal, and the librarian will put
forth more effort to adapt for regional needs.
• Inadequate technical assistance for users to quickly resolve issues insufficient
documentation when compared to commercial software, the programme is slower and
less scalable.
• Developing software and troubleshooting.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. OSS stands for
a) Open Source Software b) Open Supply Software
c) Online Sourced Software d) None of the above
2. OSI stands for Open Source Initiative. True / False
3. OSD developed ___________standards to identify open source software
4. ____________ narrows the gap in automation between libraries
5. If done by a ___________, the initial cost of OSS implementation may be
considerable

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1.5 USE CASES OF OPEN SOURCE LIBRARY AUTOMATION

SOFTWARE

Integrated Library Management Systems (e.g., Koha, Evergreen, ABCD,

NewGenLib); Digital/ Repository Software (e.g., Dspace, E Prints, Fedora); and Discovery
Interfaces (e.g., Vufind, Blacklight, SOPAC (Social OPAC), eXtensible Catalog) are the
three broad categories into which OSS services can be divided depending on how they are
used. OSS is frequently created cooperatively by a collection of institutions or software
enthusiasts as a service for the good of society and the field. Developers have the creative
freedom to modify and customise free source code thanks to open source software (OSS).

Following is the brief description of List of Integrated Library Management Systems that are
Open Source. Open source Integrated Library Management Systems can be used to improve
a library's resource management and service management effectiveness.

1.5.1 ABCD
Web-based ILMS ABCD, which was derived from older ISIS software, is free to use.
The acronym ABCD, or Automation of Libraries and Centers of Documentation, is short for
"Automation des Bibliotheques et Centers de Documentation" in French and
"Automatización de Bibliotecas y Centros de Documentación" in Spanish. Indian libraries
have been familiarising themselves with this programme. WinISIS and Koha capabilities
were combined to create the ABCD programme, which can be used as ILS or Digital Library
software with UNICODE support and is compatible with both Windows and Linux. Several
languages, including English, French, Portuguese, Spanish, and others, are available for the
software. Because it complies with UNICODE, it can be easily adopted for any Indian
language. ABCD was created in 2009 by BIREME (WHO, Brazil) and VLIR (the Flemish
Interuniversity Council, Belgium). The programme includes automation features for both
traditional libraries and documentation centres and may be used in both small and large
libraries. There are several important modules available, including those for book and serial
cataloguing, acquisitions, circulation, statistics, and OPAC.

1.5.2 BiblioteQ
It was created in 2005 as free software that is good for small libraries; however the
public cannot access the source code. The programme is distributed under the BSD licence
and is available in two versions: a desktop version and an online version. The desktop
version, which is simple to install, features 129 modules for cataloguing and circulation, and
the online version has an OPAC module for carrying out library tasks. In order to be
interoperable with any system that supports Qt, the software employed the SRU and Z39.50
protocols to fetch data from its database and a Qt interface to offer connectivity to
PostgreSQL and SQLite. Z39.50 protocols are used by software that runs on the Windows,
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Mac OS X, and LINUX operating systems to retrieve data. It supports the Advanced RISC
Machines architecture (ARM). The software may attach digital copies of books, journals,
photographs, etc. in MARC format. The software's circulation module is not highly
developed, but it is regularly updated by a team of engaged community members. The most
recent progress was seen in July 2016 with the release of its revised version 2016.07.04.
Since its initial release, the software has undergone about 150 versions as of 2016.

1.5.3 CDS/ ISIS and WINISIS

It supports the Advanced RISC Machines architecture (ARM). The software may
attach digital copies of books, journals, photographs, etc. in MARC format. The software's
circulation module is not well developed, but it is often updated by a team of community
members, and the most recent upgrade was made in July 2016 with the Computerized
Documentation System/Integrated Set of Information System is known by the abbreviation
CDS/ISIS. The division of software development application office of information
programmes and services of UNESCO created the free and non-profit library software. A
text-retrieval tool with bibliographical data cataloguing capabilities is CDS/ISIS. Although it
is free to use, it is not open source software till 2005. Developed by UNESCO, the CDS/ISIS
is a potent information storage and retrieval system that is freely available but not subject to
the terms and conditions of an open source licence. It is mostly used to catalogue library
collections. The software comes with straightforward installation instructions and is
accessible in a number of languages, including English, French, Arabic, Chinese, German,
Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish, among others. Indian language versions have also been
created by 130 local organisations, with Malayalam being one example. The ILO ISIS family
of programmes gave birth to CDS/ISIS, which first ran on DOS.
The WinISIS software, a Windows version of the application, is available for
download, however it lacks several OSILS-like functionality. The public can access a
Windows version of the programme called WinISIS, however it lacks many of the features of
a typical OSILS. The CDS/ISIS Windows version was developed to make it work with the
Windows operating system, and the first version was evaluated in 1995. The WinISIS
software's 1.31 version, which was released in 1998, is regarded as the official one.
(Database software from CDS/ISIS, 2015). Despite not having all the qualities of a standard
ILS, CD/ISIS aids in the development of automation software packages based on it, such as
WINISIS, GENISIS, SANJAY, ABCD etc.

1.5.4 Espabiblio
Espabiblio is an ILS designed to carry out the fundamental tasks of library
housekeeping that was created under the GNU General Public License version 2.0 (GPLv2)
as a modified version of OpenBiblio 7.1. To carry out the fundamental tasks, it has
circulation, cataloguing, OPAC, administration, and report generating modules. However, it
is missing modules for serial control and acquisition. Espabiblio, which translates to "Library

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in Spanish," is the name of the software, which was created primarily for libraries in Spanish-
speaking nations. Presenting cover images, showing member photos, implementing search
via Z93.50, allowing users to post and download digital content, and other small changes are
only a few of the new features added to this system. The programme supports any operating
system and is platform neutral. It supports operating system based on Apache, PHP, and
MySQL. MARC standard is followed by the software. Although the programme is actively
released, community and support activity are rather minimal.

1.5.5 Evergreen ILS

Evergreen ILS was created in 2006 for Georgia's Public Information Network for
Electronic Services (PINES), a consortium of public libraries, and it was released in 2007
with a GNU General Public License. Applications are provided by the programme, which
was created for a very large consortium of tiny public libraries. In the United States and
Canada, school and public libraries utilise the Evergreen software more frequently than other
types of libraries, both small and large. The infrastructural parts are written in C, whereas the
software is written in Pearl. Apache is the web server being utilised, and PostgresSQL is the
database. The MARC 21, Z39.50 (Client & Server), Unicode 3.0, SRU/W (Client & Server),
ISO 2709 (MARC communications format), Dublin Core, MODS, and OAI-PMH standards
are supported by this ILS. The primary firm that supports the software is Equinox Software,
Inc. The OpenSRF (Open Scalable Request Framework) framework is used to build the
programme.

1.5.6 Jayuya
Jayuya is otherwise called as Jayuya THEY. It is a French-language ILMS that was
distributed under the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL). Basic functional modules
for circulation, cataloguing, reports, and statistics are included in the software.Since 2005,
there have been no development-related activities, including mailing lists, forums, user
communities, developer communities, or download statistics.

1.5.7 Koha
The most widely used ILMS in Indian libraries is Koha, the first OSILS in the world
with all available features. Koha was created in New Zealand between 1999 and 2000 for the
Horowhenua Library Trust and deployed there in 2000, although it wasn't officially released
until 2005. Public, academic, and specialty libraries all across the world use the programme.
The main support organisation for the distribution, transition to, and deployment of Koha is
LibLime. In 2009, the business released Enterprise Koha, a version of Koha that was
exclusive to it.

The circulation module of the 139 software can handle issue, return and transfer and
has a provision for online reservations and renewals by library patrons themselves. The
software has a strong cataloguing module for recording the holdings of the library and the

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details can be viewed through the OPAC. Koha has a well-developed user records
management system to record and retrieve the detailed information of each registered user.
Koha can be used for any type of libraries ranging from school to public to academic
libraries, museums, special libraries etc. The software's circulation module can manage
issue, return, and transfer requests and provides a feature for online reservations and
renewals made by library users directly. The programme contains a robust cataloguing
module for logging the library's holdings, and the OPAC allows users to access the details.
Koha features a sophisticated system for managing user records that allows it to store and
retrieve the specific data about each registered user. Any form of library, including school,
public, academic, museum, and special collections, can use Koha.Up until version 3, Koha
supported Linux, UNIX, and Windows. However, the software is currently only more
compatible with Linux and uses Zebra for indexing and MySQL for operational data. Since
Koha is written in the Perl programming language and uses Apache as its web server, source
code distribution is automated. The programme was initially created for public libraries but
was later improved to meet the needs of academic research and special libraries. Web-based
software Koha uses the Z39.50 (Client & Server) protocol to exchange records with other
systems and saves its records in the MARC21 format. Koha also adheres to standards such
Dublin CoreMODS, ISO 2709 (MARC communications format), and UNIMARC support.
Z39.71 (serials display), OAI-PMH, etc. With modules for circulation, cataloguing,
acquisitions, serials, OPAC, reservations, patron administration, branch relationships, and
more, Koha is available under the terms of the GNU General Public License.

1.5.8 Kobli Koha

It’s based on the Koha ILMS, Koha is a web-based Open source ILMS.In terms of the
capacity to add a variety of features to Koha modules, Kobli Koha differs from Koha. With
the same Koha features, Koha Kobli created a digital repository and enhanced its cataloguing
module. The software has many functional modules, including Administration, Acquisition,
Cataloging, Circulation, OPAC, and Serial Control. Perl is the only programming language
supported by the software, which only supports the LINUX operating system. The database
and server are respectively named Apache and MySQL, and they both support the MARC
standard for the cataloguing process. Additionally, it supports the Z39.50 standard for
information retrieval and search.

1.5.9 Kuali Open Library Environment (OLE)

In 2010, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, a collection of institutions, and the
founding partners of Kuali OLE collaborated to create a library system for organising and
retrieving intellectual outputs and digital content from academic and research libraries. The
software's version 0.3 was the first public release, though, and it happened in November
2011. The software's licence was modified from The Educational Community License
Version 2.0, an open source project, to The Affero General Public License (AGPL). The
software includes an acquisition module to control choice, purchases, payment, invoicing,
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licensing, and maintenance of electronic resources, as well as cataloguing, circulation,

OPAC, and system interaction. Since the beginning, the software has been actively being
developed and has received many new capabilities to compete with the next generation
library system. The software is created using the Java and Maven programming languages
and functions on the Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux operating systems with the help of
MySQL and Apache Tomcat database applications. The programme supports Z39.50
protocol for information retrieval and searching, as well as MARC for cataloguing.

1.5.10 Learning Access ILS

As Willem Scholten, the executive director of the Learning Access Institute, was also
affiliated with TRF, the Learning Access ILS was created by the Seattle Learning Access
Institute, a nonprofit organisation, with sponsorship backing from TRF. OpenBook was the
previous name for the programme. The programme includes modules, such as Acquisition,
OPAC, Circulation, and Cataloguing. The programme makes use of the Apache Web server
and is compatible with both Windows and Linux operating systems. The interface and
functional modules of the software were developed using the PHP and Perl programming
languages. To access the software, a formal authorization is required. The software's source
code is accessible for download, and it works best with medium-sized libraries.

1.5.11 DB Librarian
The programme is a web-based library management system that was published in
2007 under the terms of the GNU General Public License version 2.0 (GPLv2). PHP is the
programming language used to create the software, and MySQL is the web server. The
programme includes two main functional modules, catalogue and OPAC, which are used to
capture bibliographic information and follow it through a web-based catalogue.

1.5.12 NewGenLib
Another well-liked OSILS that is utilised in libraries as a tool for automation is
NewGenLib. the first Indian OSILS that VSPL (Verus Solutions Pvt. Ltd.) created on the
Kesavan Institute of Information and Knowledge gave the domain knowledge Management,
India (KIIKM), Hyderabad. The software's initial release, or version 1.0, was launched as a
commercial product in March 2005. Three years after its initial deployment, on January 9th,
2008, the public was given access to the NewGenLib software's source code. And listed as
Open source software under the GNU General Public License. The first Indian library ILMS
is NewGenLib. NewGenLib can be used in any type of library and is popular among Indian
libraries for roughly ten years. Functional components such acquisitions, technical
processing, serials management, circulation, administration, and OPAC are included in
NewGenLib as an ILS. Java is the programming language used by NewGenLib, and Linux is
the most suited operating system. The programme is supported by the Apache web server and
the PostgreSQL database. MARC 21, Z39.50 Client, Unicode 3.0, SRU/W Server, ISO 2709
(MARC communications format), Dublin Core, MODS, OAI-PMH, and Z39.71 are the
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standards that NewGenLib Software adheres to (serials display). This RDBMS-based

database management system for managing metadata material complies with international
standards like Dublin Core, XML, MARC, and UNICODE. Operating system agnostic,
NewGenLib can be used with both Windows and Linux. The software version is accessible
in both English and Arabic, and RFID technology can be combined with the versions that are
already in use and are supported by an infinite number of RFID clients. The Online Public
Access Catalogue (OPAC) of NewGenLib offers a completely web-based interface that is
completely customisable, and its Android application makes it possible to access the library
catalogue on mobile devices like smart-phones and tablets.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. ILMS stands for ____________________.
7. Identify proprietary software__________
a) Koha b) Koha Kobli
c) Jayuya d) Libsys
8. In SOPAC, S stands for ________________
9. Koha is available under the terms of the ________________License.
10. The first Indian library ILMS is ____________________

1.6 SUMMARY

Open source software has its "source-code" made freely accessible under a licence
(OSS). OSD developed eleven standards to identify open source software. There are several
causes for the transformation, but in recent years, emphasis has been placed on the growing
use of ICT to manage and remotely access knowledge resources. Given the financial
difficulties that the entire library system is experiencing, using open source software can be
shown to be extremely beneficial for the survival of the library.

1.7 GLOSSARY

Open Source Software: It is computer software that has its "source-code" made freely
accessible under a licence (OSS).

Integrated Library Management System (ILMS): It is an enterprise resource planning

system for the Library. This automates the basic tasks performed by Library staff & Library
Patrons.

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1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. a) 6. Internal Library Management Systems

2. Open Source Initiative 7. d)
3. Eleven 8. a)
4. Open Source Software (OSS) 9. GNU General Public
5. business 10. NewGenLib

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Discuss merits and demerits of Open Source Software in Libraries

2. Open Source Software a boon or bane. Explain your views with justifications.
3. Narrate the evolution of OSS in Libraries.
4. Write a brief note on any one ILMS and discuss its merits & demerits.

1.10 REFERENCES

Block 1 of ICT in Libraries (BLIE-229), IGNOU BLIS Study Material

Breeding, M. (2010). ABCD: A New Open Source ILS Launched Retrieved August 02, 2022
from https://librarytechnology.org/document/14607
BiblioteQ. Retrieved August 02, 2022 from https://biblioteq.en.lo4d.com/windows

Gireesh, T.K.K. (2016). Open Source Software for Integrated Library Systems Relative
Appropriateness in the Indian Context. Ph.D. Dissertation, Centre for Advanced Research in
Library and Information Science (CARLIS), School of Social Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi
University, Kottayam, Kerala

Zhaohui W. (2011). Research on the Application of Open Source Software in Digital Library,
Procedia Engineering, 15, 1662-1667. ISSN 1877-7058.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.08.310.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Block 1 of ICT in Libraries (BLIE-229), IGNOU BLIS Study Material

Breeding, M. (2010). ABCD: A New Open Source ILS Launched Retrieved August 02, 2022
from https://librarytechnology.org/document/14607

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BiblioteQ. Retrieved August 02, 2022 from https://biblioteq.en.lo4d.com/windows

Gireesh, T.K.K. (2016). Open Source Software for Integrated Library Systems Relative
Appropriateness in the Indian Context. Ph.D. Dissertation, Centre for Advanced Research in
Library and Information Science (CARLIS), School of Social Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi
University, Kottayam, Kerala

Zhaohui W. (2011). Research on the Application of Open Source Software in Digital Library,
Procedia Engineering, 15, 1662-1667. ISSN 1877-7058.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.08.310.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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 UNIT - II: Integrated Library Automation and Networking
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LESSON 2

WEB BASED LIBRARY MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE

Vikas Bhushan
Information Officer
WB National University of Juridical Sciences (WBNUJS)
Kolkata
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Services
2.3.1 Record Keeping
2.3.2 Acquisition
2.3.3 Cataloguing
2.3.4 Circulation
2.3.5 Web OPAC
2.4 Features and Advantages
2.5 Instances of Web based LMS
2.6 Library 2.0
2.7 Future Scenario
2.8 Summary
2.9 Glossary
2.10 Answers to In-text Questions
2.11 Self-Assessment Questions
2.12 References
2.13 Suggested Readings

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Understanding Web Based Library Management Software

• Its features and advantages.

2.2 INTRODUCTION
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The importance of the library in academic institutions is rising. The operations of the
library as we know it are impacted by competition from other digital platforms that are
accessible on android devices. As a result, every educational institution now maintains its
own library automation software. The static method is gradually being replaced by web-
based library management software, which enables a library to handle the same functions in a
much more uniform manner. The users receive timely, accurate service from it. Koha and
Libsys are some examples of Web-Based Library Management Software. Web Library
Management Systems have a tradition of managing web content successfully. Now with the
huge proliferation of information, and the different information needs, it is important that
there exists a shared interoperability in the management of information. LMSs usually offer a
lot of modules to enhance the workflow. The main aim is to make the data well-defined
which will ensure findability. To add context to the information and to inter-link the
information present on site.

The concept of Library 2.0 has been adapted from Web 2.0. It includes a spectrum of
nascent technology and services designed using them. Using these technological
implementations libraries are able to provide old and many new services in a much better
way. These old services with latest technology have made life of Library users very easy,
they are able to find relevant information at their fingertips within a blink of an eye. Library
2.0 proposes to bring revolutionary changes in libraries that are bound to bring about
conceptual, cultural and physical changes in libraries to keep pace with the changes in
communities and their information seeking behaviour. With the advent of Library 2.0, the
Librarians have to rethink their procurement policies by keeping in mind the nature of access
of Library’s collection by Patrons. Nowadays the collection of Libraries must be a blend of
Digital and non-digital items. Because the younger generation are highly technological savvy
and prefer to access digital contents. The digital contents has made the collection more
interactive with the help of several multimedia technologies. The Services which a traditional
library used to offer also has to be redesigned in the technological era of Library 2.0. Now
Librarians cannot keep their collection in closed access because the Web based Library
software enables Patrons to access Library resources through networks. Services are more
oriented towards transfer and literacy of information than mere controlled access to the
library resources. These Web Based Library Management Software are the outcome of these
Web 2.0 or Library 2.0.

2.3 SERVICES

Koha and Libsys are some examples of Web-Based Library Management Software.

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ACTIVITY
Visit your University Library and try to identify services available in your
Librarys’ Web-Based Library Management Software.

2.3.1 Record Keeping:

Traditional record keeping operations, such as adding and deleting books, e-books,
newspapers, periodicals, CDs, and so on, could be managed precisely in web-based library
management software.

2.3.2 Acquisition:
In modern web-based library management software that manages budgets, vendors,
orders, etc. Stock taking has become very easy.

2.3.3 Cataloguing:
Metadata and cataloguing are both maintained by modern systems. Dublin Core,
RDA, and MARC formats.

2.3.4 Circulation:
To ensure seamless and effective operations in the distribution of documents and the
maintenance of serials, contemporary technologies such as barcodes, RFID, and biometrics
are used.

2.3.5 Web OPAC:

It is a standard search interface for remote access of contents.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Fill in the correct word: Web-Based Library_____________Software.
2. Koha and Libsys are some of the examples of____________
a)Web-Based LMS b) Digital Library Software
c) Content Management System d) None of these
3. Koha is a Open Source Software. True / False
4. Libsys is a Open Source Software. True / False
5. Web Based Library Management Software are the outcome of these Web __.

2.4 FEATURES AND ADVANTAGES

Features of Web Based Library Management System

• Integration of all user information

• Organize the data systematically.
• Any internet information can be monitored.
• It can generate the reports.
• Online information management
• Library 2.0 facilities, interactive interface
• Facilities for multiple users and multiple languages
• Export and import of data
• A cutting-edge, integrated library management system
• Simple to keep records
• It enables rapid book entry.

2.5 INSTANCES OF WEB BASED LMS

• CodeAchi Library Management System: A web based Library management tool for
Public, Academic and School Libraries. It has lots of features with convenient user
interface.
• Libero: Famous internet library management system Libero is distinguished by its
high degree of customizability. It can be used in a variety of library operations,
including those run by academic libraries, public libraries, and industrial libraries.
Additionally, it offers a version for unique library management settings, such as those
for archives, galleries, and libraries for cultural assets. Libero GO, a mobile version
of the product, can be used as a manager and card reader in addition to being a mobile
portal.

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• Alexandria: The internet integrated library system (ILS) Alexandria is renowned for
enabling librarians to personalise patron experiences. This is made possible by the
tool's interface building feature, which enables users to include unique sections,
menus, logos, and pictures.
• WorldShare Management Services (WMS): It is a cutting-edge internet based library
management system that employs use of patron and software vendor collaboration to
design a solution that precisely meets their requirements.
• Inifiniti Library Software: A library management system that may be customised is
called Inifiniti Library Software, and it was primarily created for educational
purposes. As a result, it has tools for fostering a love of learning and fundamental
self-directed learning abilities.
• Evergreen ILS: An innovative open-source library management system with a
thriving design group is Evergreen ILS. Well over 2,000 libraries throughout the
world utilise it, and it is managed by dedicated individuals.
• Mandarin M5: It is a mobile-friendly web library control system that may be
customised. It is renowned for giving customers the ability to customise it in
accordance with their requirements and tastes.
• Koha: The most widely used ILMS in Indian libraries is Koha, the first OSILS in the
world with all available features. Koha was created in New Zealand between 1999
and 2000 for the Horowhenua Library Trust and deployed there in 2000, although it
wasn't officially released until 2005. Public, academic, and specialty libraries
all across the world use the programme.
• LIBSYS 10: New web-based Library Management tool from Libsys Ltd. It has a light
weight version named LSEase. LSEase also supports modern days Semantic web
(Web 3.0) technologies.

2.6 LIBRARY 2.0

Michael Casey first mentioned the term “Library 2.0” in his personal blogging
platform in September 2005 on “LibraryCrunch” (http://www.librarycrunch.com/). The
concept of the Library 2.0 in the Library and information domain has been adapted from the
Web 2.0. Web 2.0 has brought a plethora of services with it like various multimedia formats,
collaborative and interactive platforms for hosting different web services. In web 2.0 the host
provides just the platform with services and users reuse, contribute and drive the information
ecosystem. When these web 2.0 applications are adapted in the Library ecosystem to provide
Library services to its users by harnessing the technological tools of Web 2.0, then it is
known as Library 2.0 or Lib 2.0. According to Wikipedia, Library 2.0 is a modern model
based on Web 2.0 which reflects the transition of the way services used to be delivered to
Library Patrons within the Library world. In Library 2.0, similar to web 2.0 users taking the
prime position, all the services are continually designed and implemented based on Library

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users feedback and recommendations. Services are re-evaluated, revised, updated and
upgraded to better serve the Library Patrons. Web based Library Management Software can
tap the benefits of Lib 2.0 to offer a wide range of services.

2.7 FUTURE SCENARIO

The future of web-based library management software is being shaped by the

knowledge society and the inclination towards online education as witnessed during the
pandemic. The future web-based library management system must take knowledge
management theories and Learning Management Systems (LMS) into account. Every
institution of the future is going to have its own LMS. In this context, the web-based
management system assumes greater significance. The creation of a system architecture is a
prerequisite for any web design software. The System architecture is based on a meticulous
demand analysis for that particular software.

Future web-based library management software is required to manage the tacit knowledge of
the library personnel regarding the organisation of the knowledge in the system. It also needs
to collect, organise, store and retrieve knowledge generated from the institution by the
resource persons from every department in the academic setup. At the same time, it needs to
receive and streamline queries that are generated by the knowledge-seeking community
there; students. The future lies in the linking process of these two aspects of knowledge
development in society. The larger digitised society produces lots of data, the building block
of knowledge. Future web-based library management systems have to come out of the walled
existence of the library and cater to and manage the big data that is produced in the digital
world. Creating and linking Open data could be the way forward.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

6. __________is a standard search interface for remote access of contents.

7. Library 2.0 facilities, interactive interface. True / False
8. ______________ first mentioned the term “Library 2.0”
9. In web 1.0 the host provides just the platform with services and users reuse,
contribute and drive the information ecosystem. True / False
10. LMS stands for_______________

2.8 SUMMARY

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The importance of the library in academic institutions is rising. Every educational

institution now maintains its own library automation software. Web-based library
management software enables a library to handle the same functions in a much more uniform
manner. The users receive timely, accurate service from it.

2.9 GLOSSARY

Web OPAC: It's an Online Public Access Catalogue which is accessible through the internet
using Web Browsers like Firefox, Google Chrome etc.

Library 2.0: Lib 2.0 (in short) as the application of interactive, collaborative and multimedia
based technology for library services and collection.
WLMS: Web based Library Management System

2.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Management 6. a)
2. a) 7. True
3. True 8. Michael Casey
4. False 9. False
5. 2.0 10. Learning Management Systems

2.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the need of Web Based Library Management Software in Libraries.

2. Write a note on Future prospects of Web Based Library Management Software.
3. Discuss the pros and cons of Library 2.0.
4. Write few examples of Web based LMS.

2.12 REFERENCES

Block 1 of ICT in Libraries (BLIE-229), IGNOU BLIS Study Material

Ojaswini Subodh Upasani (2016): Advantages and Limitations of Open Source Software for
Library Management System Functions: The Experience of libraries in India, The Serials
Librarian.
Shukla, A & Tripathi, A. (2012). Library 2.0: tools & techniques. In National Seminar on
“Innovative Challenges in Information Services" (pp. 74-85). Deptt. of Library &

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Information Science, University of Jammu, Jammu. [Published by Kutub Publications: New

Delhi].

Bouchrika, Imed (2022). 20 Best Library Management Software in 2022.

https://research.com/software/best-library-management-software.[Retrieved on 21st Oct
2022].
2.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Block 1 of ICT in Libraries (BLIE-229), IGNOU BLIS Study Material

Ojaswini Subodh Upasani (2016): Advantages and Limitations of Open Source Software for
Library Management System Functions: The Experience of libraries in India, The Serials
Librarian.

Shukla, A & Tripathi, A. (2012). Library 2.0: tools & techniques. In National Seminar on
“Innovative Challenges in Information Services" (pp. 74-85). Deptt. of Library &
Information Science, University of Jammu, Jammu. [Published by Kutub Publications: New
Delhi].

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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LESSON 3

LIBRARY SOFTWARE SECURITIES PARAMETERS

Vikas Bhushan
Information Officer
WB National University of Juridical Sciences (WBNUJS)
Kolkata
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

3.1 Learning Objectives

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Present Status of the Security in Library Software
3.4 Library Software Data Security Requirement
3.4.1 Data access and usage control
3.4.2 Data protection of authenticity and integrity
3.4.3 Identification by metadata
3.4.4 Copy detection systems
3.5 Library Software Network Security
3.5.1 Z39.50
3.6 Infrastructure
3.6.1 Securing the Hardware
3.6.2 Software security
3.7 Library Software Data Security Challenges
3.7.1 System vulnerability
3.7.2 Virus
3.7.3 Leak of the password
3.7.4 Malicious attacks
3.8 Data Protection Technology
3.8.1 Restriction on Access
3.8.2 System Protection
3.8.3 Network Protection
3.9 Appropriate Procedures
3.10 Summary
3.11 Glossary
3.12 Answers to In-text Questions
3.13 Self-Assessment Questions
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3.14 References
3.15 Suggested Readings

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• To tableau the present status of Security of library Software

• To examine the library data security requirement
• To check the infrastructure such as hardware, software, and network security
• To find out the library software data security challenges and protection technology

3.2 INTRODUCTION

Library patrons have been increasingly dependent on ICT (Information

Communication Technology) for several years to now. ICT in libraries supports the delivery
of data sharing and library resources to local and remote patrons (Khan, 2016). Data sharing
has been made easier and less expensive from Internet and network technologies. Security of
the data in library software is the main worry for every organization. Main role of data
security measure in library software is a check against the unauthorized users and hackers,
who may destroy the valuable data. Security in library software can be achieved in a easiest
way by using passwords. Library software administrator has power to control over the
operational data. He must ensure the security of data against attack and misuse by
unauthorized persons (Aldossary and Allen, 2016).
Data is one of the integral organs of any software and uses of Library software
remotely are normally treated as one of the vulnerable link in security ecosystem. Today’s
library services and products face increasing data security threats.

3.3 PRESENT STATUS OF THE SECURITY IN LIBRARY

SOFTWARE

The libraries are maintaining security by site planning, building planning, security
personnel, window protection, door protection, securing the library using telecommunication,
burglary protection, collection security, electronic access control, securing the library
resources using video surveillance, and using surveillance camera.

As per literature review, majority of the Library Software are creating awareness for
data security responsibility, periodical updates on vital vulnerabilities and security issues,
notifications on security guidelines and roadmaps, and security implementation trainings.
Library Software have their own administrative tools and methods like asset and personnel
classification, internal and external audits, risk analysis procedures. These have procedures
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and controls such as guidelines and disciplinary procedures, intellectual property rights,
methods for handling secret or vital data, techniques for re-evaluating present information
security strategies and need for outsourced tasks (Ismail and Zainab, 2011).

Some studies cited on security policies for data in these software such as on
permissible use, safeguarding asset, backup, classifying data and guidelines for retention,
staff responsibilities, permission to access resources, archiving and sharing of resources, user
confidentiality and privacy, display of notifications, generating reports, secured disposal of
requests over wireless communications.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Full form of ICT _______________.
2. Operating System is a platform on which other application programs can be
installed. True/ False
3. Library Software data security is an important factor in library software
design. True/ False
4. Digital rights management provides data access and usage control by
encrypting the data, with a digital license, and _______________
5. The goal of ____________ is to enable resource searching, accessing &
sharing under networked environment

3.4 LIBRARY SOFTWARE DATA SECURITY REQUIREMENT

Library Software data security is an important factor in library software design.

Weaknesses of security in software, facilitates data attacks or other type of data failures.
Some of the data security factor involved are integrity and access control. Software need
following data security requirements.

3.4.1 Data access and usage control:

Digital rights management provides data access and usage control by encrypting the
data, with a digital license, and password protection.

3.4.2 Data protection of authenticity and integrity:

Watermarking with reflected ownership image or characters, and digital signature to
protect the authenticity and integrity of library data in the software.

3.4.3 Identification by metadata:

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It works by allowing description of an object in suitable categories, covering the

digital content, rights owner, and conditions.

3.4.4 Copy detection systems:

Search engines can also help, locate such copied objects.

3.5 LIBRARY SOFTWARE NETWORK SECURITY

Nowadays the Internet has become a backbone for almost all major service providers
to reach to their users. Library Software too are utilising this boon of network
communication for reaching out to their users but this may become a curse too, if software
service provider is not actively vigilant towards the data security measures. If the library
software server is not protected and secured properly then it may become a target for
malicious attacks, which may result in severe damage to the library resources.

The goal is to enable resource searching, accessing & sharing under networked environment.
Most of the networks are secured by firewalls between the external and internal network by
utilizing IP based packet-filtering at the interface.

3.5.1 Z39.50
The Library of Congress created and maintains Z39.50, a worldwide standard client-server,
application layer communications protocol for finding and retrieving data from databases
through TCP/IP computer networks. Both ISO standard 23950 and ANSI/NISO standard
Z39.50 address it. Z39.50 is frequently implemented into integrated library systems, personal
bibliographic guide tools, and social media sites like LibraryThing. It is used extensively in
library environments for interlibrary catalogue discovery and loan. The Z39.50 protocol was
first developed in the 1970s, and subsequent revisions appeared in 1988, 1992, 1995, and
2003. Z39.50 semantics serve as the foundation for the Contextual Query Language,
originally known as the Common Query Language. For security, networks frequently have
"screening firewalls." These might cause issues for Z39.50 customers. A screening firewall
only permits communications on designated port numbers. On a certain port, for instance, the
internet utilizes port 80, FTP utilizes ports 20 as well as 21, Telnet employs port 23, etc. A
variety of popular internet applications interact on these ports. Z39.50's 210 authentic
recognized network IP channel number.

3.6 INFRASTRUCTURE

Infrastructure security can be attained by following means:

3.6.1 Securing the Hardware:

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Library professionals are concerned about system’s security because the activities of
a library software are also an organ of the system. When considering software security, it is
important to take a holistic view because we care about the data security of the library
software. Especially, hardware security dealing with data in hardware devices. These
software computer faces hardware attacks like side-channel attack, and fault attack. So,
library professionals should secure it and be vigilant.

3.6.2 Software security:

Always in library software librarian’s first concern is, providing service to their users
and secondary concern is software security. Software security maintenance is a challenging
work because it is the weakest link in the security chain. Operating systems are huge attack
prone platforms. Some software development does not take into account for software security
from beginning to end of software design. Sometime software security failure reason is lack
of awareness about threats and how to protect software against them, and lack of knowledge
about software issues and how to solve security loopholes.

3.7 LIBRARY SOFTWARE DATA SECURITY CHALLENGES

Many challenges are being faced in establishing and accessing library collections.
Researchers have identified following security challenges.

3.7.1 System vulnerability:

There may be some security flaws in system operation and in some server system
software. The intruders may utilize these vulnerabilities to attack the system if they are not
rectified timely. A security or system vulnerability is a flow in a designed system or software
which an intruder can exploit to compromise the availability, confidentiality or integrity of a
system.

3.7.2 Virus:
As per Norton (Symantec employee, 2018), a computer virus is identical to a flu virus
in basic mode of operation. It is programmed for spreading from one host to another and has
the mastery in replicating itself. Like the flu virus, computer virus also cannot spread without
a host. Technically, virus is a malicious program or code designed to alter the way a system
works and is programmed to spread from one system to another. It operates by attaching
itself to a legitimate program or application and after that it harms the computer or system by
destroying or corrupting data in the Library software.

3.7.3 Leak of the password:

The leak of password for a user can provide attacker with full access to one’s account.
In this manner an attacker would be able to obtain information that he may not be able to get
in legal manner.
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3.7.4 Malicious attacks:

Malicious attack can be normally categorised into two groups: Active attack and
Passive attack. In Active attack, attackers make the system invalid or un-integral by using all
possible methods to crack the desired information. example - Wanacry ransomware. In
Passive attack, attackers silently steal the desired information without affecting normal
functioning of the system. These attacks are great threat to security of network hosting the
Digital Library.

3.8 DATA PROTECTION TECHNOLOGY

In a library software, complete data set is not of the similar importance. For instance,
financial data can be of Confidential, Restricted nature and according to their assigned
classification they require different level of treatments.

3.8.1 Restriction on Access:

Restricted access is one of the basic solution for data protection against unauthorised
access. User authentication using user ID and password are commonly used methods for
restricted access Further additional level of security can be added by encrypting the sensitive
data while its transmission over the wired or wireless medium. Insights of the effectiveness
of applied security measures can be obtained from the comprehensive activity logs.

3.8.2 System Protection:

Physical protection of the system i.e. library servers along with its stored data is also
essential as they may be lost, damaged, corrupted or theft if left unattended. Cable locks may
act as first line of defence for the physical security of the system. Passwords may provide
additional cover against unauthorized user access to the system. Data backup must be assured
at regular intervals.

3.8.3 Network Protection:

According to State of Cybercrime 2017 report expense on security will increase more
than $1 trillion from 2017 to 2021, attacks on networks may touch 3.5 million by 2021 and
loss due to ransomware exceeded to about $5 billion in 2017. Protection against these attacks
can be achieved by deploying effective measures like firewalls, proxy servers etc. Attack on
networks may also arise due to trojan horse, malware or by execution of malicious codes. But
in present scenarios effective tools are available for protecting against such attacks. Only
thing to be kept in mind is that these software tools should be updated with latest virus
signatures, definitions or patches.

3.9 APPROPRIATE PROCEDURES

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In managing and maintaining Library software proper laid down procedures and
guidelines must be strictly enforced for avoiding any intrusion on the data. During disposal
of hardware or software linked to permanent data storage of library systems must be
removed, reformatted or destroyed under proper supervision of authorized library staff.
Further, it must be ensured that the library staffs should not bring or connect personal digital
belongings to the servers. This can reduce chances of virus attacks directly on server.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

6. Computer Virus is
a) Bug b) Micro-organism
c) Alien d) Malicious code
7. Library Software Data Security Challenges is a system vulnerability.
True/False
8. Data Protection Technology____________
a)Restriction on access b) System Protection
c) Network Protection d) All the above
9. ____________security flaws in system operation and in some server system
software.
10. The leak of password for a user can provide attacker with full access to
one’s account. True/False

3.10 SUMMARY

Software security is of the utmost importance in present digital environment.

Library staffs must be made well informed about their collective digital responsibility with
the help of regular awareness programs, staff trainings and periodic reminders, such that
necessity of data security is neither overlooked nor forgotten. Every library staff should be
vigilant and aware of their responsibilities, their restrictions and roles on Library software.

3.11 GLOSSARY

Library Software: Software which is specifically designed specially for performing some
Library tasks in a digital environment.

Data security: It is a mechanism to protect digital data from digital theft, unauthorised
access or getting corrupted by any external program throughout its life cycle.

3.12 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

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1. Information Communication Technology 6. d)

2. True 7. True
3. True 8. d)
4. password protection 9. System vulnerability
5. Library Software Network Security 10. True

3.13 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Narrate the present status of Library Software Security.

2. Explain the need and challenges in Library Software Security.
3. Library Software a boon or bane. Explain your views with justifications.
4. Write a note on Virus and Malicious attacks on Library Software.

3.14 REFERENCES

Aldossary, S., & Allen, W. (2016). Data Security, Privacy, Availability and Integrity in
Cloud Computing: Issues and Current Solutions. International Journal of Advanced
Computer Science and Application , Vol. 07 (No. 04), pp. 485 -498.

Ismail, R., & Zainab, A. N. (2011). Information systems security in special and public
libraries:an assessment of status. Malaysian Journal of Library and Information Science ,
Vol. 16 (No. 02), pp.45 - 62.

Khan, J. (2016). Impact of Information communication technology on libraries and its

services. International Journal of research granthaalayah , Vol. 04 (No. 09), PP. 97-100.

MSDN Library (2018). Definition of a Security Vulnerability. Retrieved from

https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc751383.aspx

Symantec employee (2018). What Is a Computer Virus? Retrieved from

https://us.norton.com/internetsecurity-malware-what-is-a-computer-virus.html

Xu, "Research on the security problems existed in information management of libraries,"

2014 World Automation Congress (WAC), Waikoloa, HI, 2014, pp. 867-869. doi:
10.1109/WAC.2014.6936178

Morgan, S. (2018). Top 5 cybersecurity facts, figures and statistics for 2018. Retrieved from
https://www.csoonline.com/article/3153707/security/top-5-cybersecurity-facts-figures-and-
statistics.html

3.15 SUGGESTED READINGS

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Aldossary, S., & Allen, W. (2016). Data Security, Privacy, Availability and Integrity in
Cloud Computing: Issues and Current Solutions. International Journal of Advanced
Computer Science and Application , Vol. 07 (No. 04), pp. 485 -498.

Ismail, R., & Zainab, A. N. (2011). Information systems security in special and public
libraries:an assessment of status. Malaysian Journal of Library and Information Science ,
Vol. 16 (No. 02), pp.45 - 62.

Khan, J. (2016). Impact of Information communication technology on libraries and its

services. International Journal of research granthaalayah , Vol. 04 (No. 09), PP. 97-100.

MSDN Library (2018). Definition of a Security Vulnerability. Retrieved from

https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc751383.aspx

Symantec employee (2018). What Is a Computer Virus? Retrieved from

https://us.norton.com/internetsecurity-malware-what-is-a-computer-virus.html

Xu, "Research on the security problems existed in information management of libraries,"

2014 World Automation Congress (WAC), Waikoloa, HI, 2014, pp. 867-869. doi:
10.1109/WAC.2014.6936178

Morgan, S. (2018). Top 5 cybersecurity facts, figures and statistics for 2018. Retrieved from
https://www.csoonline.com/article/3153707/security/top-5-cybersecurity-facts-figures-and-
statistics.html

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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LESSON 4

VIRTUAL LIBRARY

Vikas Bhushan
Information Officer
WB National University of Juridical Sciences (WBNUJS)
Kolkata
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

4.1 Learning Objectives

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Virtual Library Services offered
4.3.1 Record Keeping
4.3.2 Acquisition
4.3.3 Cataloguing
4.3.4 Ciculation
4.3.5 Web OPAC
4.4 Features and advantages
4.5 Purpose of Virtual Library
4.5.1 Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) Services
4.5.2 Information Services
4.5.3 Document Delivery & Inter-Library Loan (ILL) Services
4.6 Work methodology of Virtual Library
4.6.1 Selection of contents
4.6.2 Validation of contents
4.6.3 Up-to-date
4.6.4 Evaluation procedure
4.7 Future Scenario
4.7.1 WorldCat
4.7.2 Open Library Project
4.8 Summary
4.9 Glossary
4.10 Answers to In-text Questions
4.11 Self-Assessment Questions
4.12 References
4.13 Suggested Readings
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4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• To introduce the concept of Virtual Library

• To examine the purpose of Virtual Library
• To Need of Virtual Library in present Digital era
• To identify technology behind Virtual Library

4.2 INTRODUCTION

Virtual Library is a library in a virtual or in a networked world. It may be called a

superset of Digital Library. Virtual Library not only provides information electronically but
also brings the traditional library to their users electronically. This has become possible due
to the technical advancements in the field of internet and web technologies. The present
society is flooded with information at the fingertips of the Users. But there is a dearth of
authentic and reliable information on the internet. This gap, in right information to the right
user and at the right time can be filled by a trained Library & Information Science
professional. The concept of Virtual Library has brought the services of traditional Library at
the fingertips of its Patrons. Gapen(1993) defined it as, a concept of remotely accessing the
digital contents, services and other information resources, by bringing collections of both
print and digital materials that are current and frequently used are put on an electronic
network to provide access to library Users from world wide web. Virtual Library has
provided a creative way of reaching its technology savvy users. This has transformed the
conventional focus of Library staff related to selection, accession and dissemination of
electronic resources.

The Open Access movement and the world wide web have led physical libraries to
the direction of virtual libraries. The user-friendly search engines and the availability of open
information and the environment where information consumers can also participate in
producing information are the catalysts for the change. The library in the past talked about
through its stand-alone public access catalogue and allowed access to the contents only in its
possession. The virtual library has now rivalled the popular search engines and other online
platforms as a storehouse for publicly verified information and knowledge. The Virtual
Library employs Z39.50 meta search engines in order to provide access to the contents of
other libraries. Z39.50 recognises common resource description standards that are maintained
in other libraries as well. The virtual library needs to embrace other standards from museums,
scholarly communities, and metadata standards in order to access the resources of other
platforms seamlessly.

The 'take it or leave it' attitude of the formal library system has been replaced by the
'instant satisfaction' mode of the virtual library. By the very nomenclature, a virtual library
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has to compete with Amazon or Google when it comes to satisfying users. If something is not
available, the virtual library must arrange approximate or proximate resources for the users.

The following are some of the tasks that a virtual library must do to act as a virtual
library.

• Enrich and link the catalogue with services and data;

• Use federated book, journal, and journal article discovery and delivery;
• Link the user to full-text whenever possible;
• Provide a variety of unmediated, quick delivery options for items that cannot be delivered
immediately.
• Disseminate library metadata and links to course Web pages and portals.
• Use e-commerce functions to serve people who are not library members.

4.3 VIRTUAL LIBRARY SERVICES OFFERED

Some of the services offered by Virtual Library are as follows:

4.3.1 Record Keeping:

Traditional record keeping operations can be implemented with digital contents too,
such as adding and deleting e-books, newspapers, periodicals, CDs, and so on, could be
managed precisely in Virtual Library.

4.3.2 Acquisition:
Like web-based library management software, Virtual Library too manages budgets, vendors,
orders, etc. Stock taking has become very easy.

4.3.3 Cataloguing:
Metadata and cataloguing are both maintained by modern systems. Dublin Core,
RDA, and MARC formats.

4.3.4 Ciculation:
To ensure seamless and effective operations in the distribution of documents and the
maintenance of serials, contemporary technologies such as barcodes, RFID, and biometrics
are used.

4.3.5 Web OPAC:

A standard search interface for remote access of contents.

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4.4 FEATURES AND ADVANTAGES

Features of Virtual Library are numerous, some of them are as follows:

● Integration of all user information into its database.

● Organize the data systematically for better retrieval of required content.
● Any internet information can be easily monitored.
● It can generate various types of reports as required by Library staff.
● Easy Online information management
● Library 2.0 facilities, interactive interface for Patrons
● Facilities for multiple users and multiple languages on a single platform
● It facilitates easy export and import of data
● A cutting-edge, integrated library management system
● Simple to keep records
● It enables rapid book entry into its database.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Virtual Library is accessible using……………………………
(a)Passport (b) Internet
(c) Computer (d) Both b & c
2. Virtual Library has……………………….
a)Electronic resources b) Card catalogue
c) Library Building d) None of the above

3. Library 2.0 facilities, interactive interface for Patrons. True / False

4. __________ is a standard search interface for remote access of contents
5. RLG stands for RedLightGreen. True/ False

4.5 PURPOSE OF VIRTUAL LIBRARY

Prime purpose of Virtual Library is to provide intellectual access to information in any digital
format. It’s evident from the name that this brings traditional library services to its users

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virtually through the electronic network. It enables the following services at the Users finger
tips virtually:

4.5.1 Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) Services:

Catalogue of a Library resource is the most vital discovery tool in the Library. Until
recently, it was confined to the catalogue cards, put together in a catalogue card cabinet. With
the advent of Personal Computers and networking technologies these card catalogues came
out of their shackles and reached to its users. Modern catalogues are not just pieces of texts
but contain lots of additional multimedia metadata of the Library resource. Nowadays
catalogue is accessible to the Public or User online through networking technologies and
Internet. OPAC enables whole new ways of discovering a library resource like for instance a
Patron can search by author, title, keywords, class number or by combining these fields using
logical operators (AND, OR etc). Through OPAC, a library user not only finds a desired
resource but also gets information whether it is available in the library or not, put ‘hold’ on
resources etc. Remote OPAC is accessed through web browsers and it is also known as Web
OPAC.

4.5.2 Information Services:

Modern Information Communication Technologies (ICT) has led to the remarkable
changes in delivery of Information Services in a Library. This accelerates the penetration of
Virtual Libraries into the User’s information requirements with the help of following:

• Reference Service: Electronic Tools like emails, FAQs, Web Portal, Chat rooms, Virtual
reference desk, ask-a-librarian etc services have evaded and replaced past techniques
such as post, telephone or in-person reference enquiries.
• Bibliographic Service: Preparation of state-of-art reports, user’s reading lists,
biographies, literature reviews etc. can be achieved at lightning speed and of high quality
in a cost effective way. Electronic databases provide advanced retrieval functions using
multiple criteria like author, title, keyword, class number, year of publication, language
and many more with wide range of styles and display formats.
• Current Awareness Service: Current Awareness (CAS) is one of the significant tools
for keeping the patrons abreast to latest trends in their areas of interest. Virtual Library is
able to collect desired information by running predefined scripts at regular intervals over
the targeted databases.

4.5.3 Document Delivery & Inter-Library Loan (ILL) Services:

Present deluge of information in various forms and formats, it’s not possible for
libraries to have each and every resource what its users need. This crisis can be more
efficiently tackled by Virtual Libraries than the traditional Libraries using Document
Delivery Services. Virtual Libraries can partner with other Libraries to share resources over a
network either freely or using some authentication mechanism. British Library Document

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Supply Service offers document delivery services for its clients. RedLightGreen (RLG)
Union catalogue has around 130 million records from around 160 part libraries in USA. In
India, organizations like DELNET, INFLIBNET have Union catalogues of their member
libraries.

4.6 WORK METHODOLOGY OF VIRTUAL LIBRARY

Some procedure is required to make a Virtual Library successful. This

includes

4.6.1 Selection of contents:

Library experts (more specifically domain experts), due to their long experience on a
particular domain or subject and ability to know the psychological needs of the users, they
are most capable person to identify the available contents of any institution and select those
for Virtual Library.

4.6.2 Validation of contents:

After selecting the Content, the domain experts are required to evaluate the contents
and give the suggestions where to add, delete and which part of the content is required and
which is not..

4.6.3 Up-to-date:
The main aim is to always keep the Virtual Library up-to-date with current
information otherwise the user can become unwilling to use the Library.

4.6.4 Evaluation procedure:

Some statistical techniques have been developed to quantify how much Virtual
Library contents are sufficient to the user. This measure helps to know which links, contents
are more searched and which are not. With this measurement, institution can modify its
Virtual Library.

4.7 FUTURE SCENARIO

The evolution of Semantic Web from Syntactic Web has made data on the web
machine processable. Despite all these progress made, one of the biggest challenge towards
the use of semantics is the lack of background knowledge (Giunchiglia and Dutta, 2012).
Capturing this background knowledge is a tough problem to deal with due to the nature of
knowledge. Knowledge doesn’t have one uniform description. Everyone has different
perception of a particular knowledge. And here we are trying to capture this
multidimensional knowledge, which is vast in terms of size, continuum and dynamic in

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nature and has diverse sources. Moreover, we want that it should be of high quality and
contextually relevant.

For encountering this difficulty Giunchiglia and Dutta (2012) has proposed and
adapted the faceted approach, well-established methodology used in the field of Library
science for knowledge organisation in Libraries and came up with DERA, a new faceted
knowledge representation approach. This provides the solution for the development of
Descriptive Ontologies, which allows scaling to the ever growing knowledge. So, DERA
methodology can be applied in building ontologies for domains, as evident from the papers
on the subject (Giunchiglia et al. 2012).
But developing ontologies from scratch is an extremely time-consuming, costly, error
prone task and it is therefore fundamental to reuse existing resources. This can be achieved
by connecting or linking related concepts or entities from various datasets available as a giant
network of interconnected resources, the Linked Open Data Cloud (Linked Data Connect
Distributed Data across the Web, 2014). This enables different applications to interoperate
and share their data. However for integrating datasets, purpose should be taken into account
and make explicit the semantics. Typically it can be achieved by mapping between their
terms/concepts. We all understand the importance of data many a times and being a library
and information science professional, our job is to make best use of raw data and to make it
information. In this dynamic web environment role of the libraries are also changing. The
bibliographic data painstakingly created by libraries are highly-structured and of high quality.
If we want to make our data visible, reusable and discoverable in present scenario, we have
to make it machine processable. This can be attained by using Semantic Web techniques with
Linked Data principles.
Semantic means ‘meaning’ and Web means several documents, connected with each
other via hyperlinks. These documents are web pages containing data, understandable and
processable by humans. Whereas, Semantic Web means the meaningful web where data
present in the web pages are also processable by machines. In this way machines would be
able to interpret and understand the meaning of data in a web page and will present the user
with needful information. As explained "The Semantic Web is not a separate Web but an
extension of the current one, in which information is given well-defined meaning, better
enabling computers and people to work in cooperation". So briefly, we can say that, the
Semantic Web enables us to express data as well as rules for reasoning about the data.
Linked data is just addition of one more facet to the Semantic Web i.e. publishing and
connecting data with related data. So, we don’t have to search for related concepts rather
machine would provide it for us. This publishing of structured data on the Web is based on
set of guiding principles, to interlink data making a Web of Documents to a Web of Data. In
the following sub-sections, we will have the various aspects of Linked Data since its
evolution to its working principles. The growth and development of the Linked Data can be
traced way back with the invention of Web. Initially Web has the HTML pages with mainly

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made up of ASCII and images. It was syntactic in nature with human clickable hyperlinks
which humans have to understand and then click to navigate from one page to other. This
was popularly known as Web of documents. After this came the Semantic Web or Web 3.0,
where data becomes machine processable. Now, machines can understand the data and able
to understand Jaguar an animal and a car. Adding one more facet to Semantic Web i.e.
connecting related data, gave birth to Linked Data. Thus this forms the Web of Documents to
Web of Data. This can be represented in the form of provided figure 1 (Getting the Essence
of the Semantic Web, 2012):

Figure 1: Stages of WWW evolution

The rationale behind the Linked Data is the need for enhancing re-usability,
findability and visibility of our data. In order to achieve this several approaches were adopted
prime among them are Microformats and Web APIs. But they have some shortcoming like
Microformats were meant to represent data about small set of various entities. Further, Web
APIs were with vendor locked interfaces and most doesn’t have global unique identifiers for
entities, so we cannot set hyperlinks between entities of different Web APIs. Web APIs thus
Slice the Web into separate data silos making data sets isolated, unconnected but with Linked
data related concepts can be joined, moreover machines would be able to do the processing.

There are several use cases of these modern technologies to provide relevant and easy data
retrieval in Virtual Library Platforms.

4.7.1 WorldCat – OCLC:

OCLC WorldCat uses Linked Data to make its catalog records available through
search engines like Google. This has been done by mapping its records with the schema
developed by Schema.org and launched by Google, Bing, Yahoo to create and support a
common set of schemas for structured data mark-up on web pages.

4.7.2 Open Library Project:

It has a target to prepare "One web page for every book" by creating a URI for each
book on its platform.It is also exploring Linked Data techniques to link related data about

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each book. So, Library patrons will get hold of all related information of the desired book at
one place.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

6. OPAC is used for preserving books. True / False

7. Virtual Library is a library in a virtual or in a networked world. True / False
8. _________ of a Library resource is the most vital discovery tool in the Library
9. FAQs, Web Portal, Chat rooms, Virtual reference desk, ask-a-librarian etc. are
examples of _______________
10. Current Awareness (CAS) is one of the significant tools for keeping the
patrons abreast to latest trends in their areas of interest. True / False

4.8 SUMMARY

A Virtual Library is a collection of resources available on computer server and

provides interface for User access over a computer or via a computer network. Its more than
mere collection of electronic resources such as databases, full text digital materials in
multimedia formats and catalogues in the form of OPAC. It also facilitates user assistance
services like reference, inter-library loan, SDI, etc. Sometimes it is also referred
synonymously as electronic library or digital library.

1.7 GLOSSARY

Virtual Library: It not only provides information electronically but also brings the
traditional library to their users electronically.

Semantic Web: Semantic means ‘meaning’ and Web means several documents, connected
with each other via hyperlinks.

1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. d) 6. False
2. a) 7. True
3. True 8. Catalogue
4. Web OPAC 9. Reference service
5. True 10. True
1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
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1. Describe the concept of Virtual Library

2. Write a note on evolution of Lib 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0
3. Differentiate between Traditional Library and Virtual Library

1.10 REFERENCES

Chucks, E. & Sani, Y. & Moses, T. (2020). A Review of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) Facilities for The Implementation of Virtual Library Management System.
International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research. 11. 448-460.

Gapen, K. G. (1993). The virtual library: Knowledge, society, and the librarian. In: L.M.
Saunders (Ed.), The Virtual Library: Visions and Realities, pp.1-14. Westport: Meckler.

Giunchiglia, F., and Dutta, B. (2012). Domains and Context: First Steps towards Managing
Diversity in Knowledge. Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide
Web, 53-63.

Getting the Essence of the Semantic Web. All about web. Retrieved from
http://paanchiweb.blogspot.pt/2012/12/getting-essence-of-semantic-web.html

Koganuramath, M. (2007). Virtual Library: An Overview. In: 5th International CALIBER-

2007, Punjab University, Chandigarh, 08-10 February.

Ojaswini Subodh Upasani (2016): Advantages and Limitations of Open Source Software for
Library Management System Functions: The Experience of libraries in India, The Serials
Librarian.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Chucks, E. & Sani, Y. & Moses, T. (2020). A Review of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) Facilities for The Implementation of Virtual Library Management System.
International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research. 11. 448-460.

Gapen, K. G. (1993). The virtual library: Knowledge, society, and the librarian. In: L.M.
Saunders (Ed.), The Virtual Library: Visions and Realities, pp.1-14. Westport: Meckler.

Giunchiglia, F., and Dutta, B. (2012). Domains and Context: First Steps towards Managing
Diversity in Knowledge. Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide
Web, 53-63.

Getting the Essence of the Semantic Web. All about web. Retrieved from
http://paanchiweb.blogspot.pt/2012/12/getting-essence-of-semantic-web.html

Koganuramath, M. (2007). Virtual Library: An Overview. In: 5th International CALIBER-

2007, Punjab University, Chandigarh, 08-10 February.

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 UNIT - II: Integrated Library Automation and Networking
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Ojaswini Subodh Upasani (2016): Advantages and Limitations of Open Source Software for
Library Management System Functions: The Experience of libraries in India, The Serials
Librarian.

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UNIT – III: MULTIMEDIA AND INSTITUTIONAL REPOSITORIES

Dr. Bharat Chaudhari

Assistant Librarian
School of Technology
Pandit Deendayal Energy University
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 What is multimedia
1.4 Components of Multimedia
1.4.1 Text
1.4.2 Image
1.4.3 Animation
1.4.4 Sound
1.4.5 Videos
1.5 Hardware Components of Multimedia
1.5.1 Processor (CPU)
1.5.2 RAM and ROM
1.5.2.1 Memory and Storage Devices
1.5.3 Scanner
1.5.4 Digitizer
1.5.5 Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
1.5.6 OCR (optical character recognition)
1.5.7 Bar Code Readers
1.5.8 Digital Camera
1.5.9 Screen Projector

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1.6 Multimedia Software

1.6.1 Photo Editor
1.6.2 Video Editor
1.6.3 Animation Tools
1.6.4 Simulation Tools
1.7 Application of Multimedia in Libraries
1.7.1 Digital Kiosk
1.7.2 Webinar, Webcast and Web Conferencing

1.7.3 Multimedia Resource Collection

1.7.4 Electronic Library
1.7 Advantages of Multimedia in Library
In-Text Questions
1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Answers to in-text Questions
1.11 Self-assessment questions
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, the learner will be able to

1. Learn what multimedia and its overview
2. Know the various components of multimedia
3. Understand hardware and software of multimedia
4. Know the advantages of multimedia in libraries
5. Familiar with the application of multimedia in library

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1.2INTRODUCTION:

Multimedia has become a boom to this ever-changing world and libraries is no more
exception, with the pathway of time, a plethora of tools and technologies emerged and
applied in libraries and multimedia is one of them. We are well aware that multimedia is
widely used in education, from preschool to doctorate. In the year 1940 Dr.Vannevar Bush
integrated various forms and he designed a mechanical device named Memex, for storing,
organizing and retrieving information in different forms. The proliferation of applications
related to multimedia is not surprising. What, though, is multimedia? How does it relate to
the computers and communications? Let's see to respond to Multimedia is? It is an
agglomeration of various form as text, data, images, hypertexts which are converted forms of
digital media via computer.

1.3 WHAT IS MULTIMEDIA?

The
term "multimedia" has a variety of meanings:
Bob Goldstein, a musician and artist (after known as "Bobb Goldsteinn") coined the
term "multimedia" to promote the launch of his "Lightworks at L'Oursin" exhibition in
Southampton, Long Island, in July 1966. [1] Dick Higgins, an American artist, had two years
prior presented a brand-new method of creating work that he called "intermedia,"

Multimedia means: Audio, video, and animation are all forms of multimedia that can be used
to display computer data (i.e., text, graphics drawings, images, animations, virtual reality,
and augmented realities).
A multimedia application is one that makes use of a variety of media sources, such as text,
graphics, images, sound/audio, animation, and/or video.
Definition: The term "multimedia" is frequently used in combination with the
information and technology, Produce videos (information on demand), or
hypermedia. In a computer could be thought as text, graphics, photos, video, and
audio. Interactivity is an important component of multimedia. It offers users’ enriched
interactive information. ‘media’. Multi means "many," as in many. A sort of medium
called multimedia makes it simple to move information from one place to another.
The presentation of text, images, audio, and video along with links and other tools enables
the user to engage in computer-based navigation, creation, and communication.
The term "multimedia" refers to the digitally expressed, stored, transmitted, and processed
integration of text, drawings, still and moving images (videos), graphics, audio, animation,
and any other media.

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1.4 COMPONENTS OF MULTIMEDIA:

Text, graphics, sound, video, and animation are the five significant elements of multimedia.
They are elaborated with below:
1.4.1 Text:
Text is the fundamental component of multimedia and the most prevalent means of
conveying information to others.
1.4.2Image:
Images are an essential element in multimedia. These image graphics are created in
two ways by the computer: as bitmap or raster images and as vector images.
1.4.3Animation:
Animation is the process of constantly showing still images to create the illusion of
continuous motion. In animation, the item on the screen is a vector image.
1.4.4 Sound
Sound is a significant form of communication in all languages and is the most
important element of multimedia, providing the music, special effects.
1.4.5Videos
Video or video clips that may be incorporated directly into the applications and are
playable without issue.
Various componets of multimedia

(Fig.1 Source: www.conceptdraw.com)

1.5HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF MULTIMEDIA

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Multimedia programmes may now be developed and viewed on computers nowadays.

The following is a list of the numerous types of hardware that are necessary for multimedia
apps to run.
1.5.1 Processor (CPU):
The heart of any multimedia computer is its processor. Today Core i5 or higher
processor is recommended for a multimedia computer.

1.5.2 RAM and ROM:

is used to store programmes and data used in real-time by the CPU. The data stored in
the random access memory can be read, written, and deleted an unlimited number of times.
RAM is a physical component that stores the currently used data. It is an unstable memory.

1.5.2.1.1 Memory and Storage Devices:

This kind of memory is also called external memory or non-volatile memory. It works
less quickly than main memory. These are used to permanently store data or information.
These memories are not directly accessed by the CPU. Instead, they are accessed through
input-output routines. The information in secondary memories is moved to main memory
before the CPU can use it. For example, disc, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

1.5.3 Scanner:
A scanner is a type of input device that works more like a copier. It is used when
some information is on paper and needs to be moved to the computer's hard drive so it can be

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changed further. Images from the source are taken by the scanner and turned into digital files
that can be stored on the disc. You can change these pictures before you print them.

(Scanner)
1.5.4 Digitizer:
A digitizer is an input device that turns analogue information into digital data.
Digitizer can turn a signal from a TV camera into a series of numbers that can be stored in a
computer. The computer can use them to make a picture of whatever was in front of the
camera. Digitizer is also called a Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it turns graphic and
pictorial data into binary inputs. With a graphic tablet as a digitizer, you can do fine work
with drawing and image editing apps.

1.5.5 Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR):

Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) is a technology that is mostly used to find
and process checks. A check's MICR is the string of characters at the bottom left of the
check. It has three groups of numbers: the bank routing number, the account number, and the
check number.

1.5.6 OCR (optical character recognition):

OCR, which stands for "optical character recognition," is a way to tell the difference
between printed or handwritten text characters in digital images of physical documents, like a
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scanned paper document. The most basic part of OCR is looking at the words on a document
and turning them into code that can be used to process data. OCR is sometimes called "text
recognition" as well.

1.5.7 Bar Code Readers:

A barcode reader, also called a barcode scanner, is an optical scanner that can read
printed barcodes, decode the information in the barcode, and send the information to a
computer.

(barcode Reader/Sanner)
1.5.8 Digital Camera:
A digital camera is a device for inputting photos that are then saved in digital
form. The digital camera as well as digital vedio camera is utilised for
different applications, such as contributing photographs to a multimedia
presentation or for personal usage.

1.5.9 Screen Projector:

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Projectors or simply projector is output devices used to simultaneously display

information from a computer on a large screen to a group of people.

1.6MULTIMEDIA SOFTWARE:

Multimedia software now is a big category that includes everything from editing
videos to making websites. There are many different kinds of multimedia software, but they
all have one thing in common: they all use the computer to make and change graphics,
sounds, animations, text, and other media.
1.6.1 Photo Editor:
Image or Photo editors are like photo editing software because they can also be used
to improve images. Image enhancers, on the other hand, tend to change and manipulate
images more than edit them. There are various software tools or software i.e. Photoshop,
Affinity Photo, Luminar NEO, Luminar AI, inPixio, Pixlr X, CorelPaintShop Pro.

1.6.2 Video Editor:

Video editing is one of the most widespread uses for multimedia software; in fact,
non-linear editing software has transformed filmmaking by allowing the removal or addition
of scenes at any moment. The popular Video editing software such as Adobe Premiere Pro or
Final Cut Pro, PowerDirector, HitFilm Express, Blender, DaVinci Resolve VideoProc
Vlogger,VideoPad are likely the most common sort of multimedia software. These
programmes enable you to edit video footage on your computer by slicing tinto clips,
rearranging them in any order, and adding titles and other effects. Lokking after to the yutube
generation many adriod apps or mac are very popular for vedio editing i.e. Filmr, Quik,
FilmoraGo, KineMaster, VivaVideo, WeVideo, VideoShow etc.

1.6.3 Animation Tools:

The process of changing static pictures to moving is called animation. When
stationary images are rapidly presented on media such as film or video, the illusion of motion
is created. The tools and software are 3ds Max (Autodesk), After Effects (Adobe). Maya,
Moho etc.

1.6.4 Simulation Tools:

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Simulation is an essential tool because it allows for the evaluation of various designs,
plans, and/or policies without the need to conduct costly, time-consuming, or otherwise
impracticable experiments on a real system. That is, it enables you to inquire about a system
without conducting experiments on the system itself (and hence incur the costs of field tests,
prototypes, etc. There are various applications and tools like
ANALOGIC,MATLAB,SIMSCALE, SIMUL8 etc.

1.7APPLICATION OF MULTIMEDIA IN LIBRARIES:

The use of multimedia is becoming widespread in libraries, information centres, and

archives. This can take the form of multimedia kiosks, user orientation programmes,
multimedia-based reference collections, heritage collections in the form of multimedia
resources, and other similar applications. Various libraries have housed multimedia
collection with the creation of audio-visual and other types of multimedia resources.
Librarians are preparing presentations, audio vediuals to during the orentations to make their
service effective. presentation's overall effectiveness so the multimedia resources have
always been an essential component of library collections.

The usages of multimedia technologies in library can briefly be discussed in the following:

1.7.1 Digital Kiosk:

Kiosk is a free-standing computers with touch screens most probably used at airports
and other public places to provide directions, schedules, etc (Rowley,1996).

In library, kiosks are playing important role in vaious settings. A library kiosk displays
announcements, reading lists, user comments and ideas, and other library operations like
information search, OPAC serach etc. A library kiosk graphically displays the library's
collection, catalogue, archives, services, and locations, as well as the floor layouts.

1.7.2 Webinar, Webcast and Web Conferencing:

A webinar is a live event that viewers can access online in real-time (or a simulated-
live, pre-recorded event). In addition, webinars are frequently training seminars or online
talks for demand generation, users engagement. Webinar's are two-way presentation by using
interactive elements including shared screens, question-and-answer sessions, and subject
discussions. In most cases, webinar participants prefer a live question-and-answer sessions.

1.7.3 Multimedia Resource Collection:

Libraries are preserving various types of multimedia to server the users. Libraryies
house multimedia databases, maultimedia catalogues, Macromedia showcase, CD-ROMs,

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Flopy disk, Movable Hard Disk, Audio and video collections, Image collections in nerwork
tools, Anumationvedio collections, simulation software collections etc.

1.7.4 Electronic Library:

Now, information management and retrivalsytem in libraries has now changed its
form and mode of service giving multimedia services. Digital library or Electronic libray are
basically offer various multimedia services and this electronic or digital libraries are
decentralized and support interoperatbility between tools, system and users. Digital library
may include e-books, scanned images, data, Audio vidual materials. Digital libraries now are
hosted online. Various project of digital libraries are initiated in the word. In 1995, the first
DL project was launched by University of illions followed by standford university,
University of California, British library, UK named ELNOR. Digital library arefuctiing as
access pont of all digital resource management and retiveal of information.
In India, various digial library program or initiatives are launched e.g.

• National Science Digital Library, NISCAIR

• Digital Library of DESIDOC
• National Digital Library of India (NDLI), Kharagpur

1.7 ADVANTAGES OF MULTIMEDIA IN LIBRARY:

1. Use of multimedia makes library service easy, fast and effective

2. It improves learning process effective and efficient
3. Multimedia tools and software are easy and user-friendly
4. Its improved library resource sharing and networking
5. Multimedia system gives its user freedom to search for information and data
6. The New multimedia system changed the form of library, introducing AR
(Augmented reality), VR (Vurtual reality)

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS:

1. Multimedia Contain?
A. Text
B. Audio
C. Video
D. All of the Above

2. ______________Coin the term Multimedia?

3. A device that converts data into information and processes called?

A. Processor
B. Computer
C. Hard disk
D. Floppy Disk

4. Which device that turns analog information to digital data?

A. MICR
B. Digitizer
C. Barcode Reader
D. QR Coder

5. Which one the following in not a multimedia software?

A. Linux
B. Photo Editor
C. Video Editor
D. Simulation software

1.8SUMMARY

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Multimedia made significant changes in library and information system. With the
digital transformation and looking after the current development of multimedia technologies
which are changing their form and nature from CD-DVDs to Electronic Multimedia Library
or Digital Library. From presentation to video-conferencing in live-stream or on-demand
broadcast over the Internet. The creation of multimedia provides an opportunity to interact
with professionals in the fields of library and information science, Because the twenty-first-
century librarians are experts in managing multimedia digital libraries,

1.9 GLOSSARY

Animation:Animation is the process of constantly showing still images to create the illusion
of continuous motion. In animation, the item on the screen is a vector image.
Image:Images are an essential element in multimedia. These image graphics are created in
two ways by the computer: as bitmap or raster images and as vector images.
Kiosk: Kiosk is a free-standing computers with touch screens most probably used at airports
and other public places to provide directions,
OCR: OCR, which stands for "optical character recognition," is a way to tell the difference
between printed or handwritten text characters in digital images of physical documents, like a
scanned paper document.
Processor: The heart of any multimedia computer is its processor. Today Core i5 or higher
processor is recommended for a multimedia computer.
Scanner:A scanner is a type of input device that works more like a copier
SoundSound is a significant form of communication in all languages and is the most
important element of multimedia, providing the music, special effects.
Text: Text is the fundamental component of multimedia and the most prevalent means of
conveying information to others.
VideosVideo or video clips that may be incorporated directly into the applications and are
playable without issue.

1.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. A. Text
2. Bobb Goldsteinn
3. B. Computer
4. B. Digitizer 12 | P a g e
5. A. Linux
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1.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define multimedia and allobarate history and its development.

2. Give applications of multimedia in libraries.
3. What are the hardware requirement for multimedia.
4. What is an electronic or digital library?
5. What are the animations tools?

1.12REFERENCES:

1. ACM Digital Library. (n.d.). ACM Digital Library. Retrieved October 13, 2022, from

https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1109/MMIT.2008.59

2. Bobb Goldsteinn - Wikipedia. (2009). Bobb Goldsteinn - Wikipedia. Retrieved October 13,

2022, from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobb_Goldsteinn#:~:text=Bobb%20Goldsteinn%20(bor

n%20Bob%20Goldstein,original%20Sunshine%20Pop%20singing%20group.

3. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/multimedia/multimedia_introduction.htm. (2021, June 21).

GeeksforGeeks. Retrieved October 13, 2022, from https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-

is-multimedia/

4. Ramaiah, CK. (1998), Multimedia Systems in Libraries and their Applications, DESIDOC

Bulletin oi Information Technology, Vol. 18, No 6, Nov 1998, pp. 25-40 0 1998, DESIDOC.

5. Ramarapu,N: The impact of hypertext versus sequential information presentation on decision

making: a conceptual model. International Journal of Information

Management,1996,16,183-93.

6. Smith,S&Grahak, D: Project Jukebox. In Apple Library of Tomarrow Project, edited by

Steve Giesler. Apple Library, Cupertino,1993.99.7-11.

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7. What is Multimedia? - GeeksforGeeks. (2021). GeeksforGeeks. Retrieved October 13, 2022,

from https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-multimedia/

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS:

8. ACM Digital Library. (n.d.). Retrieved October 13, 2022, from

https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1109/MMIT.2008.59

9. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Multimedia | ipl.org. (n.d.). Retrieved October 13, 2022,

from https://www.ipl.org/essay/Advantages-And-Disadvantages-Of-Multimedia-

FJLH25E2AU

10. What is Multimedia? (n.d.). Retrieved October 13, 2022, from

https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/m/multimed.htm

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 Name of the Course

LESSON 1

IMAGE CREATION USING PHOTOSHOP AND

CORELDRAW
Dr. Vikas Singh
Shri Ram College of Commerce
University of Delhi
Vikassinghblis@gmailcom,
Ph-9250217742

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Photoshop
1.3.1 Functioning of Photoshop
1.2.2 Features of Photoshop
1.3.3 Opening Adobe Photoshop
1.3.4 Creating and Duplicating an Image with the help of Photoshop
1.4 CoralDraw
1.4.1 Features of CorelDraw
1.4.2 Working with CorelDraw
1.4.3 Opening CorelDraw
1.4.4 Opening Pdf Files on CorelDRAW
1.5 Types of Free Image Creation Tools
1.6 Application of Image Creating Tools in Libraries
1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Answers to In-text Questions
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions
1.11 References
1.12 Suggested Readings

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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this chapter, you will be able to:

 Understand various Image Creating Softwares

 Use of various tools in CorelDraw and Photoshop
 Various features of Photoshop and CorelDraw
 Types of Free Image Creation Tools

1.2 INTRODUCTION

There are number of software programs available in the market for editing, modifying and
creating picture or photographs. These softwares are available to fulfill the need and
requirements of the graphic designers and professional photographers. They are available for
beginners, freelancers and for professionals dealing with editing and vector drawing. Today
different type and size brands need graphic design software that brings out stunning designs
to speak to the target audience. Those starting a blog or want to create stunning photos for an
e- Commerce site, one must select best graphic design software to take your marketing
efforts to the next level. To fulfill this purpose, various programs are available such as
Canva, Adobe Photoshop, lucidpress, Inkscape, Gravit Designer, Adobe illustrator CC, Pixlr,
krita, Vectr etc. but CorelDraw and Photoshop are very popular among these.
CorelDraw and Photoshops both are image editing programs. CorelDraw was developed by
Corel Corporation which is a vector-based program that creates artwork using mathematical
equations whereas the Photoshop was developed by Adobe Systems which is pixel-based
program uses vector-based graphics. CorelDraw converts image to form vectored files which
is generally used by Web or graphics designers or UX designers whereas Photoshops are
mostly used by graphic designers and professional photographers alike. Figure 1.1 provides
the detail of various image creating software programs available in the market.

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Photoshop

Canva CorelDraw

IMAGE CREATING
SOFTWARES

Lucidpress Pixlr

Inkscape
Format

Fig.1.1: Image creating softwares

The above mentioned figure provides the details of differ image creating softwares such as
Photoshop, canva, CorelDraw lucid press, pixlr, Inkscape format etc. these are design to
accomplish the task of professionals like graphic designers.

1.3 PHOTOSHOP

Photoshop is the image creation, graphic design and photo editing software brought
out in the market by Adobe. Though, the program was developed in 1987 by Thomas and
John Knoll who were brothers but it was taken over by Adobe System in 1988. It has default
file extension as .psd stands for Photoshop Documents. The use of photoshop provides you
gorgeous images, rich graphics and incredible art. It gives the facility to mix up colours,
mash up photos, graphic, effects, changes someone’s expression and add effects. A desirable
look can be given to a photo with the help of Photoshop. It also provides the facility to paint,
doodle, dabble with digital brushes, bloom and get smudgy with oils. It provide image
editing feature for pixel-based images, raster graphic and vector graphics. As far as the latest
version of photoshop is concerned, it has been recently introduced as Desktop version in the
month of April 2022 named as 23.3.1 while Adobe released the cloud version in October in
2021.

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Photoshop is the image creation, graphic design and photo editing software brought out in the
market by Adobe. Though, the program was developed in 1987 by Thomas and John Knoll
who were brothers but it was taken over by Adobe System in 1988. It has default file
extension as .psd stands for Photoshop Documents. The use of photoshop provides you
gorgeous images, rich graphics and incredible art. It gives the facility to mix up colours,
mash up photos, graphic, effects, changes someone’s expression and add effects. A desirable
look can be given to a photo with the help of Photoshop. It also provides the facility to paint,
doodle, dabble with digital brushes, bloom and get smudgy with oils. It provide image
editing feature for pixel-based images, raster graphic and vector graphics. As far as the latest
version of photoshop is concerned, it has been recently introduced as Desktop version in the
month of April 2022 named as 23.3.1 while Adobe released the cloud version in October in
2021.

1.3.1 Functioning of Photoshop

There are number of stack-holders of photoshop such as photographers, web
designers, graphic designers, memes makers to edit their images or for creating high-quality
images. It is basically standard image manipulation software that provides sophisticated tools
to complete the task. It is a common parlance to say that an image has been ‘Photoshoped’ or
‘Shopped’ means it has been manipulated or edited. The photoshop uses layer based editing
system for raster image creating and altering with multiple overlays that support
transparency. The mentioned layer works as masks or filters, changing underlying colors.
Some effects of shadows can also be added to the layers. The beginners can also use
Photoshop as well with many helpful tutorials on the market that train users in how to use
Photoshop's various features.

1.3.2 Features of Photoshop

The photoshop is an ideal software program for creating graphics and layout for
newspapers, magazines, website design, logos, posters and other digital arts. It has different
features such as of brash, effects, fonts and pen tools. The photoshop provides the facility of
saving the file in features format such as jpeg, png and gif etc.
(i) Among the popular tools in Photoshop programs brushes provide the various effects
such as paining, retouching and erasing images.
(ii) There is a tool available for coping pixels called Clone Stamp that allows us to copy
pixels and pasting them in author area which is useful in repairing damaged or corrupt
images.
(iii) For making the pictures Blur in an image, blur is also used to make it less distrinct. It
is also helpful in reducing the appearances of wrinkles and other imperfections.

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(iv) For making the pictures less distinct, Blur is used. It blurs the pixels in an image. This
can be used to create a soft, dreamy look or reduce the appearance of wrinkles and
other imperfections.
(v) Sharpen does the opposite of Blur, making pixels more distinct. It can be useful for
making an image look more transparent or creating a more dramatic effect.
(vi) Dodge and Burn are used to lighten or darken areas of an image. These are commonly
used in photo retouching to make subjects appear more defined.
(vii) The sponge tool is useful for correcting colors that are too light or too dark. The
Sponge tool can either absorb or release color from an image.

The new edition has also enhanced administrative capabilities, including automation tools, to
reduce the need for repetitive tasks. The updated version adds an object selection tool,
keyboard shortcuts, a properties panel, paints and brushes, and background image removal
options in addition to support for various cameras and lenses. The new version now includes
quicker text layer rearrangement and additional typographic capabilities. It also gives users
the chance to look up recent changes to their preferred cloud-based Photoshop saving
methods.

1.3.3 Opening Adobe Photoshop

There are many a ways of opening Photoshop program. Just switch on the computer program,
after opening the same click on the icon available on the desktop and another is opening the
step by step. For opening the program we have to select the start button and select all
program, and the next step is to click on Adobe Photoshop program. Figure 1.2 provides the
steps of opening Photoshop software program.

CHOOSE
START BUTTON

ALL PROGRAM

CLICK
ADOBE PHOTOSHOP

Fig. 1.2: steps of opening Photoshop

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1.3.4 Creating and Duplicating an Image with the help of Photoshop

There are various steps of creating and duplicating the images with the help of the photoshop.
They have been discussed step by step.
(i) Select/choose file as ‘New’
(ii) Type the name of the image in the dialogue box and set the height and width by
choosing the preset from the size menu. Further, to match the width, height, resolution,
color mode and bit depth of new image opening, select file name from the botton
section of document type menu.
(iii) Select the background content option
(iv) Once after finishing, we can save the settings as preset just by selecting Save preset or
Click ok to ‘open new file’.

Duplicate an Image
You can duplicate an entire image into available memory without saving to disk.
(i) Open the image you want to duplicate.
(ii) Choose Image > Duplicate.
(iii) Enter a name for the duplicated image.
(iv) If you want to duplicate the image and merge the layers, select Duplicate Merged
Layers Only. To preserve the layers, make sure this option is deselected.
(v) Click OK.

Fig. 1.3: Screenshot of Photoshop Program

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1.4 CORALDRAW

It is a Vector graphics editor developed by Corel Corporation which was released

with its first version in January 1989. Its current version is also known as Corel graphics
suite released for Mac OS and Windows on 8th March 2022 which includes the bitmap-
image editor Corel photo paint as other graphics related programs. The new version also
includes more non-destructive photo editing and filters, combined photo editing features with
presets, new templates, a new multipage took and more multiple format exports. The
program is available in various languages such as English, German, Italian, French, Spanish
and Japanese etc.

The program creates artwork using mathematical equation. It converts the image to form
vectored files for creating logos, business cards, barcodes, pamphlets, banner etc. This is
mostly used by web or graphics designers or UX designers.

1.4.1 Features of CorelDraw

The main benefit of the program is robust feature set, customizations and reliability.
CorelDraw not only matches the user’s workflow but also increases the productivity. It has
also been noticed that the colour accuracy and flexibility required for professional output can
be had with the help of CorelDraw graphic suit 2017. Designers can also make the
memorable logos, eye catching marketing materials and viral signs and social media
graphics. The CorelDraw provides the features such as liveSketch tool, multi monitoring,
touch friendly interface, custom node shapes, powerful stylish enhancements, healing clone
tools, Corel font manager and enhanced vector previews, handles and nodes. It has some
other features which have been described below:

(i) Create Anything and Everything

Diverse designers, industries, and businesses from all over the world by are using
CorelDRAW Graphics Suite for everything from manufacturing and engineering to
sign making and marketing.

(ii) Apparel and Textiles

CorelDRAW Graphics Suite includes all the tools that we need to create and export
designs for the fashion industry, whether we work in the screen printing, embroidery,
direct-to-garment printing, or clothing industries.

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(iii) Signage and Large-Format Printing

Thanks to a potent colour management engine and pre-press capabilities,
professionals in the sign and print industry rely on CorelDRAW to develop artwork
for a variety of print outputs.

(iv) Blueprints, Maps, and Schematics

With specialised, precise tools for producing elaborate diagrams, schematics, and
other images, CorelDRAW is a well-known brand in engineering, manufacturing, and
construction industries.

(v) Illustration and Fine Art

Illustrators and artists alike can combine their classic art practices with CorelDRAW's
vector-illustration technology to create beautiful, sophisticated works of art.

(vi) Tools for Productivity and Creativity

From stunning artwork to impactful web graphics and stand-out print, express your
creative vision with tools that empower you to deliver pro results you'll be proud of.

(vii) Collaboration Tools

Connect with clients and colleagues on designs like never before. Share your
concepts with your reviewers in the Cloud, inviting them to view, annotate, and
comment directly on your CorelDRAW design files using CorelDRAW.app. Making
design changes couldn't be easier, with feedback from one or many contributors, all in
one place-your working file.

(viii) User Improvements

Because of the valuable input, Corel has made enhancements to Find & Replace,
Align and Distribute, shadow effects, and more in CorelDRAW. The most-loved
Corel PHOTO-PAINT features - from masks, effects and lenses, to Replace Color -
also got much better now a days.

(ix) Colors, Fills, and Transparencies

Easily apply color to fills and outlines using color swatches, or generate colors based
on color harmonies. Change the transparency of an object and fill objects with
patterns, gradients, mesh fills, and more.

(x) Non-Destructive Editing

This type of edit bitmaps and vectors knowing won't harm the original image or
object. Enjoy many non-destructive features such as the Block Shadow tool,
Symmetry Drawing mode, the Impact tool, Add Perspective, and Non-Destructive
Effects in CorelDRAW and Corel PHOTO-PAINT.
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(xi) Styles and Style Sets

It control every elements in the documents with a handy objects docker, that allows to
hide, rename, search for objects, and change their stacking order. Use of the Object
Properties docker to manage object formatting, fills, and more.

(xii) Workspace Customization

The workspace customization is also one of the important features where it
seamlessly import CorelDRAW and Corel PHOTO-PAINT workspaces were created
in previous versions, or use predefined workspaces to keep industry-specific tools
organized and accessible.

1.4.2 Working with CorelDraw

CorelDraw is one of the most popular and powerful graphics programs and gives designers a
most rewarding and enjoyable work experience. It is built and designed to meet the day-to-
day demands of working designers. CorelDraw software is available in the market and once
loaded onto the computer, one can get started with the designing work. The figure 1.4
provides the screenshot of CorelDRAW program.

Fig. 1.4: Screenshot of CorelDRAW Program

Fig. 1.4: Screenshot of CorelDRAW Program

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1.4.3 Opening CorelDraw

To open the CorelDraw software certain steps are followed. They have been discussed one
by one. First of all, Switch on the computer and take the following steps:

(i) Go to Start and select Programs from the list.

(ii) Find the Corel section and select CorelDraw.
(iii) Choose Open Graphic for old design. New Graphic creates a new, one page
document. Template allows access to professionally created templates from the
library. Corel Tutor gives a brief overview of how to use the program.
(iv) ‘What's New?’ shows improvements over the earlier Version. Designer.com can
connects to a web site where we can find many helpful areas

1.4.4 Opening Pdf Files on CorelDRAW

Pdf stand for Portable Document Format. It contains image, font and other elements in a
single file. The layout of this document permits portability of documents in a different
platforms and applications. This type of documents can be encrypted and protected by
password. It allows the sharing of documents in an easier way.

Step-1 Step-2 Step-3

Launch CorelDRAW Findthe Pdf file you Select the file "Edit and
and Choose file wish to open Save" it
OPEN

Fig.1.5: Steps of opening files in CorelDraw

1.5 TYPES OF FREE IMAGE CREATION TOOLS

There are variety of image creating tools available to help us to quickly navigate the type of
image we are willing to create. These tools are available from premium to free, from desktop
software to mobile apps. These are image design tools, infographic makers, logo makers,
quote makers, collage makers, cover page photo maker, profile picture makers, screenshot
tools, image resizing tools and GIF makers. The figure 1.2 depicts the image creation tools.

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Image
Creation
Tools

Image Screenshot
Design Tools Tools

Profile
Quote
Logo Maker Picture
Maker
Maker

Fig. 1.6: Type of Image creation tools

(i) Image Design Tools

There are several tools available for different purposes, image designing tools are one
of them. These tools are canava, PicMoney, stencil and Befunky etc. These tools are
helpful in creating images, build resume, designing cover pages and creating social
media images. The Befunky is the tool which gives us freedom not to register which
is a big plus for a lot of people. It also have the facility to make collage.

(ii) Logo Makers

Now a days, every organization requires a logo and the same is seen by the target
audience. There are some of the logo creation tools i.e. LogoGarden,
LogoTypeMaker, Ucraft and Logaster etc. There are some of the free and paid logo
creating options available. LogoGarden is quick and easy option for creating logos.
Further, the Logotype maker is a site for small companies and startups for creating
their logos. Similarly, Ucraft is an editor but it also provides the facility of logo
editor. Logaster can create multiple versions of product design or logos for free.

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(iii) Quote Maker

This one is not very popular tool but they are great for social media. These sites will
take a quote and turn it into a beautiful image that can be shared on social media.
There are some of the tools available in the form of Recite, Quozio and Quotescover.
The site has a ton of different design themes which will easily make your quote look
great. In the similar direction, quozio is another tool for creating and sharing a quote
design. The QuotesCover is a great for turning our fantastic quote into social media
cover photos and the same feature is available in facebook also.

(iv) Screenshot Tolls

Despite the availability of the features of screenshot in the computes and laptops,
there are variety of image editing tools available to fulfill the quick and effective
requirement of image editing but there is no doubt they are having some of the
features which in-built programs do not offers. Jing is one of them which helps us in
capturing both screenshot and screen videos. It also helps in shaping and providing
desired colors to the text/image.

The programs get connected and start editing, resizing and enhancing screenshot
images. Further, another program available is known as skitch which offers feature
like Jing. This program is dedicated to content creators looking for simple tools on
the go.

(v) Profile Picture Maker

It has become very necessary to have a stunning profile picture these days as the
visitor look at the profile visual very often. So, it becomes important to create one
great image for the profile picture. There are variety of tools available such as profile
Picture makers, mypictr and, timeline slicer. These tools are very helpful in for
creating great pictures for facebook, twitter, LinkedIn and pinterest whereas mypictr
helps in resizing the picture so that it could be fit in the profile perfectly. It is also a
simple tool to edit, save and upload our profile image. In the similar direction,
timeline slicer is for resizing and timeline slicing and also allows users to scale
pictures for ads.

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Comparison of Best Graphic Design Tools

Tool Name Main Features Usability/Reliability

Canva • Thousands of pre-built templates Conveniently create a variety graphics

• Chart maker for images and videos that are ideal for
• PDF Editor digital and social media marketing.
• Highly customizable

Lucidpress • Online Platform. we can easily access the brand assets and
• Allows for storage of brand assets. manipulate them using any browser.
• Automate branding data such as telephone numbers, Allows for the use of YouTube video.
mail addresses, etc.
 Quick import and export to online storage sites such
as Dropbox.

Adobe • Very high image manipulation features. The tool is quite powerful but has a
Photoshop • Allows creation of 3D-like images. steep learning curve.
• High-Quality border selection to cut of unwanted It is reliable when you want high-quality
elements in a picture. image creation and manipulation.

CorelDraw • Best suited for vector art creation. All those who want extreme illustrations
• Basic image manipulation features. (vector) find this tool very useful.

Inkscape • Flexible drawing tools Excellent tool for vector graphic creation
• Broad file format compatibility and manipulation.
• Powerful text tool
• Bezier and spiral curves

Adobe • Create illustrations using basic elements. This is an ideal tool for vector graphics
Illustrator • Great manipulation of SVG vector images. artists. Comes with a host of templates
CC to start from.

Fig 1.7: Comparison of Best Graphic Design Tools

Source: https://www.softwaretestinghelp.com/graphic-design-software-tools/

1.6 APPLICATION OF IMAGE CREATING TOOLS IN LIBRARIES

Now we are aware that there are several image creating programs are available in the
form of CorelDraw and Photoshop, Canva, Lucidpress, pixlr, Inkscape format. These
programs are basically useful in image creation, graphic design and photo editing. The
updated editions of the programs also includes more non-destructive photo editing, filters,
combined photo editing features, new templates, new multipage tools and more multiple-
format exports. Further, when we check the use of these image creating tools in the libraries
we find that the libraries are the storehouse of knowledge. They preserve the collection such
as brochures, newsletters, magazines, newspapers and books. All these items are prepared
with the help of Photoshop and CorelDraw. Library is also a place where we can store the
things that we do in the Photoshop. Now the libraries are organising several information
literacy programs, knowledge sharing sessions, Author talk, training and workshopts etc.
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before organising these events, libraries are doing lot of advertisements with the help of
brouchers or banners. These items are being prepared by trained professionals in
CorelDrawor Photoshops being used in the libraries.

1.7 SUMMARY

The Image Creating Softwares provides the simplicity and flexibility for the users. There are
several programs available but the CorelDraw and Photoshops are among the popular one.
CorelDraw and Photoshops both are image editing programs. CorelDraw was developed by Corel
Corporation which is a vector-based program that creates artwork using mathematical equations
whereas the Photoshop was developed by Adobe Systems which is pixel-based program uses
vector-based graphics. CorelDraw converts image to form vectored files which is generally used
by Web or graphics designers or UX designers whereas Photoshops are mostly used by graphic
designers and professional photographers alike.

There are number of stack-holders of photoshop such as photographers, web designers, graphic
designers, memes makers to edit their images or for creating high-quality images. It is basically
standard image manipulation software that provides sophisticated tools to complete the task.The
new edition of the program has also enhanced administrative capabilities, including automation
tools, to reduce the need for repetitive tasks. The updated version adds an object selection tool,
keyboard shortcuts, a properties panel, paints and brushes, and background image removal options
in addition to support for various cameras and lenses. The new version now includes quicker text
layer rearrangement and additional typographic capabilities. It also gives users, the chance to look
up recent changes to their preferred cloud-based Photoshop saving methods.

Further, the new version of CorelDRAW creates artwork using mathematical equation. It converts
the image to form vectored files for creating logos, business cards, barcodes, pamphlets, banner
etc. This is mostly used by web or graphics designers or UX designers. The main benefit of the
program is robust feature set, customizations and reliability. CorelDraw not only matches the
user’s workflow but also increases the productivity. It has also been noticed that the colour
accuracy and flexibility required for professional output can be had with the help of CorelDraw
graphic suit 2017. Designers can also make the memorable logos, eye catching marketing materials
and viral signs and social media graphics. These features inclues creating anything and everything,
apparel and Textiles, signage and large format printing, blueprints, maps, and schematics and tools
for productivity and creativity. There are variety of image creating tools available to help us to
quickly navigate the type of image we are willing to create. These tools are available from
premium to free, from desktop software to mobile apps. These are image design tools, infographic
makers, logo makers, quote makers, collage makers, cover page photo maker, profile picture
makers, screenshot tools, image resizing tools and GIF makers.

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Now we are aware that there are several image creating programs are available in the form of
CorelDraw and Photoshop, Canva, Lucidpress, pixlr, Inkscape format. These programs are
basically useful in image creation, graphic design and photo editing. The updated editions of the
programs also includes more non-destructive photo editing, filters, combined photo editing
features, new templates, new multipage tools and more multiple-format exports. Further, when we
check the use of these image creating tools in the libraries we find that the libraries are the
storehouse of knowledge. They preserve the collection such as brochures, newsletters, magazines,
newspapers and books. All these items are prepared with the help of Photoshop and CorelDraw.
Library is also a place where we can store the things that we do in the Photoshop. Now the
libraries are organising several information literacy programs, knowledge sharing sessions, Author
talk, training and workshopts etc. before organising these events, libraries are doing lot of
advertisements with the help of brouchers or banners. These items are being prepared by trained
professionals in CorelDrawor Photoshops which are being used in the libraries.

Above all, it has been seen that the programs such as ColelDraw and Photoshop both offers the
facility of image creating softwares and also fulfilling today’s requirment.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Which one is not the Image creating software ?
(i) Canva (iii) Gravit
(ii) Inkscape (iv) Window

2. The first version of CorelDraw program was released in the Year ?

(i) 1999 (iii) 1989
(ii) 1998 (iv) 1997

3. CorelDraw was developed by which Organization ?

(i) Adobe System (ii) Windows
(iii) CCF (iv) Corel Corporation

4. Who is the developer of Photoshop ?

(i) Corel Corporation (iii) Cornell University
(ii) Greenstone (iv) Adobe Systems

5. Corel graphics suite released for Mac OS and Windows on?

(i) 8th May 2022 (iii) 8th March 2022
(ii) 7th April 2022 (iv) 8th January 2022

1.8 GLOSSARY

Image Creating Softwares: Canva, Adobe Photoshop, lucidpress, Inkscape, Gravit

Designer, Adobe illustrator CC, Pixlr, krita, Vectr etc. but
CorelDraw and Photoshop are very popular among
stockholders
CorelDraw : CorelDraw was developed by Corel Corporation which is a
vector-based program that creates artwork using
mathematical equations
Photoshop : Photoshop was developed by Adobe Systems which is pixel-
based program uses vector-based graphics

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1.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Window 4. Adobe Systems

2. 1998 5. 8th March 2022
3. Corel Corporation

1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Discuss some image creating programs? Mention their features ?

2. Discuss the various features available in CorelDraw?
3. Discuss the various features available in Photoshop ?

1.11 REFERENCES

Lee, Dami. (2019). "Adobe's Photoshop for the iPad is finally here, with more features to
come". The Verge. Retrieved November 7, 2019.
Welch, Chris. ( 2021). "Photoshop now runs natively on Apple's M1 Macs". The Verge.
Retrieved June 17, 2022.
Don Dennis and Mark Paster, "The Windows 3.0 Environment," Library Hi Tech 9:2,
consecutive issue 34 (1991): 49-61.
Sprout Social: Retrieved from <https://sproutsocial.com/insights/free-image-creation-tools/>
Retrieved on 20th September 2022.

Coreldraw: Retrieved from https://www.coreldraw.com/en/ Retrieved on 20th September

2022.

**************LMS Feedback: [email protected]**************

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LESSON 1

INSTITUTIONAL REPOSITORIES: GREENSTONE

DIGITAL LIBRARY, DSPACE AND E-PRINTS
Dr.Vikas Singh
Shri Ram College of Commerce
University of Delhi
[email protected]
STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Need of Institutional Repositories
1.4 Purpose of Institutional Repositories
1.5 Advantages of Institutional Repositories
1.6 Types of Institutional Repositories
1.7 Institutional Repository Softwares
1.7.1 Open Source Softwares
1.7.2 Proprietary Software
1.8 Publishing Options
1.9 Hosting Services
1.10 Functional Requirements of Institutional Repository Softwares
1.11 Status of Institutional Repositories in India
1.12 Summary
1.13 Glossary
1.14 Answers to In-text Questions
1.15 Self-Assessment Questions
1.16 References
1.17 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

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• About Institutional Repositories

• Need and Purpose of Institutional Repositories
• Advantages of Institutional Repositories
• Types of Institutional Repositories
• Different publishing and Hosting services
• Status of Institutional Repositories in India

1.2 INTRODUCTION

The institutional repositories are the prevailing system that consents institutions to store and
preserve their digital documents and permit interaction and collaboration among patrons in
the organizations. It is a digital Archive of the institution through which the intellectual
output, publications by Institution members and necessary documents are preserved and are
made accessible for future use. Oxford English Dictionary defines the repository as the
‘Chamber’ in which things may be deposited. Similarly, Wikipedia defines it as a place
where data is mined or stored. The term Institutional Repository (IR) simply means
organized and managed. When we look at the academic Institutions point of view, it is the
intellectual output produced by faculty, students and staff in an institution. Institutional
Repositories (IR) are a means to manage and preserve effectively an institution’s knowledge
base and intellectual assets resulting in the content of institutional repositories expanding
beyond e-prints to include e-learning materials, which are generally not preserved elsewhere.
It needs to be ensured that content within the repositories should have authenticity, reliability
and easy accessibility.

According to Barton and Walker, “Institutional repositories designed to manage, host,

preserve and enable distribution of the scholarly output of an institution”. Further, Mark ware
defines it as web-based database of scholarly material meant for long-term preservation of
digital material.

Libraries are the great support in the transmission of cultural heritage from one generation to
another. They are performing lead role in shaping institutional repositories all over the world.
The concept of IR suggest maximum Library influence over the full cycle of scholarly
communication on campus, from research through publication, collection and preservation.
Institutional Repository can be considered as digital library. It functions as collecting,

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classifying, cataloguing, curating, preserving and providing access to digital content. It

allows researcher, faculty and curious minds to self-archive their research output for impact
of research, usage and wider visibility of research.

Seeing the changing demand of the users, libraries have to step out to provide effective
customer services in the fast changing world by using the tools and technologies, Institutional
Repositories are one of them in such initiatives. The below mentioned figure 1.1 shows the
growth of the directory of open access repositories from December 2005 to August 2022.

Fig. 1.1 Growth of Directory of Open Access Repositories

Source: https://v2.sherpa.ac.uk/view/repository_visualisations/1.html

1.3 NEED OF INSTITUTIONAL REPOSITORIES

Institutional Repositories are the need of the hour today may it be Research or
Academic Libraries. The building of an institutional repository for academic library is
needed because of the following changes and drawbacks.

(i) Uncertainty over handling the preservation archiving of digital scholarly research
materials.
(ii) Due to technological shift (changes)

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(iii) Significant increase in the overall volume of research.

(iv) Increasing demands to wider access knowledge objects from anytime and anywhere
access.

1.4 PURPOSE OF INSTITUTIONAL REPOSITORIES

The use and popularities of Institutional Repositories have grown gradually. It has
become the need of hour. The main purpose of creating repositories are to manage, preserve
and maintain the digital assets, intellectual outputs and histories of academic institutions. It
also helps in creating global visibility for an institution’s scholarly output. The best thing
about these repositories are that they provide one stop shop for Institutional resources and
also provide open access to the institution’s research output. It further, provides self-
archiving of institutional scholarly research outputs.

1.5 ADVANTAGES OF INSTITUTIONAL REPOSITORIES

The repositories are becoming very helpful in fulfilling the users timely demand for
archived resources. Institutional Repositories offers many advantages for Institutions. The
Velmurugan, C. in his research Paper “Institutional Repositories: a powerful tool for
accessing Information for Educationalists” in 2010 given some of the advantages. They have
been listed below:

(i) It is a faster and effective communication channel as it reduces the publication delay
(ii) It increases the citation to the publications
(iii) It strengthen research especially in the Indian Context
(iv) It provide wider access and visibility to the research output
(v) This is a new and innovative channel of Scholarly Communication
(vi) It preserves the institution’s heritage
(vii) It is a boon for In-house literature visibility

1.6 TYPES OF INSTITUTIONAL REPOSITORIES

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TYPES OThere are variety of Institutional Repositories such as Subject related

repositories, research repositories, National repositories and repositories connected to
Institutions. These Institutional repositories offers opportunities for the faculty members,
research scholars and inquisitive minds. They have been discussed below:

(i) Subject Related Repository

These repositories focuses on particular segment, usually set up by community
members further adopted by wider community. Spontaneous self-archiving is prevalent
as the repository is of intrinsic value to scholars. Subject based repositories are
thematically well-defined and alert services whose usage statistics are meaningful for
community users.

(ii) Research Repositories

Research repositories are majority of time sponsored/set up by research funding’s. The
main focus of these repositories remains the high quality output. This is because its
content is peer reviewed multiple times and the production of the results is well funded.
They are different from the subject repositories but its content are tested and can be
used for research purposes.

(iii) National repository System

These require coordination more for a federated system and less for unified system.
They serve scholarly communication in the national language and supports public
policy e.g. in generation of open education resources for higher education and
entrancing public access to knowledge.

(iv) Institutional Repository

These types of repositories are based on Institutional Output. Whatsoever, it is
important for the institutions and can be archived in theses repositories. Generally,
these kinds of repositories are available with libraries. These repositories plays a vital
role in regional development. It allows firms, public bodies and civil society
organizations to understand immediately what kind of expertise is available locally.

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F
INSTITUTIONA
1.7 INSTITUTIONAL REPOSITORY SOFTWARE (IRS)

The shrinking budget and physical spaces in libraries are compelling them to go for
an alternatives. Institutional repositories are one of them in fulfilling the information
requirements of the users. These Institutional repositories have not only reduced the
problems of space but also they are providing scholarly content in no cost. Now the libraries
are using digital library software or institutional repository softwares to conserve and
preserve their institution intellectual output in the form of research papers, faculty
contribution etc. These IRs are available in the form of Proprietary and Open Source.
Proprietary softwares are non-free softwares having the vendor lock-in and do not share the
Source Code, these softwarescan not be customized as per our requirement without vendor
support whereas, under open source license so many digital library softwares are available
especially CDS-Invenio, DoKS, DSpace, Eprints, FEDORA, Greenstone, MyCoRe, etc. Each
of these software has its own advantages and disadvantages. DSpace and EPrints are the most
popular software having (39%) and (11%) installations across world for building digital
repositories as per the statistics from Registry of Open Access Repositories
(ROAR)/Directory of Open Access Repositories (DOAR). Good thing about Digital Library/
Institutional repository software is that they support unique identification number for every
digital document. It also supports authorization and authentication policies.

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DSPACE

VITAL E-print

INSTITUTIONAL
REPOSITYR
SOFTWARE

GREENSTONE FEDORA

DIGI TOOL

Fig 1.2: Reputed Institutional repository software

1.7.1 Open Source Software (OSS)

OSS is a free, Flexible, expandable and downloadablesoftwares. Software which usually

requires some level of expertise to implement and maintain. The source codes for open
source software are controlled and managed by a central body, it is purely open for any
changes and modifications. DSpace, EPrints, Fedora, Greenstone are some of the widely
known OSS, which have been discussed below

(i) DSpace

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It offers one of the best solutions for the institution to archive their intellectual outputs. It
preserves and easily manages all types of digital contents including text, images, videos,
audios and data sets etc. The software has (39%) installations across the Globe. It is free and
easy to install "out of the box" and completely customizable to fit the needs of any
organization. DSpace preserves and enables easy and open access to all types of digital
content including text, images, moving images, mpegs and data sets. With an ever-growing
community of developers, committed to continuously expanding and improving the software,
each DSpace installation benefits from the next. It provides tools for management of digital
assets, and is commonly used for building institutional repositories. It was basically designed
to manage, host, preserve and enable distribution of the scholarly output of MIT’s faculty. In
India, many institutions have taken steps to use DSpace for building digital
repositories/institutional repositories. DSpace has more number of features over EPrints
hence is heavily used across world. Prominent features of DSpace is, it supports unique
identification number for every digital document that is added into DSpace repository. It also
provides digital preservation support, has excellent work-flow management, has access
control privacy and management, support authentication and authorization policies at all
levels. The software is frequently updated and customized due to the source code could be
edited, modified, changed according to the need and requirement the latest version of the
software. The latest edition of DSpace is 5.0 which can be downloaded from the files area in
SourceForge. The DSpace community uses JIRA, a feature and issue tracking web
application, to track, prioritize and guide its work. In addition to the DSpace platform work,
JIRA also allows the community to watch specific issues, receive updates when there are
changes, and vote on an issue's importance. The current version can easily adopt the previous
versions of Dspace. Now the file downloads tracked in Google Analytics and Enhancements
to DOI support. It further provides the metadata too.

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Fig 1.3: Screenshot of Dspae Repository

Source: https://www.fiverr.com/

(ii) EPrints

The basic purpose of designing Eprint by University of Southampton was to manage open
Access Archives. It facilitates the repository platform for high visibility, high quality
institutional open access collection. It gives links to SHERPA/ROMEO database and
repositories polices. The first version of EPrints was released, it became the first and one of
the most widely used free open access, institutional repository software for archiving
preprints and post-prints of faculty members. It has become popular software around the
globe as the process of installation is very easy. Eprintfulfills the needs of academics and
researchers aimed at dissemination and reporting. EPrints version 3 was officially released on
24th January 2007 and was described by its developers as a major leap forward in
functionality, giving more control and flexibility to repository managers, depositors,
researchers and technical administrators. EPrints addresses high metadata quality support by
making data entry easier and range of import facility to import objects from other services or
data sources 3.0.3 version was released on 5th December 2007. Current version of EPrints is
3.0.5 which was released during April 2008.It has a feature of fetching/Import of data from

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different repositories. It supports the web 2.0, RSS, Email Alert like features. It can also
integrate the reports, Author CVs and Bibliographic listings. Further, it is tightly-managed,
quality-controlled code framework and flexible plugin architecture for developing
extensions. The figure 1.4 provides the screenshot of Eprint repository software.

Fig 1.4: Screenshot of Eprint Repository software

Source: https://subratiitk.wordpress.com/install-eprints-on-ubuntu/

(iii) FEDORA

Development of the Fedora operating system started in 1997 at Cornell University as a DAR
PA and NSF funded research project. Fedora was created as collabrativly by Cornell
University and the University of Virginia with financing from an Andrew W. Mellon Founda
tion grant. The programme is adaptable enough
to support a wide range of digital documents with various functionalities, including digital as
set management, institutional repositories, digital archives, content management systems, aca
demic publishing companies, digital libraries, etc.Fedora digital object repository
management system is based on the Flexible Extensible Digital Object and Repository
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Architecture (Fedora). It is an open source digital content repository service, which provides
a flexible tool for managing and delivering complex digital objects. Fedora provides
interfaces for creation, ingest, management, and dissemination of contents stored within a
repository.

Fedora 1.0 was released in May 2003, with future releases following approximately every
quarter with added functionality and corrected bugs discovered by users and the Fedora
development team. In June 2004. It enables the storage, access and management of all kinds
of digital content and offer information and services for communities such as scholars,
artists, educators, Web innovators, publishers, scientists, librarians, archivists, publishers,
records managers, museum curators or anyone who presents, accesses, or preserves digital
content, and software developers who work on open source Web and enterprise content
technologies. The system is designed in such a way that full featured institutional repositories
and other interoperable web based digital libraries can be built. Figure 1.5 presents the
screenshot of Fedora Institutional Repository software

Fig 1.5: Screenshot of Fedora IR Software

Source:https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/

It has web-based Administrator in the form of low level object editing and can easily store,
manage and maintained all types of content and its metadata.

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(iv) GREENSTONE

Greenstone is software for building and distributing digital library collections. It provides a
new way of organizing information and publishing it on the Internet or on CD-ROM.
Greenstone is produced by the New Zealand Digital Library Project at the University of
Waikato, and developed and distributed in cooperation with UNESCO and the Human Info
NGO in Belgium. It is open-source, multilingual software, issued under the terms of the
GNU General Public License. The aim of the Greenstone software is to empower users,
particularly in universities, libraries, and other public service institutions, to build their own
digital libraries. A project on Source Forge was created in October 2005 for version 3 of
Greenstone. In 2010, Greenstone version 2.83 was included, along with the Koha Integrated
Library System, in an Ubuntu Live-CD.

Digital libraries are radically reforming how information is disseminated and acquired in
UNESCO's partner communities and institutions in the fields of education, science and
culture around the world, and particularly in developing countries. We hope that this
software will encourage the effective deployment of digital libraries to share information and
place it in the public domain. The complete Greenstone interface, and all documentation, is
available in English, French, Spanish, Russian and Kazakh. Greenstone may be used to
create large, searchable collections of digital documents. In addition to command line tools
for digital collection building, Greenstone has a graphical Greenstone Librarians Interface
(GLI) used to build collections and assign metadata. Through user selected plugins,
Greenstone can import digital documents in formats including text, html, jpg, tiff, MP3, PDF,
video, and Word, among others. The text, PDF, HTML and similar documents are converted
into Greenstone Archive Format (GAF) which is an XML equivalent format.

The interface can be presented in multiple languages. Currently, the interface is available in
Arabic, Chinese, Dutch, English, French, German, Maori, Portuguese, and Spanish.
Collections can contain text, pictures, audio, and video also uses advanced compression
techniques. Collections can be updated and new ones brought on-line at any time, without
bringing the system down. Collections can be distributed amongst different computers.
Figure 1.6 presents the screenshot of Greenstone Institutional Repository softwares

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Fig 1.6: Screenshot of Greenstone IR Software

Source: https://www.linuxlinks.com/greenstone/

1.7.2 Commercial / Proprietary Software

Commercial and Proprietary softwares are based on vendor lock-in. they generally requires
payments for consultation, subscription and software upgradation. In case, we want to make
certain changes on any part of the software, we have to contact the vendor for it as the source
code is available with software providing vendor. Some of the known
Commercial/Proprietary software have been discussed below:

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(i) CONTENT DM

The software is user friendly which build, showcase and preserve the Institutional collection.
Now, it has been upgraded and can be used at the miniature devices such as Smart phones
and tables. The software can be integrated with WorldCat which is helpful in maximizing the
visibility of the resources archived in the repository. It also secure and monitor our digital
assets archived in cloud based preservation system archive for safety purposes
(http://www.contentdm.com/).

(ii) DIGI TOOL

It is a digital asset management system that allows libraries/institutions to create, manage,

and preserve online accessible repository material. It has six modules i.e. Resource
Discovery, management, Approver, Collection management, deposit and Web-ingest. It
support both Google like search and Advance search. It is a powerful, complex, and
relatively mature and out of box Institutional Repository platform. This is also called a
enterprise solution developed for the management of digital contents in academic
environments (http://www.exlibris group.com/category/Digitooloverview/).

(iii) VITAL

It was developed by VTLS based fedora architecture which is based on the open source
platform in the Year 2004. The main objective of this software is to manage digital assets.
The second version of the same software came in to existence in 2005 by Australian
Research Repositories. Later, seeing the popularity and its feature it was acquired by
Innovative Interfaces in 2014. Some of the well-known feature includes metadata conversion,
digtisation of content and customization of web-interfaces etc.
(http://www.vtis.com/products/vital).

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(iv) SIRSIDYNIX PORTFOLIO

The popularity of this software can be considered with its 23000 installations across the
Globe. It is scalable, robust and offers the complete solution for archival material along with
Optical Character Recognition technology and open archiving capabilities. It also give
support in the form of training consulting and support staff in the industry. It is a digital
asset management software introduced by sirsiDynix(http://www.sirsidynix.com).

(v) ARCHIVALWARE

Archivalware facilitates the single system to catalogue, search, store, discover and display. It
has the capabilities to search multiple repositories at national and International level. It also
has the capability to support more than 200 data formats. Further, it also facilitates user
defined automated search notifications. It provides solution for organising contents. This
combined with the OAI-PMH protocols and Dublin coremetadata scheme enables the
harvesting of the contents openly (http://www.ptfs.com/).

Figure 1.3 Most Popular repositories at globe level

RIES
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INST

1.8 PUBLISHING OPTIONS

It entails maintaining online material and ensuring global accessibility of the content.
Full-text content should be able to be published on the platform. It should also have a system
for making the contents available around-the-clock and for keeping them safe for a long time,
preferably in an open format. Additionally, the platform ought to offer downloadable content
and procedures for cutting-edge offline or online workflows including submission
management, editing workflow, peer review, etc. When beginning to publish content online,
there are a variety of hosting options to take into account, according to OASIS. Following are
the most common hosting options:

(i) Self-Hosting
Among the several hosting options available, self-hosting is popular one. It refers to
downloading, installing and managing any software on one’s own web server. The
control and modifications of the software remains within the control of the owner.

(ii) Institutional Hosting

Institutional Hosting is also considered as one of the popular publishing option. The
repository’s managers need not to rely upon the third party. The house data centre can
take the responsibility of the maintenance, regular back up and preservation practices
of the Institutional repository software.

(iii) Commercial Hosting

These services completely monitor the entire system of institutional repository. The IR
managers should have full control over the workflow of the software e.g. review,
editing, publishing and sharing the contents. Usually, open source IR software offers
registered service providers on their own to its users.’

TORY SOFTWARE (IR

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1.9 HOSTING SERVICES

Hosting services are the important aspect in maintaining the Institutional

Repositories. The well-known services includes: digital common, Eprint services, Dspace
hosting and Dspace direct. They have been discussed one by one.

(i) Digital Common

It is a hosted commercial, institutional repository software that enables institutes to
collect, preserve and showcase their scholarly articles. It also offers setup, training,
support, documentation, upgrades and hosting to the subscriber (http://digital
commons/ Bepress.com/).

(ii) EPrints Services

It provides host services based on Eprint software and extends its support and
consultancy for sites that have their own Eprints repositories. They also provide
support in integration of the IR with the external environment
(www.eprints.org/services/).

(iii) DSpace Hosting

Dspace hosting also offers the hosting services similar to Digital commons. It
includes many registered hosting service providers from all over the world
(www.dspace.org/service providers).

(iv) DSpace Direct

It is a hosted repository solution for managing, accessing, archiving and preserving in
low cost institutions. D-space direct permits users to easily manage any type of
content and made them searchable over internet (http://dspacedirect.org/).

CESS)

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1.10 FUNCTIONAL REQUIRMENTS FOR INSTITUTIONAL

REPOSITORIES

An Institutional Repository can provide effective customer services in case it has been
using standard hardware, standard software and fulfilling the users/staff requirements. These
are some the main tools used to develop an institutional Repository.

(i) Hardware
Hardware is a physical entity. While selecting a software, to give attention to the hardware of
computer system is also necessary. They can be a simple desktop computer workstation or a
file server.

(ii) Software

There are many open source software packages available for running an institutional
repository (i.e. D-Space, E-Prints, Fedora, Greenstone, Archimedeetc). Some commercial
softwares are Berkeley Electronic Press and Simple DL.

(iii) Staff Requirement

Under the functional requirement, the role of staff is very important. The developments in
ICTs has smartened the library professionals in taking leadership roles in planning and
building institutional repositories, as well as fulfilling their role as experts in collecting ,
describing, preserving and providing. However, staff’s requirements vary according to the
institution’s ambitions for repository.

Some of the main jobs involved in an institutional repository are formulating content
policies, advocacy of software and hardware using, user training and a liaison with a wide
range of institutional departments and external contacts, technical implementation,
customisation and management of repository software, manage metadata fields and quality
and creates usage reports while tracking the preservation issues.

TIONAL REQUIRMENTS FOR INSTITUTIONAL REPOSITORY

MENTS FOR INSTITUTIONAL REPOSITORY

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1.11 STATUS OF INSTITUTIONAL REPOSITORIES IN INDIA

The popularity of Institutional Repositories are increasing day by day due to

escalating prices of Information Resources and space crunch. Among the several Institutional
Repositories such as Dspace, Eprint, Fedora, Greenstone, Content dm, Digi Tool, VITAL,
DXLS, Archivalware, CDS-Invenio etc. United States (US) stands first in the number of
Institutional repositories whereas India falls at the 16th rank. If we see popularity wise, we
find Dspace have the maximum number of Installations with (39%) followed by Eprint with
(11%). When we check the same content wise, we find journals Articles are given most
priority followed by Theses and Dissertation followed Books, Chapters, Conferences and
Workshops for archiving in the repositories.

Institutional Repositories plays a vital role in facilitating better preservation, scholarly

output, dissemination of scholarly communication, scholarly communication activities and in
reducing the journal monopoly. It acts as a single interface and access point of an
institution’s intellectual capital. Now days, IR has grown up as a trend for the libraries to
organize the scholarly contents and speed up research progress. It’s role is also important, as
it gives major opportunities to the scholars to share not only peer reviewed articles but also
several unpublished raw data which can be called as grey literature, easily lost knowledge,
which are most difficult to find and preserve over a long period. Thus, the role of institutional
repository is significant as it allows perpetual access to the cumulative collections of the
scholarly work.

The popularity and need for Institutional Repositories have increased over the years. India
has reached at the 16th Rank as per the data held in the Directory of Open access
Repositories. Surprisingly, it has left behind some of the developed countries of the world in
context of data held in the repositories. In India, some institutions have established open
access institutional repositories that disseminate research outputs of respective institutions.
Sometimes these are self-archived. Another band of digital repositories also exist in India
that stores and provides access to subject specific collection of documents. These repositories
accept scholarly publications from any professional or researcher who belong to the
respective subject. Librarian’s Digital Library (LDL) of Documentation Research and

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Training Centre, Bangalore is an example of subject specific repository for the library and
information professionals. The figure 1.4 shows the availability of data in OpenDOAR.

Fig 1.4: Availability of Data in World Repositories (Open Doar)

Source: https://v2.sherpa.ac.uk/view/repository_visualisations/1.html

Registry of Open Access Repository (ROAR)

It is an open access repository registry. By disseminating timely information regarding the

expansion and condition of repositories around the Globe, ROAR seeks to advance the
growth of open access. It offers details and data on repositories, such as how many records
there are, how many are freely available in full text, software, etc. A member of the
Eprints.org network is ROAR. As it gives users of the ROAR service a picture of repository
use around the world and growth data of the same, ROAR encourages registering all IRs into
it. From ROAR, a list of 80 IRs was obtained.

Directory of Open Access Repositories (DOAR)

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DOAR is a reliable listing of academic open access repositories. It includes details about
repositories, various forms of content, applications, etc. The worldwide IR details are
compiled and recorded therein. A list of Indian IRs are made by compiling the Uniform
Resource Locator (URL) and the pertinent information. A total of 64 IRs were obtained in
this way. The list includes more than 1200 OA repositories.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Which one is Open Source Institutional Repository Software ?
(i) Greenstone (iii) MARC
(ii) CCF (iv) Digi Tool

2. Which one is not the Open Source Institutional Repository Software?

(i) Digi Tool (iii) Eprint
(ii) Greenstone (iv) Dspace

3. When was FEDORA Institutional Repository software Started?

(i) 1999 (iii) 1996
(ii) 1998 (iv) 1997

4. Which University Developed the Eprint IR Software ?

(i) University of California (iii) Cornell University
(ii) University of Southampton (iv) University of Delhi

5. EPrints version 3 was officially released on ?

(i) 22th January 2007 (iii) 24th January 2007
(ii) 21th January 2007 (iv) 16th January 2007

Answers: 1(i),2(i),3(iv),4(ii),5(iii)

1.12 SUMMARY

Institutional Repositories are the digital store-house of knowledge. It is considered

that the content within the repositories should have authenticity, reliability and easy
accessibility. Seeing the changing demand of the users, libraries have to step out to provide
effective customer services in the fast changing world by using the tools and technologies
Institutional Repositories are one of them in such initiatives. The mentioned figure 1.1 shows

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the growth of the directory of open access repositories from December 2005 to August 2022.
The chapter discusses in details the need, purpose, advantages and types of Institutional
Repositories. These repository softwares are available as open source and proprietary. The
well know open source repository softwares are Dspace, Eprint, Fedora and Greenstone
whereas the proprietary sofwares are Content dm, VITAL, Digi Tool and Archivalware. It
has different publishing options such as self-hostings, Institutional hostings and commercial
hostings. Further, the hosting services includes digital commons, Eprint services,
Dspacehostings, Dspace direct. United States (US) stands first in the Institutional repository
whereas India falls at the 16th Rank. If we see popularity wise, we find Dspace have the
maximum number of Installations with (39%) followed by Eprint with (11%). When we
check the same content wise, we find Journals Articles are given most priority followed by
Theses and Dissertation followed Books, Chapters, Conferences and Workshops for
archiving in the repositories.

1.13 GLOSSARY

IR: Institutional Repositories (IR) are a means to manage and preserve effectively an
institution’s knowledge base and intellectual assets resulting in the content of
institutional repositories expanding beyond e-prints to include e-learning materials.

IRS: These Institutional repositories have not only reduced the problems of space but also
they are providing scholarly content in no cost. Now the libraries are using digital
library software or institutional repository softwares to conserve and preserve their
institution intellectual output in the form of research papers, Faculty contribution etc.

OSIRS Open Source Institutional Repository Softwares are free, Flexible, expandable and
downloadable softwares meant for Archives. The source codes for open source
software are controlled and managed by a central body. Examples of such softwares
are DSpace, EPrints, Fedora, Greenstone.

1.14 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Greenstone 4. University of Southampton

2. Digi Tool 5. 21th January 2007
3. 1997
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1.15 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Describe Institutional Repository? Discuss open source Institutional Repository

Softwares ?
2. Define Institutional Repository? Mention the need, purpose, types of Institutional
Repositories?
3. Discuss the functional requirements and Publishing options available for Institutional
Repositories?
4. Describe the status of Institutional Repositories in India ?
5. Discuss the need and purpose of Institutional Repositories ?
6. What are the different Open Source Institutional Repository softwares available and
also discuss such Any One ?
7. What are the advantages of using Institutional Repository Softwares ?
8. What are the different Commercial Institutional Repository softwares available and
also discuss such Any One ?

1.16 REFERENCES

Velmurugan.C (2010), Institutional Repositories: a powerful tool for accessing information

for Educationalists, Proceedings of the National Conference on Next Generation
Digital Libraries and web technologies: challenges and opportunities held on 19-21st
August, 2010 at Sri Krishna College of Engineering & Technology, Coimbatore, pp
6.92- 6.97.

Velmurugan, C. (2014). Institutional Repositories Software for Digital Libraries in the

Digital Environment.

Bankier, Jean-Gabriel and Gleason, Kenneth, "Institutional Repository Software

Comparison" (2014). Copyright, Fair Use, Scholarly Communication, etc..136.
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/scholcom/136.

OpenDOAR.(2008). Usage of open access repository software-worldwide. Retrieved on

October 30, 2008, from http://www.opendoar.org/onechart.php

SIRSIDYNIX PORTFOLIO Retrieved from: <http://www.sirsidynix.com> Retrieved on 30

August 2022.

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Greenstone IR Software Retrieved from: < https://www.linuxlinks.com/greenstone/>

Retrieved on 30 August 2022.

ARCHIVALWARE: Retrieved from: <http://www.ptfs.com> Retrieved on 23 August 2022.

Eprints Retrieved from: <http://sofware.eprints.org/> Retrieved on 29 August 2022.

DSpace Retrieved from: <http://www.dspace.org> Retrieved on 27 August 2022.

Fedora Retrieved from: <http://www.fedora.info> Retrieved on 25 August 2022.

Greenstone Retrieved from: < www.greenstone.org > Retrieved on 30 August 2022.

DSpaceDirect Retrieved from: <http://dspacedirect.org/> Retrieved on 27 August 2022.

EPrints Services Retrieved from: <www.eprints.org/services/> Retrieved on 20 August 2022.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Giri, R. &Sengar, D.S. Use of open source software in the learning resource center of Indira
Gandhi Institute of Technology: A case study. Annals Library and Information
Studies, 2011, 58, 41-48.

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 UNIT – IV: Introduction of Networks

LESSON 1

Types of Networks

Vikas Bhushan
Information Officer
WB National University of Juridical Sciences (WBNUJS)
Kolkata
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Network and its Components
1.3.1 Message
1.3.2 Sender
1.3.3 Receiver
1.3.4 Transmission Medium
1.3.5 Protocol
1.4 Data Representation
1.4.1 Text
1.4.2 Numbers
1.4.3 Images
1.4.4 Audio
1.4.5 Video
1.5 Data Flow
1.5.1 Simplex
1.5.2 Half Duplex
1.5.3 Full Duplex
1.6 Network Topology
1.6.1 Mesh
1.6.2 Star
1.6.3 Bus
1.6.4 Ring
1.6.5 Hybrid
1.7 Categories of Network
1.7.1 Local Area Network
1.7.2 Wide Area Network
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 UNIT – IV: Introduction of Networks

1.8 Inter-Network
1.9 Summary
1.10 Glossary
1.11 Answers to In-text Questions
1.12 Self-Assessment Questions
1.13 References
1.14 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• To introduce the concept of Networks

• To learn Types of Networks and its Components
• To identify Network Categories and its Topology
• To know the concepts of LAN Standards and InterNetwork

1.2 INTRODUCTION

We exchange information when we talk to one another. Local or remote sharing are
both possible. Local communication takes place face-to-face between people, whereas
remote communication happens across space. The word "telecommunication" refers to long-
distance communication, which encompasses telephone, telegraphy, and television (tele is
Greek for "far").
Information delivered in any format that is accepted by the people that are creating
and consuming the data is referred to as data.

Communication of data is the movement of data among the two instruments using
either a wired medium or any other technology for example wirless medium.
The instruments which are communicating with each other are able to do this with the
combination of hardware and software programs. There are four factors which decides the
quality of communication of data among instruments. These are as follows:

• Delivery: Data delivery to the proper location must be ensured by the system. The
designated device or user must get the data, and only that device or user.
• Accuracy: The data must be accurately sent by the system. Data that has been
tampered with during transmission and is not restored is useless.
• Timeliness: Data must be delivered by the system promptly. Late data delivery is
meaningless. When it comes to video and audio, timely delivery entails sending the
data as soon as it is created, in the same order, and without any noticeable delays.
Real-time transmission is the term for this type of distribution.
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• Jitter: Jitter means the changes in the time of receiving packets. Its a discreate gap in
receiving of multimedia packets. For example, it will result in irregular video, if
multimedia packets are sent at each 10D milliseconds and if among these some
arrives at 10D milliseconds and some arrives at 11D milliseconds

Networks are the means to send and receive data and information from one place to
another or from one device to other.

1.3 NETWORK AND ITS COMPONENTS

A group of objects (commonly referred to as nodes) connected by communication

links is referred to as a network. A computer, printer, or any other device that can send and/or
receive data produced by other nodes on the network qualifies as a node. The majority of
networks employ distributed processing, which divides a task across several computers.
Separate computers, typically a personal computer or workstation, manage a portion of a
process rather than a single massive system handling all of it. There are 5 components in a
network:

Figure 1: Five components of Data Communication in a Network

ACTIVITY
Try to identify network componets you are using to send and receive messages
from your friends.

1.3.1 Message:
Message is any information or data in the form of any multimedia.

1.3.2 Sender:
Sender is the instrument which sends the multimedia message.

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1.3.3 Receiver:
Receiver is the instrument in the data communication system which receives the
multimedia messages.

1.3.4 Transmission Medium:

Transmission medium is the way by which messages are sent from sender to receiver.
It can be a physical medium or a wireless one.

1.3.5 Protocol:
Exchange of multimedia information among the sender & receiver is taken care by a
set of rules known as a protocol. Two instruments may be connected but may be not capable
of communication with each other in absence of a protocol, just like a Library staff knowing
only Hindi cannot understand a Library user speaking only Bengali.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. List the key qualities that determine how well a data communications system
performs.
2. Describe the term "jitter".
3. Identify which of the following is not a components in a network:
a) Protocol b) Sender
c) Receiver d) Books
4. Sender sends the message to ____________________.
5. __________ is set of rules.

1.4 DATA REPRESENTATION

Today, information is available in a variety of multimedia formats. Some of them are

described as below:

1.4.1 Text
In transmission of data text is bits in a series or a pattern of bits (Zeros or Ones).
Several pattern of bit sets are in place to portray symbols in text. Technique of representing
symbols is know as coding and several such sets are called codes. For example in Unicode 32
bits represent character or symbol of any language on the earth. Among this, initial 127
characters are known as Core Latin comprised of ASCII invented in USA.

1.4.2 Numbers

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Numbers are also expressed using patterns of Bits. To perform arithmatic calculations
easier, instead of expressing in ASCII code these are converted to binary.

1.4.3 Images
Images are also visualised using patterns of Bits. Each tiny dot in a image is created
using pixels and full image is a web of these pixels in a matrix form. Size of pixels affects the
resolution of an image. More the pixels, better will be the resolution of the image created.
In a picture each pixels are seperated singly and provided a pattern of bit. Using a I-
bit pattern, an image or a checkerboard can be represented using white and black dots.

To represent a grey scale in a image if its neither full black or full white pixels by
expanding the pattern of bits. For example patterns of 2 Bits can be used to create 4 levels of
grayscales. 00 can display black pixel, 11 for white and 01, 10 for light grey pixels.

RGB (Red, Green and Blue) technology is used to represent color images by several
permutation and combination of these 3 primary colors.Further 3 more colors yellow, cyan
and magenta is mixed to create additional colors. This technique is known as YCM.

1.4.4 Audio
Audio is different from the previously discussed data patterns. Any sound or music is
known as audio. It is a series of patterns not a discreate one.

1.4.5 Video
Video is a movie or a picture with illusion of motion by combining several discreate pictures.
A video can be changed to a analogue or digital signal.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

6. Text is expressed as a bit pattern. True / False

7. The first 127 characters of Unicode, generally known as _______________.
8. An image is made up of a matrix of pixels, or "picture elements," where each
pixel is a
a) bits b) unicode
c) tiny dots d) signal
9. In RGB, R stands for ____________________ .
10. A picture or movie that has been recorded or aired is referred to as _______.

1.5 DATA FLOW

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Communication of Data among two entities can be of three types, such as simplex,
half-duplex, or full-duplex.

1.5.1 Simplex
In Simplex mode of communication the data flows in a single direction similar to
the one traffic on a road. The 2 instruments in a Simplex communication either can send or
receive data. Example of this communication can be keyboards or a normal display.

Fig 1.5.1: Simplex mode

1.5.2 Half Duplex
Each station can send and receive in half-duplex mode, but not simultaneously. Both
devices can only receive when one is broadcasting, and vice versa. The half-duplex form is
comparable to a one-lane route with two-way traffic. Vehicles heading the other way must
pause while those driving in one way are moving. In a half-duplex transmission, whichever
of the two devices is sending at the moment consumes the entire bandwidth of a channel.
Half-duplex systems are what walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios use.

When communication cannot take place in both ways at once and the channel's full capacity
can be utilised in either direction, half-duplex mode is used.

Fig 1.5.2: Half-duplex mode

1.5.3 Full Duplex
Full-duplex mode, often known as duplex, allows both stations to send and receive
at the same time. Similar to Full duplex mode is like a road with traffic flow in both
directions. There are two feasible ways for this sharing to happen: either the connection
requires two seperate physical medium, first for sending and the other for receiving or the
signals moving in physical medium in both directions. The telephone network is a typical
illustration of full-duplex communication. Both parties can speak and listen to each other
while using a telephone line to communicate. When constant communication in both
directions is needed, the full-duplex mode is employed. But the channel's capacity needs to
be split between the two directions.

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Fig 1.5.3: Full duplex mode

1.6 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

The physical and logical configuration of a network's nodes and links is known as its
topology. Devices like switches, routers, and software with switch and router functionality
are typically included in nodes. A graph is a common way to represent network topologies. A
link connects two or more devices, and a topology is formed by two or more links. The
geometric depiction of a network's topology shows how all of the links and connecting
elements (often referred to as nodes) relate to one another. Some of the possible topologies
are: Bus, Ring, Mesh, Star and Hybrid.

1.6.1 Mesh Topology

Each instruments in a mesh topology are connected to other instruments dedicately.

Dedicated, link means it send and receives the data among themselves exclusively using
links.

Fig 1.6.1: Mesh Topology

Compared to other network topologies, a mesh has a number of benefits. Firstly, commited
connections make sure it can withstand its own load of data, thus avoiding any possible
congestion in traffic which may happen if connections are used by other instruments.
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A mesh topology is also reliable. The system is not rendered unusable if just one link breaks.
The benefit of security or privacy comes in third. The only person who sees a message when
it is sent through a dedicated line is the intended receiver. Physical restrictions keep other
users from accessing messages.

Finally, fault isolation and fault identification are made simple by point-to-point
connectivity. Traffic can be rerouted to avoid links that might have issues. This feature
allows the network controller to locate the fault precisely and assists in determining its source
and fix.

The main drawbacks of a mesh are linked to the number of required cabling and I/O ports.
Designing, installing and trouble-shooting is a difficult task in a mesh toplogy because each
nodes need to be linked to other nodes in a network. Secondly, the volume of wire is also a
challenging to manage in available physical space. Lastly, it will be a expensive affair to
connect each devices in the network.

A mesh topology, due to these reasons are deployed in finite scenarios like mainstay linking
the core devices of a hybrid network which can withstand several topologies.

The interconnection of telephone regional offices, where each regional office must be linked
to every other field office, is a real-world example of a mesh topology.

1.6.2 Star Topology

In a Star topology, each instrument is connected to the hub, which is a central

controller in the network topology for star. There is no direct connection between the
devices. A star topology does not provide direct traffic between devices, in contrast to a mesh
topology. For communicating an information to another node on a star topology, first a node
has to send the information to the central controller then after receiving, it transmits the
information to desired node in a star topology.

Fig 1.6.2: Star Topology

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The tariff for implemeting the Star topology is less than mesh topology. Each node in this
topology needs single connection and single input-output port to link to several other nodes.
It is also simple to install and adjust due to this aspect. The hub and that device only need to
be connected for additions, moves, and deletions, thus much less wiring needs to be housed.

Robustness is one of the benefits. Only one link is impacted if it fails. The other links are still
live. This element also makes fault isolation and fault identification simple.

The hub can be used to track link issues and avoid broken links as long as it is operational.

The vulnerability of this topology is its dependance on the central point hub, if the hub is
falied then full system will stop functioning.

This topology rquires much less cables as compared to the mesh topology, only it needs to be
connected to central hub. Because of this, a star topology frequently requires more cabling
than some other designs (such as ring or bus).

Local-area networks (LANs) use the star topology. High-speed LANs frequently use a star
architecture with a central hub.

1.6.3 Bus Topology

The topology of a bus is multipoint. The backbone of a network is made up of a

single, lengthy connection that connects every device.

Drop lines and taps are used to connect nodes to the bus cable. A connection between the
gadget and the main cable is known as a drop line. A tap is a connector that makes a
connection with the metallic core of a cable by either splicing into the main cable or cutting
through the cable's wrapping.

Fig 1.6.3: Bus Topology

Some of the energy of a signal is converted into heat as it moves along the backbone. As a
result, as it moves farther and farther, it gets weaker and weaker. Because of this, there are
restrictions on the quantity of taps and the spacing between them that a bus can sustain. A
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bus topology has the benefit of being simple to implement. The most effective route for
laying backbone cable can be chosen, and drop lines of various lengths can be used to
connect it to the nodes. This topology rquires much fewer wires as compared to the star or
mesh topology in this way. For example, five network devices in the same premises in a star
topology needs five sets of cable to connect them to the central node. This redundancy is
removed in a bus. Only the backbone wire traverses the entire construction. Each drop line
simply needs to extend as far as the spine's closest point.

The inability to quickly reconnect and the isolation of faults are drawbacks. Typically, a bus
is built to be installed as efficiently as possible. Therefore, adding more devices may be
challenging. Quality reduction may result from signal reflection at the taps. Degradation can
be reduced by controlling the proximity and reducing the volume of instruments linked to a
provided extent of a wire. The backbone might consequently need to be changed or replaced
in order to accommodate additional devices. Additionally, even communication between
equipment on the same side of the issue is halted by a failure or break in the bus cable. Noise
is produced in both directions as a result of the damaged area reflecting signals back to the
start of origin.

Bus topologies are the first among the making of LANs. Bus topologies can be used in
Ethernet LANs, but they are less common today.

1.6.4 Ring Topology

In a ring topology, every instrument has seperate dedicated connectivity with other
two instruments on left and right directions. From one device to the next, along the ring, a
signal is transmitted in a single direction until it reaches its target. Each component of the
ring contains a repeater. A device's repeater regenerates the bits and sends them on when it
receives a signal meant for another device.

Fig 1.6.4: Ring Topology

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Installing and rearranging a ring is not that difficult. Only the devices that are right next to
one other are connected (either physically or logically). Adding or removing a device simply
requires two connections to be changed. Fault rectification is easier but it has disadvantage in
extent of the cable and volume of instruments that can be connected in a ring.

The network data flow in single direction is a bottleneck and a damage in the ring may lead
to full breakdown of the network. The use of a dual ring or a switch that can close off the
break will address this vulnerability.

When IBM released its local-area network Token Ring, ring topologies were common.
Today, this topology is less common due to the demand for faster LANs.

1.6.5 Hybrid Topology

In a hybrid topology, the prime controller will be a star topology and each arm
connecting to several nodes.

Fig 1.6.5: Hybrid Topology

1.7 CATEGORIES OF NETWORK

Today, local-area networks and wide-area networks are the two main types of
networks that are commonly mentioned. A network's size determines which category it
belongs in. A WAN can be global, but a LAN typically covers an area of less than 2 metres.
Middle-sized networks, which often cover tens of miles, are known as metropolitan area
networks.

1.7.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

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A local area network (LAN), is a network that links the nodes to the instruments in a
individual building or office. A LAN can be as basic as two PCs and a printer in someone's
home office, or it might stretch throughout an entire corporation and include audio and video
peripherals, depending on the demands of an organisation and the sort of technology utilised.
LAN size is currently restricted to a few kilometres.

Resources can be exchanged between workstations or personal computers thanks to local

area networks (LANs). Hardware, software, or data are examples of the resources that can be
shared. A typical LAN example is a workgroup of task-related computers, such as
engineering terminals or financial Computers, that are connected in many company
situations. One of the computers might get a large capacity disc drive and end up serving
clients as a server. On this central server, software can be kept and used as needed by the
entire team. In this example, licencing constraints on the number of consumers per copy of
software or restrictions on the number of users licenced to access the operating system may
dictate the size of the LAN.

1.7.2 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN allows long range multimedia transmissions . The end systems are connected
by the switched WAN, which is often a router (an internetworking connecting device) that is
connected to another LAN or WAN. A home computer or a small LAN is typically
connected to an Internet service provider via a line that is leased from a provider (ISP).
Access to the Internet is frequently provided using this kind of WAN.

1.8 INTER-NETWORK

These days, it is quite uncommon to see a LAN, MAN, or LAN operating

independently; they are all interconnected. An internetwork or internet is created when two
or more networks are linked together.

Consider the situation when a company has two locations, one in the Delhi and one on the
Kolkata. The freshly opened Delhi office has a star topology LAN, while the long-standing
Kolkata office has a bus topology LAN. The company's owner, who resides somewhere in
the middle, must manage the business from her residence. A switched WAN (run by a
service provider like a telecom company) has been leased to connect these three entities (two
LANs and the president's PC) as a backbone WAN. But three point-to-point WANs are
required to link the LANs to this switched WAN. These point-to-point WANs can be either a
cable modern connection or a high-speed DSL line provided by a telephone company or
cable TV provider.

1.9 SUMMARY

A network along with its five key components like Sender, message, transmission
medium, protocol and receiver enables communication among the machines.

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Further we also learnt about the variety of formats (multimedia) of data representation used
in data trasmission. This flow of data happens in any of three ways such as simplex, half-
duplex, or full-duplex.

There are various physical and logical configuration of a network's nodes and links known as
network topologies. Based on requiremnts these are used one of them or combinations of
them. LAN and WAN are the two main types of networks that are commonly mentioned. A
WAN can be global, but a LAN typically covers an area of less than 2 metres. Now a days, it
is quite uncommon to see a LAN, MAN, or LAN operating independently; they are all
interconnected.

1.10 GLOSSARY

Network: A group of objects (commonly referred to as nodes) connected by communication

links is referred to as a network.

Simplex mode: The two devices connected by a link can each send, but the other can only
receive.

Half Duplex mode: The two devices can only receive when one is broadcasting, and vice
versa.
Full-duplex mode: It allows both devices to send and receive at the same time.
Network Topology: The physical and logical configuration of a network's nodes and links.

1.11 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Delivery, Accuracy, Timeliness and Jitter 9. Red

2. The variance in packet arrival times 10. Video
3. d) Books
4. Receiver
5. Protocol
6. True
7. Basic Latin
8. c) tiny dots
1.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Discussion various types of network topology with their advantages and

disadvantage.
2. What are the three different modes of Data communication among two devices.

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3. "Information is available in a variety of formats, including text, characters, numbers,

photos, audio, and video". Explain each of these.
4. Explain five components of Data Communication in a Network.

1.13 REFERENCES

IGNOU (2018). BLIS Study Material. Block 3, Network Fundamentals of ICT Fundamentals
(BLI-224), IGNOU
Forouzan, B. A. (2022). Data Communications and Networking (McGraw-Hill Forouzan
Networking) (Fourth Edition). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Tomasi, W. (2005). Introduction to Data Communications and Networking. Pearson.

1.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Forouzan, B. A. (2022). Data Communications and Networking (McGraw-Hill Forouzan

Networking) (Fourth Edition). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Tomasi, W. (2005). Introduction to Data Communications and Networking. Pearson.

**************LMS Feedback: [email protected]**************

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LESSON 2

WIRELESS NETWORKING AND EMERGING

NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES
Vikas Bhushan
Information Officer
WB National University of Juridical Sciences (WBNUJS)
Kolkata
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Wireless Networks
2.3.1 Radio waves
2.3.2 Microwave
2.3.3 Infrared
2.4 Types of Wireless Networks
2.4.1 Wireless LANs
2.4.2 Wireless MANs
2.4.3 Wireless WANs
2.5 Benefits of Wireless Networks
2.6 Emerging Networking Technologies
2.6.1 Wireless LAN
2.6.2 Bluetooth
2.7 Summary
2.8 Glossary
2.9 Answers to In-text Questions
2.10 Self-Assessment Questions
2.11 References
2.12 Suggested Readings

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• To learn about Wireless Networking

• To explore broad groups of wireless transmission
• To understand various types of wireless networks

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• To know about Bluetooth technology

2.2 INTRODUCTION

Electromagnetic waves are transported through unguided media without the use of a
physical conductor. Wireless communication is a common name for this kind of
communication. Signals are typically broadcast via open space, making them accessible to
anyone with a device that can pick them up.

Unguided signals can move from their source to their destination in a number of
methods, including line-of-sight, sky, and ground propagation. Radio waves hug the earth
during ground propagation as they pass through the lowest layer of the atmosphere. From the
transmitting antenna, these low-frequency signals radiate in all directions and follow the
inclination of the earth. The stronger the signal, larger the distance and it is dependent on
signal power. In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the
ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected
back to earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.
In line-or-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines
directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other, and either
tall enough or close enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth. Line-of-
sight propagation is ticky because radio transmissions cannot be completely focused.

2.3 WIRELESS NETWORKS

Wireless networks are computer networks that are not wired together. The majority of
the times, radio waves are used for communication between network nodes. They enable
network connections for devices as they are moving throughout the network's coverage area.
Wireless networks require wireless transmission of data in the form of signals. There are
three broad groups of wireless transmission: radio waves, microwaves, and infrared waves.

2.3.1 Radio waves:

While there isn't a definite line that separates radio waves from microwaves,
electromagnetic waves with frequencies around 3 kHz and 1 GHz are typically referred to as
radio waves, while those with frequencies around 1 and 300 GHz are referred to as
microwaves. However, a better classification criterion is the way the waves behave rather
than their frequency.

Radio waves spread out in all directions when they are sent by an antenna. Thus, it is not
necessary to align the transmitting and receiving antennas. Any receiving antenna can pick
up the waves that a sending antenna sends. Additionally, the all around characteristic has a
drawback.

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2.3.2 Microwave:
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with frequency between 1 and 300 GHz.

Microwaves have only one direction. Microwave waves can be precisely focussed
when they are transmitted by an antenna. Thus, it is necessary to align the sending and
receiving antennas. Unambiguously, the unidirectional attribute offers benefits. An antenna
pair can be oriented without affecting another antenna pair that is also aligned.

2.3.3 Infrared:
For short-range communication, infrared radiation with frequencies ranging from 300
GHz to 400 THz can be employed. Infrared waves cannot pass through walls because of their
high frequency. This beneficial feature prevents system interference; a short-range
connectivity in one room cannot be impacted by another system in the adjacent room. We
don't obstruct our neighbours' usage of their infrared remote controls when we use ours. The
same quality, meanwhile, renders infrared signals worthless for long-distance
communication. Additionally, since the sunrays contain infrared radiation that may interfere
with communication, we are unable to use infrared waves outside of a building.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. _______________________ are transported through unguided media without
the use of a physical conductor.
2. There are three broad groups of wireless transmission radio waves,
____________, and infrared waves
3. Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with frequency between 1 and 300
GHz. True/False
4. Microwaves have only _________direction.
5. Infrared waves cannot pass through walls because of their
________________.

2.4 TYPES OF WIRELESS NETWORKS

Based on the distance and area wireless networks serve, this is of mainly three types
as described:

2.4.1 Wireless LANs

It uses wireless distribution techniques to link two or more network devices.

2.4.2 Wireless MANs

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Interconnects two or more wireless LANs that are dispersed around a city.

2.4.3 Wireless WANs

Joins together vast areas made up of LANs, MANs, and personal networks.

2.5 BENEFITS OF WIRELESS NETWORKS

• Due to the lack of wires and cords, it offers uncluttered desks.

• Since the devices are not required to be connected to one another, it enhances the
movement of network devices linked to the system.
• Since there is no need to lay out wires, connecting network components from
anywhere within the network's scope or a Wi-Fi hotspot becomes easy.
• Wireless network design and installation are simpler.
• Since products don't need to be linked to the existing configuration, they can be
readily connected to it. As a result, wireless networks are very scalable.
• Very few or no wires are needed for wireless networks. As a result, it lowers
hardware and installation expenses.

2.6 EMERGING NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES

One of the technologies with the quickest growth is wireless communication. There is
an increasing need everywhere for devices to connect without cords. University campuses,
Library buildings, and other public spaces all have wireless LANs.

IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs, often known as wireless Ethernet, and Bluetooth, a technology
for tiny wireless LANs, are the two promising wireless LAN technologies. While both
protocols require a number of levels to function, we primarily focus on the physical and data
link layers.

2.6.1 Wireless LAN

The IEEE 802.11 standard contains the standards for a wireless LAN. A WLAN is a
sort of Local Area Network (LAN) that communicates and transmits data using high
frequency radio waves as opposed to wires. It is a versatile data transmission technology that
can be used in place of or as an addition to a wired LAN.

Advantages of WLAN

• Productivity Gains - It offers "untethered" network and Internet connectivity.

• Fast and easy network setup - installing devices does not require the use of cables.
• Deployment Versatility - They enable transient setup and removal and can be
deployed in locations where wires cannot.
• Reduced installation expenses - WLAN reduces installation cost
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• Scalability - It is easy to expand and reconfigure the WLAN than the wired
network.

Applicationof Radio waves in Libraries

Wirless technology like Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) makes the life easier of
Library staffs, Patrons and saves money of the Parent organisation. An RFID system, in its
most basic form, consists of two components: a reader & a tag. The reader retrieves the
information present in the RFID tag and transmits it to desired system for further processing.

Inside the RFID Tag there is a microchip which stores the information feed into the chip and
an antenna for transmitting the information. This tag is protected in the form of stickers and
is pasted on Library documents.

These tags used in Libraries are passive tags which doesnot have any power source. The
power required to operate them is obtained from the RFID Reader.

A Library which is equipped with RFID system for automation normally has RFID readers at
the circulation desk or Self checkout kiosks and in the security gate placed near the Library
entrance or Exit point. These RFID gates or the Reader searches for the RFID Tag and
whenever a tag arrives into its signal range it responds with the stored information on the tag.
If the Library Patron is checking out Reader sends the received information from the Tags to
the Library management software.
RFID technology also helps in this way in stock verification of the Library, in this case
Library staff uses hand-held reader to communicate with the RFID Tags.

2.6.2 Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless LAN solution created to link various types of devices,
including phones, laptops, computers, cameras, printers, and more. A Bluetooth LAN is an
ad hoc network, meaning that it forms on its own as the devices, also known as gadgets,
locate one another and establish a network known as a piconet. If one of the devices supports
it, a Bluetooth LAN can potentially be linked to the Internet. By definition, a Bluetooth LAN
cannot be very big. There is chaos if several devices attempt to connect.

The uses of Bluetooth technology are numerous. The computer can communicate with
peripheral devices using this technique. Using this technology, security devices for libraries
can link various sensors to the main security controller. At a conference, participants can
sync their laptop computers.

The Ericsson Company first developed Bluetooth as a project. It bears the name of Harald
Blaatand, the Danish king who united Norway and Denmark (940–981). The English
translation of Blaatand is Bluetooth.

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The IEEE 802.15 standard defines a protocol, and Bluetooth innovation is the application of
that protocol today. A wireless personal-area network (PAN) that can operate in a space the
size of a room or a hallway is described by the standard.

Application of Bluetooth in Libraries

Beacons, also known as Bluetooth low power vivinity detecting devices, are a kind of
devices that may send information and alert other Bluetooth devices to their existence.
Although the sector is expected to grow as this technology is used more frequently, one of
the most widely accessible versions is Apple's iBeacon technology.

The only purpose of a beacon is to continuously send a little amount of data.According to the
related programme that the Library Patron has installed, when devices are close to this
broadcast, it causes them to take certain activities.

Beacons were utilised by the Boston Athenaeum, an autonomous subscription library in

Boston, to direct Library users to more resources in a exhibit. Contrarily, the Orange County
Library System in Orlando gives Library users the option to sign up for customised event
notifications depending on the locations in the library they frequently visit. The library is
able to "educate usersrelated to their interests" thanks to BluuBeam, a beacon-based mobile
app startup that works with libraries. Another library-specific app being developed by Capira
Technologies interface with an institution's information management system (ILS) and send
users personalised updates as they travel through the library, such as reminders to pick up or
renew things.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs, often known as ___________________
7. The different types of Wireless Networks are Wireless ___________________
8. "Wireless network design and installation are simpler". True or False
9. PAN stands for _______________________
10. “The Ericsson Company first developed Bluetooth as a project.” True or False

2.7 SUMMARY

Line-of-sight, sky, and ground propagation all play a role in the transmission of
wireless data. Radio waves, microwave waves, and infrared waves are all examples of
wireless waves. Microwaves have a single direction, but radio waves are omnidirectional.
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Satellite, wireless LAN, and cellular telephone communications all employ microwaves.
Short-range connections, such those between a Computer and an external devices, employ
infrared wavelengths. It can be utilised for domestic LANs as well. IEEE 802.11 wireless
LANs, often known as wireless Ethernet, and Bluetooth, a technology for tiny wireless
LANs, are the two promising wireless LAN technologies. A particular fraction of devices
(referred to as gadgets) can be connected using Bluetooth, a wireless LAN technique.

2.8 GLOSSARY

Wireless networks: These are computer networks that are not wired together.
Radio Waves: Waves between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are typically referred to as radio waves.
Microwaves: These are electromagnetic waves with frequency between 1 and 300 GHz.

2.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Electromagnetic waves 6. wireless Ethernet

2. microwaves 7. LAN, MAN, WAN
3. True 8. True
4. one 9. personal-area network
5. high frequency 10. True

2.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Write a brief note on Wireless communication.

2. Explain Wireless networks and its types.
3. Discuss broad groups of wireless network transmission.
4. What are the benefits of Wireless networks over wired network?
5. “Bluetooth technology”. Discuss some of its implementations in Libraries.

2.11 REFERENCES

Forouzan, B. A. (2022). Data Communications and Networking (McGraw-Hill Forouzan

Networking) (Fourth Edition). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
John, F. (2020).Wireless Networks. Retrieved August 19, 2022
fromhttps://www.tutorialspoint.com/Wireless-Networks.
Tomasi, W. (2005). Introduction to Data Communications and Networking. Pearson.
Wireless Ethernet LAN (WLAN).Retrieved August 19, 2022 from
https://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/faqs/wireless-ethernet-lan-
faq1.pdf
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"Keeping Up With... Beacons", American Library Association, May 21, 2015.

http://www.ala.org/acrl/publications/keeping_up_with/beacons (Accessed October 20, 2022).

2.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Forouzan, B. A. (2022). Data Communications and Networking (McGraw-Hill Forouzan

Networking) (Fourth Edition). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
John, F. (2020).Wireless Networks. Retrieved August 19, 2022 from
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/Wireless-Networks.
Tomasi, W. (2005). Introduction to Data Communications and Networking. Pearson.
Wireless Ethernet LAN (WLAN). Retrieved August 19, 2022 from
https://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/faqs/wireless-ethernet-lan-
faq1.pdf

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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UNIT-IV

INTRODUCTION OF NETWORKS: ISDN, DSL AND

ATM

Dr. Yashwant Singh

Associate Professor and HoD
Department of Computer Science and IT
Central University of Jammu, J&K
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
1.3.1 ADSL
1.3.2 ADSL Lite
1.3.3 HDSL
1.3.4 SDSL
1.3.5 VDSL
1.4 Intergrated Services Didital Network (ISDN)
1.4.1 Hardware needed for ISDN
1.5 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
1.5.1 Goal of ATM
1.5.2 Characteristics of ATM
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to know:

• The Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
• Understand the Intergrated Services Didital Network (ISDN)
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• Functions of Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

• Understanding of ADSL, HDSL, and VDSL
• Detail Description of accomplishing communications over phone lines in digital form
1.2 INTRODUCTION

Telephone companies created DSL as a new technology to offer higher-speed Internet access
after older modems reached their maximum data rate. One of the most promising
technologies for supporting high-speed digital communication over the current local loops is
digital subscriber line (DSL). The user can conduct digital conversations over phone lines
thanks to the ISDN line. The advantages of ISDN include speedy dial-up, rates that are four
times faster than those of V.34 modems, the capacity to load and download huge files
quickly and easily, and the usage of several PPP connections at once for voice, fax, video,
and data transmission. The most well-known end-to-end networking option is probably
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) networks.

The DSL and its different variants are presented in section 1.3. Section 1.4 goes into great
detail about the ISDN. In section 1.5, an illustration of the ATM's operation is
shown.
1.3 DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (DSL)
Voice communication was the original purpose for which telephone networks were
developed. The dial-up modem was developed as a result of the necessity to transmit digital
data. High-speed downloading and uploading became necessary with the development of the
Internet since the modem was simply too sluggish. The digital subscriber line is a new
technology that the telephone companies have implemented (DSL). Despite the fact that dial-
up modems are still widely used throughout the world, DSL offers substantially faster access
to the Internet via the telephone network.

Telephone companies created DSL as a new technology to offer higher-speed Internet

access after older modems reached their maximum data rate. One of the most promising
technologies for supporting high-speed digital communication over the current local loops is
digital subscriber line (DSL). A group of technologies known as DSL are distinguished by
the first letter in their names (ADSL, VDSL, HDSL, and SDSL). It's common to refer to the
set as xDSL, where x might stand in for A, V, H, or S.

1.3.1 ADSL:
Asymmetric DSL is the first technology in the group (ADSL). Similar to a 56K
modem, ADSL offers a faster downstream bit rate than an upstream bit rate (from the
residence to the Internet) (from the resident to the Internet). It is called asymmetric for this
reason. The inventors of ADSL purposely divided the local loop's available bandwidth

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unevenly for residential customers, unlike the asymmetry in 56K modems. Business
customers who require a lot of bandwidth in both ways cannot use the service.

It is not appropriate for usage by enterprises; ADSL is an asymmetric communication

technology intended for residential consumers.

Using Existing Local Loops

It's noteworthy to note that ADSL makes use of the current local loops. But how does ADSL
manage to transmit data at a rate that was never possible with conventional modems? The
twisted-pair local loop can handle bandwidths of up to 1.1 MHz, but a filter installed at the
telephone company's end office, where each local loop ends, limits the bandwidth to 4 kHz
(sufficient for voice communication). However, removing the filter makes the entire 1.1
MHz open for speech and data communications.

Adaptive Technology
It's noteworthy to note that ADSL makes use of the current local loops. But how does ADSL
manage to transmit data at a rate that was never possible with conventional modems? The
twisted-pair local loop can handle bandwidths of up to 1.1 MHz, but a filter installed at the
telephone company's end office, where each local loop ends, limits the bandwidth to 4 kHz
(sufficient for voice communication). However, removing the filter makes the entire 1.1
MHz open for speech and data communications.

Discrete Multitone Technique

The discrete multitone technique (DMT), which combines QAM and FDM, is the modulation
method that has become the industry standard for ADSL. The way a system divides its
bandwidth is not predetermined. The way that each system divides its bandwidth is up to it.
Normally, 256 channels are created using the 1.104 MHz of available bandwidth.

Customer Site: ADSL Modem

A splitter that divides voice and data traffic is connected to the local loop. The downstream
and upstream channels are created by the ADSL modem, which also modulates and
demodulates the data using DMT. Keep in mind that the splitter must be installed on the
customer's property, typically by a telephone company employee. The voice connection can
utilise the home's existing telephone cabling, but a professional installation is required for the
data line. All of this raises the cost of the ADSL line. We'll see that Universal ADSL is an
alternate technology (or ADSL Lite).

Telephone Company Site: DSLAM

On the telephone company's property, things are different. A digital subscriber line access
multiplexer (DSLAM), which performs identical tasks, is installed in place of an ADSL
modem. It also packetizes the data before sending it over the Internet (ISP server).

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1.3.2 ADSL Lite:

Most subscribers would be discouraged by the cost and practicality of installing splitters at
the premises' edges and installing additional data line wiring. For these subscribers, a new
variant of ADSL technology known as ADSL Lite (also known as Universal ADSL or
Splitterless ADSL) is offered. With the use of this technology, an ASDL Lite modem can be
directly inserted into a phone jack and linked to a computer. The telephone company handles
the dividing. 256 DMT carriers with an 8-bit modulation are used in ADSL Lite. (as opposed
to 15-bit). However, due to the possibility of mistakes from the spoken signal mixing with
them, some of the carriers might not be available. It can deliver upstream data at 512 kbps
and downstream data at a maximum of 1.5 Mbps.
1.3.3 HDSL:
As a replacement for the T-line, the high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (HDSL) was created
(1.544 Mbps). Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) encoding, which is used by the T-1line, is
highly prone to attenuation at high frequencies. As a result, a T-l line can only be 3200 feet
long (1 km). A repeater is required for larger distances, which results in higher prices.

The 2B1Q encoding used by HDSL is less prone to attenuation. Without repeaters, a data rate
of 1.544 Mbps (sometimes up to 2 Mbps) can be reached up to a distance of 12,000 ft (3.86
km). Full-duplex transmission is made possible by HDSL using two twisted pairs, one pair in
each direction.
1.3.4 SDSL:
The HDSL is available in one twisted-pair form as the symmetric digital subscriber line
(SDSL). It offers symmetric full-duplex communication with up to 768 kbps in each
direction. The symmetric connectivity offered by SDSL makes it a viable substitute for
ADSL. With a downstream bit rate that is significantly higher than the upstream bit rate,
ADSL offers asymmetric communication. Although the majority of residential users can
benefit from this service, it is not appropriate for enterprises that send and receive huge
amounts of data back and forth.
1.3.5 VDSL:
Coaxial, fiber-optic, or twisted-pair cable is used for short distances in the alternative method
known as very high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL), which is comparable to ADSL.
DMT is the modulating method. For upstream communication at ranges of three thousand to
ten thousand feet, it offers a variety of bit rates (25 to 55 Mbps). The typical downstream
speed is 3.2 Mbps.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Technologies such as DSL and cable modem are called narrowband
technologies (True/False)
2. The least common type of DSL in use today is Asymmetric DSL (True/False)
3. ATM uses _______________
a) asynchronous frequency division multiplexing b) asynchronous time
division multiplexing c) asynchronous space division multiplexing
d) asynchronous amplitude division multiplexing

1.4 ISDN

Intergrated Services Digital Network is referred to as ISDN. The user can conduct
digital conversations over phone lines thanks to the ISDN line. The advantages of ISDN
include speedy dial-up, rates that are four times faster than those of V.34 modems, the
capacity to load and download huge files quickly and easily, and the usage of several PPP
connections at once for voice, fax, video, and data transmission. Data transmission speeds are
at 128 Kbps when two data transmission lines are used in the system! Lack of hardware and
compression standards is one of the issues with ISDN. Data transfer, which might vary in
speed from 56 Kbps to 128 Kbps, is another issue.

The process of acquiring a line could be a little challenging due to the large variety of
hardware models, applications, and goals that digital ISDN communication can serve. Nearly
no one gets only one B channel, which functions somewhat like a phone line. The pricing
actually substantially favour what is known as an ISDN BRI (Basic Rate ISDN). Two B
channels and one D channel make up a BRI. Depending on the gear you have or what you
want to achieve, your other B may be a voice, a circuit, or both. Voice conversations
typically use voice B's (ie. regular phone calls). High speed data typically uses CircuitB's (ie.
Internet access). To call your ISDN line, dial the D channel (dial tone and dial up.)
The term "Primary Rate Interface" refers to another ISDN line (PRI). This operates over the
same physical interface as T1 inside of North America and Japan and consists of 24 channels,
which are often split into 23 B channels and 1 D channel. The PRI is based on the E1
interface and features 31 user channels, which are typically split into 30 B channels and 1 D
channel outside of these locations. It is frequently employed for connections between a PBX
(private branch exchange, a telephone exchange run by a telephone company's client) and a
CO (telephone company's central office) or IXC (inter exchange carrier, a long distance
telephone company).
How it is possible to get 128Kbps. (NT-1)
Under some conditions, connecting two circuits B simultaneously to two more
circuits B will result in data speeds of 128Kbps. ISDN requires a unique piece of equipment
called an NT-1, with NT standing for Network Terminator, unlike your standard phone line.
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The NT-1 is a consumer product sold in the United States and typically comes in two
varieties: internal and external. Small devices called ExternalNT-1s attach to the wall socket
using a thicker phone line. They often have many jacks and cost between $200 and $300. The
benefit of externals is that adding more devices to your ISDN lines is simple. This is
equivalent to using a single phone line to share two phones across the house. The NT-1 is
pre-built in the majority of ISDN devices for convenience and some financial savings. For
these reasons, manufacturers typically suggest ISDN routers and modems with integrated
NT-1s. However, you must make this decision in advance if you intend to grow. Fortunately,
internal or external NT-1s are now available as an option on the majority of ISDN equipment
brands, typically costing $100 more.

There are several different types of external NT-1s available if you decide to buy one. Inquire
about your alternatives and pricing with the salesman. NT-1s are interchangeable between
items made by some hardware manufacturers and those who don't. In general, if all you need
is high-speed Internet access and will connect is a single computer or network, you buy an
internal NT-1.

How a Network Terminator is used.

An NT1 (network termination 1) device at the customer's location terminates the U-loop. The
NT1 drives a S/T-bus, which typically has four wires but occasionally may have six or eight.
When the regular power fails, the extra lines are utilised to supply electricity to run the
telephones in these optional situations. Alternatively, "phantom" power could come from the
conventional four lines. Outside of North America, emergency mode operation only supplies
energy for fundamental voice service in the event of a local power outage. The NT1 can
receive up to 1.2W from the central office when it is operating in emergency mode. There is
no provision for emergency mode functioning in North America.

More about BRI's. The length of wiring makes a big difference.

Two 64K bearer ("B") channels and one delta ("D") channel make up a Basic Rate Interface
(BRI). The D channel is utilised for signalling and/or X.25 packet networking, whereas the B
channels are used for audio or data. This kind is the one that is most likely to be offered to
residential customers. Two conductors connect the CO (central office) of the telephone
company to the customer's location in an ISDN BRI U-Loop. It may extend as far as 5.5
kilometres (18000 ft). Due to the U loop's length and the noisy environment it functions in,
the equipment on both sides of the loop needs to be properly built.

S/T Bus connections and Long Distance carriers.

The letters used in the ISDN standards to denote two reference points, S and T, gave rise to
the name of the S/T bus. The connection between the NT1 device and customer-supplied
equipment is referred to as Point T. Terminals may connect to NT1 directly at point T, or a
PBX may be present (private branch exchange, i.e. a customer-owned telephone exchange).
Point S describes the link between the PBX and the terminal when a PBX is present. Be
aware that "terminal" in ISDN nomenclature refers to any type of end-user ISDN equipment,

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including dataterminals, phones, FAX machines, etc. When they have the right interface
hardware and software, phones and fax machines can be connected to the BRI.

T Bus (Passive Bus) Information.

In this setup, the T bus functions as a multipoint bus. Because there are no repeaters on the
connection connecting the NT1 and the devices, it is occasionally referred to as the passive
bus. The same cable and connectors as those used in 10 base T Ethernet can be used to
deploy it (Networks). The S/T bus can support up to 8 devices. It is a bus, not a star,
therefore the bus can be constructed using splitters and T connections. The one to eight
devices that are connected to the two B channels are managed by the D channel. No more
than one device can simultaneously attach to a given B channel.

Why a NT-1.

The main purpose of the NT in this arrangement is to give many devices access to the two B
channels offered by the ISDNBRI. For instance, you might connect an ISDN computer
interface, an ISDN fax machine, and an ISDN phone to the BRI. Each device has the ability
to listen for calls, but it can only join a B channel when it discovers a message asking for a
service it can offer.

Fig 1.1: ISDN (Source: Tanenbaum, A. S. (1996). Computer networks. Upper Saddle
River, N.J: Prentice Hall PTR)

The NT1 also performs other functions.

The communication protocol used by the NT1 and the other devices is a crucial
component of the channel sharing scheme, which is only partially implemented by the NT1.
The NT1 also performs other tasks, such as converting the bit encoding technique used on the
U loop—the line between it and the phone company—to the encoding used on the lines
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between it and the devices. In contrast to the NT to telephone company encoding, which was
created to facilitate transmission over long distances with no sharing, the device to NT
encoding was created to permit channel sharing.

Termianl Adapters

These channels can be converted to fit current terminal equipment standards like RS-232 and
V.35 using equipment called as a Terminal Adapter (TA). Typically, this equipment is
housed in a similar manner to modems, either as standalone devices or as interface cards that
connect to various types of communications equipment like computers (such as routers or
PBXs). TAs replace the modem; they do not interact with it.

In some circumstances, it may not be necessary to simulate or interface to existing terminal

equipment because such equipment is already in place and has a synchronous interface. In
such circumstances, high-speed synchronous connections to the B channels can be provided
by independent devices or computer interfaces without switching to an asynchronous
standard.

Bridges.

Using the ISDN channel to carry the data, a bridge between local area networks can be
implemented using another popular type of equipment. These gadgets frequently offer
options like demand dialling and/or data compression.

1.4.1 Hardware Needed for ISDN

An ISDN digital modem is the simplest way to connect a computer to the ISDN network.
These devices employ the digital ISDN network to provide substantially better speeds and
greater reliability than analogue modems, while still supporting typical modem interfaces
such the AT command set and RS-232 serial connector. Most ISDN Digital Modems offer
ISDN speed and dependability in a reasonably priced, easily installed (External), and
operated device. It can support a regular phone or fax machine in addition to 64-Kbps data
transmission over the ISDN line because it also features an analogue voice port in addition to
an ISDN port. A 14.4 analogue modem option may be available, offering backward
compatibility with non-ISDN services. Both the ANSI V.120 standard for asynchronous
point-to-point communications (common computer transmission) and async-sync Point-to-
Point Protocol (PPP) conversion for Internet access are supported by ISDN digital modems.
If your terminal is going to communicate with networked devices or networks, you require
this feature. For each call, a built-in feature automatically chooses the appropriate protocol.
For a modem to increase speeds up to 115 kbps or 128 kbps, two B channels must be
combined.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

4. ATM can be used for ________

a) local area network b) wide area network
c) campus area network d) networks covering any range
5. Information bearing channels in ISDN are called ______
a) D channels b) Data channels
c) B channels d) Voice channel

1.5 ATM

Our attention has been on the Internet and its protocols up to this point. However, numerous
other currently used packet-switching technologies can potentially offer complete networking
solutions. The most well-known of these alternatives to the Internet are those known as
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) networks. The advent of ATM began in the early
1990s. Talking about ATM is helpful for two reasons. First, it offers a fascinating contrast to
the Internet, and by examining how it differs from the Internet, we may learn more about it.
Second, ATM is frequently utilised as a link-layer technology in the Internet's backbone.

1.5.1 Goal of ATM

In the middle of the 1980s, the first ATM standards were created. For those who are
too young to recall, there were basically two sorts of networks at this time: telephone
networks, which were (and still are) used to convey real-time voice, and data networks,
which were used to move text files, facilitate remote login, and deliver email. Additionally,
specialised private networks for video conferencing were accessible. There was an Internet at
the time, but few people considered using it to carry phone calls, and nobody had ever heard
of the World Wide Web. It only made sense to create a networking system that could transfer
real-time audio and video in addition to text, email, and image data. It was accomplished
through ATM. ATM standards for broadband integrated services have been created by two
standards organisations, the ATM Forum and the International Telecommunications Union.

Digital Networks (BISDNs). In order for ATM to provide a complete networking

solution for distributed applications, the ATM standards mandate packet switching with
virtual circuits, or virtual channels as they are known in the ATM lexicon. Major
corporations made large investments in ATM research and development at the same time that
the ATM standards were being developed. These investments have produced a wide range of
high-performing ATM technology, such as ATM switches with terabit switching rates. Both
telephone networks and the backbones of the Internet have aggressively adopted ATM
technology in recent years.
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ATM has been implemented within networks, but it hasn't been able to spread out to
desktop computers and workstations. And whether ATM will ever have a substantial
presence at the desktop is now up for debate. In fact, the Internet and its TCP/IP protocols
were already operating and making substantial progress during the late 1980s and early
1990s, when ATM was being developed in standards committees and research labs.

All of the most widely used operating systems include the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Businesses started using the Internet for electronic commerce (e-commerce). Access to the
Internet for homes became quite affordable. For TCP/IP networks, many excellent desktop
applications were created, such as the World Wide Web, Internet phone, and interactive
streaming video. New Internet services and applications are currently being created by
thousands of businesses.

In addition, a number of low-cost high-speed LAN technologies—such as 100 Mbps

Ethernet and, more recently, Gigabit Ethernet—were created throughout the 1990s, reducing
the necessity for ATM use in high-speed LAN applications. Nearly all networking
application solutions in the world today interface directly with TCP/IP. However, ATM
switches have been used in Internet backbone networks, where the demand for high-speed
traffic delivery is most pressing, because they can switch packets at extremely fast rates.

1.5.2 Characteristics of ATM

In later sections, we'll go into more information about ATM. For the time being, these
are a few of its main traits:

From the transport layer all the way down to the physical layer, the ATM standard
defines a whole set of communication protocols.

53-byte fixed-length packets are used in packet switching. Cells refers to these
packets in ATM terminology. 48 bytes of "payload" and 5 bytes of header make up each cell.
High-speed switching has been made possible by the constant length cells and
straightforward headers.

Virtual circuits are used by ATM (VCs). Virtual channels are the technical term for
virtual circuits in ATM. The virtual channel identifier (VCI), often known as the virtual
channel number, is a field in the ATM header.

Link-by-link retransmissions are not offered by ATM. A switch will use error-
correcting codes to try and fix any errors it finds in an ATM cell. If it is unable to fix the
problem, it drops the cell and does not request that the previous switch retransmit it.

End-to-end congestion control is offered by ATM. In other words, during periods of

congestion, the switches do not directly control the transmission of ATM cells. To help a
sending end device control its transmission rate when the network is busy, the network
switches themselves do offer feedback.
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Almost any physical layer can be crossed by ATM. It frequently utilises the SONET
protocol and operates at 155.52 Mbps, 622 Mbps, and greater speeds over fibre optics.

1.5.2 ATM Layers

As shown in Figure 1.2, the ATM protocol stack consists of three layers: the ATM
adaptation layer (AAL), the ATM Layer, and the ATM Physical Layer:

• Fig 1.2: The three ATM layers (Source: Kurose, J. F., & Ross, K. W.
(2001). Computer networking: A top-down approach featuring the Internet. Boston:
Addison-Wesley)

Voltages, bit timings, and framing on the physical medium are all dealt with by the
ATM Physical Layer. The foundation of the ATM standard is the ATM Layer. It specifies
the ATM cell's structure. The transport layer of the Internet protocol stack is comparable to
the ATM Adaptation Layer. AALs for ATM come in a wide variety of forms to support a
wide range of services.

At the moment, ATM is frequently utilised as a link-layer technology within

specialised areas of the Internet. TCP/IP and ATM may now communicate with one another
thanks to the creation of the unique AAL type AAL5. AAL5 prepares IP datagrams for ATM
transport at the IP-to-ATM interface and reassembles ATM cells into IP datagrams at the
ATM-to-IP interface. The ATM-using areas of the Internet's protocol stack are depicted in

Figure 1.3.

• Fig 1.3: Internet-over-ATM protocol stack (Source: Kurose, J. F., & Ross, K. W.
(2001). Computer networking: A top-down approach featuring the Internet. Boston:
Addison-Wesley.)

The three ATM layers have been crammed into the lower two layers of the Internet
protocol stack in this design, as you can see. In particular, ATM is "seen" as a link-layer
protocol by the Internet's network layer.
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1.6 SUMMARY

Although ISDN is a packet-switched network that enables digital speech and data
transmission, it is also a circuit-switched telephone network system. This may lead to speech
or data quality that is superior to what an analogue phone can deliver. It offers a packet-
switched connection that can transfer data at a rate of 64 kilobits per second. It offered
upstream and downstream bandwidth at a maximum rate of 128 kbit/s. Channel bonding
allowed for a higher data rate. Six to eight 64 kbit/s channels on an ISDN B-channel with
three or four BRIs are often bonded.
a method for voice lines to access high-speed networks or the Internet. There are several
types, including symmetric DSL (SDSL), very-high-bit-rate DSL, high-bit-rate DSL
(HDSL), and asymmetric DSL (ADSL) (VDSL). The term "xDSL" is sometimes used to
describe the entire group.
The ATM is an ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunications
Standards Section) call relay device that sends all information, including different service
kinds like data, video, or audio, in the form of cells, which are discrete packets of a
predetermined size. The network is connection-oriented and cells are sent in an asynchronous
manner.
1.7 GLOSSARY

ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) networks.

ISDN: Intergrated Services Didital Network.

1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. False
2. False
3.Asynchronous amplitude division
multiplexing
4. Networks covering any range
5. B Channels

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Dail-up modems, ISDN, HFC and ADSL are all used for residential access. For each
of these access technologies, provide a range of transmission rates and comment on
whether the bandwidth is shared or dedicated.
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2. List and describe ATM service models.

1.10 REFERENCES

• Forouzan, A. B(2009). Data Communication and Networking. 4 th Edition, Tata

McGraw Hill.
• Kurose, J. F., & Ross, K. W. (2001). Computer networking: A top-down approach
featuring the Internet. Boston: Addison-Wesley.
• Dan Kegel’s ISDN page https://uh.edu/~wrice/online.html

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

• Stallings, W. (2000). Data and Computer Communication. Upper Saddle River, N.J:
Prentice Hall PTR.
• Tanenbaum, A. S. (1996). Computer networks. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice
Hall PTR.
• Peterson, L.(2008). Computer Networks: A System Approach. 4 th Edition, Elsevier
Publication, 2008.

**************LMS Feedback: [email protected]**************

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UNIT-IV

INTRODUCTION OF NETWORKS: NETWORK

SOFTWARE, NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS,
DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM AND NETWORK
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Dr. Yashwant Singh
Associate Professor and HoD
Department of Computer Science and IT
Central University of Jammu, J&K
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Network Software
1.3.1 Protocol Hierarchies
1.3.2 Design Issues for the Layers
1.3.3 Connection-oriented and c0nnectionless services
1.4 Network Operating Systems
1.4.1 Client/Server
1.4.2 NOS Characteristics
1.4.3 Difference between PCS and NOS
1.4.2 Multiuser, Multitasking and Multiprocessor Systems
1.5 Domain Name System
1.5.1 Domain Name Space
1.6 Network Management Systems
1.6.1 Configuration Management
1.6.2 Fault Management
1.6.3 Performance Management
1.6.4 Security Management
1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Answers to In-text Questions
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions
1.11 References
1.12 Suggested Readings
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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you must be able to understand:

• Network softwares
• Understand the protocol hierarchies
• Functions of connection-oriented and connectionless services
• Understanding of network operating systems
• Detail Description of Domain Name Services and network management
1.2 INTRODUCTION

There must be a set of norms or standards for the proper communication process
between two computers, comprising sub-processes like sending, receiving, and
comprehending the information. These standards make sure that various products and
equipment can talk to one another across any network. This chapter discusses the network
software, which comprises of diverse service primitives, protocol hierarchies, and design
issues at various layers. In section 1.4, different kinds of operating systems employed in
network management are described in detail. Section 1.5 provides information about the
Domain Name System, and Section 1.6 shows an illustration of how a network is
administered.

1.3 NETWORK SOFTWARE

Initially, the computer networks were created with hardware as the primary
consideration and system software as the secondary consideration. However, it is no longer
effective. These days, softwares turned out to be more structured. We go into further depth
about the software structuring technique in the given section.

1.3.1 Protocol Hierarchies:

Most networks are divided into layers, stacked one after the other, in order to simplify the
complexity of the network design. Different networks have different numbers of layers, their
names, contents, and functions. Each layer serves the objective of providing specific services
to upper layers by keeping those layers hidden from specifics of how the actual services are
executed. This could be considered as each layer functions like a virtual machine, providing
specific services to the upper layer. This idea is actually well-known and utilised frequently
in computer science, under the terms like data encapsulation used in object-oriented
programming. The key principle is to provide the services to the users either through
hardware or software, while keeping the internal details hidden from them.
A dialogue is being held between n layer of one machine and the corresponding n
layer of different machine. The layer n protocol is the aggregate name for the set of
guidelines and practises employed in this exchange. A protocol is essentially an agreement
between the people involved in communication about how communication should proceed.
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To use an analogy, a lady may decide to extend her hand to a man when they first meet. For
instance, on whether she being an American lawyer or European princess, he may choose to
shake it or kiss it. Communication will become more difficult, if not impossible, if the
protocol is violated.
In Fig. 1-13, a five-layer network is depicted, in which peers are generally entities
used in different layers on various machines. Peers could be computer programmes, hardware
components, or even actual people. Thus, it is the peers who use the protocols to
communicate.
Actually, there is no direct data flow between the corresponding layers of different
machines. Instead, until it reaches the bottommost layer, the function of every upper layer is
to send data and control information to the lower layer beneath it. However, the actual
communication is done at the physical medium, the lowest layer. Virtual communication is
depicted in Fig. 1.1 by dotted lines, whereas physical communication is depicted by solid
lines.
An interface exists between every pair of neighbouring layers, determining primitive
actions and services to be exchanged between layers. Determining clear interfaces between
the layers is one of the most crucial factors that network designers take into account when
deciding how many levels to include in a network and what each one should accomplish.
This necessitates that each layer carries out a particular set of known functions. Additionally,
because the new implementation just needs to follow to the interface specifications, it is
easier to switch out the implementation of one layer for a completely different one (for
example, switching the lines of telephone with satellite channels). As a result, less
information needs to be transmitted between layers.

Fig 1.1: Layered Protocol Interface (Source: Tanenbaum, A. S. (1996). Computer

networks. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall PTR)
A network architecture is a collection of layers and protocols. An architecture's
specification must include sufficient details to enable implementers to create the software or
hardware necessary for each layer's correct adherence to the required protocol. Since these
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are contained inside the machines, neither the implementation's specifics nor the interfaces'
specifications are included in the design. If every machine in the network can correctly use
every protocol, it is even not required for all of their interfaces to match. A list of protocols,
one protocol per layer, used by a particular system is called a protocol stack.

Fig 1.2: Information Flow (Source: Tanenbaum, A. S. (1996). Computer networks. Upper
Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall PTR)
Talking about a technical illustration: about providing the communication to the
uppermost layer in the network architecture in Fig. 1.2. A layer 5 application process creates
a message, M, and passes it to layer 4 for further transmission to the lower layers. Layer 4
appends the header information to the received message for identification and sends the
outcome to Layer 3, who then processes it. The header contains the control information
comprising sequence numbers, that allow layer 4 on the destination computer to transmit data
in the correct order. Sizes, timings, and other control parameters may also be present in the
headers of some layers.
The layer 4 protocol in many networks does not have a size limit on the messages it
transmits, although the layer 3 protocol almost always has one. Consequently, the incoming
messages must therefore be divided into smaller parts called packets by layer 3, each of
which must have a layer 3 header. For example, it divides M into M1 and M2, two separate
parts. Layer 3 selects the outgoing line to use and sends the packets to Layer 2 after making
this decision. Each component is given a header and a trailer by Layer 2 before being given
to Layer 1 for transmission at the physical level. The message is transferred upward, layer by
layer, at the receiving device, with the headers being removed along the way. The headers for
any layers beneath layer n are not transmitted up to layer n.
Understanding the relationship between virtual and actual communication as well as
the distinction between protocols and interfaces is crucial for interpreting Fig. 1.2. For
instance, layer 4 peer processes conceptualise their exchange of data as being "horizontal"
when utilising the layer 4 protocol. Even if these operations communicate with bottommost
layers over the 3/4 interface, SendToOtherSide and GetFromOtherSide routines are probably
present for each one.
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All network design must take into account the peer process abstraction. It allows for
the breakdown of the overwhelming process of designing the entire network into a number of
more manageable design issues, particularly the design of the specific layers.
It's important to note that even though Section 1.3 is titled "Network 1.3," the bottom
tiers of a protocol hierarchy are usually incorporated in the firmware. Even though
complicated protocol techniques are employed, they may be fully or partially embedded in
the hardware.

1.3.2 Design Issues for the Layers:

There are various layers in which some major design problems arise in computer
networks. We will briefly discuss the most significant ones below.
Each layer needs a way to distinguish between senders and recipients. A way for a
process on one system to designate which other processes it wants to communicate with is
required since a network typically consists of numerous computers, some of which have
many processes. Due to the existence of various destinations, addressing becomes crucial in
order to identify a specific destination.
The guidelines for data transfer are the subject of another set of design choices. Data
can move in both directions in some systems while only moving in one direction in others.
The protocol must also establish the number of logical channels and their relative priorities
for the connection. For each connection, generally networks offer two logical channels: for
regular traffic and urgent data.
Due to imperfections in physical communication circuits, error control is a crucial
concern. There are many known codes for error-detection and error-correction, but the ones
being used must be agreed upon by both ends of the connection. The receiver also needs a
mechanism to let the sender know the messages that were received exactly as sent and that
weren't.
The sequence of messages sent on some communication channels may not be
preserved. The protocol must explicitly provide the mechanism for the recipient to permit the
reassembling of the fragments of a message in order to deal with a potential loss of
sequencing. These pieces can be easily organised by numbering them, but this doesn't
address the issue of what to do with those that arrive out of sequence.
Keeping a quick transmitter from overwhelming a slow receiver with data is a
problem that arises at every level. It will be explored later how several solutions have been
put forth. Some of them entail the recipient giving the sender some sort of direct or indirect
feedback regarding the recipient's current circumstance. Some restrict the transmitter to a
specified transmission speed. The topic in question is flow control.
The incapacity of all processes to receive messages of any length is another issue that
needs to be addressed on many different levels. This characteristic pave the way for systems
that disassemble, transmit, and then reassemble communications. In this case, the approach is
to combine a number of little messages that are headed in the same direction into a single
huge message, which is then broken up at the other end.

1.3.3 Connection Oriented and Connectionless Services:

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Both these services are available from levels to the layers above them. These two
types will be discussed in this section, along with their distinctions.
The telephone system serves as a paradigm for connection-oriented services. In order
to talk to the person, we take our mobile phone, dial that person’s contact number, speak with
the person, and then hang up. Similar to this, in order to access a connection-oriented service,
a user must first create a connection, use it, and then release it. The fundamental
characteristic of a connection is that it functions like a tube: at one end, the transmitter
pushes bits in, and at the other, the receiver pulls them out. Generally, the order is maintained
to ensure that the bits arrive in the same order as they were being sent.
The maximum message size, the required quality of service, and other issues may be
negotiated by the sender, recipient, and subnet when a connection is created. Usually, sender
offers a suggestion, which the recipient has the option to accept, reject, or counter.
On the other hand, connectionless services are based on the postal service. The full
destination address is included in every message (letter), and each one is routed through the
system separately from the others. In most cases, the first message sent will be the first one to
arrive when two messages are sent to the same recipient. The first one despatched, however,
can be postponed such that the second one comes first.
Each service has a level of service that can be used to describe it. In some services
there is no loss of data. A trustworthy service typically involves having the recipient confirm
each message's receipt so the sender can be certain it was sent. The acknowledgement
procedure adds overhead and delays, which are frequently beneficial but occasionally
unfavourable.
File transmission is an example scenario where a trustworthy connection-oriented
service is acceptable. The file's owner wants to make sure that all of the bits arrive in the
correct order. Even if a service is substantially faster, very few file transfer users would
choose it over one that occasionally loses a few bits.
Message sequences and byte streams are two minor versions of reliable connection-
oriented service. The message boundaries are kept in the first variation. Two 1024-byte
messages are never delivered as a single 2048-byte message; instead, they always arrive as
two separate 1024-byte messages. In the latter, there is no message and the connection is just
a stream of data.

Fig 1.3: Different Types of Services (Source: Tanenbaum, A. S. (1996). Computer

networks. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall PTR)
boundaries. There is no way to determine if 2048 bytes were delivered as a single 2048-byte
message, two 1024-byte messages, or 2048 1-byte messages until they reach the recipient. It
may be crucial to maintain message boundaries if a phototypesetter receives individual
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messages representing each page of a book across a network. In contrast, all that is required
when a user signs onto a remote server is a byte stream from the user's computer to the
server. Boundaries between messages are irrelevant.
As was already indicated, some programmes cannot tolerate the transit delays brought
on by acknowledgements. Digital voice traffic is one of these applications. It is preferable for
phone customers to occasionally hear some background noise than to have to wait around for
acknowledgements.
Not all programmes need connections. For instance, electronic garbage is growing
more prevalent as electronic mail spreads. The sender of electronic spam is unlikely to want
to go to the trouble of establishing and then disabling a connection in order to send a single
piece of mail. Furthermore, if it costs more, delivery that is 100 percent trustworthy is not
necessary. All that is required is a method for sending a single message with a high chance of
success but no assurance that it will. Datagram service is a common name for unreliable
connectionless services that are not acknowledged, similar to telegraph services that do not
provide the sender with an acknowledgement.
In other circumstances, reliability is crucial yet simplicity of not needing to establish
a connection to transmit a single brief message is desirable. These applications can receive
the recognised datagram service. It's comparable to sending a registered letter and asking for
a return receipt. The sender is totally certain that the letter was delivered to the intended
recipient and wasn't misplaced when the receipt is returned.
The request-reply service is yet another service. In this service, a single datagram
containing a request and an answer is sent by the sender. For illustration, this would include
inquiring the neighbourhood library where Uighur is spoken. In the client-server concept,
request-response is frequently used to implement communication: a request is issued by the
client and is given respond by the server machine. These different types of services are
summarized in Figure 1.3.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Which one of the following allows client to update their DNS entry as their IP
address change?
a) dynamic DNS b) mail transfer agent
c) authoritative name server d) none of the mentioned
2. DNS database contains _______
a) name server records b) hostname-to-address records
c) hostname aliases d) all of the mentioned

1.4 NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS

Nowadays, software is used on every network to manage its resources. This software,
known as a network operating system, operates on a unique, powerful machine (or NOS, for
short). One of the most crucial elements of the network is the NOS. The programme that a

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server uses to manage security, data, users, groups, applications, and other networking tasks
is known as a networking operating system (NOS).
These are the most widely used network operating systems:

• Microsoft Windows client/ server,

• UNIX and Linux, client/ server
• Mac OS X
• Novell NetWare.
Client/server architecture is the foundation of network operating systems, allowing several
clients to share resources through the use of a server. The network layer (layer 3) of the OSI
model is operated by network operating systems (NOS), which are built into routers and
hardware firewalls.

1.4.1 Client/Server:
Client/server NOS enable these networks to centralise functions and applications on one or
more dedicated servers. The server acts as the central node of the system, enabling resource
access and ensuring security. This is due to a method offered by the NOS, that several users
can concurrently share the same resources, regardless of where a user is physically present.

1.4.2 NOS Characteristics:

The Controlling computer hardware, the environment in which programmes are executed,
and the user interface is the role of an operating system (OS). For a single user or a group of
users who share the computer serially rather than concurrently, the OS handles these tasks.
More than one user may have accounts created by an administrator, but more than one user
cannot use the system at once.

Network operating systems (NOSs), in contrast, split up their functions among a number of
connected machines. The native OS of each individual computer is what a NOS is dependent
on. Then it has features that let several users access shared resources at once.

To provide concurrent access to common resources, NOS computers assume specialised

functions. Specialized software on client systems enables them to ask for shared resources
that are managed by server systems in response to a client request. The concept of making
data that is held on servers available to client queries is depicted in the figure below.

1.4.3 Differences between PCs and a NOS:

In a NOS environment, PCs serve as clients. The user can access local PC resources by
utilising the features of the PC's native operating system. These consist of programmes,
documents, and directly associated gadgets like printers. The local user can access nonlocal
or distant resources as if they were a part of the local system when a PC becomes a client in a

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NOS environment thanks to additional specialised software. By enabling remote services as

extensions of the local native operating system, the NOS expands the client PC's reach.

On a PC, many users may have accounts, but only one of those accounts is ever actually
used. In contrast, a NOS offers concurrent access to shared resources by several customers
and supports multiple user accounts at once. Servers must accommodate multiple users and
serve as the central location for shared resources used by numerous clients. Specialized
software and extra hardware are needed for servers. The server must have many user
accounts and be able to support simultaneous access by several users to network resources.

1.4.4 Multiuser, multitasking, and multiprocessor systems:

To handle multiple concurrent users and offer shared access to network services, resources,
and devices, NOS servers must run operating systems with additional functionalities beyond
those of client PCs.

An adaptive system is a NOS server. Internally, the OS must be able to run several activities
or processes concurrently through the scheduling software integrated in the execution
environment. This software divides up the system's resources, such as memory and internal
processor time, among various tasks so that they can share them. On a multiuser system, each
user is supported internally by a different task or process on the server. As users connect to
the system, these internal jobs are produced dynamically and are removed when users
disconnect.

Characteristics
1. NOSs disperse their operations across a number of computers on the network.
2. It includes features that let several users to access shared resources at once.

3. Specialized software on client systems enables them to ask for shared resources that
are managed by server systems in response to a client request.

4. The capability of the client PC is increased by the NOS by permitting remote services
as extensions of the local native operating system.

5. NOS permits concurrent access to shared resources by several customers and supports
multiple user accounts at once.

6. A NOS server can do multiple tasks. Internally, the OS must be able to run several
activities or processes concurrently.

7. Multiprocessing systems are those that have many processors installed. They have the
ability to assign each task to a different processor and carry out many tasks concurrently.

8. NOS servers are computer systems with additional memory to handle numerous jobs
running simultaneously in memory.

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9. To store shared files and supplement the system's internal memory, more disc space is
also required on servers.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

3. The domain name system is maintained by _______

a) distributed database system b) a single server
c) a single computer d) none of the mentioned
4. Configuration management can be divided into two subsystems:
reconfiguration and __________
a) Documentation b) Information
c) Servers d) Entity
5. Performance management is closely related to _________
a) Proactive Fault Management b) Fault management
c) Reactive Fault Management d) Preventive Fault Management

1.5 DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

Theoretically, programmes may refer to hosts, mailboxes, and other resources by their
IP addresses, but it is hard for people to remember these addresses. If Ameer writes emails to
[email protected], she will also need to change her email address if her ISP or business
transfer the mail server to a different computer with a different IP address. ASCII names
were developed in order to distinguish machine names from machine addresses. Ameer
might have an email address like [email protected] in this scenario. To transform ASCII
characters into network addresses, however, because the network only understands numerical
addresses, is necessary. In the parts that follow, we'll take a closer look at how this mapping
is carried out online. The ARPANET's hosts and their IP addresses were listed in the
straightforward file called hosts.txt. All the hosts would carry it back from where it was kept
every night.
However, everyone realised that this method could not persist indefinitely once
thousands of PCs and minicomputers were connected to the internet. The file would first
become unmanageably large. The fact that host name disputes would continue unless names
were centrally maintained, which is untenable given the load and latency of a huge
international network, is even more crucial. To address these issues, the Domain Name
System (DNS) was designed. The creation of a distributed database system and a hierarchical
domain-based naming structure are the core components of DNS. It can be used for more
things outside just translating host names and email addresses to IP addresses. The RFCs
1034 and 1035 define DNS.
In a nutshell, DNS works as follows. When a name has to be mapped to an IP
address, application software calls the resolver library operation and provides the name as an
input. In Fig. 1.4, we saw a resolver example called gethostbyname. A local DNS server
receives a UDP packet from the resolver, which it uses to look up the name and return the IP

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address to the resolver, which finally gives it back to the caller. With the IP address at hand,
the software can next connect via TCP or transmit UDP packets to the target.

Fig 1.4: Different Types of Services (Source: Tanenbaum, A. S. (1996). Computer

networks. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall PTR)

1.5.1 The Domain Name Space

It is not straightforward to manage a sizable and dynamic set of names. In the postal
system, name management is accomplished by mandating that letters include the addressee's
nationality, state or province, city, and street address (either tacitly or explicitly). There is no
mistake between the Marvin Anderson on Main St. in White Plains, New York, and the
Marvin Anderson on Main St. in Austin, Texas, thanks to this type of hierarchical addressing.
DNS operates similarly. The Internet is conceptually divided into more than 200 top-level
domains, with several hosts covered by each domain. Each domain is divided into
subdomains, which are then divided again, and so on. As seen in Fig. 7-1, a tree can be used
to represent each of these domains.
The tree's leaves stand in for domains without any subdomains (but do contain
machines, of course). A leaf domain may represent a firm and have thousands of hosts, or it
may only include a single host. There are two types of top-level domains: generic and
country. The initial generic domains included com (for commercial use), edu (for educational
institutions), gov (for the federal government of the United States), int (for some
international organisations), mil (for the U.S. armed forces), net (for network providers), and
org (for profit/nonprofit organizations). Each entry in the country domains corresponds to a
nation as defined by ISO 3166.
The tree's leaves represent domains with no child domains. Three other niche top-level
domains were also added at the request of certain sectors. These are the museums,
cooperatives, and the aerospace industry (museums). Future additions will include other top-
level domains.
A second-level domain, such name-of-company.com, is typically simple to obtain. To
verify that the intended name is available and not already being used as a trademark by
another party, go to the registrar for the relevant top-level domain (in this case, com). If there
are no issues, the name is given after the requester pays a nominal annual fee. The path
leading up from each domain to the (unnamed) root serves as its name. Periods, which are
pronounced "dots," are used to separate the parts. Instead of a UNIX-style name like
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/com/sun/eng, the engineering division at Sun Microsystems might be referred to as

eng.sun.com. Because of the hierarchical name convention, eng.sun.com does not clash with
the Yale English department's prospective usage of eng in eng.yale.edu. White Plains, New
York, and Austin, Texas' Marvin Anderson on Main Street. DNS operates similarly.
The Internet is conceptually divided into more than 200 top-level domains, with
several hosts covered by each domain. Each domain is divided into subdomains, which are
then divided again, and so on. As seen in Fig. 7-1, a tree can be used to represent each of
these domains. The tree's leaves stand in for domains without any subdomains (but do
contain machines, of course). A leaf domain may represent a firm and have thousands of
hosts, or it may only include a single host. Both absolute and relative domain names are
possible. In contrast to relative domain names, absolute ones usually conclude with a period
(for example, eng.sun.com.). Relative names must be understood in a certain context in order
to be uniquely understood. A named domain in both situations refers to a particular node in
the tree and every node below it. Edu, edu, and EDU all have the same meaning in domain
names because case is irrelevant. Full path names cannot be more than 255 characters, while
component names can be up to 63 characters long.
In theory, there are two ways to insert domains into the tree. For instance, cs.yale.edu
might just as easily be listed as cs.yale.ct.us under the US nation domain. In reality, however,
the majority of American organisations fall under a generic domain, while the majority of
organisations outside of the US fall within the domain of their nation. Although there is no
law prohibiting registering under two top-level domains, few businesses besides
multinationals do it (e.g., sony.com and sony.nl).
. Japan, for instance, mirrors the edu and com domains with the ac.jp and co.jp domains. In
the Netherlands, all organisations are listed under the prefix nl without difference.
Consequently, each of the following three is a department of computer science at a
university:

1. cs.yale.edu (Yale University, in the United States)

2. cs.vu.nl (Vrije Universiteit, in The Netherlands)

3. cs.keio.ac.jp (Keio University, in Japan)

A new domain cannot be created without the domain it will be included in giving its
consent. For instance, if a new university is established, let's say the University of Northern
South Dakota, it needs to request the unsd.edu domain from the edu domain management.
Name conflicts may be avoided and each domain can keep track of all its subdomains in this
fashion.

1.6 NETWORK MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Monitoring, testing, configuring, and troubleshooting network components to satisfy

a set of specifications established by an organisation can be summed up as network
management. These requirements include a network that runs smoothly and effectively and

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offers users a predetermined level of service. First, in this section, we'll quickly go over a
network management system’s feature.
In general, managing configuration, faults, performance, and security can be said to
be the four major categories into which a network management system's tasks fall.

1.6.1 Configuration Management:

Network management can be summed up as testing, monitoring, and c A big
network often consists of hundreds of units that are linked to one another either physically or
intellectually. These entities initially have a configuration that may change over time in the
network. Users can choose which groups they belong to, desktop PCs can be upgraded to
newer versions, and software applications too can be updated to a newer version. The
condition of each entity and its relationship to other entities must always be known by the
configuration management system. Reconfiguration and documentation are the two
subsystems that make up configuration management.

1.6.2 Fault Management:

These days, complex networks can contain hundreds or even thousands of
components. For the network to perform successfully, each component must function
correctly both on its own and in reference to other components. Fault management is the area
of network management that addresses this issue. Reactive and proactive fault management
are the two subsystems of a successful system.

Reactive Fault Management

This system is in charge of finding, identifying, fixing, and documenting errors. It
deals with quick fixes for problems. A reactive fault management system starts by
pinpointing the precise location of the defect. A system that is experiencing an abnormality is
said to have a fault. When a malfunction happens, either the system stops working properly
or it produces a lot more errors. An outstanding example of a weakness is a compromised
communication route. This error may obstruct communication or result in several mistakes.

Proactive Fault Management

The goal of proactive fault management is to stop errors before they start. Despite not
always being practicable, certain failures can be anticipated and avoided. For instance, it is a
good idea to replace a component or portion of a component before the manufacturer's
specified lifetime. Another illustration would be if a failure frequently occurs at one specific
spot in a network, it would be prudent to cautiously redesign the whole network to stop the
fault from occurring in a loop.

1.6.3 Performance Management:

In order to make sure the network is operating as efficiently as possible, Fault
management is strongly tied to performance management, which makes an effort to track and
manage it. Performance management makes an effort to measure performance using some
measurable parameter, such as capacity, throughput, or response time.

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1.6.4 Security Management:

Security management is in charge of limiting network access according to the predetermined
policy.

1.7 SUMMARY

Protocols, are the set of rules allowing processes to communicate, make up network
software. Protocols might be connection-oriented or connection-less. The majority of
networks allow for protocol hierarchies, where each layer serves the layers above it while
shielding them from the specifics of the protocols employed at the lower tiers. Typically,
either the OSI model or the TCP/IP model serves as the foundation for protocol stacks. The
network, transport, and application levels are the same for both, but the remaining layers are
different. Multiplexing, flow control, error control, and other design concerns are examples.
This book spends a lot of time discussing protocols and their creation. Networks offer their
users services. Both connection-oriented and connectionless services are available. One layer
of certain networks provides connectionless service, whereas another provides connection-
oriented service.
In general, managing configuration, faults, performance, and security are the four
major categories used to group together the tasks carried out by a network management
system. The Domain Name System is thoroughly explained.

1.8 GLOSSARY

DNS: Internet domain names are located and turned into Internet Protocol (IP) addresses
using the DNS naming database.

Network Operating System: A network is a medium via which different independent

computers can connect and communicate with one another.

1.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Dynamic DNS 4. Documentation

2. Name server records, hostname-to- 5. Proactive Fault Management
address records, and hostname aliases
3. Distributed database system

1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

• Explain the Domain Name System (DNS) and domain name space with suitable
example.
• Discuss the main difference between connection-oriented and connectionless services.
Illustrate your answer with relevant examples
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1.11 REFERENCES
• Tanenbaum, A. S. (1996). Computer networks. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice
Hall PTR.
• Kurose, J. F., & Ross, K. W. (2001). Computer networking: A top-down approach
featuring the Internet. Boston: Addison-Wesley.

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

• Stallings, W. (2000). Data and Computer Communication. Upper Saddle River, N.J:
Prentice Hall PTR.
• Forouzan, A. B(2009). Data Communication and Networking. 4 th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill.
• Peterson, L.(2008). Computer Networks: A System Approach. 4 th Edition, Elsevier
Publication, 2008.

**************LMS Feedback: [email protected]**************

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UNIT-IV

INTRODUCTION OF NETWORKS: OSI NETWORK

MODEL AND TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

Dr. Yashwant Singh

Associate Professor and HoD
Department of Computer Science and IT
Central University of Jammu, J&K
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 The OSI Reference Model
1.3.1 The Physical Layer
1.3.2 The Data Link Layer
1.3.3 The Network Layer
1.3.4 The Transport Layer
1.3.5 The Session Layer
1.3.6 The Presentation Layer
1.3.7 The Application Layer
1.4 The TCP/IP Refence Model
1.4.1 The Internet layer
1.4.2 The Transport Layer
1.4.3 The Application layer
1.4.4 The Host-to-Network Layer
1.5 Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model
1.5.1 A Critique of OSI Model and Protocols
1.5.2 A Critique of TCP/IP Reference Model
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After undergoing this chapter, you should be able to understand:

• The seven tiers of OSI reference model
• Thorough understanding of each layer of the OSI model
• Functionalities of each layer of the OSI model
• Thorough understanding of TCP/IP model and its four tiers
• Complete knowledge of protocols used in each layer
• Resemblance between OSI and TCP/IP
1.2 INTRODUCTION

A set of norms or standards must be developed for the communication process in

order to share information from one computer to another computer. These set of norms
assist computers to receive and understand the information. The specifications guarantees
that various devices and products can interact with one another over any type of network. A
network reference model is a collection of these standards. There are several networked
models that are currently beingexecuted. However, the OSI and TCP/IP models will be the
focus of this unit.

Fig 1.1: OSI Reference Model (Source: Tanenbaum, A. S. (1996). Computer

networks. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall PTR)

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The two most significant models, the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference
model will be comprehended in detail in the subsequent two sections.Though the protocols
linked with the OSI model are no longer widely utilised, the model itself is fairly generic and
still applicable. The characteristics addressed at each layer of the OSI reference model
are very essential. The TCP/IP paradigm depicts the reverse properties: the model itself isn't
very useful, but the protocols of TCP/IP reference architecture are widely utilised. As a
result, we shall examine both of them in depth. Additionally , failures can teach you more
than successes achieved.

1.3 THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL

The OSI architecture without the physical tier is demonstrated in Fig. 1.1. This
architecture is based on an ISO proposal that was prepared as a first draft toward
international standardisation of the protocols utilized in the various tiers (Day and
Zimmermann, 1983). It was updated in 1995 (Day, 1995). The concept is known as the ISO
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Architecture because it is concerned with
connecting open systems, or systems that may communicate with other systems. We'll refer
to it as the OSI Reference model in brief.

The OSI model consists of seven tiers. The main principles used to reach at the seven tiers
are described concisely as follows:

1. A tier must be built where distinct abstractions are required.

2. Each layer should have a specific purpose.
3. Each layer's function should be chosen with a view toward developing internationally
recognised standards.
4. Layer boundaries should be designed so that information flows as little as possible
between interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be extensible so that diverse functionalities are not forced to
coexist in the same layer, but small enough that the design does not become cumbersome.

Subsequently, we will go over each and every tier of the architecture in turn starting with the
lower layer. It must be taken into account that the OSI model is not a network architecture
because it could not identify the specific services and protocols to be employed in each layer.
It simply specifies what must be accomplished by each tier. However, ISO has developed
standards for all of the levels, which are not included in the reference model. Such standards
must be followed and released internationally.

1.3.1 The Physical Layer:

The physical layer is in charge of sending raw bits across a communication link. The
design issues are around guaranteeing that when one side sends a one bit, the other side

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receives a one bit rather than a zero. Typical questions entail around the volts required
to represent a 1 and how many volts needed for representing a 0 bit, a bit lasts for how many
nano seconds, whether transmission can occur in a full duplex mode at the same time, how
the initial connection is set up and how it is ripped down when both sides have completed
communcation, and how many pins the network connector has and what is the purpose of
each pin . Mechanics, electric, and temporal connections, as well as the physical transmission
channels underlying the physical layer, are the primary design difficulties here.

1.3.2 The Data Link Layer:

The data link tier's primary function is to transform a raw transmission facility into a
line that appears to the network layer to be free of undiscovered transmission faults. It
achieves this by having the sender segregates the incoming data into data frames (often a few
hundreds or a few thousands bytes) and broadcast the frames in sequence. In a dependable
service, the receiver responds to each frame with an acknowledgement frame.
Another challenge that instigate in the data link tier and the upper layers is how to
limit a speedy transmitter from overwhelming a slow data recipient. A traffic control system
is usually necessary to notify the transmitter of the recipient's actual buffer space. Flow
control and error control are commonly coupled.
Broadcast networks encounter an extra issue at the data connection layer: managing
access to a common channel. This is handled by the medium access control (MAC) sublayer,
a sublevel of the data connection layer.

1.3.3 The Network Layer:

The network tier is accountable for the proper operation of the subnet. A significant
design challenge is identifying how packets are routed from sender to the receiver. Static
tables are fixed for the network and are rarely updated can be used to build routes. Routes
can be predetermined at the beginning of every communication, for example, a terminal
session such as a remote login machine. Finally, networks can be extremely dynamic, with
each new data packet determining a new route to meet the current demands of the neywork.
If there exist several packets in the subnet simultaneously, they will interfere with
each other, causing bottlenecks. Addressing such congestion is likewise the responsibility of
the network layer. More broadly, network layer issues include service quality (delay, transit
time, jitter, and so on).
Many challenges emerge when a packet is transmitted from one network to another in
order to arrive at the target. The addressing method of the other network may vary from that
of the first network. Due of the varied packet size, the second one may completely reject it.
The protocols may differ, and so forth. It is the sole responsibility of the network
layer to resolve all of these challenges so that all heterogeneous ecosystems can be
integrated.

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Because of the fact that the routing issues in the broadcast networks are typically
simpler, the network layer is often weak or nonpersistent.

1.3.4 The Transport Layer:

The primary function of transport layer is to take data from upper layers, break it up
into smaller chunks if necessary, transmit it to the network layer. This ensures that the
entire information arrive successfully at the other side. The whole process must be
performed efficiently that shields the upper layers to not get affected from the unforeseen
events in hardware technology.
The transport layer is responsible for dedicating services to the session layer and,
eventually to network users. The common type of transport link is a fault free point-to-point
channel that transmits messages or bytes in the sequence as they were sent. Other types of
transport services include the carriage of independent messages with no surety of delivery
order and the message broadcasting to multiple locations. The type of service is determined
when the connection is established. (As a side note, an fault-free channel is impossible to
achieve; what people genuinely imply by this term is that the error rate has dropped enough
that it can be ignored in practise.)
The transport level is truly an end-to-end layer, connecting the source and destination
all the way around. In other terms, a programme on the source machine interacts with a
programme on the destination system via header and control messages. Protocols in the lower
layers lie between every machine and its closer neighbours, rather than between the utmost
sending and receiving machines, which could be segregated by multiple routers. The Figure
1.1 depicts the distinction between chained layers 1 through 3 and end-to-end layers 4
through 7.

1.3.5 The Session Layer:

The session layer enables sessions to be established between users on multiple
machines. Sessions provide a variety of functions, such as dialogue control (keeping track of
who is transmitting), orchestrating tokens (restricting more than one party to perform the
same task at the same time), and synchronisation (checkpointing longer transmissions to
resume from where they were stopped due to collapse).

1.3.6 The Presentation Layer:

The syntax and semantics of the information are dealt by the presentation layer. This
is in contrast with the bottom layers, which are closely involved with transferring bits
around. The presentation tier permits machines to interact with one another having distinct
data formats. The data structures needed will be specified in an abstract manner along with
standardised encoding to be utilised "on the wire." These abstract data structures are
controlled by the presentation tier, which allows for the construction and exchange of higher-
level data structures. For example: financial records.
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1.3.7 The Application Layer:

A variety of protocols are entailed by the application layer that end users frequently require.
The most commonly and widely used protocol is HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) that
forms the basis of World Wide Web. Once a request for a web page is sent by the web
browser , it sends the URL to the server using HTTP. This in turn fetch the page from the
server. Other application protocols are utilised for the transfer of file , electronic mails,
and E-news.

1.4 THE TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

Now let's move on from the OSI reference model to the model one used in the
ARPANET, the forefather of all broad area computer networks, and its descendant, the
global Internet. A brief history of the ARPANET will be covered later on. As of now, it is
important to mention few key features of it. The ARPANET was a Department of Defense-
sponsored research network (U.S. Department of Defense). Eventually, leased telephone
lines were used to connect hundreds of colleges and government facilities. With the existence
of radio and satellite networks in the later stage , the prevalent protocols struggled to connect
with them, necessitating the creation of a entirely new reference model. As a result, one of
the primary design goals from the beginning was the ability to connect many
networks seamlessly. This concept was dubbed the TCP/IP Reference Model after the release
of its two major protocols. It was first stated in (Cerf and Kahn, 1974). A subsequent point of
view is offered in (Leiner et al., 1985). The design concept of the model is outlined in (Clark,
1988).
Considering the Department of Defense's apprehension that a number of its valued
routers, hosts, and internetwork gateways could be smashed to bits at any time. Another
essential need is the network’s capability to withstand subnet hardware failure without
breaking off ongoing communications. In other words, the DoD expected connections to
stay consistent in case of operational state of source and destination machines, despite the
fact that several transmission connections or systems may accidently shut off. Furthermore,
a versatile architecture was required because applications with varying needs, ranging from
file transfer to real-time speech transmission, were envisaged.

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Fig 1.2: TCP/IP Reference Model (Source: Tanenbaum, A. S. (1996). Computer

networks. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall PTR)

1.4.1 The Internet Layer:

Due to the anticipated requirements, a packet switching is most preferable in a
connectionless internetwork layer. The Internet layer is the keystone for keeping the entire
architecture integrated. The responsibility of the internetwork layer is to permit hosts to
disseminate packets in any network so that packets independently move to the destination. If
the arriving sequence of the packets is different from the sending sequence then it becomes
the responsibility of upper tiers to correct the sequence as desired. Despite the fact that this
layer is included in the Internet, the word "internet" refers to its generic sense
The analogy used here is the (snail) mail system. A sequence of foreign letters is fed
to the mailbox of one country and fortunately all are arrived at the actual address of the
destination country. The foreign letters certainly pass via more than one international postal
gateways along the way, but this will be apparent to the consumers. Also, users are unaware
of the abstract details that each country required i.e owned postal network stamps, length of
envelopes, and delivery rules.
The internet layer specifies the Internet protocol called IP and packet formats. The
functionality of internet layer is to transit IP based data packets to the desired destination.
The main challenge here is certainly the packet routing, to mitigate data congestion. For these
reasons, it is plausible to mention the TCP/IP internet layer and the OSI network layer are
functionally equivalent. This relationship is depicted in Figure 1.2.

1.4.2 The Transport Layer:

The transport layer lies above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model. The transport
layer aims to permit peer to peer entities to interact in a similar fashion as occurs in case of
the transport layer of OSI on the sender and receiver hosts. The TCP and UDP are the two
end to end protocols specified in this layer. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a
connection oriented and dependable protocol. The TCP ensures the stream of byte to pass
from one machine to another machine errorlessly.The incoming stream of bytes is divided

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into distinct messages and sends to the internet layer. The TCP process at the receiving end
performs the reassembling of the messages to convert it into the output stream. The flow
management is also taken taken care by the TCP to avoid the ovelwhelming of fast sender on
the slow receiver that cannot be tackled.
The other protocol on the list is the UDP (User Datagram Protocol). The UDP is a
connectionless and unreliable protocol. UDP does not concern about the sequencing and flow
control as opposed to TCP and intends to provide its own. The UDP is widely used in a client
server and request response model for single time communication. UDP is most preferable in
applications where spped is more crucial than accuracy. For example: streaming speech or
video. The Figure 1.3 depicts the relationship between IP, TCP, and UDP. IP has been
applied on many additional networks since the Model gas was invented.

Fig 1.3: Protocols and Networks in TCP/IP Model (Source: Tanenbaum, A. S.

(1996). Computer networks. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall PTR)

1.4.3 The Application Layer:

The presentation and session layer is absent in the TCP/IP model. These both layers
were not included in the TCP/IP model because of no urgent requirement of it. This
viewpoint has been confirmed by the observation in the OSI model: they are of limited utility
to most applications.
The application layer is the topmost layer lies above the transport layer. All the top
level processes are included in the application layer. As indicated in Fig. 1.3, the earlier ones
consists of virtual terminal like TELNET, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Electronic Mail
(SMTP). The TELNET allows user on one machine to operate and communicate with the
remote machine. The File Transfer Protocol shares data from one machine to another
efficiently in the form of files. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is used for sending and
receiving mails. In the later stage, many protocols were included in the application layer like
Domain Name System (DNS) for the mapping of host addresses to the network
addresses.The NNTP is used for transporting usenet news to the news servers and HTTP for
fetching webpages from the WWW.

1.4.4 The Host-to-Network Layer:

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There is a big discrepancy beneath the internet layer. The TCP/IP reference model doesn't
explain much about what is happening here , excepting that the hosts must be connected to
the network in order to transmit IP packets. This protocol is not specified and varied between
host to host and network to network. The TCP/IP model is rarely discussed in books and
articles.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. How many layers are there in OSI reference Model?

2. Which layer handles the Logical addressing and routing?
3. Which layer handles the Flow control and error control?
4. Dialog control and synchronization are the function of which layer?
5. Encryption and compression are the function of which layer?
6. File transfer, and access management are the functions of which layer?

1.5 COMPARISON OF OSI AND TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

Both the OSI and TCP/IP reference models share many similarities. Both are built
around the idea of a stack of separate protocols. Furthermore, the functioning of the different
tiers is essentially comparable. For example, the upper tiers including the transport layer to
offer network independent and end to end transport services to the connected proceses. The
transport provider is made up of these layers. Similarly, the layers lie over the transport layer
are application oriented for the users of transport services in both the models.
The two models are distinct in its own sense inspite of all underlying similarities. The
similarities and differences of both the reference models are discussed in this section. It is
vital to understand that we will compare reference models instead of protocol stacks. The
protocols itself will be comprehended later on. For the comparison and contrast of the
TCP/IP and the OSI model refer an elaborated book (Piscitello and Chapin, 1993).

The OSI model is built around three concepts:

1. Services.
2. Interfaces
3. Protocols
The distinction between the three notions mentioned above recognized the significant
contributions of the OSI model. Each layer is intended to offer services to the upper layers
lie above it. The services associated with layers defines the performance of each layer rather
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than how the services are accessible to those entities or how the functionality of each layer
occur. The services defines the semantics of the layers.
The interface provides a way to access the processes above it. It takes into account the
parameters to consider and the expected outcomes. In addition, it is ignorant about the core
functionalities of the layers.
Finally, the employed protocols are the important part of the layers business. In order
to perform the job , layers can employ the protocols whenever needed. Also, it has the
privilege to alter the protocols without impacting the upper level applications.

These notions mesh well with modern concepts of object-oriented programming

(OOP). Here, a layer is analogous to an object consists of a number of methods often called
by processes externally. The semantics defines the group of services offered by an object in
these methods. The expected results and the parameters forms the interface of the object. The
protocol is an internal code of an object which is invisible and does not hold any significance
outside of the object.
Though, the TCP/IP model does not differentiate well with the services, interfaces,
and the protocols, therefore attempts have been made to make it similar to look like OSI
model. As an example, the responsibility of the internet layer is to receive and send packets
that are IP based.
As a result, the OSI protocols are concealed as compared to those in TCP/IP model
and could be modified effortlessly with the evolution in technology. Therefore, with how
much ease these alterations can be made are the key reasons for the layered architecture for
protocols is the first thing that remains in mind.
The OSI reference model was developed before the relevant protocols were devised.
This ordering indicates that the model was not biassed toward a specific set of protocols,
which made it highly general. The disadvantage of this ordering is that the designers had
little knowledge with the subject and had no idea which functionality to put in which layer.
For an instance, a point-to-point communication is only sustained by the data link
tier. Later, on appearance of broadcast networks , the model required the addition of a new
sublayer. Once the actual networks started to develop based on the OSI model , it was
recognised that the OSI model does not fulfil the specified services on requisite. Hence, the
additional converegence layers are built in scion with the model to give a better place for
documentation over the differences. The standardised committee initially assumed to have a
single network for every country that would be orchestrated by the Govt. based on the
protocols of the OSI. But at that time, internetworking among components is not considered.
To make an extended story brief , things were not proceed as intended.
The protocols are first released if we talk about the TCP/IP model. Then, the model
only illustrates the functioning of prevalent protocols. The protocols were perfectly suited to
the model. They were a fantastic fit. But, the biggest challenge is the incompatibility of the
model to operate with other protocol stacks. As a result, it was not significant to describe non
TCP/IP networks.
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Now, shifting from more theoretical point of view to the technical view , one
foreseeable difference is in the count of layers in both the models. The OSI model
incorporates seven tiers. On the other hand, TCP/IP model has four tiers. Both models are
similar in internetwork, transport, and application tiers and the remaining tiers are different.
Other noticeable distinction lies in the connection and connection oriented services.
In the OSI paradigm, both connectionless and connection oriented services are permitted.
But, only connection oriented services are available in the transport tier as it is perceptible to
the users. On the other side, the network tier of the TCP/IP model permits connectionless
service but both services are permitted in the transport tier thereby provides an option to the
users. This option is particularly crucial for simpler request-response protocols.

1.5.1 A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols:

The protocols of both the models are neither perfect. Therefore, both the models
faced a lot of belittling. We will consider indepth the criticisms based by the OSI and the
TCP/IP model in the subsequent sections. We will first initiate with the OSI paradigm and
then shift to the TCP/IP.
When the second version of this book was published in 1989, many professionals in
the fields expected that the protocols of the OSI model rule over the globe and puts
everything in its place. Unfortunately, the things would not occur as expected. Why? The
appraisal of some of the teachings may be of some benefit. These lessons can be summed up
as follows:

1. Bad timing.

2. Bad technology.

3. Bad implementations.

4. Bad politics.

Bad Timing
Let us begin with the first reason: poor timing. The timing of the establishment of a
standard is essential to its success.
The basic OSI protocols appear to have been smashed. By the time the OSI protocols
arrived, the competitive TCP/IP protocols were already widely used by research communities
in universities. Various companies in the market had already started supplying TCP/IP
products with cautious even when the billion dollar investment had not yet reached. At the
time when OSI model was arrived, they show rejection to support the revised protocol stack
unti forced so there was no initial options. Each firm waits for an another firm to take an
initial step first, in such a scenario the OSI was never happened.

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Bad Technology
The other reason behind the failure of the OSI model is the imprecise protocols. The
seven tiers were selected based on the political purposes rather than the practical implications
are missing.The session and presentation tiers are nearly empty and data connection and
network are overflowed.
The OSI paradigm, as well as the underlying definitions of the services and protocols
becomes quite complicated.
Aside from being incomprehensible, another issue with OSI is that certain operations,
like addressing, flow management, and error control, appear repeatedly in each tier. For
example, Saltzer et al. (1984) emphasises on the correction of errors on the higher layers
beforehand because repetition in lower layers often becomes superfluous and inefficient.
Bad Implementations
The increasing intricacy of the model and protocols makes it difficult to perform
actual implementations that were troublesome, massive, and steady. One who attempted this
was incinerated. Therefore, it didn't take longer time for people to judge the term "OSI" with
"inferior quality." Although the entities gets improvised eventually.
Contrastly, the earlier executions of TCP/IP paradigm was added in Berkeley UNIX
and it becomes fairly successful. Most frequently people started to use it which results into a
big user association. This results in early upgrades with more people joins to form a big
community. In this case, the spiral was ascending rather than descending.
Bad Politics
Due to the untimely executions many academicians and researchers assumed TCP/IP
a part of the UNIX system. In 1980s the UNIX system in academics is not like fatherhood
then inappropriately considered as motherhood or apple pie.
On the other side, the OSI paradigm was broadly considered as the formation of
European Telecom and European associations, and eventually by the US Govt. This was
partially correct to some extent , but the notions of the Govt. officials brings the technical
inferior standards in the minds of the academicians and developers operating in trenches to
built computer networks does not assist much. Some perceives this expansion similar to the
IBMs announcement in 1960 that declares PL/I is the forthcoming language. Later, DoD
gives statements by correcting that it was actually Ada not PL/I.

1.5.2 A Critique of the TCP/IP Reference Model:

The TCP/IP concept and protocols does not exist without flaws. First, the model fails to
distinguish between the ideas of services, protocols, an interfaces. A good software
engineering practise necessitates distinguishing between the specification and executions,
which OSI paradigm did precisely but TCP/IP did not. As a result, the TCP/IP paradigm does
not serves the purpose of a guidebook for building new networks with emerging technology.
Secondly, the TCP/IP paradigm is insufficiently generic to describe protocol stack
except the TCP/IP. For instance, portraying the functionality of Bluetooth using the TCP/IP
paradigm becomes unfeasible.
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Thirdly, the host-to-network tier does not actually constitute the layer in the general
sense as it is mentioned on account of layered protocols. The host-to-network tier serves the
interface between the network and the data link tier. The compare and contrast between an
interfaces and layers is an important part and must not be taken carelessly.
Fourthly, the physical and data link layers are not distinguished (or even mentioned)
in the TCP/IP paradigm. These layers are entirely different. The transmitting qualities of
copper cables, fibre optic cables, and wireless transmission are all addressed by the physical
tier. The functionality of the data link tier is the delimiting of the start and end frames to
transmit them from one end to the other end with certain level of fidelity. Both layers should
be included as different layers in a realistic paradigm. This is not supported by the TCP/IP
paradigm.
Finally, even the TCP and IP protocols were well planned and executed, the rest of
the protocols are still temporary. The Adhoc protocols are improvised over time by fresh
graduates until they got restless. The protocol executions were freely disseminated, resulting
in extensive usage, deeply established, and consequently difficult to alter. Some of them are
now an embarrassment. TELNET, for example, was developed for a mechanical Teletype
terminal that could output 10 characters per second. It has no concept of graphical user
interfaces or mouse. Nonetheless, it is still widely used 25 years later.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
7. How many layers are supported by TCP/IP reference model?
8. OSI stands for __________
a) open system interconnection b) operating system interface
c) optical service implementation, d) open service Internet
9. TCP/IP model does not have ______ layer but OSI model have this layer.
a) session layer b) transport layer c) application layer d) network layer
10. Transmission data rate is determined by ____________
a) network layer b) physical layer c) data link layer d) transport layer

1.6 SUMMARY

This chapter starts with an overview of the OSI reference model. It provides
thorough knowlege of the various layers and functionalities of the OSI reference model. The
chapter emphasizes on the clear understanding of how the communication occur in a
network. In addition, it also discussed the TCP/IP model. The TCP/IP and OSI models were
compared, along with their similar and distinguished features.
In a nutshell, inspite of all its shortcomings, the OSI model devoid of the session
and presentation levels has proved to be an essential part for understanding computer
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networks. The protocols of OSI, on the other hand, have not gained popularity. TCP/IP is the
inverse: the model is virtually non-existent, but the protocols are broadly utilised and
discussed. Because the computer experts preferred to hold all the cards, hence we will utilize
a modified OSI model in this book however will emphasize on TCP/IP and associated
protocols, as well as on the latest ones such as 802, SONET, and Bluetooth.

1.7 GLOSSARY

Network: A group of computers sharing resources located on or provided by network nodes.

Protocol: An established set of rules that determine how data is communcated between
different nodes in the same network.

1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. 07 7. 04
2. Network layer 8. Open system interconnection
3. Data link layer 9. Session Layer
4. Session Layer 10. Physical Layer
5. Presentation Layer
6. Application Layer

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the two ways in which the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference
model are the same. Now list two ways in which they differ.
2. Discuss the main difference between OSI and TCP/IP reference models. Illustrate
your answer with relevant examples.

1.10 REFERENCES

• Tanenbaum, A. S. (1996). Computer networks. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice

Hall PTR.
• Kurose, J. F., & Ross, K. W. (2001). Computer networking: A top-down approach
featuring the Internet. Boston: Addison-Wesley.
• David M Piscitello., A.K Chapin, (1993). A Lyman Chapin Open systems networking
: TCP/IP and OSI. Addison-Wesley
• Day , Zimmermann, (1983). The OSI reference model. Proceedings of the IEEE.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

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• Stallings, W. (2000). Data and Computer Communication. Upper Saddle River, N.J:
Prentice Hall PTR.
• Forouzan, A. B(2009). Data Communication and Networking. 4 th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill.
• Peterson, L.(2008). Computer Networks: A System Approach. 4 th Edition, Elsevier
Publication, 2008.

**************LMS Feedback: [email protected]**************

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UNIT V: Emerging Technologies in Libraries

LESSON 9
Expert Systems in Libraries
Dr. Gareema Sharma
Assistant Librarian
National Institute of Technology Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 What is an Expert System?
1.3.1 Applications of an Expert System
1.4 Components of an Expert System
1.5 Features of an Expert System
1.6 Developing an Expert System
1.6.1 Stages involved in the development of an Expert System
1.7 Application of Expert Systems in Libraries
1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Answers to In-text Questions
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this lesson, the students will study about the concept of the Expert System, which
has evolved from Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology which has introduced a new
paradigm for dealing with knowledge and reasoning processes in human experts. After
reading this lesson, the students will be able to define and explain the Expert System and its
application in Libraries. The students will also study the basic components of an Expert
System and the various stages involved in developing an Expert System.

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1.2 INTRODUCTION

Expert systems are computer-based systems that utilize knowledge and reasoning techniques
to solve various problems which normally require human intelligence. The knowledge
obtained from experts and other primary and secondary sources such as textbooks, journal
articles, manuals and databases is entered into the system in a coded form, which is then used
by the system's inferencing and logical reasoning processes to offer advice as per the request
(Morris, 2011).

1.3 WHAT IS AN EXPERT SYSTEM?

Expert System is linked with Artificial Intelligence. Artificial Intelligence (AI) may be
defined as programming a computer to perform activities that, if done by a person who be
"thought to require intelligence. Artificial intelligence brings together computer scientist and
engineers and psychologists in "various areas of its potential application. A major thrust of
AI is to develop artificial intelligence in the development of computer so that it can work like
human intelligence such as reasoning, learning, and problem-solving. The fields of Artificial
Intelligence include the areas of natural language processing, robotics and expert system.

It is also called knowledge-based information system. It is an area of artificial intelligence

(A.I.) that can claim a large responsibility for the current artificial intelligence awareness and
also beneficial to the information system in the organization and so it is called an expert
system,

An expert system contains knowledge about a particular field to assist human experts or
provide information to people who don't have access to an expert in (the particular field.
Human experts in any field are frequently in great demand and are therefore remains always"
in short supply. The scarcity of expertise is limited to medicine. Whether you are repairing an
automobile, drilling an oil well, or a chemical process, there are times when you can access
the knowledge, experience and judgment of an expert, which is valuable access in that field.
Expert systems are computer-based systems that simulate human decision-making. They can
integrate with information systems to improve their accuracy and performance (Singh et al.,
1996).

Sometimes problems are so complex that an expert system is required. An expert system is
an artificial intelligence computer program specially designed to assist 'human expertise in an
particular domain (area of expertise).
An expert system has the following needs:
(i). New approach to business organization.
(ii). Expertise
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(iii). knowledge
(iv). Competence
(v). Smart Automated equipment (Hardware and computer)

Expert system acts as intelligent assistance to human experts as well as assisting people who
have not access to experts.

1.3.1 Applications of an Expert System

Expert system has the following applications in different fields:

• Prediction: In Weather forecasting, Crops estimation.

• Diagnosis: In Medical Field, Electronics Items.

• Designing: In Circuit designing, budgeting.

• Planning: Automatic programming, Military planning.

• Debugging: Computer software.

• Replace: Computer automobile.

• Control: Air traffic control, Simple traffic control.

• Troubleshooting: Hardware etc.

• Organizing: Management tools.

• Production: Manufacturing unit.

1.4 COMPONENTS OF AN EXPERT SYSTEM

There is no standard expert system because various techniques are used to create an expert
system. Every expert system differs from the other because they have different programmers
for developing an expert system. Also, a different problem occurs during the development of
an expert system.

Generally, three components are used in any expert system, which are standard solutions to
all problems.

These components are:

• The Knowledge base

• The Inference Engine

• User Interface
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Fig. 1: Components of Expert System

1) Knowledge Base:
The knowledge base in an expert system contains codified knowledge, which is structured
differently from book knowledge. Usually, the knowledge base of an expert system contains
'facts' and the relation between them. There are two kinds of facts: public facts and heuristics.
Public facts are generally known as published rules (generally available) and agreed
knowledge, e.g. cataloguing rules. Heuristics are the human expert's personal (and often
unwritten) knowledge (e.g., skills in cataloguing). The major difference between
'conventional' database and expert system database methodology is that a knowledge base of
an expert system is more creative (Dubey, 1996).

Early in the history of Artificial Intelligence, many scientists believed that by simulating the
process of human reasoning, computer could solve the problem without hearing the access of
large amount of specific knowledge. This attempt was unsuccessful. The current approach
taken by AI scientists developing an expert system is the; opposite of the initial report. It is
now considered vital that if an expert system is to give intelligent advice about a particular
domain, it must have too much knowledge from its domain to process the system.

The component of expert system that contains the system knowledge is called, its knowledge.
This element of the system is critical in the way that most expert system are constructed by
using this component and so they are popular as knowledge based systems.

A knowledge base system contains both declared knowledge (facts about objects, events, and
situations) and procedure knowledge (information about course of action).

It is the most important element of an expert system. The major factor in the knowledge base
is how the knowledge is represented; it contains both the facts that describe the problem area
and knowledge representation techniques that fit these facts; into a logical manner. The
knowledge base contains the information and rules that the expert system uses to make
decisions.

Depending upon different rules, the expert system will use the different rules, if these rules
may apply in different decisions in different situations. For example, If an "expert system

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contains 50 rules. Decision 1 may use 8, 12. 42 and 46 rules. Similarly, "For decision 2, we
may use rules 1, 7, 22, 32 and 40.
Two systems represent the knowledge base:

(i) Rule-based Systems: These generally consists of certain rules and a database which is
continuously updated as the problem is being solved.

Basically rules generate the actions to be taken on the prevailing 'conditions'- If 'condition 1
differs, then the action courses also differentiate.
For example:
If SMITH is an analyst
THEN he needs a workstation
ELSE he needs another system
(ii) Frame-based Systems: A frame-based system represents knowledge using a network of
nodes. Each node represents an attribute and a value associated with each node. A different
rule of a set may not be Delinked from each other, but their logical relationships can be easily
maintained.

2) Inference Engine:
lnference engine stands between the user and the knowledge base. It performs two major
tasks: first, it examines existing facts and rules, and adds new facts wherever possible, and
secondly, it decides the order in which inferences are to be made. In doing so, the inference
engine conducts the conclusion with the user (Dubey, 1996).

The inference engine components of an expert system controls how and when the
information in the knowledge base is applied. Simply knowledge does not make you an
expert; you also must know how and when to apply appropriate knowledge. The inference
engine decides which heuristic search techniques are used and determines how the rules in
the knowledge base are applied to the problems. Ineffective and inference engine also runs an
expert system by determining which rules in the knowledge base is executing and when and
why it will be executed .

3) User Interface:
User interface is one of the important components which enables the user in communication
with the expert system. Most of the expert systems are interactive and need users to input
information about a particular situation before they can offer any advice. Most of the existing
user interfaces of expert systems are menu-driven, accepting single words or short phrases
from the human user (Dubey, 1996).

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The most sophisticated expert system becomes useless if there will be no user for the
communication of the expert system. The expert system's component that communicates with
the user is known as the user interface. The communication performed by user interface is bi-
directional. A user is expected to perform additional function. Note that a user interface must
be GUI (graphic user interface) based.

Also user interface creates an environment to answer all the queries by the user. From time to
time, all the error messages and the error handling technique be available through the user
interface.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Expert System is linked with Artificial Intelligence. True/False
2. The fields of Artificial Intelligence include the areas of natural
language processing, __________and __________________.
3. ____________are computer-based systems that simulate human
decision making.
4. The component of the expert system that communicates with user is
known as_______________.
5. The ______________ in an expert system contains codified
knowledge which is structured in different manner from book
knowledge.

1.5 FEATURES OF AN EXPERT SYSTEM

Each expert system has its own particular characteristics. There are several features common
to many systems. Every feature plays an important role for the development of an Expert
System. These features are:

1). The program should be useful. An expert system should be developed to meet a specific
need.

2). The program should be in a usable form, i.e. It is usable for the designing of a new
system.

3). An expert system may be used by non-experts, who should be able to increase their own
expertise by using the system.

4). An expert system should be able to explain the reasoning process such that it creates some
conclusion and allows the user for further investigation.

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5). An expert should be able to answer questions about the point that may not be clear to
users.

6). The programmer should be able to learn new knowledge about the field. It asks you
questions of such type that you gain additional information.

7). An expert system is of such type that you should able to revise the knowledge of an
expert system easily and correct errors or add new information to the expert system.

1.6 DEVELOPING AN EXPERT SYSTEM

It is very difficult to develop an expert system. Some times, a few months or more than a
year time may be required for the development of an expert system.

There are two categories of people required for the designing and the development of an
expert system:
(i) Knowledge engineer
(ii) Domain Expert

Knowledge engineer and domain expert both work together to design an expert system. In
other words, these are the two sides of a coin and goes side by side till goal will achieved. A
knowledge engineer is an Artificial Intelligence (AI) specialist and a Domain expert is an
individual who has experience in a particular area or domain. A Knowledge engineer must
have the good knowledge of a particular computer language.

1.6.1 Stages involved in the development of an Expert System

There are mainly five stages to develop an expert system:

• Identification

• Conceptualization

• Formulization

• Implementation

• Testing

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Fig. 2: Stages involved in the Development of Expert System

I). Identification:
In the identification stage of the development process, the knowledge engineer and Domain
expert work together closely to describe the problems the expert system intends to solve. The
description may be revised several times before both of them are satisfied with it. Also,
additional resources, such as other experts, other knowledge engineers and reference
material, are identified in the identification stage.

2). Conceptualization:
In the conceptualization stage, the knowledge engineer frequently' creates a diagram of the
problem to depict the relationship between the objects and processes in the problem domain
graphically. It is often helpful at this stage to decide: the problem into a series of sub-
problems and to diagram both the relationships among the pieces of each subprogram and the
relationship among the various sub-programs'. During conceptualization, it is sometimes
necessary to revise the system.

3). Formulization:
In the formulization stage, the knowledge engineers select the development techniques for
the expert system. Also, it selects the tool used to form an expert system. In this stage, Ai
researchers are looking for ways to reduce the amount of time.

4). Implementation:
During the implementation stage, the formalized concepts are the programs that are compiled
and executed into the computer chosen for system development.

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5). Testing:
A testing process is used to verify that the system has been constructed correctly. Testing
provides an opportunity to identify the weakness in the system's structure and
implementation and make the appropriate corrections. In the testing phase, also the
knowledge engineer revises the structure, if any problem occurs during implementation.
Implementing an expert system is not successful until the system provides valid solutions as
valid as those of a human expert.

1.7 APPLICATION OF EXPERT SYSTEMS IN LIBRARIES

Expert systems have been used successfully in commerce and the knowledge domain (in
finding faults in vehicles and computers), and increasingly they are being employed in
service sectors including medical health care. Much research is going on today on Librarian
Robots in the area of services. The Librarian robots can be used in large libraries. This robot
reduces a lot of common and duplicate activities in different places of the library, especially
at the library’s repository. For example, this robot can be helpful in shelf-reading activities
(Asami, Ko and Nowkarizi, 2021). Today the technology can boast a wide range of
application areas in the field of library and information systems, some of which are discussed
below:

i. Library Administration
Library management and its activities apply to repetitious and time-consuming
activities. Hence, many libraries are moving toward automation of their activities to
increase efficiency and effectiveness. Library administration deals with several
complex problems daily. Some of these includes budgeting, staff, and planning
various library activities. During budget constraints, the administrator must determine
what items may be reduced or cut and how much quantity. Whether manpower
should be reduced or whether subscription of some serials should be cancelled? An
expert system could help assist the administrator in making such important
management-related decisions. An Expert system may can developed which is
composed of the heuristics (rules-of-thumb) that the librarians can use to make such
decisions (Morris, 1992).

ii. Staff Management

An expert system might be useful in the recruitment and selection of new staff or in
promotion and placement activities. Using certain specific criteria such as
qualifications and experience required for the job, an expert system could be
developed to assist in the recruitment and selection process. An expert system could
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be developed to determine which staff members should receive appraisals or

dismissal (Morris, 1992).

iii. Planning
An expert system using information from existing or new patterns and type of
material usage could help to plan for remodeling or reforming the new facilities. The
system would help the administrator to determine where the circulation desk should
be located, where the photocopier should be placed, and which place is best suited for
the OPAC terminals so that the users can utilize the terminals more efficiently
(Holthoff, 1985).

iv. Technical Services

One of the most important areas for developing expert systems in libraries is technical
services. There is many research in this area which shows the focus of researchers
and the community towards the advancement of Technical services like cataloging,
classification and collection development in the libraries (Kemp, 1988).

v. Cataloging and Classification

Expert systems have been developed to create MARC record and to apply some of the
rules in AACR-2 for cataloging. Roy Chang developed a cataloging expert system
based on the rules in AACR-2. He determined its usefulness was limited because the
system had no means of interpreting the rules. In this opinion 'cataloguing problems
today are too widespread for employing an expert system (Chang, 1990).
Classification is also a difficult area for an expert system: While there are guides to
determine classification numbers and subject headings, there are no strict rules
available, and the relationship between objects and classes are often ambiguous.
Research is progressing in developing systems for assigning subject headings and
class numbers (Travis, 1990).

vi. Collection Development

There are only two possible responses when one considers new materials for
acquisition or old materials for discarding; yes or no. It is easier to develop an expert
system with only two possible responses. There has been at least one successful
attempt at building an expert system for collection development at Applied Physics
Library (Debrower & Jones, 1991).

vii. Reference Services

Expert systems would be useful for assisting patrons in locating materials and
information. Expert systems may prompt the user for the type of information needed
and display materials that may contain it (Kemp, 1988).

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1.8 SUMMARY

The usefulness of expert systems in library and information science will depend on the
availability and efficiency of the libraries' latest software and hardware facilities. The
libraries need to develop, purchase and maintain interactive knowledge-based expert systems
to serve their clientele (Singh et al., 1996). The study and analysis of users' information-
seeking behavior can prove very beneficial to design expert intelligent systems in libraries.
We can use expert and intelligence systems in variuoslibrary activities and information
services. These activities may include the provision of information resources, the
organization of information resources such as classification, indexing, and abstracting, the
storage and retrieval of information from library systems, reference and information services,
and circulation activities (Asami, Ko and Nowkarizi, 2021).

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

6. __________and______________both work together to design an expert

system.
7. A Knowledge Engineer must have good knowledge of a particular
computer language. True/False
8. Expert systems have been developed to create MARC record and to apply
some of the rules in AACR-2 for________________.

1.9 GLOSSARY

Artificial Intelligence: The theory and development of computer systems able to perform
tasks usually requiring human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition,
decision-making, and translation between languages.
Component: a part or element of a larger whole, especially a part of a machine or vehicle.
Domain Expert: A domain expert is a person with special knowledge or skills in a particular
area of endeavor (e.g. an accountant is an expert in the domain of accountancy). The
development of accounting software requires knowledge in two different domains:
accounting and software.

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Expert System: A piece of software which uses databases of expert knowledge to offer
advice or make decisions in such areas as medical diagnosis.

Knowledge Engineer: A knowledge engineer is a professional engaged in the science of

building advanced logic into computer systems in order to try to simulate human decision-
making and high-level cognitive tasks. A knowledge engineer supplies some or all of the
"knowledge" that is eventually built into the technology.

User Interface: This means how the user and a computer system interact, in particular, the
use of input devices and software.

1.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. True 5. Knowledge base

2. Robotics and Expert system 6. Knowledge Engineer and Domain Expert
3. Expert systems 7. True
4. User Interface 8. Cataloguing

1.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is an Expert System? Explain in detail.

2. What are the Components of an Expert System? Give a detailed description.
3. What are the Applications of Expert Systems in Libraries?
4. What are the stages involved in the development of an Expert System?
5. What is Artificial Intelligence? Elaborate.

1.12 REFERENCES

Asemi, A., Ko, A. & Nowkarizi, M. (2021). Intelligent libraries: a review on expert systems,
artificial intelligence, and robot. Library Hi-Tech, 39 (2): 412-434. DOI 10.1108/LHT-02-
2020-0038.
Chang, R. (1990). Developing a cataloguing expert system III. Libri, 72(8): 592-96.

De browser, A.M. & Jones, D.T. (1991). Application of an expert system to collection
development: Donation processing at a special library. Library Software Review, 10(6): 385-
89.

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Dubey, Y.P. (1996). Expert Systems and their Application in Library and Information
Science. DESIDOC Bulletin of Information Technology, 16(4): 3–8.

Holthoff, T.N. (1985). Library Expert Systems in Encyclopaedia of library and information
science.New York: Marcel Dekker.38(9):158-75.

Travis, I. (1990). Applications of knowledge-based system to classification in libraries in

expert systems in libraries (edited by R. Aluri and D.E. Riggs. New Jersey: Ablex, Norwood.
222–93.
Kemp, D.A. (1988). Computer-based Knowledge Retrieval. Aslib, London.

Morris, A. (2011). The Application of Expert Systems in Libraries and Information Centres.
Germany: K. G. Saur Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110977806.

Singh, D.K., Singh, B.K. & Dubey, Y.P. (1996). Expert Systems and their Application in
Library and Information Systems. DESIDOC Bulletin of Information Technology,16(4):9-1 2.

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Brooks, H.M. (1987). Expert systems and Intelligent Information Retrieval. Information
Processing Management, 23(4): 367–92.
O’Neill, M. & Morris, A. (1989). The contribution of library and information science to
expert system development. The Electronic Library, 7(5): 295–300. Doi: 10.1108/eb044908.

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13 | P a g e

© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 M-104 Information and Communication Technology Applications in LIS (Theory)

UNIT V: Emerging Technologies in Libraries

Library Security Technology: RFID, Barcode, Smart Card

Dr. Neeraj Kumar Singh
Deputy Librarian
A C Joshi Library
Panjab University, Chandigarh
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Library Security
1.4 Barcode Technology
1.4.1 Types of Barcodes
1.4.2 Barcode Scanner
1.4.3 Use of Barcode in the Library
1.4.4 Benefits and Limitations of Barcode
1.5 RFID System
1.5.1 Definition of RFID
1.5.2 Components of RFID
1.5.3 Current Use of RFID
1.5.4 Benefits of RFID Technology
1.5.5 Problems with RFID Technology
1.5.6 Latest development in RFID
1.6 Smart Card
1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Answers to In-text Questions
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions
1.11 References
1.12 Suggested Readings
 1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

This lesson presents a brief overview of Library security technologies, such as RFID,
Bar Code, Smart Card, etc. This lesson will teach students about what is RFID technology,
RFID components, applications of RFID in Libraries, etc. The lesson also focuses on the use
of Bar Code, Smart card applications in libraries for providing efficient library services and
security of library collections.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Library is a "temple of learning" that significantly contributes to societal

advancement. Academic libraries' collections include a wide variety of materials, including
journals, books, pamphlets, CDs and DVDs, patents, reports, theses, etc. Various factors
such as environment, atmospheric hazards, natural disasters, patron and staff behaviour, etc.,
might damage library collections. Therefore, valuable resources of the libraries need extra
care in terms of security. With the help of ICT, various library security technologies and
systems are available in the market which can be used in the libraries. At present, the
adoption of a preventive security system is the best policy for avoiding any mishappenings in
the libraries. The academic libraries must acquire modern electronic security gadgets to
control and avoid the physical, environmental and technological risks which inversely effect
the smooth running of library services.
Libraries have been early adapter of various ICT applications since the beginning.
RFID is providing various advantages to the libraries and many institutions around the world
have either implemented or in the process of implementing this technology. So it is high time
to learn in details about RFID, Bar Code, Smart Card, etc.

1.3 LIBRARY SECURITY

Since its inception, the library has utilised a variety of security measures. It has both
contemporary technological technology and traditional manual systems. Traditional security
systems are based on humans, whereas, modern security systems are made by technological
support. These systems can help prevent unauthorized removal of collections and makes
feasible the monitoring and detection of the users in general reading and reference rooms, as
well as shelves area.
Table 1: Types of Security Systems in Academic Libraries
Traditional and Electronic Security Electronic- Modern Security Systems
Systems
• Locks & Key system • CCTV cameras
• Installing Grills and Net on Windows • Electronic recording
• Single Door Entry-Exit for Staff & • RFID system
 User
• Security Guards Employed to Patrol • 3M exit detection
• Security Guards Employed to Patrol • Alarm systems installed
• Fire Extinguisher & Security • Moisture sensor
Equipment
• ID Cards and Access Authorization • Moisture sensor
• Signature of Every user • Fire /smoke sensor
• Security Clearance procedure • Biometrics
• Smart Card
• Air conditioner for Humidity control

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. What are the different Types of Security Systems in Academic Libraries list any
five

2. Difference between traditional and modern Security Systems?

1.4 BARCODE TECHNOLOGY

Barcoding is a computer-aided process of generating codified information, which is

subsequently printed on predefined stationery, invariably on a self-adhesive label for several
later applications. It is an automatic identification technology. Barcode is a preferred format
of dark bars and white spaces. It is structured to contain specific piece of information. It
allows real-time data to be collected accurately and rapidly. Combination of barcode
technology with computer and application software improves performance, productivity and
profitability.
1.4.1 Types of Barcode
Generally there are two types of barcode, which are discussed below:
One-Dimensional (1D) Barcode:
Barcodes representing data in the widths (lines) and the spacings of parallel lines such as
Code128, Code 39, and UPC, are referred to as Linear or 1D (one-dimensional) barcode
symbologies.
• Holds less than 85 characters (symbology specific character limit).
 • A majority of customers are set up to use Linear barcodes (Linear scanner).
• Creates a wide barcode.
• May be difficult to scan from phone and tablet cameras.

Fig 1: 1D Barcodes

Two-Dimensional (1D) Barcode:

Two-dimensional (2D) barcodes, such as Data Matrix, PDF417, and QR Code, may
have patterns of squares, dots, hexagons and other geometric patterns. While maintaining a
fairly small size, these barcode types hold much more data than linear barcodes. 2D barcodes
can hold hundreds of characters.
• Encodes/holds hundreds of characters.
• Requires a 2D barcode scanner.
• Creates a smaller barcode than 1D.
• Easily scanned from phone and tablet cameras.
 Fig2: 2 D Barcodes

1.4.2 Bar Code Scanner

Barcodes come in various sizes, shapes and forms, and you need a barcode scanner
which can scan it all quickly. A bar code scanner comes with fast sensors that can read
complex code in less than seconds. A Barcode scanner also known as barcode reader
interprets a Barcode by scanning a light source across the Barcode and calculating the
intensity of light replicated back by the white spaces. The pattern of replicated light is
identified with a photodiode which produces an electronic signal that exactly matches the
printed Barcode pattern. This signal is then construed back to the original data by inexpensive
electronic circuits.

Fig 3: Barcode Scanner

1.4.3 Use of Barcode in the Library

Barcode technology plays an important role in automating the functions of the library,
especially the circulation process. Application of Barcode increases the speed and accuracy in
operations. Barcode technology provides a simple and inexpensive method of encoding text
information that is easily read by inexpensive electronic readers. Barcoding also allows data
to be collected rapidly and with extreme accuracy
How does Barcode work?
As we know that a Barcode is a square or rectangular image containing a series of parallel
black lines and white spaces. The information is programmed among the length of each
shaded line and the space between them
• A scanning device uses a laser to "read" the Barcode by scanning in the unique bar of
shaded lines.
• A Barcode scanner reads the lines from left to right.
• A Barcode scanner reads the pattern of black and white bars which turns the
information in the binary code (0 or 1).
• The computer reads the information in the binary forms only and the same is
displayed on the screen of the monitor.

1.4.4 Benefits and Limitations of Barcode

The main aim of today’s libraries and resource centres in adopting Barcode
technology is to improve library procedures by increasing the efficiency of library
transactions, reducing workloads of the library staffs, and improving services for library
users. Data obtained through Barcode is available rapidly and precisely, Barcode reduces the
possibility of human errors, Barcode is inexpensive to design and print and promote better
verdict making. Despite the benefits of Barcode in libraries, there are few shortcomings,
having Barcode does not guarantee the effectiveness and efficiency of services rendered.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
3. Discuss different types of barcodes

4. Write down advantages of using bar codes in The libraries

5. Barcode provides security of Library Collections? Yes/No

1.5 RFID SYSTEM (Radio Frequency Identification Technology)

Most of the time of the library staff is taken up by the circulation and shelving of the
reading material in a library. Most of the libraries around the world are using barcode
technology for circulation management due to its low cost. However, the main drawbacks of
barcode technology are:
1. that it always requires a line-of-sight
2. It does not provide security of library collection,
 3. It does not help in collection management
Thus, it is becoming very difficult for the libraries to satisfy the increased demands of
the users. So the need for a new technology arises, so as to improve the library circulation
management, for inventory control and enhanced security of library collections. RFID
provides a solution to such a problem, by reducing the amount of time required to perform
circulation operations. As the librarians are always known to embrace latest technology, they
have started using RFID to provide circulation services in a more effective and efficient
manner, for security of library collections and to satisfy the increasing demands of the users.

1.5.1 Definitions of RFID

• According to Brown, "RFID is an automatic identification technology that put “tags”
on objects (documents, people, animals, vehicles, containers, etc.) so they can be
identified, tracked and managed automatically utilizing radio frequency equipment
and supporting computer systems”.
• According to MacMillan Dictionary (online),” RFID is a technology that uses labels
that produce radio signals to identify things such as goods, farm animal s and vehicle.
RFID has replaced bar codes in some shops.”
• According to Automatic Identification and Data Capture (AIDC), “Radio Frequency
identification is a technology that uses radio waves to transfer data between a reader
and an electronic tag which is attached to a particular object. Typical uses are for
object identification and tracking."

1.5.2 Components of RFID System

RFID Tag
An RFID tag, also referred to as transponder, smart label, smart tag, or radio barcode, is
a tiny radio device. The two main components present of an RFID tag are: a small silicon
chip or integrated circuit which contains a unique identification number (ID) and an antenna
that sends and receives radio waves. The antenna contains a flat, metallic conductive coil and
a chip which is less than half a millimetre in size.
Readers and Antenna
The interrogator or reader is the second component in a basic RFID system. Reader
units are technically transceivers (i.e. both a transmitter and a receiver) and their role is to
send a query to the tag and also to receive data from it. The RFID reader converts radio
waves received from RFID tags and passes it to the middleware software. An RFID tag
reader uses antenna for communication with the RFID chip. It can read as well as update
information stored in the RFID tag. Hence, an RFID reader does both the tasks of receiving
commands from the application software and communication with tags.

Middleware
 The Middleware manages the flow of information between the backend and the readers.
They extract data from the RFID tags and manage data flow to the backend, as well as they
perform the function of basic filtering and reader integration and control. The middleware
assist in retrieving data from readers, generating inventory movement notifications,
monitoring tag, capturing history and analyzing events read by tag for application tuning and
optimization.
Server
RFID system may be configured on a server which then acts as a communication
gateway among the various components of RFID. It performs the function of receiving
information from the readers, checks the information against its own database or exchanges it
with the circulation database of the LMS. The server is typically a transaction database so
that reports can be created.

1.5.3 Current Use of RFID

RFID systems have been used quite extensively for various types of applications such as
tracking, identification, access management, etc. Currently, RFID is being used in different
areas, i.e., product distribution chain, manufacturing inventory accounting and control,
hospital patient identification, patient treatment and medication recording, library, museum,
art gallery item identification, logging, security and control, smart card technology,
commodity purchase, travel cards, police investigation evidence tagging and location, mass
transport carrier baggage handling, asset management and tracking, motorway tolls, food and
pharmaceutical ‘best before date’ control , pharmaceutical authentication, animal tagging and
passports, etc. Some of the applications of RFID are discussed below:

RFID in Healthcare Sector

In a hospital environment, RFID has been used in tracking equipment, tracking patients and
tracking staff. With the use of RFID technology, it is possible to save many lives and prevent
harmful situations. RFID technology has been used in managing or storing various resources
like blood samples, drugs and patients. All the medical equipment attached with an RFID tag
allow locating the equipments dynamically, stopping theft and reducing time to find assets
and increasing utilization of the equipments. The number of staff needed to search for lost or
misplaced equipment can drop significantly, resulting in significant manpower savings. By
using active RFID wrist band tags, the patient can be easily tracked across hospital and their
movement can be controlled from unwanted/restricted places. In addition, RFID can track
patient admission, discharge and transportation.48 In Pharmaceutical sector, an RFID tag
provides logistics benefit to manufacturing units and electronic pedigree in distribution units
and also prevents theft. Called the “Nurse Nanny” by some, RFID systems help hospitals
control staff cost. In addition, the system can track how much time the staff members are
actually spending with their patients.
RFID in passports
To maximize security in US sea borders and land crossings, US Passport cards are now
equipped with RFID chips that store personal information and identification ofthe travelers in
a secure government database. In 2008, the US began implementing the use of RFID-tagged
passports. Passport card contains RFID chip that does not reveal any information about the
traveler. With the help of an antenna and RFID readers installed in the vicinity, pertinent
information about the traveler such as name, age, nationality, sex, place of birth, date of birth
and photograph can easily be detected.
RFID in supply chain management
In today's retail market, accurate identification and tracking of goods is essential. More than
ever before, there is pressure on manufacturers, distributors and retailers to maximize
efficiency, minimize cost and provide the best possible value to the end-customer. RFID is
being used to manage products through production, distribution and retail. Manufacturers can
especially benefit from implementing RFID application in supply chains because they can
decrease costs associated with product tracking and inventory management and increase the
accuracy and timeliness of inventory data. RFID application in distribution can be used to
monitor and manage the movement of the finished products throughout a supply chain. RFID
tags can be attached directly to the items and materials or they can be attached to the
containers that carry them. RFID application in retail can greatly aid in reducing the cost of
keeping accurate inventory data. With fewer people and less time, retailers can keep accurate
inventories. Associates can spend more time providing service to customers rather than
counting products. RFID applications are also a significant aid in deterring theft in retail
environments. Items tagged with RFID devices can trigger alarms when they are removed
from the store without being properly deactivated. RFID applications have been successfully
deployed for anti-theft purposes for several decades. It also offer solutions when it is
impractical to use other technologies or c o manual labor to collect data. Thus, RFID enables
the enterprises to achieve improved tracking and visibility of high-value items from the
source to the destination, reduced errors in shipping of goods to wrong places, inventory
visibility and efficient stocking of goods, improved production planning and smarter recalls
and therby reducing counterfeit products.

RFID in toll payment systems

Toll delay is one of the major contributors of road congestions. Application of RFID in toll
payment system proves to be an effective, easier, faster and efficient toll collection solution
that eliminates delay in toll payments. RFID system helps in identifying and classifying
vehicles through the antenna mounted on toll collection stations. Through the RFID Tags
attached to the vehicles, the system is able to determine some of the vehicle’s important
information such as the vehicle’s chassis, plate number, year model, color, body type,
owner’s name, franchise, late registration date, route and its engine number, etc. The
utilization of RFID system secures travelers with less road congestion and traffic delay due to
the elimination of toll interruptions.
Application of RFID in libraries
Barcode technology is one such tool, which is being used to improve the efficiency of
libraries all over the world. RFID is an identification technology; it does the same job as
barcodes but offers potentially a lot more. While RFID technology is not new, the use of
RFID technology in libraries is new. Singapore Public Library is probably the first library to
implement the application of RFID technology in 1998. The use of RFID by libraries all over
has grown drastically in the last few years. The RFID technology by libraries has made it
possible to inventory thousands of items available in their collections in a few days instead of
taking months. In addition, it allows users to check out and return library items at any time of
the day. Besides keeping collections in better order, speeding up checkouts and eliminating
repetitive strain injuries among librarians, RFID provides a control on theft, non returns of
library items and also misfiling of a library’s assets. The use of RFID by libraries over the
last few years has grown dramatically. A large number of libraries in developed countries
have adopted this technology and due to its usefulness and efficiency, libraries in the
developing countries like India have also started implementing RFID in libraries.
1.5.4 Benefits of RFID Technology
Circulation
The circulation of materials is the primary area in libraries where RFID is used. Rather
than the barcode systems commonly in use in libraries RFID has a number of advantages. In
case of Barcode the user has to align the barcode with the infrared beam for the reader to read
it. The Barcode systems used vary in how precise this presentation must be, and therefore it
takes time to align the item for reading. RFID does not require any alignment. Items can be
placed in any position across the check out pad and thus issue is relatively quick. RFID has
made possible faster check out materials and easy to learn self check-out so that they can
perform better even with less staff. Some of the benefits are: queues at circulation desk
/counter are reduced and the library can provide the facility of long hours of circulation
without any additional staff. The library staffs are freer to provide other users’ services with
the implementation of RFID system. It saves time of the library staff, as well as that of the
user and the number of staff required to manage circulation desk is also reduced.
Collection development
Collection development is a vital process in creating and building a library qualitatively.
Collection development involves the identification, selection, acquisition, and evaluation of
library resources for a community of users. Collection development is at the heart of the
mission of libraries. It is in being able to meet the needs of individuals with the “right stuff”.
The various RFID components such as, Self-checkout / Book drop / DLA etc. provide usage
statistics/ transaction reports etc. that can be used as a tool for optimal and qualitative
selection/acquisition of library materials, thus making RFID helpful in collection
development in libraries.
Increased Security
The RFID technology has great security capabilities. The barcode system provides only
circulation capabilities, but to create an effective security system along with it some other
technology must be used. RFID is an improvement over the barcode systems because the
RFID tag interacts with both the security technology and the circulation system. The RFID
tag has a security chip that is activated when the item is checked out. The security gates
installed read the tags as the user exits the library and alarm is raised if items pass through the
security gates that have not been deactivated i.e. if the item has not been issued.
For the past decade or more the “tattle-tape” solution was dominant but was found to be
unsatisfactory. The point of concern was in terms of patron service and staff time. The
accuracy level of the security gates of previous system was poor, leading to many false
alarms. The staff was required to ask users to empty backpacks or bags in search of the
source of the alarm because the alarm system could not identify correctly the offending item.
When the alarm turned out to be false it was an embarrassing situation for both the user and
for the library staff. With the RFID system, most libraries reported greater satisfaction with
the accuracy of the security system (fewer false alarms).
Inventories
RFID systems offer the ability to perform inventory checking function quickly using hand-
held scanners. It allows the library staff to perform an inventory check without removing
items from the shelves as is required when doing an inventory manually or on barcoded
items. For the inventory capability interaction between the RFID system and the library’s
Integrated Library System (ILS) is required. In some cases libraries needed upgrades to their
ILS that would permit the RFID system to interact with the library database. Some libraries
had bought the inventory taking equipment but had not begun using it. Some libraries were
primarily interested in using RFID to inventory particularly the most active areas of their
collections whereas others intended to perform full inventories using RFID.
Closely linked with this inventory function is the potential use of portable RFID assistants to
find requested items that might have been misplaced. This capability is seen as an increased
service to users as well as making it easier for staff to find the requested items. This could
also result in savings in terms of time and also because the libraries can fulfill requests from
their own collection rather than purchase duplicate copies or making requests to other
libraries for the mis-shelved items. It can lead to potentially reduce the amount of staff time
spent searching for items that are listed as on the shelves but cannot immediately be located.
Cost Reduction
Most of the libraries anticipated reduction of costs for circulation staff. Check-in of items by
staff as well as self check-in was expected to be faster, and some libraries reported that the
check- in with RFID equipment was more accurate than it had been with the barcode system.
Libraries that anticipated a reduction in staff numbers deployed at the circulation desk were
looking forward to redeploying staff in other areas of the library and providing a variety of
enhanced user services. The staff was expected to be relieved of repetitive motions that shall
be achieved through reduction in the frequency of staff used in checking out materials as the
users themselves will be doing most of the check out.

1.5.5 Problems with RFID Technology

There are difficulties in RFID adoption and implementation in the libraries. Some of them are
• Cost of the technology is relatively high
• Senior management support is usually lacking
• Staff is hesitant to adopt the new technology
• Library professionals lack ICT expertise
• Many challenges in implementation
• LMS compatibility is required
• Challenges in integration
• Proper RFID standards and protocols are lacking
• Limited RFID vendors in India
• Issue of user privacy
1.5.6 Latest development in RFID.
Similar to other identification technologies such as radio-frequency identification (RFID),
barcodes, and QR codes, near-field communication (NFC) is a short-range (4–10 cm)
wireless communication technology. NFC is based on the existing 13.56 MHZ RFID
contactless card standards which have been established for several years and are used for
payment, ticketing, electronic passport, and access control among many other applications.
Data rates range from 106 to 424 kilobits per second. A few NFC devices are already capable
of supporting up to 848 kilobits per second which is now being considered for inclusion in
the NFC Forum specifications.1Compared to other wireless communication technologies
NFC is designed for proximity or short-range communication which provides a dedicated
read zone and some inherent security. Its 13.56 MHz frequency places it within the ISM
band, which is available worldwide. It is a bi-directional communication meaning that you
can exchange data in both directions with a typical range of 4–10 cm depending on the
antenna geometry and the output power.
NFC is convenient and fast: the action is automatically triggered when your phone comes
within 10 cm near the NFC tag and you get instant access to the content on mobile, without a
single click.3RFID and NFC technologies are similar in that both use radio waves. Both
RFID and NFC technologies exchange data within electronic devices in active mode as well
as in passive mode. In the active mode, outgoing signals are basically those that actually
come from the power source, whereas in case of passive mode the signals use the reflected
energy they have received from the active signal. In RFID technology the radio waves can
send information to receivers up to hundreds of meters away depending on the frequency of
the band used by the tag. If provided with high amount of power, these signals can also be
sent to extreme distances (e.g., in the case of airport radar). At large airports it typically
controls traffic within a radius of 100 kilometers of the airport below an elevation of 25,000
feet. RFID is also used very often in tracking animals and vehicles.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. Full Form of RFID is------------------------------------
7. Which of the following is not RFID COMPONENT?
A) Self Check B) Book Drop
C) Security Gates D) Web OPAC
8. What is the full form of NFC is?
A) Near Field Communication B) Narrow Field Combination
C) Near file Combination D) Near Field Components

1.6 SMART CARD

 Credit card which has been imbedded with a microprocessor chip. This chip has much
more storage capability than a magnetic strip which is typically found on the back of a credit
card. The storage capability of a microprocessor chip can reach 100 times that of a magnetic
strip. A microprocessor chip can additionally be used to conduct several computing
operations including the encryption of data stored on the card, and hence, offering much
greater security for private and personal information. A magnetic strip card on the other hand
is much more prone to wear and tear and is limited to one application .Smart card technology
has been gaining increased popularity over the past few years on a global level. According to
a white paper by Acer Support, there were over three billion smart cards already in use
around the World as early as the year 2001. Industries utilizing this technology include
telecommunications, banking, healthcare, transportation, entertainment and leisure, vending,
and education. Smart cards are capable of providing secure identification authentication.
They enable citizens to easily carry-around critical personal information, such as health and
financial records. They also enable owners the ability to conduct a multitude of different
transactions such as the purchasing of products and services through monetary value stored
on the card in the form of electronic cash.
Smart cards are becoming more popular within university settings. They enable the
joining of several cards into a single smart card. The level of sophistication of utilized
applications varies from university to another and universities within certain regions of the
World may have varying levels of interest in certain functionality over others. The
complexity associated with activating certain applications make it at times difficult to
implement, and end-users may not be as willing to spend on the expensive technology.
In the library, for effortless productivity, smart cards are used to allow students to
access books easily. At the same time, those smart cards benefit the librarians as well. It
allows management of shelved books. The librarian just has to give a quick digital check to
see the shelved books. He or she can easily find out the location of every book in the library
along with the number of books and other relevant information. These modern technologies
reduce the stress of a librarian regarding the potential thefts. With smart cards, students get
reminders about the due dates, which decrease the chances of overdue. At the same time,
librarians get to maintain an automated collection of due dates for issued books. Smart cards
provide a digitized database, including all the records regarding every student who has ever
entered the library. So, a librarian can simply make a single search to find the records of
students.

1.7 SUMMARY

Security is capricious in nature and application, practiced throughout many domains and
with heterogeneous actors. Owing to this multidimensional nature, the idea of security is
difficult to define. However, the learn about proposed that the notion of protection may
additionally be defined when perception the applied context. In addition, by way of
developing and offering a consensual body of information within the utilized context,
thinking definition may be achieved. Therefore, the study goals have been the tabulation of
the understanding classes of protection and the presentation of these inside an built-in
framework. Security is most vital to forestall from harm of understanding aid and spent
amount on it for users benefit. It is duty of each and every Librarian to put into effect
fantastic security device and measures. If a security program is to be effective, there should
be huge appreciation of the significance of security to the mission of the repository. Proper
safety device ought to put into effect to avoid loss and harm of library series and asset along
with body of workers and user security.
Academic libraries have been plagued with security issues for a long time. It is difficult to
replace materials that are stolen from the libraries or mutilated as such materials may be out
of print or the library may not have the money to purchase a replacement copy. The
traditional ways of manually checking patrons’ bags are both inefficient and not user-
friendly. A better way to deal with security in academic libraries is to embrace the electronic
security systems. That will better ensure an effective security of library materials from theft,
mutilation, or other forms of crimes.

1.8 GLOSSARY

Active Tag: An RFID tag that has its own power source that sends signals to the readers and
antennas. Usually has a battery life of 5-10 years.

Barcode: A Barcode is a number that is coded in the form of varying patterned lines that is
printed on a product or item and read by machines like scanners, phones, and other devices.
The lines are read, decoded, and the code is then used to identify the product or item it has
been printed on.

Barcode Scanner: A device, also known as an optical scanner, that uses a light source
(typically a laser) to scan and decode barcodes.

Frequency: The rate at which cycles of waves occur in a single second. Frequency is
measured in Hertz and 1 Hz is equal to one wave cycle per second. There are several levels of
frequencies in RFID tags that are beneficial for different applications. The four frequencies
that RFID Tags use are low (135 kHz), high (13.56 MHz), ultra-high (860 – 960 MHz), and
microwave (2.4 GHz).

NFC RFID Tags: NFC Tags, or Near-Field Communication Tags operate within the HF
Frequency on a single frequency of 13.56 MHz. NFC tags are incredibly standardized and
operate via ISO 14443 A and B, making them easily adoptable, globally. NFC tags use Near-
Field communication (magnetic coupling) to send and receive data at short distances - on a
few centimeters or inches.

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID): Describes the various methods of using radio
waves to identify unique objects. Typically, this interaction happens when a reader
communicates with a transponder to retrieve information stored on its microchip.
 1.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

5. No 7. D
6. Radio Frequency Identification 8A
Technology

1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Discuss in details about RFID technology, its components and various advanatges and
disadvantages of Using RFID technology in Libraries.
2. Explain about various modern library security technologies and comparison between,
Bar Code, Smart card and RFID.

1.11 REFERENCES

• Singh, N. K., & Mahajan, P. (2014). Application of RFID technology in libraries.

International Journal of Library and Information Studies. 4 (2), 1-8.
• Kotecha, D. H. (2008). Automation in Library using RFID technology: In 6th Convention
PLANNER - 2008, Nagaland University, Nagaland, November 06-07, 2008, INFLIBNET Centre,
Ahmadabad, 76-83. http://ir.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/ 1944/1106/1/3.pdf.

• Singh, J., Brar, N., & Fong, C. (2006). The state of RFID applications in libraries.
Information Technology and Libraries, 25(1), 24-32. https://doi.org/10.6017/ital.v25i1.3326
• Singh, N. K., & Mahajan, P. (2017). Application of Radio Frequency Identification
technology in libraries and information centres: An Indian Perspective. Library Philosophy
and Practice (e-journal), 1614. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/1614
• Brown, D. (2007). RFID implementation (ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Ahson, S., & Ilyas, M. (2008). RFID handbook: Applications, technology, security,
and privacy. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
• Bansode, S .Y.& Desale, S. K. (2009). Implementation of RFID technology in
University of Pune library program. Electronic Library and Information Systems, 43(2), 202–
214. https://doi.org/10.1108/00330330910954406
• Yorkovich, J. D. (2001). Lied Library: At the forefront of technology with 3M digital
ID collection management. New Library World, 102(6), 216–221. https://doi.org/
10.1108/03074800110394596
• Fabbi, J. L., Watson, S. D., & Marks, K. E. (2002). Implementation of the 3M™
digital identification system at the UNLV libraries. Library Hi Tech, 20(1), 104–110.
http://doi.org/10.1108/07378830210420726
• Hopkinson, A., &Chandrakar, R. (2006). Introducing RFID at Middlesex University
learning resources program. Electronic Library and Information systems, 40(1), 89-97.
https//doi.org/10.1108/00330330610646834
• Selamat, M.S., & Majlis, B.Y. (2006). Challenges in implementing RFID tag in a
conventional library. Paper presented at the IEEE International Conference on
Semiconductor Electronics, Kuala Lumpur. http://doi.org/10.1109/SMELEC.2006.381060
• Golding, P., & Tennant, V. (2008). Evaluation of a Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
library system: Preliminary results. International Journal of Multimedia and Ubiquitous Engineering,
3(1), 1-18. http://www.sersc.org/journals/ IJMUE/vol3_no1_2008/IJMUE-2008-03-01-01.pdf

• Ching, Steve, H., & Tai, Alice (2009). HF RFID versus UHF RFID: Technology for
library service transformation at City University of Hong Kong. The Journal of Academic
Librarianship, 35(4), 347-359. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2009.04.005
• Cunningham, M. S. (2010). A case study into the implementation of RFID at the Pilkington
Library Loughborough University (Unpublished Master's dissertation). Retrieved from
https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/bitstream/2134/8820/1/
Upersonal%20fileMAdissertationFinal%20draft%20%28lbmsc%20v1%29.pdf

• Nath, R. (2020). Practice of security system in University Libraries of Assam: a study.

Library Philosophy and practice (e-journal). Digital commons@University of Nebraska- Lincoln.
https://httpsn x3b//digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8982&context=libphilprac

• Barcode support and tutorial from Id Automation and community. ID

Automation.com. https://support.idautomation.com/Barcode-Learning/_412
• Chalukya, B.V.(n.d) Use of barcode technology in Library. You Tube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z8be_KP8xis

• How a Student Smart Card Makes Librarian’s Job Simple . School Smart card Blog
https://www.schoolsmartcards.com/blog/how-a-student-smart-card-makes-the-librarians-job-simple/

• Business Inside India (2004, Jan 4). Best barcode scanners for shop and business.
https://www.businessinsider.in/tech-buying-guides/best-barcode-scanners-in-
india/articleshow/88544229.cms

• Chanda, A. (2019). Barcode technology and its application in Libraries. Library Philosophy
and Practice (e- journal)
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6896&context=libphilprac#:~:text=Appli
cation%20of%20Barcode%20technology%20in,its%20speed%2C%20accuracy%20and%20reliability

• Miza, A.A.& Alghatbar , K. (2009). Acceptance of smart cards technology in

University setting. Eight IEEE international conference on dependable, Autonomic and
secure computing. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5380610
• Lavanya, P. (2017). Security system in libraries: An overview. International journal
of Library and Information Studies, 7(1). https://www.ijlis.org/articles/security-systems-in-
libraries-an-overview.pdf

• Osayande, O.(2010, Dec.31). Electronic Security is academic libraries: A case study

of three University libraries in South- West Nigeria. Chinese Librarianship: An International
Electronic Journal (32). https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/16700994.pdf
• Singh, N. K. (2020). Near-field Communication (NFC). Information Technology and
Libraries, 39(2). https://doi.org/10.6017/ital.v39i2.11811
• RFID Terminology. Atlas RFID store. https://www.atlasrfidstore.com/rfid-
terminology

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

• Singh, N K (2019) . RFID for Libraries: A Practical Approach. New Delhi: ESS.
• Brown, D. (2007). RFID implementation (ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
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UNIT V: Emerging Technologies in Libraries

LESSON 3
Video Conferencing and Audio Conferencing
Dr. Gareema Sharma
Assistant Librarian
National Institute of Technology Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 What is Video Conferencing?
1.3.1 Why Video Conferencing?
1.3.2 Steps involved in Video Conferencing
1.3.3 Advantages of Video Conferencing System
1.3.4 Disadvantages of Video Conferencing System
1.3.5 Current Trends
1.3.6 The Future of Video Conferencing
1.4 Types of Video Conference
1.5 Components of a Video Conferencing System
1.5.1 Benefits of IP Based Video Conferencing
1.5.2 Application of Video Conferencing in Libraries
1.6 What is Audio Conferencing?
1.6.1 Types of Audio Conferencing
1.6.2 Advantages of Audio Conferencing
1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Answers to In-text Questions
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions
1.11 References
1.12 Suggested Readings

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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this Lesson, the students will be introduced to the concept of Video Conferencing
and Audio Conferencing. After reading this lesson, the students will be able to differentiate
between Audio and Video Conferencing system. The students will also study the basic
components which are invovled in Video and Audio Conferencing. This lesson will also
highlight the major advantages and disadvantages of Video and Audio Conferencing system
for the users.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Video conferencing is a live connection or a visual communication session which involves

two or more users regardless of their location for the purpose of communication which
usually involves audio and video and transmission in real-time. There is a use of multimedia
applications in video conferencing that involves two different media in digital form (Umaru
and Oman, 2020. p.2). Video conferencing is not just a substitute for face-to-face tutorials
rather it can also provide features that are not available in face-to-face to enrich the sessions.

Video conferencing is all around the world. It is widely used to conduct meetings and job
interviews, to deliver education and training and it generally overcome the barriers of
distance.

1.3 WHAT IS VIDEO CONFERENCING?

'Video Conferencing' is a two-way synchronous communication of sound and vision. With

the help of videoconferencing technology, people in different places or locations can see and
hear each other in real-time.

In simple words, we can say that 'Video conferencing is the technology which allows
transmission and reception of audio and video data over a network for communication
between users at different remote locations in real-time.

Video Conferencing allows people to meet and share information without any actual meeting
by travelling. With the help of Videoconferencing apart from seeing and hearing we can:

1) Display a close-up of pictures, graphs, maps, and small objects.

2) Play a video type, DVD, CD.

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3) Display your powerpoint presentation or other computer files.

4) Record your session.

5) Collaborate on computer data with others in the session.

1.3.1 Why Videoconferencing?

 It offers real contacts over long distances.

 It offers real time interaction.

 It allows body language.

 The visual contact goes beyond email or other communication.

 It forces the learner to speak another language.

 We learn to use multi-media and to integrate a variety of material in their

presentation.

 It helps to become more aware of cultures, opinions etc., and increase motivation and
self-confidence.

1.3.2 Steps involved in Choosing Video Conferencing System

i. Intended use for the system
- How do we wish to use the equipment.
- Whom are we going to talk.
ii. Number of sites
- How many offices do we need to communicate.
- What resources will each of them have at their disposal.
iii. Number of participants per side
- How many people are to participate in video calls.
- What kind of videoconferencing set-up for each location.
- Same videoconferencing set-up for every location?
- More deluxe systems for the headquarters
iv. Size of the room(s)
- Where do we want to put the equipment?
v. Connectivity
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- ISDN, BRI, PRI, T-1, Fractional T, ATM Frame Relay, xDSL, Cable-modem.
- What connectivity best suits and internal communication requirements.
- What connectivity will remote sites make use of?
vi. What type of systems or formats we will be calling?
- An ISDN system typically sends and receives voice and video data using the h 320
standard.
- IP based (network) system typically communicates using the h.323 voice/video
standard.
vii. Do we need data capability in addition to video and audio?
- ability to only see and talk to the other people.
- Or we require the ability to do collaborative computing and share data.
viii. Custom Designed
- OR get a custom designed videoconferencing system to suit a particular
videoconferencing requirements.
1.3.3 Advantages of Video Conferencing System

• Reduce travel cost

• Accelerate decision making
• Provide enhanced control of projects
• Improve use of executive time
• Provide cost effective training to remote locations
• Be used as a medium to conduct interviews
• Reinforce close relationships with suppliers, clients and remote staff
• Provide you with the capability to respond to a communication need immediately.

1.3.4 Disadvantages of Video Conferencing System

• Technical failures with equipments. If a small amount of time lag occurs during
conferencing, it can be disconcerting and even confusing, if not handled effectively.
• Unsatisfactory for complex interpersonal communication.
• Costs may be prohibitive to some potential users due to extra charges for ISDN2 use
and protracted on-line tutorial time.
• Acoustical problem within the teleconferencing room

1.3.5 Current Trends

• Video-enabled communication solution are steadily gaining popularity, and this is reflected
in the growing market for video conferencing solutions in Asia as well as the rest of the
world.
• A typical video conferencing is associated with ISDN room conferencing systems.
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• Things have changed. Video conferencing is today focused on new, enabling technologies
that allow us to visually communicate, person-to-person or group-to-group over any network,
any protocol, and any device.

• The underlying technologies that make visual communications possible have dramatically
improved.
• The video conferencing technology is now shifting from ISDN to IP.
• Currently, more than two-thirds of video conferencing is done through IP networks.

1.3.6 The Future of Video Conferencing

The most important development in videoconference will be the result of increased
bandwidth on Internet based communications. To date, Internet videoconferencing products
such as Microsoft's NetMeeting and White Pine's Cuveeme have allowed restricted
communications over the Internet with restricted quality video and audio. However this is
about to change. These products, and an increasing number of new ones, are about to benefit
from the increased bandwidth that ADSL, satellite, optical and radio are going to offer. The
net result will be the integration of the two solutions.

These developments will offer educationalists a wealth of new opportunities that will
include:

• Lower connection charges - the costs of ISDN connection charges will disappear as
the connections will be via the Internet. At worst, these will be local telephone
charges. It will dramatically reduce 'on line' charges, especially in International
videoconferences where, usingISDN, two- six International calls is charged. As the
Internet offers Global connectivity, users will no longer have to worry about which
country they connect with as the connection charge will be uniform.

• 'Multipoint' videoconferencing will be as cost-effective as 'point to point1 using

Internet 'reflector'sites. Education Authorities should now assess the future
development and hosting of such reflectors to offer password-protected 'safe'
videoconferencing areas to education.The potential of Distance Learning is enormous
as the bandwidth increases, offering schools the opportunity to offer elective or
required courses for which certified teachers are not available or insituations where
student numbers are not sufficient to hire a full time teacher in one campus.

• Videoconference solutions will be easily integrated into existing PC's, allowing

communication across an existing LAN, WAN or the Internet. This will allow
organisations to implement a flexible solution to internal and external
communications using the same equipment. The development of GPRS and UMTS
will further enhance communications by allowing the integration of mobile telephony
into the system. Groups on a field trip will be able to videoconference with students

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back at school or with any group of learners anywhere in the World. This flexibility,
coupled with the advantages of application sharing and collaborative software, will
offer un-precedented communication.

• Thanks to the new bandwidth offered by these new technologies, the World Wide
Web will dramatically change in communication style. Video and multimedia are
becoming more widespread on theInternet. Video, as a medium, will become more
common place as developers utilize it in sites. Web TV and radio will be areas where
schools and educators can disseminate information. Whosoever said video is dead did
not read the small print.

1.4 TYPES OF VIDEO CONFERENCE

Videoconference may take place with just one site (called point to point) or with a
connection to a number of sites together (called multipoint).

I. Point to Point: In point to point, videoconferencing between two sites is almost like
being there. It is an ideal way for classes or small groups of people to meet and
discuss issues. Meetings can be formed or informal because videoconferencing point
to point is so easy to use that it wasn't interfere with the flow of conversation. Each of
the parties meets at the videoconference room and then it is as simple as and prove
call.One group dials the other and the meeting or class is underway.

II. Multipoint: In multipoint, we can connect several sites if we want to hold a class or
meeting between many different locations. It is technically possible to connect 20 or
more sites. Multipoint meetings are usually a little more formed than point-to-point
simply because of the numbers involved. The chairperson (or coordinating lecturer)
controls the meeting so that all sites have an equal opportunity to speak.

A Multipoint Videoconference is connected through a piece of equipment called a

Multipoint Control Unit (MCU) – commonly called a 'Bridge'. The bridge can dial out to all
sites or each site dials a central number and all parties are connected.

MULTIPOINT MODES

There are two common modes of operation for multipoint videoconferences:

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i. VOICE ACTIVATED: In this mode of operating, any sites that speaks will be
automatically seen on the screen. All the sites see the connect speaker and the current
speaker sees the previous speaker. The system will also switch to a site at any
continuous sound, so it is best for all sites to must their microphones unless speaking.
ii. CONTINUOUS PRESENCE: This mode allows us to see several sites on screen at
once. The screen is usually divided into four and one site appears in each rectangle.
This mode is ideal if there is meeting with four other sites with 2-3 people at each
site.

Three Main Types of Videoconferencing Systems are as follows (Integrated Video

Conferencing):

I. Room (Roll-about) systems: These are big videoconferencing systems standing in a

room, usually containing one or two TV monitors, a camera on top of it and a codec.
The system is mostly used in bigger rooms and for a large audience, usually in a
distance learning programme with remote guest speaker. This type of system usually
work with a 1-3 ISDN connection and has good image and sound quality.

II. Compact Videoconferencing Systems (Set-top videoconferencing): These are

small boxes (the sizeof a video recorder) containing the codec and different types of
Network Connections with video, audio and data inputs and output. The system can
be used as a mobile system or as the core system in an existing Audio/Video setting.
These systems usually use ISDN protocol but evolve towards IP.

III. Desktop Systems: Desktop video conferencing (DVC) is a computer based

technology combining both voice and video into an interactive format. Desktop
system uses multi-media personal computer with special hardware and software.
There is a small camera on top of the monitor which can capture 2 to max. 5 people
with workable quality images. This type of system is often used with 1 ISDN
connection and as a consequence can only transmit less information.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Video Conferencing is a________________communication of sound
and vision.
2. Video Conferencing offers Real-Time Interaction.True/False
3. A typical video conferencing is associated with______room
conferencing systems.
4. The video conferencing technology is now shifting from ISDN to
___.
5. A____________is connected through a piece of equipment called a
Multipoint Control Unit (MCU) – commonly called a 'Bridge'.

1.5 COMPONENTS OF A VIDEO CONFERENCING SYSTEM

Any video conferencing system consists of the following major components:

1. Monitors: Desktop systems display video in a small window on the computer

monitor, much like the movies and other media that we are used to playing on our
computers. Portable and fixed systems have one or two large TV monitors, in
conference -type settings, large movie or presentation screens can be used, and the
video is projected onto the screen. Strings of monitors are also used in large group
settings. The monitor is a television screen on which we can see the people at the
offer site(s).Some systems use two monitors – one to display the people you are
talking to and the other to display still images, which may be sent from either site.

2. Main Camera: The main camera is usually positioned on or above the monitor. (i.e.
could be run time DT Care to their quality model). It can be controlled remotely to
focus on participants and capture the images sent to other sites and also have zoom
features. The camera can be anything from a tiny desktop camera that sits on top of a
computer monitor (desktop system) to a high-quality model with remote control pan
and zoom features (room system).

3. CODEC: In simple terms, a codec is any technology for compressing and

decompressing data. Codecs can be implemented in software, hardware, or a
combination of both. The codec takes the analog video signal and codes (digitizes and
compresses). The codec also has to decode (decompress and un-digitize) the received
transmission. The most obvious consequence of a slow codec or low-bandwidth
connection is a "jerky" picture mid an audio time delay.

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The 'CODEC' is a device responsible for compressing the signal down to a size which
canbe transmitted usually 2, 4 and or 6 channels. Each channel transmits 64 kilobits
per second (kbps).

4. Keypad/Remote/Tablet: The Keypad (or remote or tablet) isused to operate the

equipment.

5. Audio: Most high-quality systems come with a microphone designed for use with a
small group of people. In many cases, an additional microphone can be connected as
well, making the setup more versatile for larger groups or to add mobility. Most
systems offer sophisticated diagnostics and processing as a built-in feature to cancel
out background noise and echo.

6. Control Software: The software for video conferencing is the user interface through
which one can interact with the system. This includes a GUI dial-pad, status monitors,
the video window, and volume controls. The engine behind the software also does the
work of generating dial tones, taking care of the quality of service parameters,
maintaining a directory (address book) and other miscellaneous functions.

7. H.323 Gateway and Gatekeeper: A gateway device bridges ISDN with the network
& a Gatekeeper is an H.323 network component, which maintains a record of all
H.323 devices on a network, including their IP addresses & assigned for routing. A
H.323 Gateway bridges H.320 and H.323 systems & takes care of the required
transcoding between two transport network IP & ISDN(Integrated Services Digital
Network). The H.323 standard specifies how the audio, video, data and control
information will be assembled into an IP packet.

The standard can work on an ordinary 10/100 Mbps network. The clients using H.
323-based video conferencing need a static IP address so that they can communicate
with each other. IP-based transport is simpler because it uses TCP/IP protocol for
communication,which is there on most networks and the Internet.

Add-on Equipments
The other pieces of equipment (peripherals) to a videoconference system can be:
 Document camera
 Videocassette recorder.
 Computer or laptop
 Extra microphones.
 Auxiliary camera.
 Video-microscope.

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1.5.1 Benefits of IP Based Video Conferencing

• Higher quality Video/Audio: IP video calls offer better quality audio and video than
ISDN-based connections.

• Improved Reliability: IP based video calls require only a single connection

andtherefore provide improved reliability.

• Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation: IP networks dynamically allocate the available

bandwidth based on user and application requirements.

• Centralized Management: As IP video systems are connected to the corporate

LAN/WAN, they can often be controlled and managed by centralized management
systems.

• Improved Statistics: Corporate IP conferencing environments often use a gatekeeper

product to control and track their video-conferencing usage. In addition,gatekeepers
can provide detailed usage statistics for all systems on the network.

• Simplified Billing & Cost Allocation: IP based video systems tend to

communicatewith central management systems and video gatekeepers. These two
management devices keep track of each and every call made and received by the
video system. By applying basic cost rules to this call detail information, support
managers can quickly generate usage-based billing and departmental cost allocations.

1.5.2 Application of Video Conferencing in Libraries

Video Conferencing is also termed as Web Cam Services which is applicable in service
deliveries as a solution for communication problems in integrated text based services. On this
digital platform the user and librarian can both interact with each other face to face including
visual elements. Video Conferencing allows better communication abilities further enhancing
opportunities and leads to productive collaboration. There are two main applications that
could be used in smart library services for Video Conferencing:

1. Software Based (Web Conferencing): This type of Conferencing is best suited for
interviews, one on one conversations and meetings. The commonly used software for this
type of Video Conferencing includes Skype, Facetime and Google Hangouts etc. This kind of
softwares require mostly mobile devices to connect with the other parties.
2. Hardware Based (Video Conferencing): These systems are normally more capable and
reliable for larger groups or audiences and for more complex setups. In this type of system,
the hardware set ups may have multiple cameras, which may be adjusted or zoomed as per
the convenience of the person speaking. These set up requires hardwares including
computers and projectors (Umaru and Omame, 2020, p.6).

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1.6 WHAT IS AUDIO CONFERENCING?

Audio conferencing is the process of using electronic communication medium to conduct the
meetings between three or more persons who are communicating using audio only. This type
of conferencing is accompanied with multiple options of online collaboration tools, like
screen sharing, team messaging and meeting recording etc, which further adds and enhances
the value of audio meetings.

Audio conferencing can be conducted either through telephone line or the Internet by using
the phones or computer device. If the person only wants to listen then he/she just needs the
speakers and if the person wants to speak as well then there is a requirement of a microphone
as well.

1.6.1 Types of Audio Conferencing

There are mainly three types of Audio Conferencing Systems which are as follows:
1. Distributed (Remote) Audio Conferencing: It connects several participants from
different places or locations.

2. Local Audio Conferencing: It connects several participants who are located in the
same conference or meeting room.

3. Integrated Audio Conferencing: It brings together those participants who are

located remotely or are available at nearby location.

1.6.2 Advantages of Audio Conferencing

There are several advantages of Audio conferencing as it is a useful communication tool for
everyone in today's digital environment, which includes the following:

• It is a cost-effective communication tool as it is a cheaper alternative for face-to-face

meetings and travel.
• It is a reliable communication tool as there are very less chances of any disturbances
or technical problems than other types of communication tools, such as video
conferencing.
• It is user-friendly and easy to use communication tool as it is simple to set up and use.

• It is a very convenient communication tool as it allows anyone to conduct meetings

and conferences at any particular time and place which is convenient for all the group
members.

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• It is a flexible communication tool as it can be used for different types of meetings,

online discussions and orientation/training sessions etc.

1.7 SUMMARY

There are many applications and benefits of video conferencing. It overcomes the costly and
sometimes impractical, element of travel. Video conferencing has vast potential for increase
in the efficiency of human interaction. Video conferencing services offer the company or
organization the added edge of effectively communicating and collaborating with its clientele
and company associates simultaneously.

It can be concluded that Audio environments such as telephone and audio conferencing
systems will remain effective for remote group collaboration. The users of audio
conferencing systems need to ensure that the topic of discussion or group task assigned to
them is best suited for that audio environment in which discussion is taking place. Also, in
addition to this, there should be a 'sense of presence among the group members as they
should feel together in the same media space although they are separated by physical
medium. Some additional features can also be added to audioconferencing systems to
enhance the overall conference quality which includes ‘voice activity detectors’ that perform
a microphone muting function and indicate the current speaker. Colours or tones could also
be used to get attention or for voting purposes (Jeffrey, 1998, p.10).

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

6. Video Conferencing allows better communication abilities, further

enhancing opportunities and leads to productive collaboration. True/False
7. _____________ Audio Conferencing connects several participants from
different places or locations.
8. _____________Audio Conferencing brings together those participants who
are located remotely or are available at nearby location.

1.8 GLOSSARY

BANDWIDTH: Indication in KHz or MHz for the capacity of a carrier.

BPS: Bits per second: a speed unit for data transmission.

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BRIDGE: A bridge is the central connection point for single videoconference units in order
to have a multi-point conference. See MCV.

CODEC: A Coder-decoder (hardware or software-based), digitises and compresses the

analogue audio and video data that will be sent and digitises and unfold the digital data
received from the partner(s).

COMPRESSION: Reducing the amount of information of data before storage or sending. In

videoconferencing, one can reduce the frame rate, the frame size, the resolution and/or leave
out redundant information (i.a. that already has been sent).

DISTANCE LEARNING: Attending classes in a location different from that where the
course is given.

DOCUMENT SHARING: Partners in a videoconference share and work on the same

document (window on a whiteboard).

FPS: Frames per second.

FULL-MOTION VIDEO: Video transmission at 25-30 frames per second.1ISDN twisted

pair can deliver 10-15 frames per second (with lower resolution).

H.320: A group of standards for videoconferencing including a video compression standard

and audio standards.

ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network is a set of protocols for the integrated
transmission of video, voice and data, usually over copper wired telephone networks. A
single ISDN connection runs over2telephone lines. Videoconferencing systems use from 1 -
3 ISDN connections.

MULTI-POINT: Videoconference in which more than two locations are involved

PICTURE IN PICTURE: The windows containing incoming and outgoing information can
be superposed: one smaller image in a corner over the other image.

POINT-TO-POINT: Direct bilateral link.

REAL-TIME: Real-time interaction is only possible when the exchange of information is

very fast, with only a small delay, and arrives in the same order as it is sent.
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1.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Two-way synchronous 5. Multipoint Videoconference

2. True 6. True
3. ISDN 7. Distributed (Remote)
4. IP 8. Integrated

1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is Video Conferencing System? Explain in detail.

2. What are the components of a Audio and Video Conferencing System? Give a
detailed description.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a Video and Audio Conferencing
System?
4. Write a short note on the types of Video and Audio Conferencing.
5. What are the applications of Video and Audio Conferencing in Library Services?

1.11 REFERENCES

Jeffrey, P. (1998). Telephone and Audio Conferencing: Origins, Applications and Social
Behaviour. GMD FIT. Sankt Augustin, Germany.

Umaru, I.A. (CLN) and Omame, I.M. (CLN) (2020). Application of Social Media and Video
Conferencing in Smart Library Services. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal). 3915.
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/3915.

https://www.c21video.com/technical-papers/videoconferencing/how-to-choosea-
videoconferencing-system.
https://trueconf.com/blog/wiki/audio-conferencing.

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Gibson, D.L., Pauley, D., and Willis, L. (1997). Unattended Audioconferencing. BT

Technology Journal, 14 (4): 26-32.

Mane, A. (1997). Group Space: The Role of Video in Multipoint Videoconferencing and its
Implications for Design. In K. E. Finn, A.J. Sellen, S.B. Wilbur (Eds.). Video-mediated
Communication. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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LESSON 1

Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records

(FRBR)

Dr Shri Ram Pandey

Associate Professor
Central University of Haryana
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 History and Development
1.4 FRBR Framework: Entity-related Model of FRBR
1.4.1 The FRBR Entities and Attributes
1.4.2 Relationship in FRBR
1.5 RDA and FRBR
1.5.1 The relationship Between FRBR and RDA
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

• Understand FRBR as a conceptual model
• Understand FRBR groups, entities and attributes
• Understand FRBR relationships
• Relationships of FRBR Group 1, 2 and Group 3 entities
• RDA vs FRBR

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1.2 INTRODUCTION

The Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR) model was developed as a
solution to the problems that were caused by the limits of cataloguing codes such as the
AACR. The foundation of it is an entity-relation model, which illustrates the connections
between various types of documents, the characteristics of those documents, and the
individuals and organisations who produce and disseminate those documents. The FRBR
identifies each entity's attributes or characteristics as well as the relationships between and
within entity groups.
Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR) is a conceptual model that
outlines fundamental components of the universe of recorded information. Between the years
1992 and 1995, members of the IFLA Study Group on Functional Requirements for
Bibliographic Records worked to establish FRBR, and it was first made public in 1998.
FRBR is not a data model. The FRBR does not function as a metadata schema. FRBR is not a
structure for the design of system architecture. It is a theoretical representation of the entire
bibliographic universe. It is believed that FRBR will eventually take the place of ISBD.
FRBR is designed to support four generic user tasks. The work of Cutter, Lubetzky, and the
Paris Principles served as the foundation for the development of these four tasks, which, in
essence, constitute the four primary purposes that a catalogue serves:
• to find entities that correspond to the search criteria specified by a user
• to identify entities, such as people, works, and subjects
• to select entities, such as people, works, and subjects
• to obtain access to the entities described
In 2016 a fifth user task was proposed in the draft IFLA Library Reference Model (LRM).
The fifth task is to explore relationships between one resource and another.

1.3 History and Development

The
International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) established the conceptual
entity-relationship model, FRBR, from the point of view of the user, to link user retrieval tasks with
access to online library catalogues and bibliographic databases. The relationships between the entities
serve as linkages to move across the hierarchy of interactions, representing a more all-encompassing
approach to recovery and access. Because the model is distinct from specific cataloguing standards
like the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules (AACR) or the International Standard Bibliographic

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. RDA has been introduced in the year…..

2. RDA is the combination of two technologies and framework: FRBR and

FRAD—True/False
3. FRBR was developed by….

4. FRBR was published in the year…..

Description, it is noteworthy (ISBD. This examination of FRBR's beginnings aims to place

FRBR in a historical context given the proactive motivation for the Functional Requirements
for Bibliographic Records. The participants of the International Conference on Bibliographic
Services in Copenhagen, Denmark, recommended that national bibliographic agencies adopt
the elements of the bare bibliographic level record as identified in the final report of the
International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) Study Group on the
Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records on November 27, 1998. 1990 –
Stockholm meeting (IFLA). The development of FRBR timelines is:
1992 – Terms of reference completed
1994 – First draft for comment
1998 – Final draft, FRBR published
2009 – Current draft
2013 – RDA was implemented referencing FRBR
2016 – FRBR-Library Reference Model (IFLA-LRM)
Just one year prior, the published final report of the Section on Cataloguing had been
accepted by the IFLA Standing Committee. The study's potentially broad suggestions
received their first noteworthy validation with this formal approval. Since then, several
national bibliographic organisations have launched comparable assessments of their data and
cataloguing procedures to comply with these guidelines created to promote global
bibliographic sharing.

1.4 FRBR Framework: Entity-related Model of FRBR

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FRBR offers recommendations to the international cataloguing community regarding a
minimal set of required elements that are required to be included in resource descriptions in
order to support the user tasks. These recommendations are provided so that resource
descriptions can better serve the needs of users. FRBR Utilizes an entity-relationship
framework which carries Entities (a class of things), Relationships (associations among
entities), and Attributes (characteristics of the entities).
The FRBR model defines a total of nineteen different properties and relationships between
entities, in addition to four user tasks and three groupings of entities.

1.4.1 The FRBR Entities and Attributes

The FRBR model classifies items according to the function or role that they play, then organises these
entities into three distinct groups.

Group 1 Entities – Works, Expressions, Manifestations, and Items

Group 2 Entities – Persons, Corporate Bodies, Families
Group 3 Entities – Concept, Place, Event, Object, plus all Group 1 & 2 Entities
Work, expression, manifestation, and item are Group 1 entities (WEMI). They are the results of
creative or intellectual endeavours. The individuals, families, and business organisations in Group 2
are in charge of guardianship of the creative or scholarly work of Group 1. Concepts, objects, events,
and locations are Group 3 items that focus on Group 1 or Group 2 and Group3 intellectual effort.
Group 1 Entities – Works, Expressions, Manifestations, and Items
The first group consists of four entities mentioned or documented in bibliographic records: work,
expression, manifestation, and item (WEMI). These are the outcomes or consequences of "intellectual
or creative endeavour." Group 1 consists of the elements of a bibliographic resource, or what is
collected in libraries and other information organisations. As shown in Figure 1, the four entities are
interconnected at the highest level. Each of the Group 1 entities, as well as those from the other two
groups, are described in greater depth below.

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Figure1: Tillett, B. (2004). What is FRBR? A Model for the Bibliographic Universe Conceptually.
USA, LCMS: Cataloging and Distribution Service
The Group 1 entities serve as the FRBR model's cornerstone:
This category includes all of the entities that are concerned with the creative or intellectual aspects of
the products that are to be described. The following items constitute the entities that make up this
group:
i. Work: is an original intellectual or artistic production that stands on its own.
ii. Expression: the intellectual or creative realisation of a work in the form of alpha-numeric
notation, musical or choreographic notation, sound, image, object, movement, etc., or any
combination of such forms. the term "realisation" can also refer to the work itself. Expression
can manifest itself as a work in any of the following categories: sound, image, object,
movement, and so on.
iii. Manifestation: refers to the actual materialisation of an expression of a work.
iv. Item; single example or specimen of a manifestation
Each entity in Group 1 of the FRBR has its own set of linked attributes. In retrieval tools, attributes
aid users in locating, identifying, selecting, and obtaining information resources. Following is a
concise list of characteristics:
• Attributes of Works: Title, Date, Termination, Audience, Context, and Other Distinguishing
Characteristics
• Expression Attributes: Form of Expression, Date of Expression, Language of Expression, Summary
of Content, Extensibility of Expression, and Other Distinguishing Characteristic
• Manifestation Attributes: Title of the Manifestation, Statement of Responsibility, Edition/Issue
Designation, Place of Publication, Publisher, Publication Date
• Item Attributes: Item Identifier, Fingerprint, Item Provenance, Marks/Inscriptions, Exhibition
History, Item Condition

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Group 2 Entities – Persons, Corporate Bodies, Families

Group 2 entities consist of the human beings, either as individuals or as groups, who are responsible
for the Group 1 entities in many different ways. While creating the bibliographic record, we indicate
the relationships to these entities via access points. In this group, the original FRBR model includes
only persons and corporatebodies; a third entity, families, was added in FRAD. The FRBR and FRAD
models establish that persons,families, and corporate bodies create works, realize expressions,
produce manifestations, and own or provideaccess to items.
Responsibility for the creation, distribution, maintenance, and protection of the first group's contents
falls on the second Group2. Group 2 entities as defined by FRBR include:
i. Person: includes living and deceased individuals associated with a work, expression,
manifestation, or thing.
ii. Corporate body: an organisation or collection of individuals and/or organisations working as
a unit and associated with one or more entities of group 1.

Figure2: Tillett, B. (2004). What is FRBR? A Model for the Bibliographic Universe Conceptually.
USA, LCMS: Cataloging and Distribution Service

Group 3 Entities – Concept, Place, Event, Object, plus all Group 1 & 2 Entities
Group 3 includes subjects of Group 1 or Group 2’s intellectual endeavour, and includes, Concepts,
Objects, Events, Places, Group 1 entities (WEMI) and Group 2 entities. Concepts are abstract ideas,
objects are physical things, events are occurrences, and places arelocations. Group 3 also includes all
the other entities in the FRBR model, because works can be about otherworks, expressions,
manifestations, and even individual items, as well as about persons, families, and corporatebodies.

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The third category consists of the entities that function as the subjects of works. These entities
comprise Group 3:
i. Concept: an abstract concept or notion
ii. Object: a physical item
iii. Event: an action or event
iv. Place: a location

Figure3: Tillett, B. (2004). What is FRBR? A Model for the Bibliographic Universe Conceptually.
USA, LCMS: Cataloging and Distribution Service

1.4.2 Relationships in FRBR

Numerous additional relationships cover topics like digitised editions of a work to the
original text and derivative works like adaptations and parodies, as well as new readers that
are critical evaluations of an existing text, Group 1's connections to Groups 2 and 3 are
covered above, but there are also other intergroup links to consider. Relationships between
and among entities are the foundation of FRBR. By showing how one object is related to
another, relationships assist the user "navigate" the information space included in a
bibliography, catalogue, or bibliographic database. Relationship types can take many
different forms, for instance:
Equivalence connections
There are equivalence linkages between the original and its reproduction, provided that
intellectual property and authorship are protected.Reproductions such as photocopies,
microfilms, issues, facsimiles, and reprints are a few examples.
Derivative connections

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A bibliographic work and a modification based on the job have derivative connections.
Examples comprise: Versions, versions, summaries, abstracts, digests, and translations
adaptations of older works that result in new creations and genre shifts new outcomes
depending on the writing's aesthetic or thematic elements
Descriptive connections
There are descriptive links between a bibliographic item and a description, critique,
assessment, or review of that item, for example, between a work and a book review
summarising it. Annotated editions, casebooks, comments, and reviews of previously
published material are additional examples of descriptive connections.
Barbara has influenced the more bibliographic relationships reflected in FRBR. Table 1
displays some of the relationships identified in FRBR model.
Type Explanation Examples
Work-to-Work Relationships that exist concordances, indexes,
Relationships betweentwo separate works librettos, digests, paraphrases,
parodies, dramatizations, etc.
Whole–Part These are relationships that Relationship between a chapter
Relationships have some sort of component and the whole work, between a
aspect book and the series of which it is a
part, between an article and the
journal in which it was published,
etc. Whole–part relationships
may be found at the work, expression,
manifestation, and item levels
Expression-to- Relationships that exist Same work: Abridgements,
Expression betweentwo separate revisions, translations,
Relationships expressions arrangements, etc.
Different works: identical to thework-
to-work relationships listed
above.
Manifestation-to- Relationships that exist Reprints, microfilms, andfacsimiles;
Manifestation between simultaneouslypublished editions;
Relationships two separate manifestations multipleformats; etc

Item-to-Item Relationships that exist Binding changes, extracts, etc.

Relationships betweentwo separate items

In addition to the types of relationships that are specified in the FRBR model, the FRAD and
FRSAD models each define a number of other types of relationships that are suitable for the
respective tasks they are designed to perform. These ideas, together with the FRBR and
FRAD models, played an important role in the development of RDA, which stands for
Resource Description and Access.

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1.5 RDA and FRBR

According to RDA, FRBR entities and components serve as the data elements for
bibliographic description, access, and the connections between entities. FRBR is a conceptual
model whereas RDA is a cataloguing standard that is based on the FRBR conceptual model.
RDA integrates the FRBR conceptual model with cataloguing principles. FRBR is not a
cataloguing code in and of itself. However, it shows how users gain from a well-structured
system built on the FRBR entities and connections.

1.5.1 The relationship Between FRBR and RDA

Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records is the abbreviation for this phrase. An
IFLA Study Group (1992–1997) established FRBR, and IFLA still oversees and encourages
the usage of FRBR today. The FRBR comprises a conceptual model of entities, connections,
and characteristics, outlines specific user tasks—find, identify, choose, and obtain—those
bibliographic records are meant to satisfy, and suggests several components for inclusion in
national bibliographic records.RDA's intellectual underpinnings come from FRBR. RDA will
use the FRBR attributes as the basis for specific data elements to be included in bibliographic
descriptions, address the FRBR relationship, and the FRBR user tasks (find, identify, select,
obtain) for defining a set of mandatory data elements. For example, RDA will use the names
of bibliographic entities: "work," "expression," "manifestation," and "item." RDA will also
base its guidelines for authority control on the FRAD (Functional Requirements for
Authority Data) framework. There is a chapter for each organisation and broad rules in each
part.Each chapter has an FRBR user task related to it. Future editions of RDA may expand on
the chapters on recording properties and relationships for ideas, objects, and events to
comply with FRAD fully.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5. FRBR is based on ………………..model
6. How many groups are there in FRBR model?

1.6 SUMMARY

In this chapter key aspects of FRBR, such as concepts, function and entity models and
their relationship have been discussed. The FRBR model conceptualises reality and
undoubtedly demonstrates novel aspects, notably in regards to "Semantic Web"-related
activities, but it also exhibits elements of conservatism in its methodology. Academics may
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use alternatives to FRBR in the catalogue in the future. In light of the contemporary digital
world, FRBR's language, connections, and user duties are already supporting us in examining
our cataloguing traditions. IFLA, together with other interested parties, will keep promoting.
FRBR is the backbone of the development of RDA(FRBR+FRAD).

1.7 GLOSSARY

FRBR:Bibliographic Records Functional Requirements (FRBR) The International

Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) developed the Functional
Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR) conceptual entity-relationship model,
which links user tasks of retrieval and access in online library catalogues and bibliographic
databases from a user's perspective.
FRANAR:In April 1999, the International MARC Program, the IFLA Division of
Bibliographic Control, and the IFLA Universal Bibliographic Control created the Working
Group on Functional Requirements and Numbering of Authority Records (FRANAR)
(UBCIM).
RDA:Resource Description and Access (RDA) is a set of standards, guidelines, and
instructions for producing well-formed metadata for cultural heritage and library resources
by worldwide norms for user-focused linked data applications.
The following definitions have been modified from Richard C. Perkinson's Data Analysis:
The Key to Data Base Design (Wellesley, Mass: QED Information Sciences, Inc. 1984).
Attributes: Are a quality or description of an object. For instance, a publication's features
may include details like the publication's name and release date.
Entity: A subject of interest to the organisation who, where, what, or when data may be
captured. There is something that has to be named or described to be identified. It might be
either conceptual or actual. Authors, works, publications, and other such things are examples
of entities of interest to bibliographic organisations.
Function: The reason that information is recorded. Examples include identifying an author,
setting one work apart from another, comparing editions, Etc.
Relationship: There is a significant connection between the two things. One publication
might replace another; a particular work could be based on a previous one, Etc.
Requirements for Authority Data in Terms of Function (FRAD):an expansion of the
model for authority records in the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records. It
outlines the entities in authority records, their relationships, and the tasks that users must
perform.

1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

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1. 2010
2. True
3. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA)
4. 1998
5. Entity-Relationship
6. Three

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Is FRBR a model of data?

2. What is FRBR if it is not a data model?
3. Which are the entities of group 1, 2 & 3 of FRBR? Describe them briefly.
4. Give some examples of attributes for a work. Why is it important to define the
attributes of an entity?
5. Discuss some of the benefits of FRBR over other frameworks like ISBD
Practical exercises
1. Place the following in the order work, expression(s), manifestation(s), item(s):
a. Paperback copy
b. Ronald Hayman’s playback
c. Paperback copy autographed by the author
d. The book published in 1973 by Davis-Poynter
e. The author’s text edited for publication
2. Identify some work(s), expression(s), manifestation(s), item(s) for Ranganthan’s Colon
Classification

1.10 REFERENCES

Le Boeuf, P. (n.d.). Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR): Hype or Cure-All?
Dimec, Z., Žumer, M. and Riesthuis, G.J.A. (2013), ‘Slovenian cataloguing practice and functional
requirements for bibliographic records: A comparative analysis, Functional Requirements for
Bibliographic Records (FRBR): Hype or Cure-All, Taylor and Francis, pp. 207–228.
'Frequently Asked Questions – IFLA'. (n.d.). , available at: https://www.ifla.org/g/bcm-rg/frequently-
asked-questions/ (accessed August 22 2022).
: final report /’. (n.d.).
‘Functional requirements for bibliographic records Library of Congress,
Washington, D.C. 20540 USA, available at: https://lccn.loc.gov/2001433363 (accessed August 22
2022).

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'Functional requirements for bibliographic records: final report / | Library of Congress. (n.d.). , available
at: https://www.loc.gov/item/2001433363/ (accessed August 22 2022).
'Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR)'. (n.d.). , available at:
https://www.librarianshipstudies.com/2017/09/functional-requirements-for-bibliographic-records-
frbr.html (accessed August 19 2022).
Study Group on the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records, I. (1997), International
Federation of Library Associations and Institutions FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR
BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORDS Final Report IFLA Study Group on the Functional Requirements for
Bibliographic Records Approved by the Standing Committee of the IFLA Section on Cataloguing,
available at: http://www.ifla.org/VII/s13/frbr/.
The Report from the IFLA Study Group on the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic. (n.d.).
Tillett, B. (n.d.). • Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records • A Conceptual Model for the
Bibliographic Universe Library of Congress Cataloging Distribution Service, available at:
http://www.ifla.org/VII/s13/.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Chen, Peter Pin-Shan. 1979. The Entity-Relationship Model: Towards a Unified View of Data. A CM
Transactions on Database Systems 1 (1): 9-36.
Cutter, Charles A. 1904. Rules for a Dictionary Catalogue. 4th ed., rewritten. Washington, DC:
Government Printing Office.
Delsey, Tom. 1989. Report from the Section on Cataloguing, 1988-1989. In International Cataloguing
and Bibliographic Control 18(3).
ICBC. 1990. News and events. 1990. In International Cataloguing and Bibliographic Control 19( 1).
ICBC. 1995. IFLA Study on Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records. 1995. In
International Cataloguing and Bibliographic Control 24(3).
ICNBS. 2001./CNBS: Copenhagen 25-27 November 1998: Proceedings of the International
Conference on National Bibliographic Services. Copenhagen: The Royal Library.
International Conference on Cataloguing Principles. 1963. Report: International Conference on
Cataloguing Principle, Paris, 9th-18th October 1961. London: Organizing Committee of the
International Conference on Cataloguing Principles.
IFLA. 1992. IFLA Standing Committee of the Section on Cataloguing. Terms of Reference for
studying the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (1992-09-04). Also available as an
Appendix of the present article.
IFLA. 1998. IFLA Study Group on the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records.
Functional requirements for bibliographic records: Final report. Munchen: K. G. Sauro is Also
available online at http://www.ifla.orgNlIIs13/frbr/frbr.pdf and
<http://www.ifla.orgNlIIs13/frbr/frbr.htm>.

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John, Nancy. 1991. Report from the Section on Cataloguing, 1990-91. In International Cataloguing
and Bibliographic Control 20(4).
Library of Congress. 1994. Comments on IFLA Draft Document on the Functional Requirements for
Bibliographic Records, prepared by Beth Dulabahn, Kay Guiles, Diane Humes, and Joyce Owens.
Washington, DC. Photocopied.
Perkinson, Richard C. 1984. Data Analysis: The Key to Data Base Design. Wellesley, MA: QED
Information Sciences, Inc.
Tillett, Barbara. 1987. Bibliographic Relationships: Toward a Conceptual Structure of Bibliographic
Information Used in Cataloguing. PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles.
Tillett, Barbara 2001. Bibliographic Relationships: In Relationships in the Organization of
Knowledge., edited by Carol A. Bean and Rebecca Green. – Dordrecht : Kluwer Academic Publisher,
p. 19-35.

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LESSON-6

FEDERATED SEARCH AND MULTIMEDIA

DATABASE SEARCH

Dr. Namrata Rai

Assistant Manager (Library)
Indian Institute of Management
Bangalore
[email protected]
Dr.Gareema Sharma

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Federated Search
1.3.1 Definition
1.3.2 History of Federated Search
1.3.3 Need and Purpose of Federated Search Tools
1.3.4 Types of Federated Search
1.3.5 Federated Search Technologies
1.3.6 Advantages of Federated Search
1.3.7 Drawback of Federated Search
1.4 Multimedia Database
1.4.1 Multimedia Database Searching
1.4.2 Sub-Section 2
1.5 Summary
1.6 Glossary
1.7 Self-Assessment Questions
1.8 References
1.9 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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The lesson's learning outcomes are: To understand Federated search technology and
its implication in search activity.It also covered the historical aspect of federated search and
associated advantages and drawbacks of Federated search.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Libraries have implemented portals as one solution to the issue of bringing together
enormous amounts of information in the electronic information environment. A portal is a
doorway or a place where people can begin their online information search. There are
severalportals, such as"institutional portals" introduced by universities which is a "layer that
aggregates, integrates, personalizes, and presentsthe user with information, transactions, and
applications in accordance with their job and preferences. The second type of portal is
dedicated to a specific subject area and is called a "subject portal."The third category of the
portal is a "federated search tool," which aggregates the resources to which a library
subscribes and facilitates cross-searching of these resources.

In this chapter, we will learn about Federated Search, a comparison between

metasearch engines and federated search, its need during our search retrieval, advantages and
drawbacks of using federated search.

Federated search is the centralized coordination of searchable resources. It involves

the coordination of the queries transmitted to various resources and, in return,a fusion of
search results and displays it to the end-users.It means users need not jump from one help to
another for fetching the information. You can suffice all your information needs from one
place.

1.3 FEDERATED SEARCH

An
increasingly common function of modern Web-based automated library and information
retrieval systems is federated search, which enables users to conduct a single query across
several online databases. A portal is a more comprehensive way to get information than a
simple Web search engine. Broadcasting is another name for searching, parallel searching,
cross-referencing, etc.

Metasearchers, crosssearchers, cross-database searchers, portals, broadcast searchers,

and

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parallel searchers are only a few of the names given to these resources in the academic
literature. The National Information Standards Organization (NISO) in the United States has
coined the word "metasearcher" to describe this search engine. It has even launched a "
Metasearch " initiative (NISO,2003). However, the name "metasearcher" can be misleading
because it is often used interchangeably with online Metasearch engines like Metacrawler,
which operate differently than federated search tools. (Fryer, 2004)

Fig. 1 Graphical Representation of Federated Search (Source: Kumar, S, et. al,

2008)

The term "federated searching" refers to the capability of specific search tools to
search many databases, usually subscription databases, all at once through a single interface.
Federated search tools scour the web for information that would be inaccessible to a standard
web search engine.

1.3.1 Definition
Federated search is a method of information retrieval that enables the concurrent
querying of many sites. When aend-user performs a query, it is shared across all federated
search engines, databases, or other query engines. Once the results have been received from
the many search engines, the federated search will compile them into a single set of results
for the user to peruse.

Peter Jasco defines federated search as "Transforming a query and broadcasting it to a

group ofdisparate databases with the appropriate syntax, merging the results collected from
the databases,presenting them in a succinct and unified format with minimal duplication, and
allowing the librarypatron to sort the merged result set by various criteria" (Chen, 2006).

To put it plainly, Federated Searching refers to a search engine that shares a single
interface that allows users to query several databases from different providers
simultaneously. Using a single search query, users can query numerous data sources
simultaneously with federated search technology. This way, users may see all their search
results in one convenient place. That is to say, consumers are liberated from the burden of
independently consulting several data sources. Instead, they can perform a combined search
of many other databases, including OPACs, websites (like Amazon.com and Google),
subscription databases, and citation databases.

1.3.2 History of Federated Search

Federated searching was first implemented in 1998 by the WebFeat Team, an
information technology consultancy initially established in 1992. In 1998, the WebFeat Team
took the initiative to connect any or all of their databases simultaneously through a
straightforward and standard user interface. They later developed this concept into a product

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they called Webfeat. WebFeatis capable of searching any database, whether it be a

proprietary database, a licensed database, a free database, a catalogue, Z39.50, Telnet, or
anything else! And with SMART, WebFeat's next-generation usage tracker, you can report
the exact database usage within your library with just a few clicks of the mouse. WebFeat
developed SMART.

1.3.3 Need and Purpose of Federated Searching

The needs of the Federated searching are as follows:

1. When trying to access information, patrons of libraries may find it difficult due to the
proliferation of many kinds of databases, which are supplied by a variety of vendors
and come equipped with a wide variety of user interfaces and login credentials;
2. Users have been turned off by the usage of library language on online public access
catalogs (OPACs) and website pages of libraries, as well as by the inclusion of
lengthy lists of databases, which users find difficult to select from and search;
3. The necessities and anticipations of library patrons, particularly the students who use
academic libraries, are the significant need for federated search. When trying to
access information, patrons of libraries may find it difficult due to the proliferation of
many kinds of databases. These databases are generated by various vendors and have
a wide variety of user interfaces and login options.
Federated search serves the following purposes:

1. Modifying a query and sending it as a broadcast to several databases, each of which

has its unique syntax.
2. It combines the findings from the various databases, presenting them in a concise and
unified format with minimal duplication.
3. Providing a way to sort the merged result set, which can be done either automatically
or by the user of the portal;

1.3.4 Types of Federated Searching

Federated Search can be broken down into its two primary parts. An "index" is
accumulated data that may be searched. This index was designed to make it easier to do
searches on time. Second, the "search function" is the component of the system that scans the
index to locate relevant information in answer to a particular query. Federated search is made
feasible through a collaborative effort between the index and the search function.

• Search Time Merging or Query Time Merging:When performing this kind of

federated search, a query is sent to every data source one at a time. It is necessary to
add an individual index for each data location in the search for it to work correctly.
The findings are given in a format that is not organized and corresponds to the

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importance of each data source. However, additional content indexing is unnecessary,

even though adjustments are restricted.

• Index- Time Merging: To conduct this kind of search, every piece of content needs
to be in the same index. The search can better handle the data and produce more
accurate results. In this instance, the search results are arranged according to their
level of relevancy. Because it needs the creation of a wholeindexing system,
implementing this approach is more time-consuming and labor-intensive. Despite
this, it is worth the effort because it will provide a search experience that is the best in
its class and speedier response times. Implementing such a solution is made much
simpler by federated search technologies.

• Hybrid Federated Search:The hybrid technique combines the merging done at the
time of the query with the merging done at the time of the index. You should try your
best to establish a central index for every data source you need (as in index-time
merging). There are some instances where the data sources cannot be reflected in the
central index and need to be stored separately. You must search each index, the
primary index, and additional indexes. The compiled information is then used to
produce the final list (as in query-time merging).
Regarding performance, hybrid federated search provides better results than merging
at query time. This is becausea hybrid federated search decreases the number of
indexes that need to be searched. However, because there are several indices, the
search takes far longer than it would when only a single index exists.Although this is
the simplest approach, there is a possibility that reaction times will be slow, which
may reduce the importance of providing users with quick responses in real-time.

1.3.5 Federated Search Technologies

There are mainly four technologies used for Federated Search:

I. Screen Scrapping or HTTP

II. Z39.50 Protocol
III. ZING-SRW Protocol
IV. XML gateway

I. Screen Scrapping or HTTP:

HTTP, which stands for "Hyper Text Transfer Protocol," is the single most
significant technology that drives the web, even though it is almost entirely
invisible. Without this protocol, HTML and XML accessed through the web would

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be incapable of doing the plethora of duties we ask of them on a regular basis. The
Hypertext Transfer Protocol, sometimes known as HTTP, is a protocol used at the
application level for decentralized, collaborative hypermedia information systems.

Since its inception in 1990, the worldwide information endeavor known as the
World Wide Web has used HTTP. The HTTP protocol may be broken down into
the request and the response. During a connection with a server, a client will
transmit a request to the server using a request method, URI, and protocol version.
This will be followed by a MIME-like message containing request modifiers, client
information, and possible body content. TCP/IP is the protocol typically used for
communication when using HTTP. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
ensures that data packets traveling to and from a web server are correct and in the
correct order. Despite this, it does not guarantee that packets will arrive regardless
of the network's conditions. When communications are backed up or unavailable,
the delivery of web pages is sluggish and may eventually time out.
II. Z 39.50 Protocol:
The Z39.50 standard is a national one for information retrieval in the United
States. Information Retrieval (Z39.50): Application Service Definition and
Protocol Specification is the full name of this standard. ANSI and NISO created it
in 1995.Z39.50 is an open standard for network applications that permits
communication between systems that operate on different hardware and use
diverse software.
The Z39.50 standard was established to solve issues while accessing numerous
databases simultaneously. These issues include familiarity with each system's
distinct menus, command language, and search processes. The Z39.50 standard
makes it possible for a searcher to utilize the user interface of the local system,
which they are already familiar with, to search not only the catalogue of the local
library but also any remote database system that supports the standard. This
makes the search process much simpler.

III. SRW (Search/Retrieve Web Service):

A new HTTP-based information retrieval protocol called Search/Retrieve Web
Service offers similar functionality to Z39.50 but does it use entirely different
technology. SRW was created to be a simple and accessible tool for conducting
web-based research and other forms of data retrieval. It uses open-source tools
like SOAP and XPath for the same tasks that have previously required custom
solutions.
The protocol can be transmitted in one of two ways: by using Simple Object
Access Protocol (SOAP) or URL parameters.

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This alternative is known as SRU (Search Retrieve by URL). Simple XML over
HTTP and possibly other transports are feasible but are not specified by the
current standard.
The primary purpose of SRW is to facilitate a user's access to and exploration of a
distant records warehouse. To accomplish this, the client initiatesa searchRetrieve
operation by sending a search Retrieve Request to the server, followed up with a
search Retrieve Response. You can put many parameters in the request, but most
of them aren't required. Most of the return is a comprehensive count of the total
number of records matching the query in XML format.

IV. XML (Extensible Markup Language)

EXtensible Markup Language is the full form of XML. Just like HTML, XML is
a markup language, but unlike HTML, its primary purpose is not presented. Tags
in XML are not limited to a set of predetermined options. Your custom tags are
required. The World Wide Web Consortium suggests using XML since it is self-
describing by design. There are no associated costs with using this open
specification. Instead of HTML, you should use XML. HTML focuses on
presentation, while XML focuses on data transfer. In layman's terms, XML is a
method of transmitting data that does not rely on any one application or piece of
hardware. It can be used for either document encoding or data serialization. Its
compatibility with Unicode means that data may be conveyed in virtually all
written human languages.

It's safe to say that XML's impact on the web now rivals that of HTML when that
language was first developed. It's impossible to avoid XML. It is the standard
method of exchanging information between programs and is gaining popularity
for archiving and describing data. XML makes sharing data between disparate
systems and databases easier, just like it does in the real world. In XML,
information is kept as text files. Using this method, you can save information
without worrying about compatibility issues with your computer's software or
hardware. Thanks to this, generating information that programs can exchange is
much less hassle.

1.3.6. Advantages of Federated Search

• When using federated searches, fewer results come up with a specific search linked to
their topic compared to Google's multitude of unrelated results. More is not always
preferable. In addition to allowing users to fill out forms and combine data from
many sources, federated search engines search content in real-time. Real-time data is
critical for researchers looking for up-to-the-minute or frequently changing content.
• Most students struggle with the task of sorting through hundreds of thousands of
search results to find the few that are most relevant and useful. Researchers can save a
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lot of time by using a federated search engine. As a result, the user doesn't have to
worry about performing each of the numerous searches himself.
• Targeted searches are quality-filtered. Federated search engines shine in libraries,
corporate research environments, and the federal government, where results quality
matters.
• Federated searches validate the information. Anyone can write an Internet report, for
example. That doesn't mean accuracy was checked. Students can ensure the accuracy
of their research by using this new library automation option. Educators and
professionals verify federated search engine information.
• When conducting a federated search, you can access resources that may already be on
hand in the library. Federated search engines are like a knowledgeable librarians,
pointing users in the direction of relevant, high-quality results.

1.3.6. Disadvantages of Federated Search

Currently, the federated search has several limitations, which are as follows:

• Without a universal authentication standard, federated search engines can't access

some databases.
• Complete duplication is impossible because databases download small sets and
metadata standards differ for each resource.
• Relevancy ranking is limited by metadata quality, which rarely includes abstracts or
fulltext.
• Federated search systems are software, but they must be built and operated as a
service, which is costly.
• Federated search engines can't increase native search accuracy and precision.
• Federated search isn't for powerful queries. Only basic Boolean commands can be
used, as with metasearch engines.
• Login-required databases won't work with federated search.
• Some databases only operate with one federated search product. LexisNexis doesn't
allow Z39.50 or XML gateway access, so MetaLib can't search its databases.
WebFeat cannot search databases without a front-page search box. Many libraries
have pay-per-search databases and don't want them federated for budgetary reasons.

1.4 MULTIMEDIA DATABASE

A multimedia database is a collection of interrelated multimedia data that comprises

text, graphics (such as sketches and drawings), photographs, animations, video, and audio,
among other types of data, and has a large volume of multimedia data from a variety of

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sources. The term "multimedia database management system" refers to the framework that
handles the various forms of multimedia data, which can be saved, transmitted, and utilized
in a variety of different ways.
Content of Multimedia Database management system :
1. Media data – It is an actual data representation of an object.
2. Media format data– Information about the format of the media data after it goes
through the acquisition, processing, and encoding phase.
3. Media keyword data – Keywords description relating to the generation of data. It is
also known as descriptive content data. Example: date, time, and place of recording.
4. Media feature data – Content-dependent data such as the distribution of colors,
kinds of texture, and different shapes present in data.

1.4.1 Multimedia Database Searching

The ability to search for information using queries in many data kinds, including text
and other multimedia formats, is made possible by multimedia search. Multimedia search can
be implemented through multimodal search interfaces, which allow users to submit search
queries as textual requests and other media. Multimodal search interfaces enable users to
submit search queries as textual requests and through other media. In the realm of
multimedia search, we can differentiate between two techniques.

• Metadata Search
• Query by Example

1.4.1.1. Metadata Search

The layers in the metadata that include information about the content of a multimedia
file are utilized insearch process. Text searches are much more straightforward, quicker, and
more effective than other types of searches since they don't have to deal with the
complexities of the content being searched, which could be an audio file, a video, or an
image.

1.4.1.2. Query by Example

In the sample query, the component used to perform the search is multimedia content
(image, audio, video). To put it another way, inquiry is a form of media. Audiovisual
indexing is one of its most common applications. When developing metadata, selecting the
criteria used to create the metadata will be required.

1.5 SUMMARY

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This chapter provides detailed information on federated search engines enabling

users to search multiple databases simultaneously, which may cut down on the number of
steps required to obtain results from a variety of library resources. Federated search engines
also have the potential to obtain search results from databases that users would not have
access to in the absence of the federated search.

For users to make better use of the federated search engine that their libraries
provide, it is very helpful for users to learn other information literacy basics, such as the
ability to interpret bibliography or to tell the difference between books, book chapters, and
periodical articles

1.6 GLOSSARY

Federated Search:A search tool designed to query multiple networked information

resources via a single interface (example: Google Scholar). The metasearch engines
developed in the second half of the 1990s were capable of searching only publicly accessible
Web sites, but the 21st century has seen a new generation of federated search engines
designed to search local and remote library catalogs, subscription databases, and digital
repositories as well as Web sites, using standardized protocols, such as Z39.50.
Z39.50: A client-server protocol established as a NISO standard that allows the computer
user to query a remote information retrieval system using the software of the local system
and receive results in the format of the local system, often used in portal and gateway
products to search several sources simultaneously and integrate the results.

Metasearch:A search for information using software designed to optimize retrieval by

querying multiple Web search engines and combining the results. Dogpile, Mamma
Metasearch, and WebCrawler have commonly used metasearch engines.
SearchEngineWatch.com provides a complete list.

1.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the concept of Federated Search. Discuss different types of Federated search.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Federated search.
3. What is a multimedia database? Explain different types of Multimedia searching.

1.9 REFERENCES

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(2002). Multimedia Database Searching. In: Semantic Models for Multimedia Database
Searching and Browsing. Advances in Database Systems, vol 21. Springer, Boston,
MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47029-2_3
ALA. (2007, 03 27). Federated Search Engines, 2001–2003. Retrieved September 30, 2022,
from American Library Association:
http://www.ala.org/alcts/resources/org/cat/research/fed_search
Fryer, D. (2004). Federated Search Engines. Online (Wilton, Connecticut), 28, 16-19.
Kumar, S. S. (2008). Federated Search: New Option for Libraries in the Digital Era.
International CALIBER, (pp. 267-285).
Lingham, A. (2020). Federated Search and Discovery Solutions. IP Indian Journal of Library
Science and Information Technology, 5(1), 39-42.
doi:http://doi.org/10.18231/j.ijlsit.2020.008
What is federated search? (2019, Oct 10). Retrieved September 01, 2022, from Algolia:
https://www.algolia.com/blog/ux/what-is-federated-search/

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LESSON 1

Protocols: Z39.50 Standard for Retrieval and OAI-PMH

Dr Shri Ram Pandey

Associate Professor
Central University of Haryana
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 History
1.4 What is the Z39.50 standard?
1.4.1 A Standard
1.4.2 A Client/Server Architecture
1.5 Functions of Z39.50
1.6 Some Key Features of Z39.50
1.6.1 Facilities
1.6.2 Profiles
1.6.3 Attributes and Attribute sets
1.6.4 More About Z39.50
1.7 Recent Developments and Initiatives
1.8 Implications for the Libraries
1.9 Summary
1.10 Glossary
1.11 Answers to In-text Questions
1.12 Self-Assessment Questions
1.13 References
1.14 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
• Z39.50 searching and retrieval protocol
• How Z39.50 works
• Z39.50 components and facets
• Implementation of Z39.50 for libraries.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Information retrieval systems are becoming more automated, and Z39.50, a national and
international standard, defines a protocol for such systems. It's a method of communicating
between clients and servers across a TCP/IP network in order to perform database queries
and retrieve results. Both ANSI/NISO Z39.50 and ISO 23950 address this issue. Z39 is the
starting point for NISO standards (the National Information Standards Organization) that
pertain to libraries. Either specialised software or an ILS supporting Z39.50 is required for
usage. Z39.50 is analogous to a "back door" into a library catalogue. Z39.50 needs access to
another library's catalogue in order to fetch its records. If it does, however, there is no cost
associated with using the record from the library.
ANSI/NISO Z39.50 is a standard method of communication between two computers for
information retrieval is defined in Z39.50. Z39.50 standardises the processes and capabilities
for finding and retrieving information, making it simpler to use vast information databases.
In particular, z39.50 facilitates information retrieval in a distributed, client-and-server system
in which a client computer sends a search request (query) to a server computer. The server's
software searches one or more databases, producing a collection of records that satisfy the
search request's requirements. Records from the resultant set are returned by the server to the
client for processing. The strength of z39.50 is that it decouples the client-side user interface
from the databases, information servers, and search engines. z39.50 allows client
implementers the flexibility to combine data from a number of databases and servers and
offers a consistent picture of information from a wide range of sources.

1.3 History
Within the library world, Z39.50 is the progenitor of federated search.
The protocol was first developed in the early 1970s to facilitate the exchange of bibliographic
data between big databases like the Library of Congress and the Online Computer Library
Center (OCLC). A group of the National Information Standards Organization was established
in 1979 to look at creating a standard data protocol that would make it easier to share
bibliographic data.

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Z39.50-1988, also known as Z39.50 Version 1, is the result of all of these efforts. In
retrospect, it's clear that Version 1 was nothing more than a theoretical idea draught, almost
impossible to execute, as reported by Clifford Lynch6. Lynch, an early member of the
Z39.50 group, now considers the initial draught to be a complete failure that should never
have been authorised by the committee. 7 After the first version of the protocol was
approved, the Library of Congress was designated as the organisation responsible for its
ongoing development and upkeep.
In 1988, the NISO ratified the standard, and a group of z39.50 implementers began
enhancing and expanding the standard's utility. The z30.50 Implementers Group (ZIP) is
responsible for version 2 and version 3 development.Version 4, work began in Autumn 1995.
A complete trimline of z39.50 NISO Standards Series is represented in table 1 below:
Table 1: z39.50 NISO Standards Series
Z39.2-1994 (R2001) Information Interchange Format
Z39.7-1995 Library Statistics
Z39.9-1992 (R2001) International Standard Serial Numbering
Z39.14-1997 Guidelines for Abstracts
Z39.18-1995 Scientific and Technical Reports — Elements, Organization, and Design
Z39.19-1993 (R1998) Guidelines for the Construction, Format, and Management of
Monolingual Thesauri
Z39.20-1999 Criteria for Price Indexes for Printed Library Materials
Z39.22-1989 Proof Corrections
Z39.23-1997 Standard Technical Report Number Format and Creation
Z39.26-1997 Micropublishing Product Information
Z39.32-1996 Information on Microfiche Headers
Z39.41-1997 Printed Information on Spines
Z39.43-1993 (R2001) Standard Address Number (SAN) for the Publishing Industry
Z39.47-1993 (R1998) Extended Latin Alphabet Coded Character (ANSEL)
Z39.48-1992 (R1997) Permanence of Paper for Publications and Documents in Libraries
and Archives
Z39.50-1995 Information Retrieval (Z39.50): Application Service Definition and Protocol
Specification (Version 3)
Z39.53-2001 Codes for the Representation of Languages for Information Interchange
Z39.56-1996 Serial Item and Contribution Identifier (SICI)
Z39.62-2000 Eye-Legible Information on Microfilm Leaders and Trailers and on
Containers of Processed Microfilm onOpen Reels
Z39.64-1989 (R1995) East Asian Character Code for Bibliographic Use
Z39.66-1992 (R1998) Durable Hardcover Binding for Books
Z39.71-1999 Holdings Statements for Bibliographic Items
Z39.73-1994 (R2001) Single-Tier Steel Bracket Library Shelving
Z39.74-1996 Guides to Accompany Microform Sets
Z39.76-1996 Data Elements for Binding Library Materials
Z39.77-2001 Guidelines for Information About Preservation Products
Z39.78-2000 Library Binding
Z39.79-2001 Environmental Conditions for Exhibiting Library and Archival Materials
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Z39.82-2001 Title Pages for Conference Publications
Z39.84-2000 Syntax for the Digital Object Identifier
Z39.85-2001 The Dublin Core Metadata Element Set
Z39.86-2002 Specifications for the Digital Talking Book
ANSI/NISO/ISO 12083 Electronic Manuscript Preparation and Markup

1.4 What is the Z39.50 standard?

Z39.50 is a connection between a client (or origin) and a server that is stateful (target).
Z39.50 offers two search levels, referred to as a SCAN and a SEARCH. SCAN queries get
result sets with minimum information, mostly the title of an item. These queries offer a
simple way to get a list of results from a given destination. Once an item has been chosen, the
server may be queried for the item's complete information. SEARCH is the second kind of
request. A SEARCH request varies from a SCAN request in terms of the data returned in the
results set. A SEARCH request, unlike a SCAN request, returns the whole metadata record
for each item inside the results set.
One may assume that the Z39.50 protocol has been a phenomenal success given the virtually
unanimous support it has among librarians; however, this isn't always the case. Z39.50 has a
lot of support in the library community, but it hasn't reached its full potential as a protocol.
Z39.50 has remained more of a fringe protocol even in the lack of workable substitutes,
sustained mostly in reaction to the perceived necessity for its support within the library
community than the actual adoption of the protocol. This is caused in part by the protocol's
complexity. A Z39.50 server that included components for encoding and decoding/encoding
ASN.1/BER communications between the host and destination was formerly needed in order
to implement Z39.50 capability. This procedure was often a significant roadblock to
implementation due to the protocol's esoteric nature (i.e., the fact that it is largely utilised by
the library community), since very few people outside of the vendor community understood
how to construct the requisite components to use the protocol. Additionally, the cost of the
protocol itself in terms of the resources that must be put into the system is high. And with
that, Z39.50 has seen a kind of reawakening, although this time outside of the library
community. Within the GIS (geographic information systems) community, the Z39.50
protocol is being used to develop small organisational networks through GIS software
solutions that use Z39.50 as the networking protocol, as well as shared information networks
like the Federal Geographic Data Committee (www.fgdc.gov).
Adding support for the Z39.50 protocol is no longer hampered by its high cost. This is owing
to the open-source library community and Z39.50 toolkits.ZOOM11 (Z39.50 Object-
Oriented Model) is credited for simplifying Z39.50. The ZOOM effort, started in 2001,
established object-oriented APIs that have been ported to several programming languages.
Open sourcetoolkits like YAZ12 (Yet Another Z39.50 component) help create and
communicate with Z39.50 servers. These components are used in PHP, Ruby, PERL, C#, etc.
Digital repository managers may quickly add Z39.50 capability by plugging toolkits into
their repository software. Today, one must examine whether Z39.50 support is still beneficial
to one's user group since other Internet-friendly protocols have emerged and gained traction
in the library community.
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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Z39. 50 is……………..protocol
2. Who maintains Z39 50 protocol?
3. When was the first version of Z39 50 came?
4. Name any library automation software which support z39.50
5. Who maintained Bath profile?

1.4.1 A Standard
Aagreement on how to carry out a task or participate in an activity in order to get results that
may be anticipated is the essence of a standard.
All of the National Information Standards Organization's (NISO) standards are approved by
the American National Standards Institute after going through a consensus-building
procedure that draws on the expertise of implementors and vendors, product creators, and
product consumers. ANSI is the organisation that oversees this process (ANSI). The Z39.50
standard is a NISO standard that provides protocol specifications (rules and processes) to
promote communication between a wide variety of system types.
It was developed through collaboration and is made available to the general public in order to
encourage a wider adoption of its use.
Z39.50 is just one of many NISO standards that cover the use of both already available
technologies and those that are yet to be developed for the management, retrieval, and
storage of information. The definition and implementation of technical standards in the fields
of information services, libraries, and publishing all work toward the same end goal, which is
to make information systems easier to use and more cost-effective to maintain.
People who produce and sell products and services have the potential to access greater
domestic and worldwide markets if they accept these standards and put them into practise.
This is true both domestically and globally. Consumers stand to benefit from the
establishment of standards, which serve to ensure that products and services originating from
a variety of origins meet a predetermined minimum level of quality.

1.4.2 A Client/Server Architecture

The client-server architecture is a type of network architecture that involves the separation of
computing tasks between two distinct computer systems. This style of architecture is also
known as a client-server model. Servers, which are essentially shared computer systems, are
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in charge of managing a variety of different network services. Some examples of these
servers are database servers, print servers, and file servers (database servers). A personal
computer (PC) or workstation that is being used to run a programme designed for a single
user is referred to as the client. This programme is capable of running either independently or
in tandem with a server. Clients are dependent on servers for resources like as files, data,
communications, network devices, and tasks that necessitate more sophisticated processing
capabilities. Servers provide these for clients.

1.5 Functions of Z39.50

The Z39.50 standard makes it possible for a user on one system to conduct a search and
retrieve results from another system (which also implements Z39.50) without the user having
to be familiar with the search syntax of the other system. Z39.50 enables the exchange of
data between computers that, in the absence of this protocol, would be unable to
communicate with one another. This data exchange may include proxy records or entire
texts. Z39.50 makes it easier to trade cataloguing records, most commonly through the
inclusion of MARC data into an integrated library system (ILS). Z39.50 is an industry-wide
standard for libraries that is implemented in both automated library management systems and
individual research tools. Z39.50 queries are a standard method used in the implementation
of interlibrary catalogue searches for interlibrary loan requests.
z39.50 is a standard that helps to standardise the way in which clients and servers interact
with one another and work together, even when there are variations across computer systems,
search engines, and database formats. It acknowledges that information retrieval (IR) is made
up of two fundamental components, namely the selection of information and the retrieval of
that information, and it provides a common vocabulary for both of these operations.
After the query has been translated, it is then sent to the server in a format that has been
standardised by the z39.50 client. First, a connection is established between the source and
the destination through the exchange of a number of messages at the beginning of the
session. Next, it negotiates the expectations that will be placed on the actions as well as the
constraints that will be placed on those activities. Finally, it sends the query to the server in a
format that has been standardised by the z39.
The server will complete the request by doing queries against the appropriate databases, and
it will then transmit the results back to the original source.

1.6 Some Key Features of Z39.50

The fundamental functions of Z39.50 are to carry out a search, establish a connection
between a client and a server that are running on separate systems, and display the prepared
results to the user on their screen. During a Z39.50 session, the Z39.50 client software that
initiates a request on behalf of the user is referred to as the Origin of that session. The Z39.50
server software system is referred to as the Target, and it is given the responsibility of
providing a response to the request that was made by the Origin.

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1.6.1 Facilities
Facilities in Z39.50 are groupings of devices that implement the protocol and provide support
for particular processes include record retrieval requests, session negotiation, and search
communication.
A Z39.50 search session or Z-Association can be negotiated between an Origin (the client)
and a Target (the server) with the help of the Initialization Function. This facility is
responsible for establishing client-server rules. In order to establish the guidelines, you will
need to supply information on the protocol version used by both the client and the server, the
default character set, record size and transfer restrictions, and other Z39.50 capabilities such
as sorting, browsing, and deleting result sets..
A friendly and intuitive user interface is provided by the Search Function for the creation of
search queries. Z39.50 provides users with access to a vast selection of keywords for use in
conducting searches. Users are able to construct sophisticated queries by making use of
Boolean operators, truncation, and several other search operators, as well as providing search
parameters (such as access points). A search query is characterised by its attributes, which
will be covered in further detail below (e.g., a word, a phrase, or an exact title). The server is
instructed on how to understand the query word based on the value of the attributes (such as
searching for "Twain" only in author fields). Additionally, Z39.50 enables the saving of
multiple search results as well as their consolidation into a single list of results.
With the Present Facility, the user may ask for a subset or the whole set of matching records
to be given to the client from the server. Additionally, you may choose which data fields to
transmit and in what format with the help of this service.
There are more Z39.50 Facility protocols that may handle capabilities like the following:
Sorting the results according to how the user has set it.
Delete the search results totally or only for the entries that meet certain criteria.
Search (browse) through the different database fields and index lists of objects such as topic
phrases, titles, and author names.
Authentication and password protection are used for access control.
Control of resources and termination of Z39.50 search sessions by either the client or the
server.
Two newer facilities that are not readily available in many implementations yet are: Explain,
which enables the client to exchange information with the server about what type of server
the client is querying and what the client must do to communicate successfully with that
server in a Z39.50 session; and Extended Services, which define operations that the client
may request of the server, such as saving a search for later re-use or running a search query
on a periodic basis. Both of these facilities were developed relatively recently.

1.6.2 Profiles
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The rich capability given by the Z39.50 standard creates barriers that prevent independently
built Z39.50 systems from being interoperable with one another. It is not sufficient for a
vendor to merely state that their products "conform" to the standard in order to ensure their
products' interoperability with those of other manufacturers'. The implementations can take
on quite a few different shapes, depending not only on whether or not Z39.50 facilities and
services are supplied, but also on the local practises that libraries utilise when putting
cataloguing standards and authority management into action. The disparities that exist
between Z39.50 systems could potentially cause interoperability problems and have
contributed to an increase in the complexity of Z39.50 implementation. The creation of
Z39.50 profiles was Z39.50's answer to the challenges described above. A profile is a
detailed specification of the Z39.50 capabilities and functionalities that an implementation
will offer. A profile may be found in the Z39.50 specification document. Interoperability can
be improved through the use of profiles by: assisting customers in the specification of
requirements for Z39.50 products; defining a core set of Z39.50 features to assist vendors in
the configuration of products; expanding the market for Z39.50 products; improving the
success of users in information retrieval; and leveraging local investments in Z39.50 by
providing global access to Z39.50.

There are three different types of profiles: one for apps that utilise geographical data (the
GEO Profile), one for applications that use cultural heritage and museum data (the GILS
Profile), and one for applications that use data from the government (the GILS Profile) (the
CIMI Profile). Information pertaining to all profiles can be obtained from the Z39.50
Maintenance Agency.

An international Z39.50 specification for library applications and resource discovery, also
known as The Bath Profile, is an example of a profile project that has broad library-related
ramifications. This profile reflects the global community's agreement on a fundamental set of
qualities, such as the ability to retrieve bibliographic record information and holdings
information. In the United States, the National Information Standards Organization (NISO) is
providing funding for the development of a national Profile that will fulfil the standards that
are particular to bibliographic records. The Bath Profile and the Z Texas Profile will serve as
the foundation for the NISO Profile, both of which were developed to make the process of
sharing resources easier across the state of Texas. It is believed that it will be released in the
year 2002.

1.6.3 Attributes and Attributes Sets

When conducting a Z39.50 search, the user is required to first supply search phrases, which
are then compared to access points included inside the database. The user's query identifies
information about the search words, also known as attributes, which define how each phrase
is to be handled when it is utilised in the search. These attributes can also be referred to as
information about the search words.
There are a great number of distinct types of features, some of which are as follows:
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It is strongly recommended that you use characteristics to identify database access points.
Some examples of these features are searchable fields and indexes that may be offered in the
search. For example, a search for an author's name or the title of a publication could be
specified by using attributes that are connected to the application of the resource.
Relation attributes are adjectives that represent qualities such as 'less than,' 'greater than,' and
'equal to,' among other features. The phrases "less than," "greater than," and "equal to" are all
examples of relation qualities. Utilizing relational features would be the method for
formulating the search query for finding books with publication dates after 1996. In addition
to these characteristics, the truncation or absence of characters in search words, in addition to
the structure of the query itself, are also other ways that inquiries can be managed. Attributes
are a component of Z39.50 implementations and are included in published attribute sets. The
characteristics of searches conducted for particular types of information are determined by
these attribute sets. The "bib-1" attribute set that has been registered is a good illustration of
this, among other examples. This collection provides an explanation of a standard approach
that would be followed when searching for bibliographic information.

1.6.4 More About Z39.50

The Standard
There is a free PDF version of ANSI/NISO Z39.50-1995, Information Retrieval —
Application Service Definition and Protocol Specification on the NISO website
(www.niso.org>), and physical copies may be ordered via NISO Press Fulfillment.

Z39.50 Organizations
Following is a list of organisations who are actively participating in the process of
developing and maintaining the Z39.50 standard and protocol.

National Information Standards Organization (NISO) The National Information

Standards Organization (NISO) is responsible for the creation and promotion of all kinds of
technical standards that are utilised in information services of all kinds. ANSI, the American
National Standards Institute, is the national clearinghouse for the production of voluntary
standards in the United States. NISO is a non-profit organisation that has been recognised as
a standards developer by ANSI. The voting members and other supporters of NISO come
from a diverse group of information producers and consumers. This group includes
government agencies, information-based enterprises, and publishers, among other
organisations. Through its participation in Technical Committee 46 of the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), NISO has established itself as a pioneer in the
development of international standards.
Information on Z39.50 and other standards may be found in the quarterly publication
Information Standards Quarterly, which is published by NISO. To obtain a sample issue
email NISO at [email protected].

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You will be kept up to date on NISO's current national and international standards activities,
the availability of draught standards, the progress of committees, new standards and related
publications, and news that is relevant to NISO's constituency by NISO-L, the organization's
electronic mailing list service. To sign up, send an email to [email protected] with the subject
"Subscribe." The following line should be included in the message: subscribe NISO-L (your
name). Every message that is posted to NISO-L is saved in the archives. The National
Information Standards Organization (NISO) has a Z39.50 Resource web page online at the
following URL: http://www.niso.org/standards/ resources/Z3950 Resources.html.

Z39.50 Implementors Group (ZIG) Since 1990, ZIG has served as a forum for Z39.50
implementors and has been responsible for guiding the standard's ongoing development. ZIG
members include universities, libraries, suppliers of CDROMs and library systems,
publishers, consultants, information service providers, and bibliographic utilities. ZIG
members also include information service vendors. Anyone who is interested in the
development and implementation of Z39.50 is welcome to join the organisation. You may
get information on ZIG activities by visiting the following website:
http://lcweb.loc.gov/z3950/ agency/zig/.

Z39.50 Maintenance Agency Z39.50 has an official Maintenance Agency and Registration
Authority, and that agency is the Library of Congress. The Library of Congress is responsible
for maintaining information about Z39.50 resources, the development and maintenance of
Z39.50 (existing as well as future versions), the implementation and use of the Z39.50
protocol, and the register of implementors.
Their website, which can be found at http://lcweb.loc.gov/z3950/agency/, offers connections
to software vendors, Z39.50 hosts that are offering free interoperability testing, and several
Z39.50 databases and collections that are available online.

1.7 Recent Developments and Initiatives

Tools for scanning and explanation, as well as testbeds for Version 3, are currently in the
process of being built.
The development of Version 4 has begun in ZIG (z39.50 Implementers Group). The vast
majority of features relevant to the search of bibliographic data have already been
incorporated in version 3; the definition of sorted list queries is the most significant piece of
work that is still being done at this time.
Interlibrary Loan (ILL) services could potentially be made available to z39.50 clients by
utilising the Extended Services Item Order service, which is the topic of the inquiry that is
now taking place.
A number of implementation projects, such as the European German DBV-OSI II and the
European Commission's (EC's) OPAC Network in Europe (ONE), will develop high-quality
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applications for the public domain z39.50 during the year 1996. These applications will be
made available via the Internet.
The goal of the Government Information Locator Service, also known as GILS, is to make it
easier for members of the general public to find the information they need and gain access to
it across the entirety of the federal government in the United States.
z39.50 will be utilised by GILS in order to provide a connection that is consistent even while
moving between geographically separate GILS servers.
CIMI, which is an acronym that stands for the Consortium for the Computer Interchange of
Museum Information, is considering using z39.50 as a tool to assist it in accomplishing its
goals of establishing museum resources on digital networks and ensuring the open and
standards-based interchange of museum information.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. OAI-What is the full form of SRU/SRW?
7. What is Zing

1.8 Implications for the Libraries

• OPACs
• Cataloguing
• Union Catalogues
• Inter-Library Loan
• CD-ROM Access
• SDI
• Web Searching and Filtering

1.9 SUMMARY

Z39.50, which serves as the industry standard for information retrieval across the
globe, has advanced to a more complex degree of development. New applications that make
use of the features are continuously being discovered by user communities. Since its
inception, Z39.50 has been a lightning rod for major information access concerns, and in the
current Internet-based information environment, it continues to bring issues to the attention
of those involved in designing, enhancing, and deploying information retrieval applications.
Z39.50 has been a lightning rod for major information access concerns since its inception.
As a direct consequence of this, the standard keeps evolving. The Z39.50 Implementors
Group has given their approval for the balloting of a maintenance revision in the year 2002.

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This version will include clarifications and modifications (ZIG). In addition, the Z39.50
Interest Group (ZIG) has been discussing how to position Z39.50 in the context of the web,
how to incorporate more recent technology, and how to increase the acceptance of the
protocol among non-library populations that could benefit from a common information
retrieval protocol.

1.10 GLOSSARY

NISO:The National Information Standards Organization is an organization in the United

States that operates on a not-for-profit basis and is responsible for the development,
management, and publication of technical standards for publishing, bibliographic, and
library-related applications.
Z39.50:The Z39.50 protocol is an international standard for the retrieval of information that
is utilised by computer systems that are part of a network. It provides users looking for
information with the ability to search many systems located on a network or the Internet
through the use of a single user interface.

ANSI:The American National Standards Institute is a private non-profit organisation that

manages the creation of voluntary consensus standards for American products, services,
processes, systems, and employees.

1.11 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Computer-to-computer communications
2. Library of Congress
3. 1988
4. KOHA
5. Library and Archives Canada
6. Search/Retrieve via URL/Search/Retrieve Web service
7. Z39.50 International-Next Generation

1.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is z39.50. Discuss the key technologies associated with z39.50 protocol.

2. Discuss the similarity between z39.50 and SRU/SRW with examples

1.13 REFERENCES
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Koganuramath, M. M., Angadi, M., &Kademani, B. S. (2001). z39. 50 Information Retrieval
Protocol.
Wong, E. Y. (2016). Librarianship studies & information technology blog:
http://librarianshipstudies. blogspot. com. Technical Services Quarterly, 33(2), 202-203.
Z39.50 — A Primer on the Protocol, Published by NISO Press National Information
Standards Organization 4733 Bethesda Avenue, Suite 300 Bethesda, MD 20814, ISBN 1-
880124-35-1

1.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Kowalski, G. J. (2007). Information retrieval systems: theory and implementation (Vol. 1).
springer.
Needleman, M. (2000). Z39. 50–a review, analysis and some thoughts on the future. Library
Hi Tech.
Smith, S. (2002). Metadata Made Simpler: A Guide for Libraries by Gail Hodge.

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LESSON 1

Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata

Harvesting

Dr Shri Ram Pandey

Associate Professor
Central University of Haryana
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 History of OAI
1.4 OAI VS. Z39.50
1.5 Metadata Standards and OAI-PMH
1.6 Component of OAI-PMH
1.6.1 Service Provider
1.6.2 Data Provider
1.7 The OAI-PMH Architecture
1.8 OAI-PMH Request Verbs
1.9 OAI-PMH Application
1.10 Some existing DATA Providers
1.11 Existing Service Providers
1.12 Summary
1.13 Glossary
1.14 Answers to In-text Questions
1.15 Self-Assessment Questions
1.16 References
1.17 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
• Understand OAI-PMH concept
• OAI-PMH Components
• How OAI-PMH Functions
• OAI-PMH architecture

1.2 INTRODUCTION

The Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting, also known as OAI-PMH, is
the protocol that provides access to the database for other archives and serves as a
management mechanism for the collection of metadata descriptions. The Open Archives
Initiative is responsible for the development of the Protocol, which is founded on the
principle of establishing interoperability standards in order to facilitate and encourage a
wider and more effective distribution of knowledge within the scientific community.

Considering the significant development of activities related to digitization, a rising number

of digital repositories are being created by a wide range of educational and scientific
organisations. On the other hand, one cannot assert that the digitalization of information is
the solution to the issue of inadequate access to it. It is a very challenging undertaking to
make all of these huge and varied materials available to the public. One of the most serious
challenges that digital repositories are up against in the present day is their inability to
communicate with one another. Interoperability may be thought of as the capacity of
different systems, organisations, and people to collaborate in order to achieve shared or
separate objectives. In the realm of computer science, it is backed by open standards for
communication between computer systems, as well as for the definition of resources and
collections, amongst other things. Search interoperability is defined as "the capacity to run a
search across different collection of metadata entries and acquire relevant results," as stated
by Priscilla Caplan. The term "interoperability" covers a wide range of topics related to
archive initiatives, such as their metadata formats, underlying architecture, openness to the
development of third-party digital library facilities, integration with the established scholarly
communication mechanisms, usability in cross-disciplinary settings, and capacity to
contribute to a cooperative metrics system for usage and citation, etc.Interoperability covers a
broad phrase that encompasses many various facets of archive initiatives, such as the
information formats they use, the architecture they base their systems on, and the degree to
which they are open. [3]. Even the most sophisticated search engines have been unable to
create an index of the available materials. Federated search is one of the methods that may be
used to fix this issue. It is the process of simultaneously searching numerous internet
databases in order to provide the user with relevant results. Because conventional search
engines rely on crawler technology, a significant number of databases have been hidden from
view; nevertheless, federated searching provides a solution to this issue and makes it possible
to search the deep web without each accessing each database. Interoperability is typically
thought of in this context in relation to the finding and accessibility of resources.

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1.3 History of OAI

OAI may be traced back to the efforts that were undertaken to improve
interoperability between all eprint/pre-print servers that contained scientific and technical
materials. These servers were the original inspiration for OAI (Breeding, 2002). The ever-
increasing expense of journals was the single most significant cause that led to the
establishment of pre-print archives, but this was only one of several contributing factors.
Articles and papers written by academics and researchers would be submitted to these
servers, which makes it possible for the material to be disseminated across the academic
community much more quickly than it is now possible via the use of conventional print
periodicals.
In the 90s, there was a consistent increase in the quantity of e-print and pre-print repositories.
This increase resulted in an information overload as well as some other concerns, which may
be summed up as follows:
i. The end-users and academics may be unable to be aware of the presence of a
repository.
ii. There may be overlapping coverage in terms of themes.
iii. Due to the multi-disciplinary nature of the subjects being discussed, it was necessary
for the documents to be stored across many different repositories.
iv. The end-users/scholars had to explore individual repositories in order to retrieve the
papers of their interest.
v. Duplication of efforts was caused by the existence of discipline-specific and
institution-specific archives.
vi. In addition, it was not ideal to mandate that academics submit their work to a number
of different repositories.
In order to find a solution to these issues, it became clear that a structure needed to be
developed in order to provide some form of integration of the electronic print and pre-print
archives. Late in the year 1999, in Santa Fe, New Mexico, a gathering to discuss the
challenges facing the e-print industry was organised. The majority of the effort consisted of
defining an interface that would enable eprint servers to provide their metadata for the papers
that they stored. This would allow search engines or other repositories that were comparable
to it to collect its information. Thus, by offering a single search engine for many collections,
these archives would act as a federation of repositories, making it simpler to find the
information included in those collections.
Following the discussion, In January of 2000, a specification for the Open Archives Initiative
was given, which included the concepts that had been agreed upon. Herbert Van de Sompel,
Rick Luce, and Paul Gisparg were among the people who were involved in the introduction
of this specification. It was supported by organisations like the National Science Foundation,
the Coalition for Networked Information, and the Digital Library Federation.
In order to provide the protocol with a strategic direction, the OAI Steering Committee was
established in August of the year 2000. In July 2001, version 1.1 of the protocol was made
available. The Open Archives Initiative Technical Committee, also known as the OAI-TC,
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was founded in order to construct and draft version 2 of the Open Archives Initiative
Protocol for Metadata Harvesting in response to criticisms and ideas provided by
implementers. It wasn't until June 2002 that the OAI/PMH version 2.0 was finally made
available to the public (http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/2.0/ openarchivesprotocol.htm).

1.4 OAI VS Z39.50

Why don't we use the Z39.50 protocol for metadata search and transfer? Metadata harvesting
is the foundation of “federated searching”, which may be provided by both the OAI and
Z39.50. Federated searches let consumers access numerous resources via a single interface.
Both methods search differently. While OAI-PMH facilitates the bulk transmission of
metadata from repositories to the database of Service Providers, Z39.50 enables clients to
search many information servers in real time using a single interface that connects to all of
the servers at once.Clients do not have to search various data sources in real time since they
may search the metadata database that the service provider maintains. This database compiles
information from a variety of data suppliers.
There were many reasons to use a new protocol instead of Z39.50. Reasons:
i) The Z39.50 protocol is very sophisticated yet also challenging. It is possible to
utilise it to construct federated search systems, in which a client sends a search query
in parallel to a number of information servers, gathers the results, eliminates or
clusters duplicates, sorts the obtained data, and then shows it to the user.
ii) One must be concerned about the unavailability of servers (because if there are
enough servers, at least one will always be offline), and speed tends to be controlled
by the slowest individual server in the federation. The administration of searches that
are performed on many servers presents scalability challenges.
iii) There are a lot of different reasons why Z39.50 makes it difficult to construct
high-quality federated search services that span several separate servers.
iii) As a result of a lack of specificity in the standard, various servers interpret Z39.50
queries in their own unique ways. This results in semantic discrepancies when a
search is carried out.
iv) The performance of Z39.50-based federated searches is sensitive to the response
time of the server, the amount of results, and the capacity of the network, which slows
access speed.
The open archives committee decided against using distributed search in favour of having
servers provide metadata in bulk for harvesting services. These servers would be subject to
only a few simple scoping criteria, such as providing all metadata that has been added or
changed since a particular date or providing all metadata pertaining to papers that meet
matching gross subject partitions within an archive. PMH is easy to implement since it
doesn't need a separate port like Z39.50 (port 210). It uses HTTP, which any web server,

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browser, or downloader may listen to. It means you can use wget or curl to gather repository
information. No special tools are needed as Yaz for Z39.50.

1.5 Metadata Standards & OAI-PMH

As the lowest common denominator for interoperability, the OAI Protocol for Metadata
Harvesting suggests using Dublin Core that has been encoded in XML. The Dublin Core
standard may be "downgraded" to almost any other information system. A harvester may ask
for metadata in any format other than Dublin Core from a server, and the server may provide
the information in one or more schemas.The List Metadata Formats request returns a record's
metadata Prefix, schema, and optional Namespace (if no identifier is given). The full
repository returns all available metadata formats. All records aren't in all formats.

1.6 Components of OAI-PMH

The OAI-PMH may be broken down into two main components. The following are these:
1.6.1 Service Provider
Service Providers create value-added services using OAI-PMH metadata. They acquire info
from data sources to serve consumers better. They work like search engine web-crawlers.
They gather each repositories' information in XML format. The parsed metadata provides a
search interface and browsing indexes for all collaborating data providers/repositories.
Service Providers employ OAI-PMH metadata harvester to construct value-added services
like topic gateways and email notifications.

1.6.2 Data Provider

Data Providers manage OAI-PMH metadata-exposing systems. Data providers are digital
content repositories or archives that are prepared to exchange metadata through OAI
protocols. Data Providers reveal their metadata by installing software so harvesters may
construct value-added services. Data Providers or repositories use OAI-PMH to provide
metadata. Data includes text, photos, audio, and video.

1.7 The OAI-PMH Architecture

The metadata that is stored in the database of the data providers is transferred in bulk to the
database of the metadata that is retained by the service providers. In order to finish the
transmission of metadata, the data source and the service provider/harvester go back and
forth with a series of questions and responses to each other. Communication between a
harvester and a repository using the OAI-PMH Protocol is enabled via the use of the HTTP-
transaction framework. Both the HTTP GET and POST methods may be used to send
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requests to the server. All correct responses are encoded in XML, whereas HTTP status
codes are used to signify unsuccessful, error-handling, and flow-control responses.

Figure 1: OAI-PMH Architecture

Figure 2: Architecture

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1.8 OAI/PMH Request Verbs

A service provider may only issue a request to a data provider using one of these six "verbs"
specified by the protocol:
1. Identify: It is possible to get information about a repository by using the Identify
tool. It includes things like copyright notices, administrator email addresses, and
submission procedures. This verb gets repository details. An identify request to an
OAI-PMH server will provide the repository's name, administrator's e-mail address,
base URL, version of OAI-PMH supported, time stamp of the first record put in the
repository, how it handles deleted records, and harvesting granularity allowed by the
server. Harvesting granularity refers to an item's repository time stamp, not the
metadata schemas allowed by the OAI-PMH server. Any valid IS08601 granularity
may be used for harvesting. Digital repositories usually utilise a day as the harvesting
granularity. Thus, requests arrive in YYYY-MM-DD format, but might enable hours,
minutes, seconds, etc.

2. ListMetadataFormats: It is possible to get the metadata formats that are offered by a

repository by using the listMetadataFormats function.

3. ListSets: The set structure stored in a repository may be retrieved with the help of
ListSets. Sets, which enable selective harvesting based on sets, are very helpful for
multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary repositories, hence it is important for them to
employ sets.

4. ListIdentifiers: This verb returns the Identifier of a repository of OAI-PMH

repository entries. For lengthy requests, a request using this verb may be
accompanied with parameters defining a date range (from and until), a
metadataPrefix, a limit by set, or the usage of a resumptionToken. ListIdentifier
requests deliver just the identifier for each item in a repository, which may be used
with the GetRecord verb to get the item's complete metadata record. An example of a
ListIdentifiers request on the institutional repository OAI-PMH server of the Ohio
State University Libraries might be:
http://kb.osu.edu/oai/request?verb=ListIdentifiers&set=hdl 1811
29375&metadataPrefix= oai dc.

5. ListRecords: This verb harvests OAI-PMH server metadata records. This verb may
be coupled with parameters restricting records to be harvested by date (until and
from) or by set, as well as a metadata preference (metadataPrefix) or a
resumptionToken for harvesting big datasets. In general, the ListRecords request
appears identical to the ListIdentifiers request, except for variable use and the answer
request structure, which is comparable to GetRecord. An example of a request for
Braceros records in the Ohio State University Libraries' OAI-PMH server might be:

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http://kb.osu.edu/oai/request?verb=ListRecords&metadat
aPrefix=oai_dc&set=hdl_1811_29375.

6. GetRecord: This verb retrieves a repository's metadata. GetRecord needs identifier

and metadataPrefix. To request record id: oai:kb.osu.edu:1811/29431 from the 2006–
07 Mershon Center Research Projects (Use of Force and Diplomacy) collection in
Unqualified Dublin Core, provide the following: http://kb.osu.edu/oai/
\srequest?verb=GetRecord&identifier=oai:kb.osu.edu:1811/294
\s31&metadataPrefix=oai dc.

Verbs and their Functions

i) Identify - Retrieve information about the repository
ii) ListMetadataFormats - Retrieve the metadata format available from a repository
iii) ListSets - Retrieve the set structure of a repository
iv) GetRecords - Retrieves an individual metadata record from a repository
v) ListIdentifiers - Retrieves unique identifiers from an item
vi) ListRecords - Harvest records from a repository

1.9 OAI-PMH Application

OAI-PMH is a low-barrier approach that digital repositories may use to make the metadata in
their collections harvestable to the general public. The method consists of just five verbs and
a restricted range of parameters. And despite the fact that many individuals, including the
authors, are of the opinion that digital repositories should make their metadata harvestable to
the outside world, the obvious question for those who build digital repositories is, "What's in
it for me?" Since the harvesting of big repositories might involve the transport of hundreds of
gigabytes of data, it is obvious that metadata harvesting necessitates the allocation of
resources to the harvesting operation. If one were to harvest all of the metadata that is
accessible, for instance, using the institutional repository at Oregon State University would
need the transmission of around fifty gigabytes of data. If harvesting was done on a
consistent basis by a number of different organisations, then this form of data transmission
might very simply start using considerable resources. Therefore, having harvestable metadata
may make one a nice neighbour within the present information ecosystem; yet, doing so does
come at a price.

1.10 Some existing DATA Providers

As mentioned previously, Data Providers may be thought of as repositories or archives of

digital material. These archives often include some type of metadata that describes the
content itself. The Data Providers make their metadata accessible to harvesters by installing a

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piece of software in such a way that it enables harvesters to harvest the metadata of the Data
Providers in order to develop value-added services.

ArXiv E-Print Archive

ArXiv is an electronic printing service that is used in the domains of physics, mathematics,
non-linear science, and computer science. The academic standards of Cornell University are
adhered to throughout arXiv's material. Cornell University, a private educational institution
that is not-for-profit, is the owner of arXiv and is responsible for its operation and funding.
Additionally, the National Science Foundation provides some of the funding for ArXiv.
Website: http://arxiv.org/
URL: http://arXiv.org/oai2

Open Video Project

The Open Video Project is a shared digital video repository & test collection that was
developed with the intention of catering to the needs of academics working in a wide range
of digital video-related fields. The Open Video Project was created with the intention of
catering to the needs of academics working in digital video-related fields..At this time, the
Open Video collection stores either the video itself or the metadata for a total of 1844
digitised video segments.
Website: http://www.open-video.org/
URL: http://www.open-video.org/oai2.0/

CogPrints
Archive of electronic publications in Cognitive Sciences. An electronic archive that allows
authors to self-archive their papers in any field of Psychology, neuroscience, and Linguistics,
as well as in many fields of Computer Science (such as artificial intelligence, robotics,
vision, learning, speech, and neural networks), Philosophy (such as the mind, language,
knowledge, science, and logic), Biology (such as ethology, behavioural ecology, socio-
biology, behaviour genetics, evolutionary theory), Medicine (such as psychiatry, neurology,
human genetics, imaging), and Anthropology (such as human genetics, imaging).
Website: http://cogprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/
URL: http://cogprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/perl/oai2

E-Prints in Library & Information Science (E-LIS)

E-LIS is an electronic repository that allows free access to scientific or technical publications
in the fields of librarianship, information science and technology, and associated application

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activities. These materials may or may not have been published. E-LIS is an archive that
allows users to deposit preprints, postprints, and other types of LIS publications. Users may
search for documents in electronic format and download them for free using this resource,
which is available to the global LIS community. The goal of the E-LIS Archive is to make it
easier for professionals who are working in the same field to communicate with one another
via the rapid distribution of publications.
Website: http://eprints.rclis.org/
URL: http://eprints.rclis.org/perl/oai2

1.11 Existing Service Providers

Harvesting the metadata that is made available by the Data Providers is the responsibility of
the Service Providers. Their work is analogous to that of the web crawlers used by search
engines on the internet. They go to all of the various repositories in order to harvest all of the
metadata that each one gathers, which is then stored in their database in XML format. After
the metadata has been gathered, it is processed so that an integrated search interface and
browsing index may be provided for the collections of all of the cooperating data providers
and repositories.
i) OAIster
ii) Networked Computer Science Technical Reference Library
iii) iCite: CITATION INDEXING
iv) Electronic Thesis/Dissertation OAI Union Catalog

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. OAI-PMH is based on …………………… architecture?
2. Name any threes software systems which support the OAI-PMH
3. What is a data provider?
4. What is the latest/current version of OAI-PMH?
5. Who manages the Open Archives Initiative?

1.12 SUMMARY

The proliferation and spread of digital media are progressing at a rate that is higher
than it has ever been. Even if it just focuses on a certain subject of research, a digital library
will never be able to support itself. Therefore, the digital libraries have a responsibility to
collaborate and share their materials. The advantages of having networked digital libraries
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have already begun to become apparent to the relevant authorities. Interoperability has been
the primary barrier to progress when it comes to the efficient transfer of resources across
networks involving digital libraries. Interoperability is accomplished via the use of extremely
simple methods using the OAI Protocol for Metadata Harvesting.
The creation of universal interoperability standards was supposed to be the means by which
the Open Archives Initiative was supposed to accomplish its goal of increasing the
availability of scholarly content. The protocol's use has increasingly expanded into the realm
of digital libraries as its breadth has grown. The maturation process of the protocol was
kicked off with the publication of version 2.0 of the protocol, which was done recently. It
covers not only the various formats for text documents, but also those for images, videos,
audio, and other forms of multimedia.
There are still certain large-scale archives, such as PubMed Central, which do not reveal their
information via makinguse of the OAI Protocol for Metadata Harvesting.These archives
house a vast amount of information. On the other hand, the number of repositories that are
OAI-compatible has been constantly increasing. The simplicity of this protocol, together with
its very straightforward use, has been its most notable advantage. It has the potential to
become a significant driving force in the efficient utilisation of digital archives and the
widespread adoption of digital libraries.

1.13 GLOSSARY

OAIster:OAIster is an online unified bibliographic catalogue of open access content

gathered with OAI-PMH.
iCite:iCite provides bibliometric information for journal articles indexed in PubMed.
DOI:The DOI system provides a technical and social framework for the registration and
utilisation of persistent interoperable identifiers.

1.14 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Client-Server
2. Fedora, Eprints, Dspace
3. A data provider maintains one or more repositories (web servers) that support the
OAI-PMH as a means of exposing metadata.
4. OAI-PMH
5. Herbert Van de Sompel and Carl Lagoze are responsible for coordination of OAI
activities, which are centered at Cornell University.

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1.15 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Prepare a list of OA repositories.

2. How OAster functions? Explain the process.
3. What are the key benefits in using OAI-PMH for the Libraries?

1.16 REFERENCES

Amin, S. (2003, March). The Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting: An
Introduction. In DRTC Workshop on Digital Libraries: Theory and Practice.
Deka, D. (2007). OAI-PMH: A tool for metadata harvesting and federated search.
Rajashekar, T. B. (2011). OAI-PMH: Open archives initiative protocol for metadata
harvesting. 2011-1-14] http://www. utsc. utoronto. ca/-
chan/oaindia/presentations/OAI_PMH. pdf.
Lagoze, C., Van de Sompel, H., Nelson, M., & Warner, S. (2002). Open archives initiative-
protocol for metadata harvesting-v. 2.0.

1.17 SUGGESTED READINGS

Van der Graaf, M., & van Eijndhoven, K. (2008). The European repository landscape:
inventory study into the present type and level of OAI-compliant digital respository activities
in the EU. Amsterdam University Press.
Peake, M. (2012). Open archives initiative protocol for metadata harvesting, dublin core and
accessibility in the OAIster Repository. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal).

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LESSON 1

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN LIBRARIRES

Dr.Vikas Singh
Shri Ram College of Commerce
University of Delhi
[email protected]
STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Brief History of Artificial intelligence
1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence
1.5. Approaches of Artificial Intelligence
1.6. Types of Artificial Intelligence
1.7. Application of Artificial Intelligence in library activities and services
1.8. Challenges of using AI in Libraries
1.9. Summary
1.10. Glossary
1.11 Answers to In-Text Questions
1.12. Self-Assessment Questions
1.13. References & suggested readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you will be able to know:

• Brief about Artificial Intelligence

• History of artificial intelligence
• Advantages and disadvantages of AI
• Approaches and types of AI
• Applications of AI in Libraries

1.2 INTRODUCTION

The Human beings have thought of thinking machine for a long time. These thinking
machines have characterized in various ways, but one of them was to call them intelligent .

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Not in a human sense, but in an artificial manner .These machines would then be called
‘artificial intelligence’ or considered to have “artificial intelligence”. Artificial Intelligence is
the combination of two words. The dictionary meaning of artificial is natural but made by
people whereas the Intelligence is the study of mental faculties through the use of
computational model. Artificial intelligence is a wide-ranging branch of computer science
concerned with building smart machines capable of performing tasks that typically require
human intelligence. Artificial Intelligence or AI is also considered as combination of
computer science, psychology, and philosophy. Artificial Intelligence mainly focuses on
understanding and performing intelligent tasks such as reasoning, learning new skills and
adopting to new situations and problems. It further focuses on three cognitive skills i.e.
learning, reasoning and self-correction. Artificial Intelligence is considered as a young
discipline which carries society beyond imagination. AI broadly Artificial intelligence (AI)
broadly refers to any human-like behaviour displayed by a machine or system. In AI’s most
basic form, computers are programmed to “mimic” human behaviour using extensive data
from past examples of similar behaviour. This can range from recognizing differences
between a cat and a bird to perform complex activities in a manufacturing facility.
There are strong link between the development of computers and the emergence of AI.
However, the seeds of AI were sown long before the development of modern computers. The
term was coined by McCathy in 1956 at Dartmouth College, USA where the first workshop
for celebrating the new field of AI took place. It was here that many of the sub-sequent
classical foundations of the subject were first laid. Further, it was also computer’s inability to
efficiently store or quickly process information created obstacles in the pursuit of AI in the
coming years.
Seeing the demand of intelligence users and the efficiency, effectiveness and speed in
working environment, libraries have also started using the AI in different operations such as
for Reference Service, accessing online databases, acquisition, machine leaning in library
services, cataloguing, classification and in the indexing of periodicals.

1.3 BRIEF HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Now a day, the Artificial intelligence has become part of day to day life. It provides
the solution for speech-to-text (Natural language processing), video analytics, quality control,
autonomous driving, financial and entertainment services. It was Marvin Minsky and Dean
Edmonds who built what could be described as the first AI computer, based on a network of
the neuron models of McCulloch and Pitts. At the same time, Claude Shannon considered the
possibility of a commuter playing chess and the type of strategies needed in order to decide
which move to make next.

When we see the latest happening of Artificial Intelligence, we find that OpenAI builds on
GPT-3 to develop DALL-E, which is able to create images from text. The National Institute
of Standards and Technology releases the first draft of its AI Risk Management Framework,

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voluntary U.S. guidance “to better manage risks to individuals, organizations, and society
associated with artificial intelligence.

1.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL

Artificial Intelligence have the capability of processing large amounts of data much faster
and makes predictions more accurately than possiblehumanly. It uses the machine learning
that can quickly turn it into actionable information.

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence facilitates human work with great speed, efficiency and effectiveness
in work environments. Artificial Intelligence not only improves the performances of library
services but also reduce the rate of human error, defects and perform the task faster than
human being can:
(i) It has the ability to perform stressful and complex tasks that human may struggle/rarely
do.
(ii) Use of AI is capable of delivering consistent results
(iii) It is good at detail-oriented jobs
(iv) It reduced time for data-heavy tasks
(v) It commit less errors and defects
(vi) It has infinite functions
(vii) it can perform the task faster than a human can perform

Disadvantage of Artificial Intelligence

Although Artificial Intelligence is a promising and innovative idea in the library systems
whereas it has some of the disadvantages also which have been discussed below:

(i) AI is an expensive to process large amount of data.

(ii) Lack of ability to generalize from one task to another
(iii) AI requires deep technical expertise
(iv) Lack of human touch
(v) It has the ability to replace the human job
(vi) It may corrupt young generation
(vii) It can be misleading to mas scale destruction

With the changing time, it has been observed that the Artificial Intelligence is taking place at
every walk of life. The library and information science discipline is also getting benefit from
the efficient expert system for technical services, acquisition, cataloguing, classification,
indexing of periodicals as well as information processing and management.

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1.5. APPROACHES OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

There are four approaches of Artificial Intelligence i.e. thinking humanly, thinking rationally,
acting humanly and acting rationally. Thinking humanly approach is based on mimicking
thought based on the human mind whereas thinking rationally approach is based on
mimicking thought based on logical reasoning. Acting humanly approach is based on acting
in a manner that mimics human behaviour whereas acting rationally approach is based on
acting in a manner that is meant to achieve a particular goal.

Thinking Thinking
Humanly Rationally

APPROACHE Acting
S OF AI Humanly

Acting
Rationally

Fig. 1.1: Approaches of Artificial Intelligence

The two approaches thinking humanly and thinking rationally concepts concerned thought
processes and reasoning, while others deal with behaviour. Norvig and Russell in their book
Artificial Intelligence a modern approach written in 2010, focus particularly on rational
agents that act to achieve the best outcome, noting “all the skills needed for the Turing Test
also allow an agent to act rationally.” While these definitions may seem abstract to the
average person, they help focus the field as an area of computer science and provide a
blueprint for infusing machines and programs with ML and other subsets of AI.

1.6. TYPES OF ARTFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

The artificial intelligence have been categorized into different types such as weak and strong,
weak artificial intelligence system designed to carry out one particular job, it includes video
games such as chess, Amazon’s Alexa through which we question and receives the answers
whereas the strong system carries human like tasks, it tend to be complex and complicated
system. These kinds of systems can be found in applications like self-driving cars or in
hospital operating rooms. Further, in an another classification, it has been classified in two
categories based on functionality which consists of reactive machine, limited theory, theory
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of mind and self-aware and based on capabilities (Artificial narrow intelligence, artificial
general intelligence and artificial super intelligence). Further, ArendHintze in 2016
categorized it in four types. They are: reactive machines, limited memory, theory of mind
and self-awareness. These four types have been discussed one by one:

(i) Type 1: Reactive machines

These AI systems have no memory and they are task specific. It is good for simple
classification pattern recognition tasks. It uses algorithms to optimize outputs based on set of
inputs. It has the capacity of accomplishing the calculations much faster and can easily beat
the human. Chess-playing AI’s for example, are reactive systems that optimize the best
strategy to win the game. Reactive AI tends to be fairly static, unable to learn or adapt to
novel situations. Thus, it will produce the same output given identical inputs.

(ii) Type 2: Limited memory

It can handle complex classification tasks. This kind of AI uses historical data to make
predictions. It is capable of complex tasks such as self—driving cars, but still vulnerable to
outlines or adversarial examples. Autonomous vehicles can "read the road" and adapt to
novel situations, even "learning" from past experience.

(iii) Type 3: Theory of mind

It is fully adoptive and has an extensive ability to learn and retain past experiences. It can
deliver personal experience to everyone based on their motives and needs. It is also able to
learn with fewer examples because it understands motive and intent. This type of AI will be
able to infer human intentions and predict behaviour, a necessary skill for AI systems to
become integral members of human teams.

(iv) Type 4: Self-awareness

As the name suggests,AI systems have a sense of self-awareness, which gives them
consciousness. Machines with self-awareness understand their own current state. This type of
AI does not yet exist. It has human level intelligence that can bypass our intelligence.

1.7. APPLICATION OF AI IN LIBRARY ACTIVITIES

ANDSERVICES

The Artificial Intelligence can be applied in many a disciplines. It is being tested and used
in the healthcare sector for dosing drugs and doling out different treatments tailored to
specific patients and for aiding in surgical procedures in the operation room. The artificial
intelligence are also being used in the financial sector for detection and flag activity, in
banking and finance such as unusual uses of debit card and to make trading easier to

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streamline it. This is done by making supply, demand, and pricing of securities easier to
estimate. As far as the education sector is concerned, it not only assists students but also
adopts their need in helping them work at their own pace. The AI tutors are also available to
provide additional support to the students, ensuring they stay on track. It can also change
where and how students learn, perhaps even replacing some teaching. It also provides help
in automating the grading system.

American Library Association in 2019 said that Artificial Intelligence matters to libraries
because it canbe used for organizing and making available large collections of information.
In the similar direction, Sridevi and Shanmugam (2017), artificial intelligence is the modern
technology which is used to manage the digital library. The ultimate promise of artificial
intelligence is to develop computer systems or machines that think, behave and in fact rival
human intelligence, and this clearly has major implications on librarianship.

Majority of AI related applications have come up for libraries to preform task of manpower,
budget, collection development, scheduling etc. the best thing about artificial intelligence
system in libraries are that they are less prone to errors unlike human being, can work for
24/7 days without getting tired. It is also capable of maximizing the speed, efficiency and
effectiveness in processing library materials and enhances library services delivery at all
levels. According Vijayakumar and Vijayan in their article ‘Application of information
technology in libraries: An overview;written in 2011 suggested thatAI are used in
classification, cataloguing, and indexing of library materials via use of optical character
recognition and neutral network, the system is able to obtain the bibliographic records of
books and classify them accordingly.

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Classification

Cataloguing Acquisition

Application of AI
in Library
Services

Reference Indexing of
Service Periodicals

Information
Retrieval

Fig. 1.2: Application of Artificial Intelligence in Library services and Activities

(i) Cataloguing

It analyses the function of cataloguing activities for all types of material and media. The
department proposes and develops cataloguing rules and principles, vocabularies, guidelines,
tools and standards for bibliographic information. This department also monitors the relevant
and innovative approaches related to cataloguing. The automatic cataloguing is possible by
using Optical Character Recognition (OCR). There are two ways to apply Artificial
Intelligence techniques in cataloguing, human-machine interfaces in which intellectual work
is divides between intermediary and support system another is an expert system with full
cataloguing capabilities associated with electronic publishing system.

(ii) Acquisition

Acquisition department is responsible for Selection, procurement and accessioning. The

department may select vendors, negotiate consortium pricing, arrange for standing orders and
select individual titles or resources. Several systems have been incorporates for the
acquisition of these resources. Monograph selection Advisor, a pioneering effort in applying
this emerging technology is another area of building library collection. The task modeled is
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the item-by-item decision that a subject bibliographer makes in selecting monograph. The
prerequisite is that the knowledge base has to be broad enough and the interfacing aspect
must be easy enough for the library to get the desired information from the machine. The use
of modern tools and techniques in the acquisitiokn process has fasten the speed of the library
activities speacially in the acquisition department.

(iii) Classification

It is considered as a system of knowledge organization. The automatic cataloguing is possible

by using Optical Character Recognition (OCR). The application of expert system in the field
of library classification includes Coal SORT, EP-X and BIOSIS.

(iv) Reference Services

It helps library users in directing to the library materials, give advice on library collections,
and services on various kinds of information sources. It also help the users by answering the
question that the users have in mind as well as helping the users to locate the information that
they need in the library. The services such as REFSEARCH, POINTER, Online Reference
Assistance (ORA), AMSWERMAN, and PLEXUS are part of Artificial intelligence being
used for locating reference resources.

(v) Indexing of Periodicals

Just like reference, acquisition, cataloguing, classification indexing of periodical is also an

area where an expert systems are developed. Indexing of periodical article involves
identification of concepts, to translate the concepts into verbal descriptions, & selecting and
assigning controlled vocabulary terms that are conceptually equivalent to verbal descriptions.
The reason for automating the intellectual aspects of indexing is to improve indexing
consistency and quality. Based on the information provided by the indexer, the systems can
arrive at appropriate preferred terms automatically to assign relevant subdivisions. The
system can make inferences & based on the inference, it can take appropriate action. The
'Med Index' is the best example of the library indexing system. As there is a lack of exposure
to these expert system oriented services in many libraries, very few library users have
interacted with knowledge-based systems. In addition, most of these expert systems oriented
services are evolving over the period and undergoing many improvements to suit the needs of
the library patron.

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(vi) Information Retrieval

Information retrieval is another aspect of librarianship that has felt the touch of artificial
intelligence. Library information retrieval deals with the recall of information or resources
from a file or database, it is concerned with the structure, analysis, organization, storage,
searching, and retrieval of information stored in a library’s collections, information Centre or
the Internet. As the information held in libraries grew, several types of information retrieval
tools were invented to cope with the vast amount of information therein and make them
accessible to users. Nowadays, the quantity of new information being generated is at an
exponential rate, this led to the invention and use of computerised and artificial intelligence
retrieval systems to facilitate information searching and retrieval from the library’s
collection, be it paper-based or electronic.

(vii) Collection Development

It should be added that artificial intelligence systems could also be developed to handle
resource development or collection development of the library. Collection development deals
with the resource selection, acquisition and development in the library, or simply the process
of meeting the information needs of library users in a timely and economical manner mainly
through acquisitions (purchase), or gifts from sister organization and various other bodies.
After the selection of books that would be purchased by a library, a list is normally sent to
book sellers and vendors to submit the prices with respect to the quality and format (print or
electronic, paper-binding or hardcover-binding). Likewise, the intelligent system can learn
from past experiences and submit the list of items to be acquired based on the previous
performances of the book-sellers or vendors, especially now that most book-sellers and
vendors can be accessed via their emails or homepage. Corroborating this assertion, it has
been observed thatan artificial intelligence systems can give suggestions based on past
purchases or user interests - a strategic method to improve acquisition of library materials
and enhance the user experience via recommendations of magazines, journals, authors,
books, etc.

1.8. CHALLENGES OF USING AI IN LIBRARIRES

Artificial Intelligence systems are generally not in operational use in most libraries today.
The limitations in implementing artificial intelligence systems in libraries were revealed by
Omame, I. M. and Alex-Nmecha, J. C. in the year 2020 in their research paper‘Artificial
intelligence in libraries. In Managing and adapting library information services for future
users’. The paper highlighs the following points:

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(i) Lack of technical know-how to use and operate artificial intelligence system among
the library staff.
(ii) Lack of adequate funding to develop or procure artificial intelligence system in
libraries. Since the budgets for hardware and software are frequently tight, there’s
always constrain to the type of system the library can purchase or develop.
(iii) High system development and maintenance cost of artificial intelligence system in
libraries.
(iv) Erratic power supply to power artificial intelligences system in libraries especially in
developing countries.
(v) Inherent complexities of expert/artificial intelligence systems’ development.
(vi) Intelligent system lacks that common base of human knowledge, severely constraining
the types of functions that they can perform.
(vii) Intelligent systems lack that common base of human knowledge, severely constraining
the types of functions that they can perform.
(viii) Level of effort and technical expertise needed to create artificial intelligence systems
in Libraries. The level and nature of effort that must be invested to develop an
intelligent library system is directly proportional to the power and complexity of the
system of the system. This implies that , the more intelligent the system is, the more
the effort that must be invested therein. Currently,the required skilled personnel with
expensive development tools or techniques, needed to develop sophisticated intelligent
system in libraries are lacking or costly, hence , the lack of such systems in libraries.
(ix) Limited amount of artificial intelligence experts among library automation vendors.
The field of artificial intelligence is complex and thus, requires a specialised
knowledge in that aspect far beyond the development of conventional library
automation systems. Consequently, this will require hiring new personnel that area
before any significant , widespread work can be done the area of artificial intelligence
systems in libraries.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Who coined the term Artificial Intellgience ?
(i) S. R. Ranganathan (iii) MARC
(ii) McCathy (iv) Melvil Dewey
2. When was Artificial Intellgiencecame into existance?
(i) 1955 (iii) 1956
(ii) 1960 (iv) 1965
3. Which one is not the type of Artificial Intelligence ?
(i) Limited Memory (iii) Reactive machines
(ii) Theory of Mind (iv) Data content
4. Which one is not the area where Artificial Intelligence in not applied ?
(i) Acquision (iii) Cataloguing
(ii) Classification (iv) Ten Volumes
5. Mention the place where the Artificial Intelligence was created ?
(i) Trinity College, London (iii) University of Delhi, India
(ii) University of Jammu (iv) Dartmouth College, USA

1.9. SUMMARY

IFLA library policy and Advocacy Blog, 2018 revealed that “A good librarian, through
working with a user, can provide a much better tailored service, potentially using up time
freed up by using AI”.
AI has gained tremendous applications in Library and Information Sciences, such as
through reference science, Information Retrieval, Cataloguing. Classification, Indexing of
periodicals Acquisition, E-databases, OPAC, Web Search engines, robotic system and
machine learning in library Sciences. This modern tool provides quick and innovative access
to desired information. Libraries are also using robotic system for book retrieval and
delivery. The use of robotic cranes stores and retrieve material for users on request from the
online catalogue of stored books. Just after the request by the patrons, robotic cranes search
the item and retrieve it and deliver it to concerned staff from where users can get it. This
process not only save the cost but also minimize the storage space.
There are a number of possible applications of Artificial Intelligence implemented
and they have been creating a positive impact on libraries. This has proved that applications
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of AI saves time and money in almost all sectors in the society. The application of AI in the
academic libraries have been increasing in very high speed. As authors of this paper
discussed, implementation of AI in libraries has triggered the discovery of many new ideas.
The development of expert system libraries greatly benefited, sometimes it appears like
“Librarianship is at stake” and now it is challenging to ensure the values of librarianship.
Artificial intelligence (AI) systematically tops popular lists of the most imperative emerging
technologies. With a mixed feeling of fear and eagerness, readers seem to agree that the AI
shapes the future libraries.
Artificial Intelligence mainly focuses on understanding and performing intelligent tasks such
as reasoning, learning new skills and adopting to new situations and problems. It further
focuses on three cognitive skills i.e. learning, reasoning and self-correction.Now a day, the
Artificial intelligence has become part of day to day life. It provides the solution for speech-
to-text (Natural language processing), video analytics, quality control, autonomous driving,
financial and entertainment services. There are four approaches of artificial intelligence i.e.
thinking humanly, thinking rationally, acting humanly and acting rationally. Thinking
humanly approach is based on mimicking thought based on the human mind whereas
thinking rationally approach is based on mimicking thought based on logical reasoning.
Acting humanly approach is based on acting in a manner that mimics human behaviour
whereas acting rationally approach is based on acting in a manner that is meant to achieve a
particular goal. ArendHintze in 2016 categorized AI in four types. They are: reactive
machines, limited memory, theory of mind and self-awareness. Overall, it has been noticed
that despit several difficulties on the implementation of Artificial Intelligence in the libraries
such as lack of technical know how to use and operate AI in libraries. It has been giving a lot
of benefit to the libraries where Artificial Intelligence applications are in use.

1.10. GLOSSARY

AI Artificial Intelligence is the combination of two words, the

dictionary meaning of artificial is natural but made by people
whereas the Intelligence is the study of mental faculties
through the use of computational model.

AI Approaches There are four approaches of artificial intelligence i.e.

thinking humanly, thinking rationally, acting humanly and
acting rationally.

Amazon’s Alexa Amazon’s Alexa through which we question and receives the
answers whereas the strong system carries human like tasks,
it tend to be complex and complicated system.

1.11 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

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1. McCathy 4. Ten Volumes

2. 1956 5. Dartmouth College, USA
3. Field Tag

1.12. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Describe Artificial Intelligence and mention its application in Libraries ?

2. Discuss the Type of Artificial Intelligence?
3. Discuss the approaches and Types of Artificial Intelligence in Libraries?

1.13. REFERENCES&SUGGESTED READINGS

Gustavsson, J., &Hedlund, M. (2011).The art of writing & speaking. Retrieved July 15, 2022
from: https://www.svet.lu.se/sites/svet.lu.se.en/files/art-of-writingspeaking-2011.pdf
Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE): Retrieved from <https://www.hpe.com/in/en/ what-
is/artificial-intelligence.html.> Retrieved on: 15th October 2022.

TechTarget: Retrieved from <https://www.techtarget.com/ searchenterpriseai/ definition/AI-

Artificial-Intelligence> Retrieved on: 10th October 2022.

Investopedia: Sharper insight, better investing: Retrieved from <https://

www.investopedia.com/terms/a/artificial-intelligence-ai.asp>Retrieved on: 10th
October 2022.

Built In: National Tech &Startups: Retrieved from <https://builtin.com /artificial-intelligence

Retrieved on: 10th September 2022.

Stramel Blog: Retrieved from <sstramel.blogspot.in/2009/09/artificial-intelligence-

advantages Retrieved on: 10th July 2022.

IFLA library policy and Advocacy Blog: : Retrieved from <https://blogs.ifla.org/

lpa/2018/07/24/the-robots-are-coming-libraries-and-artificial-intelligence/>
Retrieved on: 10th September 2022.
Omame, I. M., & Alex-Nmecha, J. C. (2020).Artificial intelligence in libraries.In Managing
and adapting library information services for future users (pp. 120-144).IGI Global.
Russell, S. J. (2010). Artificial intelligence a modern approach. Pearson Education, Inc..

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Sridevi, P. C., &Shanmugam, A. P. (2017).Artificial intelligence and its applications in

Libraries.In E- Resources Management. Retrieved April 7, 2019 from: https://
www.researchgate.net/publication/327831852_Artificial_Intelligence_and_its_
applications_in_Libraries.

Vijayakumar, A., &Vijayan, S. S. (2011). Application of information technology in libraries:

An overview. International Journal of Digital Library Services, 1(2).Retrieved from
http://www.ijodls.in/uploads/3/6/0/3/3603729/vijaya12_144-152.pdf.

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 Chapter 1:
Research: Concept, Need and Purpose
Structure

1.0 Objectives

1.1. Introduction

1.2 Concept of Research

1.3 Definition of Research

1.4 Need and Purpose of Research

1.5 Type of Research

1.6 Process of Research

1.7 Significance of Research in Library Science

1.8 Summary

1.9 Answerstocheck your progress

1.9.1 Answers to Multiple Choice questions

1.9.2 Answers to Short Questions

1.10 Keywords

1.11 Acronyms

1.12 References and further reading

1.0 Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• Understand the meaning of research.

• Understand the need and purpose of the research.
• Distinguish between different kinds of researches.
• Understand the process of research design.
1.1 Introduction
Research is the key to growth. It is the continually rising societal necessities which generated the
necessity for study and creation as unique activity in the modern society.The advancement in the
society from prehistoric to the most advanced were solely by the acquisition and application of
knowledge, based on their capacity to comprehend their environments and govern them through
concerted actions. At first, learning was more based on observation, experience, trial-and-error
learning, basic deduction and inference reasoning, etc. Knowledge about fire was practically an
act of chance and categorization of toxic plants or insects was by trial and error approach.
However, owing to the increasing capacity for study, the ability to obtain fruitful results from it,
and the capacity to use it to solve issues, research has become an essential component of human
endeavours. It offers solid solutions to challenges that develop in numerous academic disciplines.

Through study, knowledge expands and develops, resulting in the expansion of the boundaries of
knowledge and scholarship. Additionally, research enables man to find solutions to his issues
and settle disputes. With the advent of Universities, research became one of their important
functions, besides their teaching, training, and publications functions. Increasing pursuit of
research has resulted in the growth of a body of literature over the years on research
methodology, which has now developed into a subject in its own right.

This demonstrates the significance of study. It is believed that research outcomes are responsible
for our society's advancement.

With the rise of Universities, research became an important part of what they do, along with
teaching, training, and putting out books and other materials. Over the years, more and more
people have done research, which has led to the growth of a body of literature on research
methods, which is now a subject in its own right.

In addition to teaching, training, and publishing, research became one of the most significant
responsibilities of universities after their establishment. A growing interest in research has led in
the development of a body of literature on research methodology, which is now a discipline in its
own right.

In this Unit, we will discuss in detail the concept of research, why and how research is important,
as well as the different kinds of research, how they are done, and the research process.

1.2 Concept of Research

Etymologically, the word "research" is derived from the French term ‘researche’. This is a two
worded term i.e. ‘re’ (again) and search (find) which means that we are taking up an activity to
look into an aspect once again or we want to look for some new information about
something.Research is the process of looking into something in a close and careful way.It is an
attempt to find solutions to problems (both intellectual and practical) by using scientific methods.
So, research is basically a methodical search for facts (truths) using methods that are objective
and can be checked. The goal is to find out how the facts relate to each other and draw broad
conclusions from them. In this way, it is a method to think critically. In a globalised world, it is
important for any type of organisation to have a system for getting information and tools for
analysing it so they can make good decisions with the least amount of risk.

The Merriam Webster Dictionary defines a research as a ‘studious inquiry or examination,

especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts,
revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such
new and revised theories or laws”. This definition clearly indicates that research isnot merely a
search for truth, but it is a prolonged, intensive and purposeful search.

1.3 Definition of Research

Research refers to a ‘“systematized effort to gain new knowledge” (Redman and Mory, 2010). It
is a process to discover new knowledge to find answers to a question. The Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary (1952) defined research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search
for new facts in any branch of knowledge”.Research is a movement, a movement from the
known to the unknown. In general research is described as a “a scientific and systematic search
for pertinent information on a specific topic” (Kothari, 2020). In the words of Creswell (2008)
research is a process of steps used to collect and analyse information to increase our
understanding of a topic. It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the
question, and present an answer to the question.

Slesinger and Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences(1934)defined research as:

“manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing and to extend,
correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction of a theory or in the
practice of an art”. Bogardus (1953) opines that social research is ‘the investigation of the
underlying processes, operative in the lives of persons who are in association’.

In the words of P.V Young “ Social research is defined as a scientific undertaking which, by
means of logical and systemised technique to: discover new facts or verify and test old facts,
analyse their sequences, inter-relationships and casual explanations which were derived within
an appropriate theoretical frame of reference, develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories
which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour.

Ranganathan describes research to represent a critical and exhaustive investigation to discover

new facts, to interpret them in the light of known ideas, theories and laws, to revive the current
laws and theories in the light of the newly discovered facts to apply the conclusion to practical
purpose. Simply, research refers to a process of enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the same, and reaching certain conclusions
either in the form of solution to the problem enunciated or in certain generalizations for some
theoretical formulation.

The general summary of the core aspects given in all of these definitions summarised research as
:

• Theoretical and methodological investigation of a phenomenon, event, or activity;

• Intent to discover data, facts and their interpretations;
• Arrive at conclusions to formulate new theories and laws or revise the already established
theories and laws;
• To communicate the results for peer review;
• To be accepted or rejected before adding this new knowledge to the already existing
general pool of knowledge.

Self-Check Exercise

1) Write Concept of Research?

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1.4 Need and Purpose for Research

As mentioned earlier, knowledge is the most important and potent resource that may open up
possibilities for a society's financial success. Only through the pursuit of study to push the
boundaries of knowledge can new information be discovered. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
persuasively explained the Scientific Policy Resolution (SPR) of the Government of India in
1958 to emphasis the importance of research, especially with regard to scientific, technical, and
social knowledge in the Indian context.

According to SPR the dominant aspect of the modern world is the extensive growth of science
and its application to satisfy national needs. For the first time in human history, this has provided
the average person in scientifically advanced nations with a quality of living as well as social and
cultural amenities that were previously only available to a very tiny and privileged portion of the
population. The notion of the welfare state has developed as a result of the realisation that
adequate material and cultural amenities and services can only be supplied for each member of
the society via scientific approaches, methods, and application of scientific knowledge.
Another important point of note, particularly beginning from the middle of the last century, is the
increasing emphasis on the organising principle for all socio-economic development as a mix of
science, technology and societal knowledge (STSK). This mix is a complex and
multidimensional process, involving science, technology and societal knowledge. Societal
knowledge combines political, economic, sociological, demographic, occupational, health, legal,
regulatory and environment information and knowledge to comprise a complete knowledge
universe. Again development is not merely cultivating physical resources, but also very much on
building up human resources. Any imbalance in these development approaches weakens the
overall capacity of a State to transform itself into a welfare state.

A number of R&D facilities in the fields of science, technology, social sciences, and humanities
have been established in India during the last five years as a consequence of this strategic
approach. Institutions of higher education and training, advanced study institutes in a variety of
fields, and organizations dedicated to the development of managerial and technical expertise
have all been founded. Building up our knowledge base is undoubtedly a goal of the
establishment of learned societies and professional associations, publication of primary and
secondary sources for information and knowledge dissemination, information systems and
services through libraries and information centers, consultancy organizations to link research and
industrial development, multimedia communication through the Internet and websites, and many
other initiatives. In this procedure, research is crucial.

Knowledge management has emerged as a key issue for businesses and the industrial community
to battle competitiveness globally. This is a significant difficulty that has prompted them to
spend a lot of money on research into the production of new knowledge. The Indian context also
shows this pattern, though it is now a little blurry.

Another extremely significant development that supports research efforts is the accessibility and
availability of knowledge and information through the Internet.

Purpose of research

The main goal of research is to find systematic ways to solve problems. The following are
general ways to define the research's purpose:

•To get acquainted with a phenomena or to achieve new insights into it.

• To examine the frequency of connection or independence between any event or action.

• To determine the individual characteristics or characteristics of group of activities along with

the frequencies of its occurrence.
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

Self-Check Exercise

1) Write the need and purpose of research?

 Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1.5 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research can be classified differently depending upon the approach, the purpose and the nature
of research activity. Broadly speaking, research can be either fundamental or applied research.
The distinguish feature between the two are given below:

Fundamental Research Applied Research

It is also known as basic or pure research It is also known as action-oriented
research
Focuses on developing ideas and establishing Designed to address real-world issues
generalisations. It concernedwith elucidating rather than just acquiring information
concepts and their relations, hypotheses, for its own purpose by applying the
ultimately leading to development of theories. theory of pure research for the benefit of
the society,
It is performed for knowledge enhancement Performed for solving the practical
issues
This research does not have immediate concern This study is performed on finding the
for findings to actual problem; solution to problem and has general
applicability; is often costly and
undertaken on a huge scale.

Sometime conducted to gain knowledge for its Performed for the benefits of the
own purpose society.
For Example: For Example:

• Research concerning some natural • Most educational research is applied

phenomenon or relating to pure research because its aim to develop
mathematics. genralisation about teaching-learning
• Some library and information science process and instructional materials.
studies might be considered pure or • Evaluation of a library service.
fundamental research since their goal is to • Application of five laws for solving
fully comprehend the subject rather than various problems in libraries.
applying knowledge in real-world contexts.
• Development of theories
• Five laws of Library science
Self-Check Exercise

1) Write the need and purpose of research?

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the Unit.

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1.6 Process of Research

The implementation of the research consists of a number of action that are fundamentally carried
out in a certain sequence. Instead of following a certain order, these acts or activities often
overlap one another. The following is a quick explanation of each step:

Identifying the research topic: A researcher's initial action is to choose a study subject. While
doing so, a researcher should limit one's research to the one option that has the greatest potential
for in-depth study. The selected research topic must be specific and relevant to the problem. One
should also focus on how the current study relates to earlier studies.. The necessary data for the
study should be readily available and accessible. The research topic should be such which
contribute the knowledge in the specific field.

Formulating the research problem: Once the research topic has been decided there is a need to
identify the research problem. To identify the problem area for the study the researcher should
examine the current literature, accessible in the area from an interdisciplinary viewpoint and
need to focus on how the present study relates to earlier studies. The objectives of the study are
clearly stated in the research problem. In other words, the researcher has to justify why the study
in the first place. In addition to describing how the study relates to the particular subject, his aim
statement should clarify how the research was conducted.

Review existing literature: To understand the basis of research, it is important for the researcher
to review the existing literature. Which involve surveying the existing books available in the
field; reviewing other published literature like articles, journals, reports, conference proceedings
etc. The researcher need to prepare his own index for a period, in chronological order, in addition
to his consultation of various indices.

Development of Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a tentative assertion prepared on the basis of the

objective of the study and includes the suggested solution to the problem. The hypothesis
provides accountability and responsibility of research procedure. Working hypotheses might not
represent the sole options available to address the research problem but act as a link or interface
between the research problem and theory. Thus, hypotheses are tentative assertions that, after the
research process, may be accepted or rejected. Additionally, a hypothesis offers a framework and
directs the researcher toward finding the problem's solution.

Preparingtheresearchdesign:Oncetheresearcherhasgainedenough knowledge about the problem

statement there is a needs to prepare a plan that will act as the outline of the investigation in
research process. A research design's primary purpose is to describe how the researcher will
discover the answers of the research questions. The research design consists of a series of steps
that has to be carried out during research which are discussed in detail in chapter 2.

Designing of sample: Research design is a predetermined strategy for gathering data in order to
choose a sample from a certain population. Due to the limitation of resources and time it in not
possible to select the whole population of the study. Therefore a selection of a sample must be
made by the researcher using a sampling technique.The sample design should be chosen by the
researcher after evaluating the nature of the inquiry and other relevant considerations.

Collection of Data :Data can be collected in a variety of ways. There are mainly two types of
data collection methods: primary data and secondarycollection methods. Primary data is unique
and firsthand& directly related to the topic under investigation. Interviews, focus group
discussions, personal/telephonic interviews, and questionnaires are some of the data collection
techniques. Whereas secondary data refers to the information that has previously been gathered
and produced for a different purpose. For instance it includes already published documents,
expert opinion polls, library records, users feedback, public data, and earlier studies on the
subject of interest. To check the reliability and validity of the collected data in the research
process, requires a comprehensive and quality assessments.

Analysisofdata:The work of data analysis begins once the researcher has collected the data. For
further examination, the collected data is presented in the form of tables and figures for further
analysis. The acquired data may subsequently be analysed by the researcher using different
statistical methods.

Generalisationsandinterpretations:Once the data is analysed the researcher lead to certain

generalisations. The researcher try to explain the results by linking the results with the
research objectives and stating clearly the implications of the study. It's known as
interpretation. This further leads to the generation of new questions which lays the base of new
researches.

1.7 Significance of Research in Library Science

Here the term research in LIS is confined to systematic studies designed to provide librarians
with more effective ways of achieving library objectives. Thus, covering activities designed to
discover facts and relationships that will make libraries more effective, excluding routine
activities of applying what is already known. The aim is to cover landmarks in research.

Librarianship does not have a long tradition of research scholarship. The beginning took place in
1930s.Need began to be felt for carrying out careful studies regarding various library
phenomena. Thus, research programme at Doctoral level was initiated at the library school at the
University of Chicago (established in 1928). Between 1930 to 1946, the first fisty doctoral
degrees in Library science were awarded to persons at University of Chicago. The Five laws of
Library Science by S.R Ranganathan (1931) is considered as a seminal work. This was followed
by his Colon Classification (1933) and Prolegomena to library classification (1937).

During recent decades, there has been an increased research acitivy due to the following reasons:

1) Library collection have grown steadily

2) Large increase in the number of librarians and information specialists
3) Increase in the scale of library and Information activity
4) Greater availability of financial support for research in L&Is,
5) Founding and growth of doctoral programmes in library schools
6) Rapid and innovative changes in technology have forced the profession to provide more
emphasis to research in L&IS, whereby L&IS can keep pace with complexities of the
modern world.

Increase in research activities is reflected in bibliographies, indexing and abstracting services in

l7is. Substantial number of research projects are being carried out in libraries, documentation
centres, information centres and library schools. More and more professionals are going for
research degrees. Pursuits of a research degree provides research training and helps to develop
critical and analytical thinking. This is due to the fact that technological and social changes and
presenting new opportunities as well as challenges, realisation is coming that research has an
important part to play.

1.8 Summary

1.9 Answers tocheck your progress

1.9.1 Answers to Multiple Choice questions

1.9.2 Answers to Short Questions

1.10 Keywords

1.12 References and further reading

 Research Methodology

LESSON 2

Dr. Aditi Rao

Assistant Professor
Campus of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

RESEARCH PROBLEM AND RESEARCH DESGIN

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Research Problem
1.3.1 Identification of Research Problem
1.4 Sources of Research Problem
1.5 Research question
1.5.1 Formulation of Research Question
1.5.2 Techniques of developing research questions
1.5.3 Characteristics of Research Question:
1.5.4 Purpose of Research questions
1.5 Research Design
1.5.1 Meaning and Defination of Research Design
1.5.2Characteristics of a Good Research Design
1.5.3. Need of Research Design
1.6 Types of Research Design
1.6.1 Exploratory research design
1.6.2 Descriptive Research Design
1.6.21 Cross-sectional research
1.6.22 Longitudinal research design
1.6.23 Causal research design
1.6.3 Diagnostic/Conclusive Research Design
1.6.4 Experimental Research Design
1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Answers to In-text Questions
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions
1.11 References
1.12 Suggested Readings

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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the lessonare :

• to identify the research problem

• to know the sources of research problem
• to discuss the formulation, techniques of developing research questions
• to identify the characteristics and purpose of Research questions

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Before conducting a research, much planning is necessary. Effective planning

facilitates the performance of research work with great ease. This lesson focuses on the basic
concept of research planning and includes a comprehensive review of research design,
variables influencing research design.

The first stage in the research procedure is to formulate a problem. It is necessary to

comprehend the issue, identify its source, and devise solutions.The success of the study as a
whole depends on the identification and selection of the research area in general and the
subject or question in particular. Many research projects fall short because the problem
chosen is insignificant or because it does not address the prevalent societal issues. Therefore,
it is important for researchers to be careful when choosing a specific study problem and
topic. Identifying a research problem indicates a specific area for addressing the research
questions. A researcher who is interested in doing research should choose the subject that
interests him or her and that seems to be important to society, or that they believes needs to
be explored for a greater knowledge of society.

Once the problem of research is identified the guideline for conducting the research need
to be prepared so is to enable the researchercan keep a track of his actions and to know that
he/she is moving in the right direction in order to achieve his goal. The design may be a specific
presentation of the various steps in the process of research. These steps include the selection of a
research problem, the presentation of the problem, the formulation of the hypothesis, conceptual
clarity, methodology, data collection, survey of literature and documentation, the testing of the
hypothesis, interpretation, bibliography, presentation and report writing which are discussed in
detail in this lesson.

1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM

The research process is initiated by the discovery of a problem, and defining its goal
is the first step towards its solution. A research problem is a specific or clear expression
[statement] about a problem that needs to be solved, an issue that needs to be resolved, a
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question that needs to be answered, or an issue that has been raised in the academic literature,
in theory, or in practise and that need thoughtful analysis and investigation. (Kumar, )

A research problem doesn't provide instructions, make a general or hazy claim, or

pose a moral dilemma. Simple and straightforward formulation of the research problem is not
always simple. Some people may take years to pick the study question to be researched,
while others may make that decision in a matter of minutes. The social concerns could
provide a wider perspective, but they might not make clear which one.

Regardless of whether the study is descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, or

theoretical, it focuses primarily on questions such as what, why, how, etc. For example, when
a description is sought in library and information science, the following questions may be
posed: what types of users borrow books, what books are borrowed, how the books are
acquired, what factors influence the selection of particular books, what physiological and
psychological effects are associated with book selection, etc. In some instances, the question
may pertain to the verification of a hypothesis, such as "the selection of books in a library
depends on the nature of the collection and the level of the users," or it may pertain to a
problem involving the determination of structural and personality factors in document usage.
Thus, the motive for study is the progress of knowledge, which is stated usually as a question
to be answered, a hypothesis to be investigated, or a problem to be addressed.

1.3.1 Identification of a research Problem

It is difficult to identify the problem in a clear and straightforward manner. It might be

challenging to understand what the researcher is attempting to study when research
investigations are conducted in certain ways. When a researcher is confused and has scattered
views of the conditions that lend themselves to inquiry, this poses one of the most difficult
situations for that researcher. An essential step in the whole research process is the
identification of a research problem. It requires a lot of consideration, investigation, and
speculation on the part of the researcher. It takes a lot of work, time, and energy. Finding the
issue condition is quite tough for a researcher. This can occur as a result of her insufficient
understanding of the research process. One may not be acquainted with the fields in which
research is required or the steps they must take to choose an appropriate research area.
Researchers have an idealised, unrealistic perception of the research issue. The following are
the main tasks that an investigator should do while examining a problematic
scenario:(VanDalen, 1973)
i. Assembling information that could be relevant to the issue,
ii. Deciding if the facts are relevant based on observation,
iii. Identifying any patterns in the data that might point to the main challenge,
iv. Providing many theories for the problem's root cause
v. Determining if these theories apply to the issue by observation and investigation,

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vi. Analyzing the connections between explanations that might provide a clue as to how
to solve the issue
vii. Tracing the connections between facts and explanations and
viii. Challenging the examination of the problem's fundamental assumptions.

A research problem must have a solid foundation in knowledge. The researcher should first
pick a broad topic in which one desires to do study, and then immediately begin a review of
the relevant information.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. After the selection of research problem in the study, review of relevant
information is initiated. True/False
2. The first step in research process is:
a) Hypothesis testing b) Analysis of Data
c) Identification of research problem d) Research Methodology

1.2 SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

Many investigators of study and researchers have inclined to do research studies but do
not have the idea for the mode of selection of topics. The different issue in the third world
countries is that many researchers in the third world countries do not take significant
question for probing. The degree of success lies mainly the value of the question remains
addressed. Hence it is essential to have a correct way and means of selecting the problems.
How do the investigators get the ideas of deciding a topic of research? How they have to
formulate relevant questions and hypotheses? The ideas would emanate from vast sources.
These are:
i. Researches conducted by others. Participation to professional seminars and
conferences in most cases lends ideas of research.
ii. Reviewing the already published work that appears in theliterature and getting
ideas from research documents such as reports, monographs and articles, questions
which either others have posed or which arise in the course of one's reading could
become research questions.
iii. Experience, i.e., one's own life experiences in professional work or the general life
experiences for many years.
iv. Institution and corporate priorities: Various government organizations. provide
research topics. Various institutions spell out the areas and circulate a list of
various topics in which it feels the necessity of research.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

3. What are the main sources of selecting a research problem?

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTION

1.5.1 Formulation of Research Questions:

Research questions constitute the most important element of any research. These
are different from the research objectives. They describe the ideas contained in the research
objectives. However, research questions emerge after the research objectives. In fact, they
point out the data that the required to be collected in a study.
The selection of the research problem is related to the following: What is the purpose of
the research? What is already known? Is any other information required? What must be
determined or measured? How should it be measured? Can the necessary data be gathered,
i.e., will respondents provide accurate information? Is the current time suitable for doing
research? Can a hypothesis be formulated? Are time and funds sufficient for the research?
The important factors to be borne in mind while selecting a right problem:

• The emphasis of the problem is determining the relationship between two concepts or
variables.
• The general issue is transformed into several research questions.
• It is possible to gather data on the problem.
• It is expressed simply and without ambiguity.
The question statement may be framed in one of three ways: ‘query’, ‘relationship’, or
‘comparison’. The examples that follow effectively describe the three types of question
statements:
Question form

For example: How might Library orientation program results into the effective usage of
library?
Relationships form

For example: What role does libraries play as an Information resource in promoting Human
Rights?
Comparison

For example: What is the comparison between the Library science education course of China
and India?
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1.5.2 Techniques of developing research questions

Developing research questions and deciding the specific topic for research are
both the art and science. The researcher should spell out clearly what has tobe done and
such narration based plan would clearly help him/her to develop and frame the research
question. Many researchers, have suggested and provided the basic techniques
ofdeveloping research questions. These are:

1. Record all questions that occur in mind after reading literature or after discussions
with others or after thinking on various aspects of study.
2. Review these questions whether each questions in necessary and delete those
which are outside the scope of the study. This will also remove overlapping
between questions.

3. Classify questions on the basis of their nature, i.e., separate what, Why and
how questions.
4. Examine the scope of the questions. Depending on the time and money available
for the study, the scope cannot be too ambitious. Only areas are to be chosen which
would be manageable within the time and resources.
5. Separate major or key questions (which form the core of the research) from
subsidiary questions.
It is useful to provide and concentrate importance on the following aspects while deciding
the techniques for research.
i. Types of research
ii. Purpose of research
iii. Developing research questions and relationship between research questions
and hypotheses.

ACTIVITY
Identify and formulate any three research questions as per the area of your
likeness of Library and Information Science field.

1.5.3 Characteristics of Research Questions:

The problem that is ultimately identified as a potential research topic is best articulated as
a question or statement for which the proposed study is intended to provide a solution.
Goodresearchquestionsmusthavethefollowingcharacteristics:
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i. Research questions must be amenable to research.

ii. Research questions be based on a solid theoretical basis.
iii. A good research question must explain the relationship among variables.
iv. The research question should not be vaguely formulated.
v. It should equip the researcher with insight into what can be done, what relevant data
be gathered to find the answer.
vi. It must serve as a guide for planning the study and choice of statistics for interpreting
the results.
vii. The solution of the research question must provide an advance knowledge in the field
appreciably without violating the human rights of the people.
viii. The solution of the research question should be of a practical or theoretical value to
educators, parents social workers or others.
ix. The breadth of the application of the findings should be in terms of range of
individuals and years of applicability should be wide.
x. It must lead to the development of other investigations.
xi. The solution of research question should be well within the reach of a researcher in
terms of his competency, accessibility to data, financial resources, time at his
disposal, his/ her determination and other related considerations.

1.5.4 Purpose of Research Questions:

The main function of research question is to define the scope of the research, i.e., to
determine what is to be studied and the extent to which it will be studied. We can cite one
example of the study of users. The main objectives of this research could be:
i. to study the users and the patterns of documents usage in libraries,
ii. to examine the economic, institutional and other support systems of libraries;
iii. to analyse the phases of library growth;
iv. to examine the degree of awareness of users in understanding the availability of
documents:
v. to assess the changing attitudes of users in using library and information materials;
vi. to assess the collection usage in various types of libraries;
vii. to evaluate the nature and volume of different types of documents and information
usage; and
viii. to develop a theoretical model for assessment of libraries and users.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
4. A good research question didn’t explain the relationship among variables.
(True/False)
5. The research question statement may be framed in one of three ways: ____,
____ and _____.

1.5 Research Design

1.5.1 Meaning and Definition of Research Design

After the selection and formulation of research problem you have to decide about the type of
research design to be followed. The design of research is said to be the plan of action, the
strategy and the structure of the overall procedure by which you intend to gain more
knowledge of a specific problem or a specific aspect of the society.

The word 'design' means to prepare a preliminary sketch or the plan for work to be executed and
research design means a plan of action to be carried out in connection with a research project. It
is however, not an unbreakable rule, for a hard-and-fast strategy. On the contrary, it is only a
guideline for the researcher to enable him to keep track of his actions and to know that he is
moving in the right direction in order to achieve his goal. The design may be a specific
presentation of the various steps in the process of research. These steps include the selection of a
research problem, the presentation of the problem, the formulation of the hypothesis, conceptual
clarity, methodology, data collection, survey of literature and documentation, the testing of the
hypothesis, interpretation, bibliography, presentation and report writing.

According to Jahoda and Selltiz “A research design is the arrangement of condition for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure”.

Another definition of research design is given by F.N. Kerlinger which specifies the process
and structure of research. Research design “is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation
conceived so as to observe answers to research questions and to control “variance”. The term,
plan, structure and procedure of research design more clear. The ‘plan’ includes everything
to be done by the investigator in research procedure, that is from writing the hypothesis,
defining the hypothesis operationally and collecting data to the final analysis of data. Thus, it
means the overall scheme or programme of research. The term structure is taken to mean

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more specifically the outline scheme or the paradigm of the specific research project. When
one draw diagrams that outline the variables and their relation one build structural schemes
for accomplishing operational research purposes. The term ‘strategy’ refers to the methods to
be used to gather and analyse the data. After fixing up the objectives of research projects one
has to specify the procedures and methods of investigations. One has also to apprehend the
problems that may emerge and decide the steps to be taken to tackle the problem.

Several definitions of research design have been advanced by several writers on the
subject of research design. Few of them are presented below: (book)
Miller would describe the research design `asa planned sequence of the entire process
involved in conducting a research.

Ackoff defines research design "as the process of making decisions before a situation
arises in which the decision has to be carried out." He emphasizes the decision-making aspect of
the research in his definition and adds that "it is a process of deliberate anticipation directed
towards bringing an unexpected situation under control".
Young Defines " a research design is the logical and systematic planning and directing a
piece of research. It results from translating a general scientific model into varies research
procedure”.

Research design may be compared to the blue print of an architect. Thearchitect before
he starts construction work puts the entire design the building on paper. He visualizes the
building in his mind first before giving it a concrete shape. Similarly a researcher has to form a
plan or a scheme in in his mind first and then he can start working on it later.

Research design is a tentative plan. As the research progresses new aspects new
conditions and new connecting links in the data may come to light. end it is necessary to change
the plan as circumstances.

The major design decision are in respect of the following (Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1990):

• What is the research all about?

• Why is the research being done?
• What kind of data is required for the research?
• From where can the data be obtained?
• How much time will the research take?
• What is a sample research design?
• How should the data be analysed?
• What is the style of report preparation?

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A research design helps a researcher to organize ideas and check for flaws and inadequacies
in the collected data. It involves the following elements:

• A statement that clearly defines the problem for which the research is being done
• Procedures and techniques for gathering the information required for research design
• Methods that need to be implemented for processing and analysing the data required
for research design

The overall research design can be divided into the following four parts: (OER and
sahu)

Sampling part: It includes the method of selecting items that are to be observed for the
research study.

Observational part: It includes the conditions under which you need to make
observations.

Statistical part:It is based on the number of items that need to be observed and the
analysis technique to be used for the analysis of gathered data.

Operational part:It involves the techniques that help to implement the items specified
in the sampling, statistical and observational designs.

1.5.2Characteristics of a Good Research Design

In view of the above discussion of Research Design, the following characteristics are found:

Objectivity: The objectivity of the findings pertains to the methods of collection of data and
securing the responses. Any research design should permit the use of measuring instruments
which are fairly objective in which every observer or judge seeing a performance arrives at
precisely. This ensures the objectivity of the collected data which will be used for the analysis,
inferences and generalizations.
Reliability: refers to 'consistency' throughout a series of measurements. That is to say, if a
respondent gives a response to particular item, he is expected to give the same response to that
item whenever he is asked subsequently. The investigator should frame this item in such a way
that the respondent cannot but give only one genuine responses. There are different methods in
determining the reliability of the responses given out by a respondent. Some of these methods
are : using 'check item' administering the same test repeatedly using a series of `parallel' forms,
etc.

Validity: Any measuring instrument is said to be valid when it measures what is purports to
measure. For example, an intelligence test constructed for measuring intelligence should
measure only intelligence and nothing else.

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Generality: The next important thing is that a well-planned research design has to Lower the
'generalisation' of the findings of the study. That is how best the data collected from a sample can
be utilized ray drawing certain generalisations, applicable, to a larger group from which the
sample is drawn.
1.5.3 Need of Research Design

• It facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby making
research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money.
• It reduces inaccuracy;
• It helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability;
• It eliminates bias and marginal errors;
• Research design stands for advance planning of the method too be adopted for
collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in
view the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and money.
• It minimizes wastage of time;
• It is helpful for collecting research materials;
• It is helpful for testing of hypothesis;

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. A research Design should not include:
a)Hypothesis b) Methodology
c) Scope d) Findings
7. A research Design is:
a)Planning of Research b) Working of Research
c) Research Report d) Research Formulation
8. Research design provides guidelines and directions in research investigations.
True/ False

1.5.4 Types of Research Design

In general, four types of research designs are identified:

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Exploratory Research
Design

Descriptive Research
Design
Types of Research
Desgins
Diagnostic Research
Design

Experimental
Research Design

Fig. 1.1 Types of Research Designs

1. Exploratory research design

Exploratory research design is also known as formulative research design. In this research
design, a specific subject is investigated. It helps to generate a set of hypotheses or
research-based questions that can be used at a later stage. The three methods that are
applied for explorative research studies are as follows:

• Surveying the literature: It is the simplest method for formulating the research
problem in which along with new literature, previous hypotheses are reviewed and
evaluated for future research.
• Experience survey: It is a type of research that involves practically experienced
persons in the research work. For such a survey, people with more innovative ideas
are carefully selected as respondents and then the investigators interview the
respondents. Thus, experience survey enables the researcher to concisely define the
problem. This survey also provides information about the practical possibilities for
different research works.
• Analysis of insight- stimulating examples: It includes an intensive study of selected
instances of a phenomenon. In this method, the attitude of the investigator, intensity
of study and ability of the researcher are required to unify the diverse information of
the problem.

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Thus, in exploratory research study, the applied method needs to be flexible, regardless of the
type of the method, so that the different aspects of the problem can be considered. In
exploratory research design, the following considerations are kept in mind:

• A small sample size is used.

• Data requirements are unclear.

• General objectives are considered, rather than specific objectives.

• No definite suggestions are made after research analysis.

2. Descriptive Research Design

A descriptive research study describes the characteristics of a particular problem or an

individual or a group. Descriptive studies include specific predictions concerned with study,
facts and characteristics concerning an individual, a group or situations. Most of the social
research is based on descriptive research studies. In descriptive studies, the questions related
to ‘what’, ‘why’, ‘where’ and ‘who’ need to be answered.

The following steps must be followed while designing a descriptive study:

1. Formulating the objectives of the study: This step specifies the objectives to ensure that the
collected data is related to the study, otherwise the research will not provide the desired
result.

2. Designing the data collection methods: This step helps to select the method, that is,
observation, questionnaires, interview or examination of records, for collecting the data.

3. Processing and analysing the data: The data collected for the research study must be
processed and analysed. This includes analysing the data collected through interviews and
observations, tabulating the data and performing statistical computations.

4. Reporting the researched data: For reporting the findings, the layout should be well
planned, and presented in a simple and effective style.

In descriptive studies, the following considerations should be kept in mind:

• The phenomenon under study should be described.

• The data may be related to the behavioural variables of the respondent.

• The recommendations are definite.

• The objectives should be specific, data requirements should be clear and large samples
should be used.
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Descriptive research design requires a clear specification of ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘who’, ‘what’,
‘why’, and ‘how’ of the research. Its main purpose is to describe the characteristics or the
function. Some of the conditions in which this research can be recommended are:

• To make a specific forecast

• Discovery of associations among variables

• Estimates of the proportions of a population that have some specific characteristics.

• To describe the characteristics of product, group, organization or market.

Unlike exploratory research, the descriptive research design is marked by a specific

hypotheses, clear statement of the problem and detailed information needs. Generally,
descriptive research follows surveys, panels, secondary data analysis and observation
methods and can be classified into cross-sectional and longitudinal research.

Cross-sectional research: This is the most frequently used research design in business
research and involves information collection from a given sample of population elements,
and that too only once. They may be either multiple cross- sectional or single cross-sectional.
In single cross-sectional designs, only one sample of respondents is drawn from the target
population, and the information from this sample is obtained only once. This design is also
referred to as sample survey research design.

In multiple cross-sectional design, there are two or more samples of respondents, and the
information from each of the sample is obtained only once. Often, information from different
samples is obtained at different times over long intervals. Multiple cross-sectional designs
allow comparisons at the aggregate level but not at the individual respondent level. Because a
different sample is taken each time, a survey is conducted, there is no way to compare the
measures on an individual respondent across surveys. One of the special interest, multiple
cross- sectional design is cohort analysis, which consists of a series of surveys conducted at
appropriate time intervals, where the cohort serves as the basis unit of analysis. A group of
respondents who experience the same event within the same time interval is referred to as a
‘cohort’.

Longitudinal research design: Unlike cross-sectional research design, a fixed sample(s) of

population elements is measured repeatedly on the same variable. In other words, the same
objects are studied over time and the same variables are measured. In contrast to the cross-
sectional design, which provides a snapshot of the variables of interest at a single point in
time, a longitudinal study gives a series of pictures that provide an in-depth view of the
situation and the changes that have taken place over time. Sometimes, the term panel is used
interchangeably with the term longitudinal design. A panel consists of a sample of
respondents who have agreed to give information at specified intervals over an extended
period.

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Causal research design: This research design is used to obtain the evidence of cause-and-
effect (causal) relationships. Like descriptive research design, causal research design also
requires a plan and structure and is more appropriate for the following purposes:

• To understand cause (independent) variables and effect (dependent) variables of the

phenomenon

• To determine the nature of the relationship between cause and effect variables to make
predictions about effect

In this design, causal (independent) variables are manipulated in a relatively controlled

environment, in which the other variables that may affect the dependent variable are
controlled or checked as much as possible. The effect of this manipulation on one or more
dependent variables is then measured to infer causality. The main method of causal research
is experimentation.

3. Diagnostic/Conclusive Research Design

A conclusive research design is more structured and formal than an exploratory research
design. It is based on large representative samples, and the data obtained is subjected to
quantitative analysis. The aim of conclusive research is to examine specific relationships and
test specific hypotheses. To achieve these objectives, the researcher needs to clearly specify
the required information. In this research, the findings are considered as conclusive in nature
as they are used as inputs for managerial decision-making. The two categories of conclusive
research designs are descriptive and causal. Descriptive research designs can further be either
cross- sectional or longitudinal.

4. Experimental Research Design

Experimental research design is usually applicable when we are determining the cause and
effect relationship or deriving the cause and effect inferences in any experimental research
study. Experimental research design is instrumental in answering some of the important
psychological questions that are based on the concept of what causes what.

The objective of experimental research design is to establish the cause and effect relationship
between variables. The four types of variables related to experimental research design are as
follows:

• Independent variables: These signify conditions or measures in the experimental design

that can be changed.

• Dependent variables: These variables can be measured and signify the effect or result in
the experimental design.

• Control variables: These remain constant in the experimental design.

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• Random variables: These can vary their values in different conditions in the experimental
design.

There are many variations in experimental designs, which are created to achieve different
results and resolve different problems. We can define the simplest form of experimental
design by creating two similar groups, which are equivalent to each other in all respects,
except for the fact that one group will receive the treatment and another group will not
receive the treatment. The group that receives the treatment can be termed as the treatment
group and the group that does not receive the treatment can be termed as the comparison
or control group.

The formation of two similar groups that are equivalent to each other is ensured by
randomly assigning people or participants into two groups from a common pool of people
or participants. The success of the experiment is based on the concept of random
assignment of people into two groups. However, as two people cannot be exactly similar,
in the experimental design, we refer to the idea of probability and say that two groups are
probabilistically equivalent or equivalent in the probabilistic ranges.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
8. Which of the following is not a part of research Design:
a) Exploratory study b) Sampling Method
c) Diagnostic Method d) Experimental Method
9. The objective of Exploratory research design is the development of
hypothesis rather than their testing. True/ False
10. The objective of experimental research design is to establish the cause and
effect relationship between variables. True/ False

1.6 SUMMARY

Research design is an important step in process of research. It occupies a key

position in research work. One to be finally chosen may be based on the practical
considerations such as circumstances, nature of the problem, feasibility and calibre of the
researcher. A research design or combination of research design selected must be the one
which the researcher believes is most likely to produce a solution to the problem undertaken
for research. Thus, it is the one which the researcher consider to be the most appropriate one
to the problem in hand.

1.7 GLOSSARY

Research Design: Research Design is important as it guides the researcher to identify the
correct methods of data collection and analysis, conditions in which the activity of research
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shall be carried out and approximation of the funds to be utilized for it; maintaining its
connectivity to the purpose of research. Agood research designis characterized by its
flexibility, effectiveness and suitability etc.

Variable: An image, perception or concept that can be measured; hence capable of taking on
different values- is called a variable. A variable is also defined as anything that has a quantity
or quality that varies.

Exploratory research design: Loosely structured research design to explore and gain
clarity about the research questions.

Cross-sectional designs:Adescriptivestudydoneonarepresentative group of people at a

single moment in time.

Descriptive designs: Research designs that describe in detail the phenomena under
study.

Longitudinaldesigns:Asinglesamplestudiedoveralongerperiodof time. There are

periodic measurements done of the study variable.

1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. True 6. d)
2. c) 7. a)
3. Researches conducted by others, 8. True
Reviewing the already published work, 9. True
Experience and Institution and corporate 10. True
priorities
4. False
5. query, relationship, or comparison

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is research Problem. Discuss the sources of research problem in detail.

2. What is research design. Discuss its different types in detail.

1.10 REFERENCES

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Kumar R. (2014). Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners. Sage
Publication.
Kothari C.R (2011). Research Methodology. New Age International.

Shajahan S.(2004).Research Methods for Management.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Thakur, D (1993). Research Methodology in social sciences. Deep & Deep Publications.
New Delhi.

Kumar R. (2014). Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners. Sage
Publication.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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Lesson- 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Dr. Aditi Rao
Assistant Professor
DDCE, Campus of Open Learning,
University of Delhi
Email:
STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Concept of Literature Review
1.4 Importance of Literature Review
1.5 Types of Literature Review
1.6 Steps in constructing Literature review
1.7 Structure and Writing Style
1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
1.10Answers to In-Text Questions
1.11Self-Assessment Questions
1.12References
1.13 Suggested Readings
1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, the student will be able to :
• Understand the concept of Literature review
• familiarize with the process of carrying out literature review
• Understand the process of reviewing the selected literature
• Know the different types of literature review
• Explain the writing style of literature review
1.2 INTRODUCTION

One of the crucial and necessary step of every research is to undertake the literature review
as it plays a significant role in every operational phase of the research process and is an
essential component of it.It is valuable even before taking the first step i.e. when the
researcher is deciding the research issue that one may wish to discover answers to along
the research trip as a researcher thoroughly investigate the available literature to gain the
clarity on the research question.The identification of topic of a study reflect on whether it
is practical and useful to undertake the study. Once the topic has been selected thesearch
for related literature on the topic will again begin.
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This lesson discuss in detail the concept of literature review, its importance in research,
types and process of conducting a review. A comprehension on how to write the literature

1.1 CONCEPT OF LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review can be state as a search of the body of knowledge on a particular

subject. Reviews of the literature are intended to provide an overview of the subjects
covered and show how they relate to the present subject. It summarises the main ideas in
the body of literature that is currently accessible on the subject at hand. It is simple to
comprehend the research issue of the present study after reading a literature review. A
literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a
particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description,
summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being
investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have
explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your
research fits within a larger field of study.

Writing a literature review helps in gaining and showing skills in two areas:

1. Information seeking means being able to quickly scan the literature, either by hand or
with a computer, to find a set of useful articles and books.

2. Critical appraisal: the ability to use analysis principles to find studies that are fair and
true.

DEVELOPMENT OF LITERATURE REVIEW

In the process of research review of literature start with the selection of topic and goes on
till the last step of research. (Creswell, 2009).

Problem formulation– In academic research the use of review of literature begin with the
selection of topic as at this stage it helps researcher to “frame the problem in the
introduction of the study”. It aids in the development of your research methods, concept
clarification, and theoretical underpinnings of your study.

Literature review- theanalysis of the previously published literature is presented in a

separate section in the research as a review of literature

Analysis and interpretation– discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent

literature.

• it becomes a basis for comparing and contrasting findings of the study.

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• It aids in writing the report while incorporatingthe results with existing information,
i.e., when you confirm or refute prior study.

A complete integration of the results with the body of current literature becomes more
crucial with the more academically advanced study.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. The main purpose of literature review is to give a detailed background of
a. Previous studies
b. Present studies
c. Future studies
d. None of the above
2. Literature review is finding what is already known about your area of
interest. True/ False
3. The process of literature review begin with the selection of topic. True /
False
4. A literature review helps in:
a) bringing clarity and focus to a research problem
b) broadening the knowledge base in the research area
c) improving the research methodology
d) All of the above
5. A literature review is not very similar to
a) Abstract
b) Annotated bibliography
c) Survey
d) All of these

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review may simply be a summary of important sources. It often has an

organisational design and incorporates summary and synthesis, frequently within certain
conceptual categories. A synthesis is a reorganisation, or rearranging, of the material in
a manner that informs how you are preparing to examine a research topic whereas a
summary is a recap of the key content of the source. The analytical aspects of a
literature review may ("Research guides…," 2022):

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• provide a fresh interpretation of already published information or blend previously

published and new interpretations,
• analyse the sources and advise the reader on the most topical or relevant research;
• Show the approach to addressing a need for further research.
• Situate your own study within the framework of the body of prior research
• Show the approach to addressing a need for further research.
• Chart the intellectual development of the area, including significant disputes; or
• In the end of a literature review, it is customary to point out any gaps in the prior
study on an issue.

1.4 TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

In every particular area of study, it is useful to think of knowledge as existing on three

levels. First, there are the main studies conducted and published by researchers. Second,
there are research that summarise and provide fresh interpretations based on and often
expanding beyond the primary study. Third, there are the common impressions,
conclusions, opinions, and interpretations that become part of the field's legend.

In preparing a literature review, it is essential to recognise that this third layer of

information is often claimed as "true" despite its tenuous link to primary research and
secondary literature reviews. In light of this, despite the fact that literature reviews are
intended to give an overview and synthesis of the relevant sources that one may have
examined, there are a variety of ways in which one may use based on the sort of analysis
that underpins the research(Kennedy, 2018):

ArgumentativeReview

This method selectively explores the literature to prove or disprove a claim, a

fundamental presumption, or a philosophical conundrum that has already been
established in the literature. The main goal of these type of review is to create a body of
writing that promotes an opposing viewpoint. Argumentative approaches to literature
analysis can be a valid and significant type of discourse given the value-laden nature of
some social scientific studies.These review are used to make summary statements
similar to those found in systematic reviews, they can potentially present issues with
bias.

Integrative Review

The social sciences most frequently employ this style of review.It is used in a type of
research that evaluates, analyses, and integrates representative literature on a subject in
order to produce fresh frameworks and viewpoints. All studies that address comparable
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or related research questions are included in the body of literature. In terms of clarity,
rigour, and replication, a well-done integrative review satisfies the same standards as
primary research.

Historical Review

The primary purpose of these types of review is to put research in historical perspective
in order and to demonstrate knowledge with cutting-edge advancements and to
determine the most likely pathways for future study. Few things exist without reference
to earlier events in history. Examining research across time is the emphasis of historical
literature reviews, which frequently begin with the first time a problem, idea, theory, or
phenomenon appeared in the literature before charting its development within a field of
study.

MethodologicalReview

It is type of a review doesn't always focus on “what someone said (the "findings"), but
also on how they said it (the "method of analysis")”.It is “a type of systematic secondary
research (i.e., research synthesis) which focuses on summarising the state-of-the-art
methodological practices of research in a substantive field or topic" (Chong et al, 2021). This
type of review provide a framework for understanding the problem of study, research
approaches, sampling and data collection and analysis techniques.

Systematic Review

It is defined as “a review of the evidence on a clearly formulated question that uses

systematic and explicit methods to identify, select and critically appraise relevant primary
research, and to extract and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review.”
(“Systematic review: CRD’s Guidance…”). This type of review "often incorporates multiple
study types rather than focusing on a single preferred study design".In other words it
provides a summary of the available research that is relevant to a clearly stated research
question.The objective is to purposefully record, critically assess, and scientifically
summarise all of the research on a clearly defined research problem.A limitation of this
method is the lack of explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria and a clearly defined process of
synthesis (Grant & Booth, 2009). Although it is increasingly being utilised in the social
sciences, this kind of literature evaluation is mostly employed to analyse earlier research
projects in clinical medicine and allied health fields

Theoretical Review
Theoretical literature review involves the study of theory rather than application with the aim
to establish existing theories and their interrelationships as well as identifying the existing
research gaps. In essence, it is the identification of the difference between what should be
and what is and the development of new theories to bridge that gap.To conduct a theoretical
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literature review there is a need to look at existing theories and knowledge globally,
regionally, nationally and locally depending on the scope of the study.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. The function of a literature review is:
a. To identify a research problem
b. To provide a reliable research finding
c. To give a theoretical background of the study
d. To provide reliable research findings
7. Narrative literature review method is also known as ________.
8. ___________ method of literature review starts with formulating research
question.
9. Methodological review summarise the findings of the studies. True/ false
10. _______ review method explores the literature to prove or disprove a claim
that has already been established in the literature.

1.4STEPS IN CONDUCTING LITERATURE REVIEW

The following are the ways of conducting the review literature:

a) Exploring the existing literature in the field of the study;
b) Reviewing the literature selected;
c) Developing a theoretical framework;
d) Developing a conceptual framework.
a) Exploring the existing literature: The literature relevant to the field of study can be
explored or search efficiently if the researcher have knowledge regarding the area of
investigation. The literature can be researched in many available sources like Books;
Journals; and Internet
Books:The key benefit of using the books often include significant and high-quality
information, and the results arecombined with other research to produce a cohesive body of
knowledge (Kumar 2011, Martin 1985).
How to search a book:Researcher has to look for books in the area of interest, prepare a final
list, locate these books in the libraries or borrow from other sources and has to examine their
content. If the content is not relevant to the topic, it should be removed from the
comprehension list.
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The easiest approach to find a book relevant to the subject of study is to browse the
catalogues in the libraries. A researcher may search the book through selected keywords of
the topic selected. One can consult the librarian/ reference librarian to assist in identifying
the ideal book on the area of investigation. You may find books of interest by using
resources like Book Review Index.
Once the list of relevant title of the books are identified there isalso a need to look at the
book's contentsas the book's title does not provide the enough information to determine if it
will be useful. After choosing the books that are pertinent to the selected subject, one need to
go through their bibliographies. The bibliography of the relevant document will reveal the
other relevant sources one can look for. Simultaneously maintaining a record of your
references is also important. You may accomplish this by using a reference management
software’s like Pro-Cite or Endnotes, Mendeley.
Journals:Journal provide most current UpToDate information, even though there may be a
few years gap between the end of a research study and its publishing in a journal. The list of
relevant journal consisting of information pertinent to topic must be prepared like in the case
of books. This may be accomplished by obtaining physical copies of the relevant
publications, utilising the internet, and identifying and reading the articles by browsing
through the index of research abstracts in the relevant topic. To save time and money, the
journals must be carefully chosen for their applicability and relevance to the topic of study.
The document's content page and abstract would provide a clear indication of whether the
article or paper is relevant to the problem. There are various available resources in print and
online which save lot of timeand can help the researcher in finding a journals:

• Index of journals (e.g. SCOPUS)

• Abstracts of articles (e.g. Library and Information Science Abstract (LISA)
• Citation index (e.g. Web of Science)

In several fields, there exist specialised electronic databases. Additionally, they might be
useful when creating a bibliography. For instance, the electronic databases available in most
libraries are EBSCO, LISA, ProQuest, Emerald, Google Scholar etc.
To learn about any more relevant material one should also consult the research supervisor
and other qualified professionals.
Internet: The Internet has developed into a crucial resource for discovering published
material in practically every academic area and professional sector. The researcher may
quickly and easily find published content in books, journals, and other sources with an
Internet search. Many search engines (e.g.Google, yahoo, Bing etc.) areused to do Internet
search. Finding information on search engines are very similar to finding information on
books and articles at a library using OPAC as it is based on the usage of keywords searching.
An Internet search simply finds any content that includes the terms the researcher provide,
either singly or in combination, in the search engine's database. It is crucial that the
researcher may choose terms or word combinations and with practise, one will become more

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proficient and effective in using keywords in combination with AND, OR, and NOT, and so
learn to narrow the search to assist researcher in identifying the most pertinent references.
b) Reviewingtheliteratureselected:
After collecting the relevant literature it must be critically examined in order to draw
connections between the research topic and the ideas covered in the already published
literature. The findings of each of study may be recorded separately and later on can be
combined with the relevant subtopics or subareas. For easy comparison and analysis, the
results can be organised in a tabular form depending on the particular themes.
The review can be conducted by considering the following aspects:

• Take note of whether the information pertinent to the research topic can be organized
around and related directly to the thesis or research question developed.

• Keep track of the theories proposed, the arguments against them, the methodology used,
and the arguments against it.
• Consider how broadly the conclusions may be applied to different circumstances.
Determine the knowledge gaps—the regions where little to nothing is known—that exist.
• Prior research should be referenced in order to avoid plagiarism, properly credit other
scholars, and identify discrepancies such as research gaps, inconsistencies between studies,
and unanswered questions.
c) Develop a theoretical framework:
Research is a never ending process and due to the time constraints it is important to establish
parameters by comparing it to certain key topics related to the research subject.A theoretical
framework is made up of concepts, definitions, and references to pertinent academic
literature that are used to support a specific research. This framework helps the researcher in
grasping the theories and ideasthat are important to the research topic. The reader can
critically assess theoretical premises when they are stated in a clear and concise manner. It
answers the crucial why- and how-questions and enables the researcher to go from just
describing an observable occurrence to generalising its many facets. Generally, theoretical
framework and review of literature are complementary to each other. A theoretical
framework cannot be developed if we do not look into the literature and inversely if we do
not have a good theoretical framework; it is not possible to do an effective review of the
literature. Without reviewing the literature, it is impossible to build a theoretical framework;
conversely, without a strong theoretical framework, it is impossible to conduct a thorough
examination of the literature (Kumar, 2011).
d) Developing a conceptual framework
The conceptual framework serves as the foundation for the theoretical framework. The
conceptual framework is that aspect which is derived from the theoretical framework and

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serve as the foundation for the research and the basis of enquiry as opposed to the theoretical
framework, which consists of the ideas.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
11. The advantage of journal articles for a literature review is
a) Reading abstract of articles help to select relevant articles
b) provides up-to-date information
c) there are many journals to choose from in most fields.
d) All of the above
12. Internet should not be used for finding published literature. True/ false
13. Books, journal articles and internet are the main sources of literature for most
of the researcher. True/False.

1.5 WRITING STYLE

While writing the review of literature the following thigs need to be considered:

• Each literature review in the academic research must be supported with the citations
as an evidence which verify the validity of the review.

• While writing the review, only the important points of each source need to be
incorporated which must relate to the research problem.

• Short quotations might be used to highlight a point or when an author's ideas are
difficult to paraphrase. While writing the review of literature, avoid utilising lengthy
quotations and substitute it with the own words.

• Even if the literature review includes ideas from other people, the researcher ideas are
still prominent. For instance, the researcher may use quotations from other sources
into its own writing while retaining his/her personal voice by beginning and closing
each paragraph with words and thoughts that are unique to you.

• While paraphrasing a source the researcher has to put the author's ideas or
information accurately into its own words and should be incorporated with the proper
citation.

Ways to Organize the Literature Review

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Chronology of Events: If the review follows a chronological approach the researcher might
discuss the sources in terms of their publication dates.
By Publication: Order the sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order
demonstrates a more important trend.
Thematic reviews: Thematic reviews of literature are put together based on a topic or issue,
not on how time went. But the passage of time may still be a big part of a thematic review.
Note, though, that thematic reviews that are more honest tend to not go in order of time. A
review put together this way would move from one time period to another within each
section, depending on the point being made.
Methodological:A methodological approach looks at how the researcher did their work. A
methodological scope will affect either the kinds of documents in the review or the way they
are talked about.

1.5SUMMARY

The aim of the literature review is to show the what has been learned and thought about a
topic, as well as what its strengths and weaknesses are. It is the presentation, categorization,
and assessment of the work produced by other scholars on a certain topic. A literature review
may be an independent piece of writing or it can be included in a research thesis.
The review of the literature begins before a research question is developed and continues
until the report is finished. The literature review clarifies and emphasises the study issue
while also improving the research strategies and knowledge base.
Phases in the process of analysing the literature include locating existing literature in your
area of study, reading it, building a theoretical framework from which your study evolves,
and using it to construct a conceptual framework that will act as the cornerstone for your
inquiry. The best places to find literature are in books, journals, and internet.

1.5 GLOSSORY

Literature:
Literature review:
Theoretical review
Methodological review:
Systematic review:

1.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION

1. What do you understand by Literature Review? Discuss the process of Literature

Review in conducting the research in LIS.
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2. State the importance of Literature Review in Research. Discuss the different types of
Literature review.

1.5 REFERENCES

Clarke, M., Oxman, A. D., Paulsen, E., Higgins, J. P. T., & Green, S. (2011). Appendix A: Guide
to the contents of a Cochrane Methodology protocol and review. Cochrane Handbook for
systematic reviews of interventions.

Undertaking Systematic Reviews of Research on Effectiveness. CRD’s Guidance for those

Carrying Out or Commissioning Reviews. CRD Report Number 4 (2nd Edition). NHS Centre for
Reviews and Dissemination, University of York. March 2001.
https://www.york.ac.uk/media/crd/Systematic_Reviews.pdf

Martin, David W., 1985, Doing Psychological Experiments (2nd edn),

Monterey, CA, Brooks/Cole.
Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature." 2007 36 (April 2007): 139-147

Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive

Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach. Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2016;

Clarke, M., Oxman, A. D., Paulsen, E., Higgins, J. P., & Green, S. (2011). Appendix A: Guide to the

contents of a Cochrane Methodology protocol and review. In Cochrane Handbook for

systematic reviews of interventions.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Review of the Literature. In Research Design: Qualitative, quantitative and

methods approach (3rd ed., pp. 23-46). Sage Publication.

Kennedy, M. M. (2007). Defining a Literature. Educational Researcher, 139-147.

Kumar, R. (2011). Reviewing the literature. In Research Methodology : A step-by-step guide for

beginners. SAGE publication.

Martin, D. W. (1985). Doing Psychological Experiments (2nd ed.). Monterey, CA, Brooks/Cole.

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Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Rebecca, F. (2016). Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A

Multimodal and Cultural Approach. Sage.

Research guides: Organizing your social sciences research paper: 5. The literature review. (2022,

August 11). Research Guides at University of Southern California.

https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/literaturereview

Undertaking Systematic Reviews of Research on Effectiveness. CRD’s Guidance for those Carrying Out

or Commissioning Reviews (4). (2001). NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination,University

of York.
Powell

Research methods Kothari

Krishan Kumar

Uttrakhand Notes

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 Name of the Course

LESSON 3

Hypothesis: Definition, Types, Sources and Functions

Dr. Aditi Rao

Assistant Professor
Campus of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]
STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Hypothesis
1.3.1 Meaning and Definition of Hypothesis
1.3.2 Characteristics of the Hypothesis
1.3.3 Functions of Hypotheses
1.4 Significance and Importance of Hypothesis
1.5 Types of Hypotheses
1.6 Formulation of Hypotheses
1.6.1 Sources of Hypotheses
1.6.2 Difficulties in formulating the Hypotheses
1.7 Testing of Hypotheses
1.7.1 Steps in Hypothesis Testing
1.7.1.1 Two-tailed and One-tailed Tests
1.7.1.2 Errors in Hypothesis Testing
1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Answers to In-text Questions
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• Understand the meaning of Hypothesis.

• Define the characteristics, functions of Hypotheses
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• Identify the different types and sources of Hypothesis.

• Explain the formulation of Hypothesis
• Understand the testing of Hypothesis.
• Identify the difficulties faced while formulating the Hypotheses
• Understand the significance and Importance of Hypotheses

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Once the problem to be addressed in the course of research has been established, the
researcher advisedly construct a tentative solution or answer to it.These suggested solutions
or explanations are the hypotheses that a researcher would need to examine based on facts
that are already known or may be learned. Thus, hypotheses lead the researcher through the
bundle of facts, allowing to see and select just those that are pertinent to the problem or
challenge one seeks to solve. Collection of fact for the sake of gathering them will provide no
results; to be productive, one needs to gather facts that support or oppose a certain point of
view or proposition. Such points of view or statements are called hypotheses, and the purpose
of inquiry/research is to examine their consistency with reality. Generally, hypotheses assist
in seeing and appreciating 1. the kind of data that must be gathered in order to answer the
research question and 2. the most effective form in which they should be organised.

1.3 Hypotheses
1.3.1 Meaning and Definition of
The term ‘hypothesis’ is derived from the ancient Greek term ‘hypotithenai’, which means
to put under or to suppose. According to Theodorson and Theodorson, "a hypothesis is a
tentative statement asserting a relationship between certain facts”. Which means it’s an
assumption about relations between two or more variables. It is a tentative explanation of
the research problem or a guess about the research outcome.

Webster’ New International dictionary of English language, 1956, defines the word
“hypothesis” as “a propositions, conditions or principal which is assumed, perhaps without
belief, in order to draw out its logical consequences and by this method to test its accord
with facts which are known or may be determined”. Another definition by Goode and Hatt
have defined it as “a proposition which can be put to test to determine validity”.

Before starting the research, the researcher has a rather general, diffused, even confused
notion of the problem.Cohen and Nagel highlights the value of hypothesis thus, “We cannot
take a simple step forward in any enquiry unless we began with suggested explanation or
solution of the difficulty which is originated it. Such tentative explanations are suggested to
us by something in the subject matter and by our previous knowledge. When they are
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formulated as propositions, they are called, hypothesis”. The hypothesis starts and finishes
the research process. A hypothesis may be expressed in a variety of ways, but it always
serves the core purpose of predicting the result of the inquiry.

According to werkmeister, “ The guesses he makes are the hypotheses which either solve
the problem or guide him in further investigation”.

For example, if statistics show that the number of questions received at the reference desk
has decreased considerably, you might hypothesise that information literacy instruction
reduce reference inquires. For each hypothesis, a particular action taken could support or
reject it. If hypothesis is supported than there is a good chance that one can act to remedy
the problem. For instance, if it is supported that the information literacy instruction reduces
reference inquires, then the library can direct more resources into the ventures.

Kerlinger describes it as "conjectural statement of the relationship between two or more

variables." Black and Chmion have described it as "a tentative statement about something
the validity of which is usually unknown".

The hypothesis is frequently formed through inductive reasoning, in which the researcher
conducts a series of observations to build a theory. In all types of research a hypothesis
comply to the research objectives, scope, and limitations. A hypothesis guarantees that the
whole research process adheres to scientific and reliable standards of reasoning.

According to George A. Lundberg, “A hypothesis is a tentative generalisation, the validity

of which remains to be tested. In it’s most elementary stage the hypothesis may be any
hunch, guess, imaginative idea, which becomes, the basis for action or investigation”. In
other words hypotheses are a collection of predictions that are examined to ensure the
validity of the findings.

1.3.1 Characteristics of Hypothesis:

The contents should be divided into smaller chunks and structured under heading and
sub-headings. The purpose is to present a logical and graded arrangement of subject matter.
The language should be simple and easy to understand. It should not be bookish and full of
jargon. The language used should be appropriate to the level of the learner.
Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:

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Clear and
Precise
Self
Testable
Explanatory

Assert
Testable
within
Hypothesis Relationship
Timeframe Characterstics between
Variables

Consistent Specific

Simple

Fig. 1.1 Characteristics of Hypothesis

i Hypothesis must be conceptually clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and
precise, the conclusions obtained from it cannot be taken as reliable.
ii Hypothesis must be testable. The researcher require to perform some prior research so
that the research study might not suffer from unprovable hypotheses. A hypothesis is
testable if it can be used to draw further conclusions that may then be verified by
observation.
iii Hypothesis must assert relationship between variables, if the hypothesis is a relational
one.
iv Hypothesis must be specific and limited in scope. A researcher should construct more
specific hypotheses as it is often more testable. If a hypothesis is relational, it should
specify the relationships between the variables.
v Hypothesis must be asserted in most simple terms in order to be understood by
everyone. But one must remember that simplicity of Hypothesis has nothing to do
with its significance.
vi Hypothesis must be consistent with most known facts or a considerable body of
established facts.
vii Hypothesis must be testable within a reasonable timeframe. Even an excellent
hypothesis should not be used if it cannot be tested in a reasonable amount of time,
since one cannot spend a lifetime gathering data to test it.
viii The hypothesis must explain the facts that need an explanation. This indicates that
the original problem condition should be able to be deduced by combining the

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hypothesis with other recognised generalisations. Therefore, a hypothesis must

explain what it purports to explain; it must have empirical support.

1.3.2 Functions of Hypotheses:

The most important function of a hypothesis are:
1. Hypothesis explains all the connected facts adequately.
2. Hypothesis provides direction to the research and obstruct irrelevant review of
literature which leads to the precise and fruitful research.
3. It enables the researcher to direct enquiry along the right lines. It suggests
experiments and observation and provide groundwork for the same.
4. Hypothesis determine the method of verification as well as the procedure for enquiry
Hypothesis limits the scope of enquiry to a manageable area because instead of
random collection of data, it enables the researcher to search only for relevant facts.
Therefore, it leads to economy of time and money.
5. It leads to the discovery of laws. It explains facts and laws and thus seeks to verify
knowledge.
6. Hypothesis leads to conclusion which is sometimes very significant for the
advancement of knowledge. The significance of an object or event can be determined
by the hypothesis.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Hypothesis is a:
a. Tentative solution to a problem
b. Partial solution to a problem
c. Tested solution to a problem
d. Solution to a problem
2. A statement that to be tested in research is called ___________.
3. Hypothesis is a tentative explanation of the relationship between two
variables . True / False
4. State any three Characteristics of Hypothesis.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis has a very important place in research, although it occupies very small space in
the body of thesis. The importance of hypothesis can be more specifically stated as under:
1. It gives direction to research. It assures the collection of data necessary to answer
the question posed in the statement of the problem.

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2. It directs the investigator to certain aspects of the situation, which are relevant from
the standpoint of the problem at hand. It prevents the research from engaging in
fruitless research.
3. It serves as a guide to the thinking and discovering processes. Without hypotheses,
research would be haphazard and aimless.
4. It prevents blind research. It avoids indiscrimate gathering of data which may later
turn our to be irrelevant.
5. It directs the researcher's attention to facts and situations that would otherwise be
neglected.
6. It places clear and specific goal before. These clear and specific goals provide the
investigator with a basis for selecting samples and research procedures to meet these
goals.
7. It serves the function of linking together related facts and information and
organizing them into one comprehensible whole.

1.5 Types of Hypothesis

There are many kinds of hypotheses the social researcher has to be working with. One type
of hypotheses asserts that something is the case in a given instance; that a particular object,
person or situation has a particular characteristic. Another type of hypotheses deals with
the frequency of occurrences or of association among variables. Hypotheses can be
classified in a variety of ways. Some of the common hypothesis identified by Powel and
Connaway ( 2004) are:

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Working
hypothesis
Univariate Final
hypothesis hypothesis

Bivariate Particular
hypothesis hypothesis

Multivariat
Causal
e
hypothesis
hypothesis
Types of
Hypotheses

Directional Alternative
hypothesis hypothesis

Nondirectio
Null
nal
hypothesis
hypothesis

Deductive Inductive
hypothesis hypothesis

Fig. 1.2 Types of Hypotheses

Working hypothesis- The working hypothesis, also known as the research hypothesis or
scientific hypothesis. It is the hypothesis with which a research investigation starts. It aid in
defining and directing the research. Research hypothesis is a formal affirmative statement
that predicts the tentative explanation of the relationship between two or more variables.
For Example: “There is a difference between the learning styles of boys and girls”.

Final hypothesis- is a hypothesis that corresponds to the research findings. It probably has a
lot in common with the ultimate result of the research.

Particular hypothesis- a hypothesis that just describes a certain incident or circumstance, for
example “not all college students are skilled library users”. (Powell, )
Causal hypothesis- claim that there is a casual relationship between two or more variables (i.e.,
that a particular factor or condition determines or affects another factor or condition).

Alternative hypothesis- an alternative hypothesis offers a feasible and reasonable

solution for the problem (i.e., a different explanation of the same facts). Sometimes, the
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terms “minor” and “secondary” are used interchangeably, although the latter, which
contains meanings that are less widely recognized, appears to imply something
completely distinct.

Null hypothesis- suggests there is no substantial relationship between the variables in question. It is
the idea that something that can be seen happened by chance instead of because of a clear cause.
This is a neutral type of hypothesis which is primarily used for the purposes of statistical testing. By
rejecting or accepting null hypothesis, one arrives at the conclusions about the research hypothesis.

Ex: There will be no significance difference in the level of satisfaction with reference service
between UG and PG students.

Inductive hypothesis- a hypothesis that expands from the specific to the general, or a generalization that
is supported by observations.

Deductive hypothesis- a hypothesis that moves from the general to the specific or a hypothesis that
is formed from an existing theory.
Nondirectional hypothesis- a hypothesis that merely suggests the existence of a relationship or
difference. It does not specify the kind of relationship. For example “There is a difference in the
academic achievement of B.Ed. students enrolled in open and conventional universities”. Although the
hypothesis stipulate that there is a difference in the academic achievement, the direction of the
difference is not specified.

Directional hypothesis- a hypothesis that describes the nature of relationship between or

among variables. For example,

• It could logically be hypothesized that the assignment of term papers results in more
library use by certain students.
• High quality of LIS education lead to high quality of LIS practice skills.
• There is positive relationship between the academic achievement and study habit of
students
Multivariate hypothesis- a hypothesis proposing a relationship among more than two
phenomena.
Bivariate hypothesis- a hypothesis proposing a relationship between two phenomena.

Univariate hypothesis- a hypothesis concerned with only one phenomenon or variable. In

that no relationship is involved, one could argue that this kind of statement does not meet
the minimal criteria for a hypothesis. It might better be termed a research question.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5. Hypothesis that is tested for its rejection is:
a. Null
b. Alternative
c. Statistical Inference
d. None of the Above
6. ___________ Hypothesis moves from General to Specific.
7. Directional Hypothesis does not specify the kind of relationship between variables.
True / False

1.6 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

The task of deriving adequate hypothesis is essentially parallel to that of selecting suitable
problems. The derivation of a good hypothesis demands characteristics of experience
and creativity. Success in an investigation depends on the considerable time and effort
spent in tracing and stating tentative hypothesis. A good investigator must have not
only an alert mind capable ofderiving relevant hypothesis, but also a critical mind
capable of rejecting faulty hypothesis.

1.6.1 Sources of Hypotheses:

The specific sources of Hypothesis are Discussed below:

Sources of Hypotheses
General Culture

Scientific Theory

Personal Experience

Analogies

Observation

Fig. 1.3 Sources of Hypotheses

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1. General Culture : In the investigations for solving problems of Indian Education,

the hypothesis cannot lose sight of the broad culture to which we belong.
While formulating such hypothesis we cannot ignore religious or moral bias in
Indian Education; typical role of family in Indian Education; the educational interests of
Indian- children; the state of women education in India and so on. Our cultural
heritage a great source of idea, theories, tentative theories and provisional
propositions.

2. Scientific Theory : There are various scientific laws or theories which are
transferable to the field of educational researchers. For example, we have theories like-
sound mind in a sound body, handicapped children face adjustment problems, rest relieves fatigue
etc.

3. Personal Experience- We have emphasized above that a good hypothesis can

come only from experience. Some of an experiences may be directly changed into research
hypotheses for example : Teachers character and personality are imbibed by the students good
study habits improve achievement, library reading enhances interest in knowledge etc.

4.Analogies: Although reasoning by analogy generally is considered unacceptable, as

a source of proof, it is a fertile source of hypotheses. It is the process of framing
hypothesis from the likenesses and similarities. It is assumed that the existence of
similarities between two situations is not accidental, but that it is the result of the
operational of some law common to two situations. For example, If our problem is similar in
nature to a problem studied in a foreign land, we may frame our hypothesis in the same manner.

5. Observation: Observation is important in the consideration and undertaking of a

research issue. A good hypothesis is developed through the compilation of previous
facts and current facts relevant to the problem.

1.6.2 Difficulties in formulating the Hypotheses

According to Goode and Hatt three main difficulties in formulating hypotheses are:

1. Inability to phrase the hypothesis properly.

2. Absence of clear theoretical framework or knowledge of theoretical framework,
e.g., awareness of rights among women depends upon personality, environment
(education and family and aspirations).
3. Lack of ability to utilise the theoretical framework logically, e.g. workers
commitment and role skills and role learning.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

8. The Source of Hypothesis is:

a. Interview
b. General Culture
c. Genealogy
d. Questionnaire

1.7 TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

A knowledge or a fact could be accepted only when it has validity. The validity of such
knowledge could be accepted only when it is tested with regard to its usefulness or
truth. Hence, to accept hypotheses, which . are merely munches or guesses, as facts, they
are to be used. Testing hypothesis subjecting them to some sort of empirical scrutiny to
determine if they are supported or refuted by what the researcher observes.

Robert Baes states that the following questions should be asked hypothesis
before they are tested:
1. Are the terms empirically specific, so that the concepts or variables can be
distinguished in concrete situations?
2. Is the relationship between variables such that, it could be verified or nullified by
means of empirical operations?
3. Is there any prior evidence as to the truth or falseness of the relationship?
4. Can an appropriate study design be devised?
5. Are the variables context bound (example: restricted to play group or gang) or
could they be equally well applied to other interaction situation (example work
group or family)?
6. Are the generalisations "culture bound" or can they also be applied realistically to
other cultures?
7. If other relevant factors are subject to change in the course of the observations, are
they adequately specified and enumerated, so the that the observer can ascertain
whether they have changed during period of observation?
8. Is the generalisation a part of the theoretical system from which is could be
deduced as well as being verified by the proposed empirical induction?

1.7.1 Steps in Hypothesis Testing

The procedure for hypothesis testing is as follows:

Step 1: Making formal statement: In this step, the nature of a hypothesis is clearly stated,
which could be either null hypothesis or alternate hypothesis. Stating a problem in hypothesis

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testing is of utmost importance, which should be done with proper care, keeping in mind the
object and nature of the problem.

Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis: In the context of statistical analysis, the following
concepts or assumptions are taken into consideration

Null hypothesis: While comparing two different methods in terms of their superiority, wherein
the assumption is that both the methods are equally good is called null hypothesis. It is also
known as statistical hypothesis and is symbolised as H0.

Alternate hypothesis: While comparing two different methods, regarding their superiority,
wherein, stating a particular method to be good or bad as compared to the other one is called
alternate hypothesis. It is symbolised as Ha.

Step 2: Comparison of Null Hypothesis with Alternate Hypothesis: Following are the points
of comparison between null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis:

• Null hypothesis is always specific, while alternate hypothesis gives an approximate

value.
• The rejection of null hypothesis involves great risk, which is not in the case of alternate
hypothesis.
• Null hypothesis is more frequently used in statistics than alternate hypothesis because it
is specific and is not based on probabilities.

Step 3: Choosing a significance level: In this step, a hypothesis is tested on the basis of a present
significance level, which has to be adequate in terms of nature and purpose of the problem.
Significance level is the maximum value of the probability of rejecting a null hypothesis (H0)
when it is true. For example, if you assume significance level to be 5 %, it means that the
researcher is ready to take 5% risk to reject the null hypothesis when it happens to be true.

Step 4: Decision Rule: In this concept of hypothesis, you will formulate a rule provided both null
hypothesis and alternate hypothesis are given. Formulating a decision means either accepting null
hypothesis and rejecting alternate hypothesis or rejecting null hypothesis and accepting alternate
hypothesis. It can be easily understood with the help of an example, wherein you test 20 items and
formulate a decision on the basis of a rule, which states that a null hypothesis will be accepted if
out of those 20 items, either none is defective or only 5 is defective otherwise alternate hypothesis
will be accepted.

1.7.1.1 Two-tailed and One-tailed Tests

The two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if the sample mean is either more or less than
the hypothesised value of the mean of the population. It is considered to be apt when null
hypothesis is of some specific value whereas; alternate hypothesis is not equal to the value of
null hypothesis. In a two-tailed curve, there are two rejection regions, which are also called
critical regions.
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Figure 4.1 shows the two-tailed curve with its critical regions on each side.

Fig 1.4. Two tailed Curve with its critical region on both sides
Source: Shetgovekar (2021)

Conditions for the Occurrence of One-tailed Test: When the population mean is either
lower or higher than some hypothesised value, one-tailed test is considered to be appropriate
where the rejection is only on the left tail of the curve. This is known as left-tailed test.

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Fig. 1.5. One tailed Curve with its critical region

Source: Shetgovekar (2021)

1.7.1.2 Errors in Hypothesis Testing

You have already learned that hypotheses are assumptions that may be prove to be either
correct or incorrect. It is possible to arrive at an incorrect conclusion about a hypothesis for
the various reasons if :

• Sampling procedure adopted is faulty;

• Data collection method is inaccurate;
• Study design selected is faulty;
• Inappropriate statistical methods used;
• Conclusions drawn are incorrect.

The common errors that might occur when testing a hypothesis are as follows:

Table 1.5.1: Type I and Type II Error

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Condition Null Hypothesis is true Null hypothesis is false

Null Hypothesis is Rejected Type I error Decision is correct

Null Hypothesis is Accepted Decision is correct Type II error

There are two types of errors in statistical hypothesis, which are as follows:

Type I error: In this type of error, you may reject a null hypothesis when it is true. It means
rejection of a hypothesis, which should have been accepted. It is denoted by α (alpha) and is
also known as alpha error.

Type II error: In this type of error, you are supposed to accept a null hypothesis when it is
not true. It means accepting a hypothesis, which should have been rejected. It is denoted by β
(beta) and is also known as beta error.

Type I error can be controlled by fixing it at a lower level. For example, if you fix it at 2 per
cent, then the maximum probability to commit Type I error is 0.02. But reducing Type I error
has a disadvantage when the sample size is fixed, as it increases the chances of Type II error.
In other words, it can be said that both types of errors cannot be reduced simultaneously. The
only solution of this problem is to set an appropriate level by considering the costs and
penalties attached to them or to strike a proper balance between both types of errors.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

9. Null Hypothesis is denoted by:

a. H2
b. H0
c. H1
d. H3
10. _________ Hypothesis shows that there is no difference between the variables.
11. The point where the Null Hypothesis get rejected is called as ?
a. Significant Value
b. Rejection Value
c. Acceptance Value
d. Critical Value
12. Type 1 error occur when?
a. We reject H0 if it is true
b. We reject H0 if it is false
c. We accept H0 if it is True
d. We accept H0 if it is False

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1.8 SUMMARY

Hypothesis is tentative solution or an intelligent guess about a research problem under

study. It is not simply an educated guess, rather it is based on past research where the
researcher gathers the evidence to advance a hypothesized relationship between variables.
The researchers use hypotheses in their research implicitly or explicitly. The greatest
advantage is that they not only guide in goals of research but help, in concentrating on the
important aspects of the research topic by avoiding less significant issues.

In formulating a hypothesis it is important to ensure that it is simple, specific and

conceptually clear; is able to be verified; is rooted in an existing body of knowledge; and is
capable to be operational used. There are various types of Hypotheses but for statistical
testing only Null Hypothesis and Alternate Hypothesis are used.

Important concepts involved in the process of hypothesis testing e.g., One tailed; two tailed
tests, type I error, type II error of a test were also explained.

1.9 GLOSSARY

Hypothesis : a hypothesis is a tentative statement asserting a relationship between certain

facts

Null hypothesis : The hypothesis that is of no scientific interest; sometimes the hypothesis of
no difference.

Alternative hypothesis : Statistical term for research hypothesis that specifies values that
researcher believes to hold true.

One-tailed test : A one-tailed test looks for an "increase" or "decrease" in the parameter two-
tailed test: A two-tailed test looks for a "change" (increased or decreased) in the parameter.

Type I error – Rejection of a null hypothesis when it is true. Type II error - Acceptance of a
null hypothesis when it is false.

1.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. a Tentative solution to a problem 8. b General Culture

2. Hypothesis 9. b H0
3. True 10. Null Hypothesis.
4. i. Clear and Precise 11. b Rejection Value
ii. Testable 12. a We reject H0 if it is true
iii. Specific

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5. a Null
6. Deductive Hypothesis
7. False

1.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the characteristics of hypothesis?

2. Explain the different types of Hypotheses?
3. What is the procedure for hypothesis testing?

1.12 REFERENCES

IGNOU. (2017, April 19). Hypothesis: Nature of formulation [Pdf]. IGNOU.

http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/9467

Kumar R. (2014). Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners. Sage
Publication.
Kothari C.R (2011). Research Methodology. New Age International.

Shajahan S.(2004).Research Methods for Management.

Shetgovekar. (2021). Problem and hypothesis [PDF]. IGNOU.

http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/73577

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Kumar R. (2014). Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners. Sage
Publication.
Kothari C.R (2011). Research Methodology. New Age International.

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UNIT II: Types of Research Methods

LESSON 1
Historical, Survey, and Experimental Research
Dr. Gareema Sharma
Assistant Librarian
National Institute of Technology Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Historical Research Method
1.3.1 Conceptual Meaning and Definitions
1.3.2 Purposes/Usefulness
1.3.3 Sources used in Historical research
1.4 Evaluation of Historical Sources
1.5 Basics Steps of Historical Research
1.6 Survey Research Method
1.7 Types of Survey Methods
1.8 Basic steps involved in Survey Method
1.9 Application of Survey Research in Library and Information Science
1.9.1 Advantages
1.9.2 Limitations
1.10 Experimental Research Method
1.10.1 Basic Understanding of Experimental Research
1.10.2 Definitions of Experimental Research
1.10.3 Areas of Application
1.11 Types of Experimental Research
1.11.1 Types of Experiment
1.11.2 Experimental Design
1.11.3 Classical Experimental Design
1.11.4 Advantages of Experimental Research
1.11.5 Limitations/Criticism
1.11.6 Difference between Experimental approach and other approaches
1.12 Elements involved in Experimental Research
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1.13 Steps in Experimental Research

1.14 Summary
1.15 Glossary
1.16 Answers to In-text Questions
1.17 Self-Assessment Questions
1.18 References
1.19 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this lesson, the students will study the concept of Historical, Survey and
Experimental Research Methods. This lesson will help the students to develop the necessary
skills to conduct rigorous and basic research. After reading this lesson, the students will be
able to explain the difference between the types of research methods: Historical, Survey and
Experimental Research. The students will also study the basic steps involved in all the three
types of research methods with the advantages and limitations of all the three methods of
research.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Once the research problem has been identified, a theory has been built and a hypothesis has
been formulated, the researcher is ready to select the methodology for his or her study. One
of the essential benefits from the study of research methods is the ability to conduct research.
For many librarians, especially in academic settings, research activities are not only desirable
but necessary. A library's involvement in research can even improve staff morale and
enhance the library's status in its community. Thus, this chapter gives a detailed introduction
of a few research methods, namely Historical, Survey and Experimental, which will prove
beneficial for the researcher to successfully conduct his or her research study.

1.3 HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHOD

1.3.1 Conceptual Meaning and Definitions

Before understanding historical research, we should understand the term 'history'. History
means the search for knowledge and the truth "a searching to find out". History is an
integrated narrative or description of past events or facts written in a spirit of critical enquiry
for the whole truth.

e.g. Biography becomes history when the individual is considered in relation to the society of
his time but is not history when limited to single life in isolation.

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So, historical research does not mean mere chronological narration of facts related to the
past. Simple encyclopaedic listing of events does not constitute historical research.

Historical Research is "concerned with critical description and analysis of past events
mainly to gain a better understanding of the present (Verma and Breard).

(Travers) it involves a procedure supplementary to observation, a process by which the

historian seeks to test the truthfulness of the reports of observation made by others.
It has mainly two important dimensions time (which take into account when was event
occurred).
Space (related with where the event occurred).

Historical Research/Approach should have the following criteria:

• Greater attention should be paid to data interpretation and giving meaning to the
events being described, rather than mere encyclopedic testing of events.

• A good historical research involves a thorough study of all the available sources by
the researcher, culminating in new insights and conclusions.

• A historian should see to it that his conclusion are based on verifiable data as
gathered by him. It is in this context that he puts his claim to scholarship.

1.3.2 Purposes/Usefulness
 Clear perspective of the present: The most crucial purpose of historical research
is to obtain a clear perspective of past which would help the libertarian to have
clear perspective of the present based on past events and trends. A clear
perspective of present of will enable the librarians to:

 Increase the understanding on how, when and why of the past events occurred
concerning librarianship. Consequently, a person will be able to acquire a better
application of these past events.

 To have a clear understanding of the functions of modern libraries in the

historical context leading to better communication between libraries. This leads to
better approach of modern librarianship.

 Understand the present-day problems i.e. lack of library development in India)

is due to:

• Lack of political interest in library development

• Lack of library legislation in most of the states

• Viability of the national library to play its expected role.

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 Provides hypotheses for solving present-day problems faced by

libraries/Documentation officers/specialists.

 Get a greater appreciation of the role that libraries: play in the programs of the
society.

 Helps in avoiding repetition of past mistakes: An understanding of the

historical background of librarianship would enable librarians to avoid repetition
of the same mistakes. One should recognize old facts from being considered as
new ideas. These ideas might have been tried earlier but might have failed. Thus,
historical research can serve as a control on policy-making decisions.

 Help in predicting the direction of future development: Knowledge about the

past can assist a researcher in predicting about the direction of future
developments with a certain degree of confidence.

 Accurate account of the past: Sometimes, a scholar may be interested in the

accurate account of the past due to a simple scholarly desire. Thus, he may be
interested in reaching the truth and as a scholar, the desire may be to find out what
happened, how it happened and why it occurred.

 Interpretation of data: Generally, a historian is not satisfied with the Discovery

of the truth, he would like to interpret data to link the past to the present and
future.

 Addition to body of knowledge: The research in LIS can add to the body of
knowledge constituting history in LIS, thereby advancing librarianship. Historical
research can also help librarians build up on the past, more effective and efficient
libraries.

1.3.3. Sources used in Historical research

The data gathered in historical research mainly come from Primary source of evidence and
Secondary source of evidence:

 Primary Sources of Evidence:

Primary sources are the original documents or remains, which consist of first-hand
information containing data from actual witnesses to the incident being studied. These are
considered of fundamental importance and form the foundation of historical research. They
are of two kinds:

Consciously Transmitted Information:

It may take the form of oral or written testimony or the records kept and written by the actual
participants or witnesses of an event. These include official records, memoirs, diaries, letters,
genealogies, constitutions, const decisions, wills etc.
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Unconscious Testimony: It takes the form of remains or relies upon. It includes tools,
furnishing, weapons, household articles, clothing, building, etc.

 Secondary Sources of Evidence:

Secondary sources contain information transmitted by a person who has neither a participant
nor an eyewitness to an actual event. Thus, secondary sources are contained second-hand
information. For e.g. history textbooks encyclopedia, and Bibliographies. A good historian
should rely upon primary sources as far as possible. He would use secondary sources to fill
up the gap in the primary sources.

Historical Research Considered to be Scientifically Different from Survey Approach

Some historians have argued that historical research cannot be considered Scientific
Research answer to this is diff. but we can conclude that, history is different from natural sc.
in the sense that it is not based upon experimentation. But upon reports of observations. It is
the interest that makes it impossible for the historian to take advantage of experimentation;
he cannot confer up the figures of the past and cause them to reproduce the famous scenes of
history. historical research can be set if the data has been critically evaluated internally and
externally in a careful manner.

But ideally, it cannot be 100% correct because it lacks the reliability and validity which are
the two most essential elements of Scientific research. In this research control and
measurement is not possible so historical research can be scientific upto a certain extent only.

Limitations: Collection of facts relating to very old events is a problem, as sufficient data
may not be available in such cases, e.g., It is difficult to prove the existence of Ramayana and
Mahabharata events due to the non-availability of sufficient data of that period.

• Historical events took place in the past occur only once and cannot be reproduced or
created for experimentation. For e.g. battle of panipat cannot be repeated or
artificially created for observation.

• Historical writings may be biased or prejudiced normally every writer has more or
less prejudices of some kind or the order for e.g. a patriotic Indian may fully blame
the British or General Dayer for the 'Jallianwala Bagh' incident, but a British writer
may describe the incident otherwise and through Blame on Indians.

• Historical monuments are repaired from time to time in order to maintain them. This
may destroy their historical value and their observation may sometimes lead to faulty
concussions

Conclusion
We are really in need of Historical Research in LIS as there is vast scope of Historical
Research into the role of prominent Librarian, Library Reference Resources, methods

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techniques etc. at different centre. A good Historical Researcher is a rare peer with an insight,
able to encompass all the known information and interrelate it. He should aim to overcome
pre-existing notions is hereby he can bring out ab new Rxl or explain or find, if it exists in
the data. Thus, Historical Research is not as easy as it would appear to be. It is a task, which
requires a high level of patience and objectivity.

1.4 EVALUATION OF HISTORICAL SOURCES

After collecting data or evidence, the next step is criticism of collected data which consists of
two parts external criticism and internal criticism.

External criticism: External criticism of records concerns the genuineness of the document
itself, whether it was actually written and distributed at the time and place listed on the
document, whether it is true to the original or if it is a copy.

Author Bestor states, "The Historians must satisfy himself that he know when, where under
what circumstances, and by whom the words were written or printed or incised upon a paper
or the tablet that he holds in hands."
Gorraghon divides external criticism into four inquiries
- When was the source written, produced (date).
- Where was it produced (localization).
- By whom was it produced (authorship).
- From what pre-existing maternal was it produced (analysis).

- R.J. Shafer said that : "External criticism is merely saving us from using false
evidence

. Interestingly, the genuineness of the document or remain the problems of external criticism
involve the question of authorship, production of the document such as time, place, purpose
and circumstances of composition and what part of the document is true to the original. The
following points should be taken care.

- Who was the author? Not merely what is his name but what were his personality,
character, position and so forth.
- What were his general qualifications as a reporter.

• How was he interested in the events related?

• How was he situated for observation of the events?

- How so and after the events were the documents written?

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- How as document written, from memory, after consultation with others, after checking
the facts a by combining earlier trial drafts.
- How the documents related to other documents.

Internal Criticism
After question of authorship, time, place and genuineness have been answered it remains for
internal criticism to determine the accuracy and value of the statement made. The shift of
emphasis is from the document as such to statement with in the document. Proof of the
genuineness of a document by external criticism does not guarantee that it tells the truth.

Internal criticism is a process used to judge the value of a document's contents. It is

concerned with whether the testimony contained in documents is factual. A useful guideline
to the reliability of statements contained in documents is the prior knowledge about the
subject of that inquiry that the Historians brings to a selected area for investigation. If a piece
of information contained in a record is quite different from what the historians already knows
or believes to be true, care is to be taken not to use the data until they have been verified in
other sources. Steps should be taken to determine whether the information was recorded in
good faith or with the intention of deliberately falsifying or distorting truth.

R.J. Shafter said that – If criticism has other information of telling as how to use
authenticated evidences. It is also known as textual criticism.
Following points to be taken care of while doing Internal criticism.

- What did the author mean by this particular statement? What is its real meaning as
distinguished from its very literal meaning.
- was the statement made in good faith?

• Was the author under pressure to tell an untruth.

• Was he influenced by sympathy or antipathy to tell an untruth?

• Was he inf by public opinion?

- Was the statement accurate or more particularly

• Was the author a poor observer because of a mental defect or abnormality?

• Was the author poorly situated in time and place to observe?

In other words, external criticism deals with data relating to form and appearance rather than
the meaning of contents, whereas Internal criticism weight the testimony of the document in
relation to the myth.

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In order to establish the genuineness of authorship or age of documents, one may have to use
intricate tests of signature, hand writing, typescript, spelling, language etc.

1.5 BASIC STEPS OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

STEPS IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Identification and Definition of a Problem: Most important step, here the research choose
the area for research and defines the problem for study. The problem chosen should have
historical and current significance. It is essential that adequate data must be available relating
to it so that research can be pursued fruitfully. The selection of a topic depends on the
researcher's intelligence, caliber, still, aptitude, interest, training, and deep knowledge of the
subject.

Collection of Data: After defining the problem, the next step is the collection of background
inf. to understand the subject thoroughly. For collecting data, the researcher uses the tools as
primary and secondary sources. Collection of data may involve anything from digging up
ancient ruins to searching for old documents, such as old manuscripts, letters, diaries, reports
etc. The majority of sources consists of documents meant specifically for information
transmission, usually written ones.

Formulation of Hypothesis: This step occasionally occurs in historical research because the
researcher has not solid base for making predictions usually and researcher has to build up
the case himself. It tentatively describes the relationship between historical factors.
Ex. Margaret Erwin examined the role of women in Library associations hypothesis-wise.

- Offices of leadership held by librarians between 1876 and 1923 in national

associations were not proportionate to male/female ratio of the profession

- . Although women held leadership positions in local and state associations in

proportion to their professional representation, they did not hold an equal
proportion on the national level.

Historical Criticisms of Data Collected

The researcher must recognize the limitations of historical data collected by him for directing
truth. He is required to determine the validity and reliability of the data. For this purpose, he
must carefully analyse data and see the relevant data and segregate it from irrelevant, false,
misleading, and insignificant data. The process involved in the appraisal of data used for
deriving relevance, truth and significant data is called 'historical criticism'. It consists of two
parts:

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- External and Internal Criticism (as discussed above). These are procedures
evolved by the historian to evaluate historical data.

Interpretation of Historical data: Here, the researcher has to deal with historical causation.
Historical causation is concerned with establishing cause and effect relations. Under this step,
researcher interprets the data and draw conclusions i.e. it is not merely to establish facts but
also to find out the trends as suggested by data and also to arrive at generalizations derived
from the data. A mere listing of historical events does not constitute research, so the
interpretation of data consists of synthesis, and interpretation rather than a mere summation.

1.6 SURVEY RESEARCH METHOD

Survey research is one of the most common forms of research engaged in by library science
researchers. It involves library science researchers asking a large group of people questions
about a particular topic or issue. This asking of question, all related to the issue of interest, is
called a survey. Survey can provide data on attitudes, feelings, beliefs, past and intended
behaviors, knowledge, ownership, personal characteristics, and other descriptive items.

The practice of conducting surveys owes back to at least the 11th century. The use of survey
has become widespread in many disciplines in 20th century? Survey approach is present-
oriented research. It concerns "the art and science of asking questions and/or observing
behaviors to obtain information. It is suitable for those problems where the researcher
believes that the data required for the solution of the research question does not exist at
present. However, the settings do exist for generating the needed data.

A Survey research can take various forms; it can be done through personal Interviews,
mailed questionnaires, personal discussions, etc. However, there are certain elements
common to these. The common elements or characteristics of survey research are:

1. Methods of gathering information are always systematic. Information is collected from a

group of people to describe some aspects or characteristics (such as ability, opinions,
attitudes, beliefs, and/or knowledge) of the population of which that group is a part.

2. There is always a population of interest may be small or large represented by a sample or

occasionally by a census of respondents.

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3. It does not aspire to develop an organized body of scientific laws but provides information
useful to solve local problems. It may, however, provide data to form the basis of research of
a more fundamental nature.

4. Survey research is always concern with the behavior of the members of the population of
interest and finally the main way in which information is collected is through asking
questions, the answers to these questions by the members of the group constitute the data of
the study.

The purpose of survey research is to achieve understanding or making prediction about some
aspect (s) of the behavior of a population being studied or both) In view of the above, Tull
and Albam define survey research as "the systematic gathering of information, from (a
sample of) respondents for understanding and/or predicting some aspects of the behavior of
the population of interest". Survey research techniques are used to obtain three broad classes
of data:

a) information about incidents and developments (data about events in a given period);

b) information about distributions and frequencies (data concerning the possessions or

characteristics of each member of a subject group); and

c) information about generally known rules and statuses (data about institutional norms and
conditions).

ASSUMPTION

Survey research can work well by resorting to sampling practices. If survey research is also
called as sample Survey research, it will not be inappropriate. Survey research as a matter of
fact has developed as a research activity along with the development of sampling theory and
its diverse procedures.

1.7 TYPES OF SURVEYS

Two major types of surveys can be conducted- a cross-sectional survey and a longitudinal
survey.

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1) A Cross-Sectional Survey- collects information from a sample drawn from a

predetermined population. Furthermore, the information is collected at just one point in time,
although the time it takes to collect all of the data desired may take anywhere from a day to a
week or more in Lime.

2) Longitudinal surveys- A Longitudinal surveys, on the other hand, collects information at

different points in time in order to study changes over time. Three longitudinal designs are
commonly employed in survey research; trend, cohort, and panel.

i. In a trend study, different samples from the same population are surveyed at
different times. Then researcher examines and compares responses received in
different periods to see if any trends are apparent.
ii. In a cohort study, a specific population is followed over a period of time. Whereas a
trend study samples a population whose member's changes over a time, a cohort study
samples a particular population whose members do not change throughout the survey.
iii. In a phase study, on the other hand, the researcher selects a sample right at the
beginning of his study. He then surveys the same individuals at different times during
the course of the survey. Since the researcher is studying the same individuals, he can
note changes in their characteristics or behavior and explore the reasons for their
changes. Loss of individuals is a frequent problem in panel studies, particularly if the
studies extend over a fairly long period.

Besides these types, Professor Krishan Kumar recognizes the following three major types of
surveys:-
1. Descriptive survey
2. Comparative survey
3. Evaluative survey

1. Descriptive survey: The descriptive survey is content to enumerate and describe a specific
phenomenon at a given point of time. It is a compendium of information, but does not
attempt to do anything very clever with the datacollected. The Library Associations: A
survey of Libraries 1936-1937 is a classic example of a very large descriptive survey; full of
information but with very few statistics. The descriptive survey can be used to test theories or
to find answers to research questions. It covers both descriptions and conclusions.
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2. Comparative survey: A Comparative survey aims to compare two or more research

situations based on criteria. It indicates strong or weak point of the research situations
concerned. It covers descriptions, comparisons and conclusions.

3. Evaluative survey: An evaluative survey aims to evaluate certain aspect of a research

situation on the basis of criteria laid for the purpose. It covers description, evaluation and
conclusions. Example: Effectiveness of case study as a method of teaching library
administration.

The other kinds of surveys are exploratory surveys and analytical surveys:

 Exploratory Surveys: For qualitative research study, an exploratory survey is often

conducted which increases the researcher's familiarity with the phenomenon in question.
An exploratory survey helps to clarify the concepts and can be used to establish the
priorities for the future research. It identifies the new problem area, and this type of
survey can be used to collect the information with practical applications. The e.g. of
exploratory research surveys include Literature Surveys, Experience Surveys etc.

 Analytical Surveys: Leedy describes the analytical survey method as "appropriate for
data that are quantitative in nature and that need statistical assistance to extract their
meaning". In practice, however, most researchers seem to consider an analytical survey
essentially as a kind of descriptive survey, and do not distinguish between the two
(Powell and Connaway). But unlike a descriptive survey, analytical survey, does not rest
content with collecting and arranging data. It attempts to relate one piece of data to
another, to probe beneath the figures to underlying factors and patterns. Descriptive
surveys are library-oriented, whereas analytical surveys are subject-oriented.

It should be kept in view that different types of surveys are not mutually exclusive. A
research study can involve any two or even more than two types.

1.8 BASIC STEPS INVOLVED IN SURVEY METHOD

The survey research methods mainly involves the following Steps:

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1. Identification of the problem area.

2. Formulation of the specific problem to be investigated or research questions to be

answered. The problem to be investigated by means of survey should be sufficiently
interesting, important enough to motivate the individuals surveyed to respond.

3. Formulation of Objectives: The objectives must be based on the problem to be

investigated or the questions to be answered.(Library Science) researchers need to define
clearly their objectives in conducting a survey. Each question should relate to one or more of
the survey's objectives.

4. Selection of appropriate research approach in terms of time and intent dimensions:

In the selection of research approach (for example survey, historical and experimental) one
must keep in view it must ensure that the data to be collected will be relevant to the problem
in hand or the questions to be answered.

5. Formulation of hypothesis, if any: Many studies do not have a hypothesis.

6. Selection of data gathering method(s): These include observation, measurement and

questioning.

7. Selection of data gathering technique (s): After selecting the method (survey,
experimental or Historical), the next logical step is selecting or designing the specific
techniques to collect the required data. The most commonly used techniques for data
collection are observation, interviews, questionnaires, check-lists etc.

8. Identification of the target population: The group of persons (objects, institutions and so
on) that is the focus of the study is called the target population. It must be well-defined and
clear so that one can clearly state who is or is not a member of this population.

9. Selecting the Sample: Due attention must be given to the sample selection, as this is a
crucial step. The sample to be surveyed should be selected randomly if possible. Findings
based on the sample must provide a reasonably accurate picture of the population so that
generalization can become acceptable.

10. Collection of the data: There are four basic steps to collect data in survey, administering
the survey instrument "live" to a group; by mail; by telephone or through face-to-face
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interviews. The most common types used in survey research are the questionnaire and
interview schedule.

The collection of data basically depends upon the scope of theresearch/survey. If the survey
is a large one, it would be necessary to employ field worker (s). They must be well trained in
the techniques of data collection and instruments to be used for the purpose. Their work must
be supervised; checks must be established to ensure that they collect accurate and unbiased
data. After collecting the data, the data should be checked for completeness, authenticity,
reliability, and comprehensibility. This step is generally referred to as 'cleaning' of the data.
Cleaning the data may involve anything from simply reading the results, looking for
surprising responses and unexpected patterns, to verifying or checking the coding of the data
etc.

11. Analysis of the Data: Analysis of data is concerned with (a) coding the responses or
entering of each item in the relevant category, (b) tabulation of data, and (c) carrying out of
statistical computations. In order to take care of errors, the investigator must check the
reliability of the coders, accuracy of tabulations and statistical computations.

12. Interpretation of the Findings: It involves drawing of conclusions from the data
collected and analyzed. Interpretation of the findings is a difficult task, requiring a high
degree of skill and experience.

13. Arriving at Generalizations

14. Writing a Report

1.9 APPLICATION OF SURVEY RESEARCH IN LIBRARY AND

INFORMATION SCIENCE

Since, last many decades, the Survey approach has been used in library and Information
Science research areas for conducting various studies including user studies, and library
performance evaluation etc.

Librarians have long conducted "surveys." Community surveys and library surveys are
associated with attempts to gather information about many aspects of libraries in whatever

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setting these institutions might be located (e.g. ', in cities, schools, etc). The community
survey is conducted to gather recorded and unrecorded data about the library's community's
various social, political, and economic facets so that more intelligent decisions can be made
concerning the planning, development, and conduct of services. Library surveys are
systematic, in-depth examinations of libraries, library systems, or networks of libraries.
Typically, comparisons are made in these surveys among various libraries, or units thereof,
and established professional standards. Several publications in the literature of librarianship
are concerned in whole or in part with the library survey, including the following:
McDiarmid's The Library Survey, Line's Library Surveys: An Introduction to Their Use,
Planning, Procedure and Presentation', Proceedings of the 1967 Conference on Library
Surveys, held at Columbia University Erickson's College and University Library Surveys,
1938-1952; and Tauber's Survey Method in Approaching Library Problems" in Library
Trends.

Within librarianship, survey research methods are the most suitable techniques presently
available with which to discern:

1. Whether library users (or nonusers) are pleased with a library collection or services.

2. The amount of public information about a library's collection or services.

3. The kinds of information needed by library users and nonusers, as well as the sources
on which people most commonly rely (books, periodicals, newspapers, radio,
television, etc.)

4. Attitudes and opinions of librarians about their profession (statues, practices,

standards, and policies).

5. What librarians think about their status within the profession (salary adequacy,
perceived influence, sex discrimination in employment,etc.).

6. Students' attitudes toward library school curricula and education for librarianship in
general.

7. How well library schools have prepared former students to meet the demand of actual
library employment

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8. The degree to which trends, new developments, and innovations are anticipated,
accepted, and utilized by librarians.

These questions are only limited examples of some of the research tasks in the field of
librarianship that can be effectively accomplished utilizing survey research.

Many of the surveys conducted by librarians could be classed as status surveys because they
merely assay conditions in a library, such as collection size, kinds of facilities and services
available, amount of financial support, use and nonuse of the library, and the composition of
the library's staff.

Some of these surveys are routinely conducted by state and federal library agencies; local,
regional, or national library associations; school districts; commercial surveying firms; and
library consultants. In general, many of these surveys have been fact-gathering in nature:
they were conducted to record the status quo rather than to determine relationships between
variables or to test hypotheses. Public opinion polls conducted by commercial polling
agencies such as the American Institute of Public Opinion (Gallup Poll), the Roper Poll, and
the Harris Poll are examples of the application of surveys research techniques, as well as the
use of data collected in surveys. Although these types of studies can be effective tools or
vehicles for making improvements in libraries, they are not designed for testing hypotheses
or for careful examination of relationships between variables.

1.9.1 Advantages

1. The advantage of survey research is that it links sample investigations with

populations and there by offers an easy opportunity for studying population behavior
through sample survey research assessments.

2. It makes a valuable contribution to social sciences research methodology. Social and

behavioral scientists have one great advantage over natural scientists that they can ask
questions as well as observe whereas natural scientists can only observe.

3. It has directly helped in the improvement of sampling procedures and their

applicability to real world situations besides also suggesting improvements in
resolving the complex situations.

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4. The survey research also has the advantage of greater scope in thesense that a large
volume of information (geographically scattered) can be controlled from a huge
population. Surveys research, no doubt is more expensive, but the amount and quality
of information that is collected makes, such investigation very economical. This
information is also accurate, of course with in the range of sampling errors because
trained and technically knowledgeable personnel are employed for the job.

5. Surveys research technique can save time and money without sacrificing efficiency,
accuracy, and information adequacy in the research process.

6. Survey research has a unique advantage among social scientific methods: it is often
possible to check the validity of survey data. Some of the respondents can be
interviewed again, and the results of both interviewers checked against each other.

7. Moreover, as a social survey is conducted by a large number of people, the chances of

subjectivity are also lessened,

1.9.2 Limitations

This research, however, suffers from some limitations which could be listed as follows:-

1. It is charged that surveys information touches only the surface of the research field
and does not make a deeper thrust into it.

2. It is also charged with demanding of more time, effort and money. In an extensive
survey, it may be months before a single hypothesis can be tested. Sampling and the
development of good schedules are the major operations. Interviews require skill,
time and money. Surveys on a smaller scale can avoid these problems to some extent,
even though it is generally true that survey research demands large investments of
time, energy, and money. (When compared to the census, however, surveys are
relatively inexpensive).

3. Survey on a larger scale requires trained investigators and field-workers and when
large numbers of people are sent to the field, there can be no uniformity in data
collection. Everyone engaged in the collection of data may give his own
interpretation to the terms used in the data collecting device, and where there is no

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uniformity; the results are bound to variant. Moreover, everyone engaged in data
collection may lend his own bias in the study. It becomes very difficult to find out the
extent of bias, and great efforts are needed to minimize the bias so that its effect on
net results becomes negligible.

4. In survey researches to have a dependable and reliable data two conditions have to be
met: (i) trained investigators with a sense of responsibility, integrity and dedication to
duty must be engaged; and(ii) the respondents must be cooperative. But both these
pre-requisites are difficult to attain.

5. Sometimes, if sample information has not been collected verycarefully, the magnitude
of sampling error may be too large to render the sample results reasonably accurate.

6. Since the sample research is based on the respondent's interviews,the problems of

personal inhibitions, indifference, and unawareness of the nature and purpose of the
investigation readers survey information valid or at least imprecise.

7. A potential rather than an actual weakness of this method is that the survey interview
can temporarily lift the respondent out of his own social context, which may make the
results of the survey invalid. The interview is a special event in the ordinary life of
the respondent. This apartness may affect the respondent so he talks to, and interacts
with, the interviewer in an unnatural manner. He is not himself to speak. It is possible
for interviewers to limit the effects of lifting respondents out of his social context by
skilled handling, especially by one's manner and carefully phrasing and asking of
questions.

8. Survey is either to generalize or to localize. If survey is conducted of a local area

only, then, the results would be applicable to that area only and cannot be
generalized. If the survey is spread to a vast area, then the results are too general to be
useful. Thus in both cases, the survey has its own limitations.

9. Survey research also requires a good depth of research knowledge and sophistication.
The competent survey investigator must know sampling, question and schedule
construction, interviewing, the analysis of data, and other technical aspects of the
survey.

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Conclusion

Despite the weakness mentioned above, the survey is a significant and widely used type of
empirical research. Surveys research has been used extensively in the social and behavioral
sciences. Many studies in librarianship have also relied upon the survey approach. These
surveys have followed scholars to obtain current data about the attitudes and opinions of
librarians, the utilization of library services and collections, the role of librarians in all types
of libraries, and many other kinds of information relating to various facets of the profession.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Historical research is concerned with ____________and analysis of
past events mainly to gain a better understanding of the present.
2. A good historical research involves a thorough study of all the
available sources by the researcher, culminating in new insights and
conclusions. True/False
3. ____________are the original documents or remains, which consists of
first-hand information containing data provided by actual witnesses to
the incident being studied.

4. ____________is a process used to judge the value of a document's

contents.
5. ____________aims to evaluate certain aspect of a research situation on
the basis of criteria laid for the purpose.

1.10 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHOD

1.10.1 Basic Understanding of Experimental Research

The experimental approach is the most sophisticated, exacting and powerful method for
discovering and developing an organized body of knowledge. An experiment usually
involves making an event occurs, under known conditions. If we do something new and
different, or carry out some changes inthe present conditions, then we are performing an

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experiment. Such an approach is called an experimental approach because we are trying to

establish an experimental (or trial) basis for a new situation.

The experimental approach is oriented to the future because or researcher is seeking to

establish a research situation (new teaching programme, new curriculum, news issues method
on) that never existed and does not exist now. He must create the situation or conditions so
that he can study it.

In this kind of research, elements are manipulated, and the effects observed can be
controlled. Experimenters manipulate certain stimuli, treatments or environmental conditions
and observe how conditions or behavior of the object is offered or changed. Their
manipulation is deliberate and systematic.

An experiment is designed to :
1) Test hypothesis: After experiments define a problem, they propose a tentative answer,
or hypothesis. They test the hypothesis and confirm it in light of the observed
controlled variable relationship. It is important to note that the confirmation or
rejection of the hypothesis is stated in terms of probability rather than certainity.
2) Test theories.
3) Test principles
4) Identify causal relationships between variables.
5) Study operation of variables.
6) Determine a solution to the problem.
7) Establish some kind of truth.
8) Establish an effect.

1.10.2. Definitions of Experimental Research

1. In experimentation: The investigator controls (manipulates or changes). Certain

independent variables and observes the changes which take place in the form of
dependent variables.

2. An experiment is proof of a hypothesis that seeks to look up two factors into a causal
relationship through the study of contrasting situations which have been controlled on all
factors except the one of the interest, the latter being either the hypothetical cause or the
hypothetical effect (E. Greenwood).
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3. Experimental research is in which at least one independent variable is manipulated, other

relevant variables are controlled, and the effect on one or more dependent variables is
observed. This method is considered the best method for testing casual relationships.

4. The essence of all these definitions is that experimentation is regarded as observation and
an organisation of data. Experimental studies are concerned with testing the casual
hypothesis. This method helps the experiments to test the reality of the problem under
controlled conditions or variables.

1.10.3 Areas of Application

Experimentation is an important approach in most branches of science but at the same

time it is to be kept in view that it is not appropriate for certain types of research or fields of
research such it is not used in the field of descriptive biology, observational ecology, clinical
research in medicine etc. Because in this kinds of fields, hypotheses are tested with data
collected from the phenomena occurring naturally. However, in experimental approach, data
is collected from the phenomena that is made to occur under experimental conditions.

In Context of Library and Information Science:

Whenever a library does something new or different, it is creating a situation or conditions

for the conduct of an experiment therefore it would then that experimental approach has
tremendous scope in LIS. It can be used on LIS for the following.

(a) To identify causal relationships between variables.

(b) To test hypothesis (e.g., installation of adequate guides in a stack hall in a college
library will decrease the number of queries regarding the location of documents on
the shelf).

(c) To test Theory

(d) To test Principles.

(e) To test new techniques for acquiring, classifying, storing and retrieving of
documents/information.

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(f) To test new library and information service.

(g) To identify a previously unmated or ill-defined library and information phenomenon.

One can after identify this with experimental approach.

(h) To explore conditions under which a library and information phenomenon occurs.

(i) To satisfy the curiosity of researches for a library and information phenomenon.

(j) To test a new LIS education programme.

(k) To test a new LIS curriculum.

(l) To test a new method for organizing classes.

Though, experimental research can be used in LIS for the above mentioned purpose but in
practice, the use of experimental method in LIS is much more complicated. In LIS, it is
difficult to devise and conduct an experiment due to the reason that the situation keeps on
changing. In the library, study of human behavior i.e. user and staff is an area of our main
concern but human behavior is not only unpredictable but also uncontrollable.

There are other practical difficulties like to random sampling, losses of cases and shrinkage
in numbers in each group (i.e. controlled group and experimental group) during the period of
observation, and limitations connected with applications of probability tests as a means of
estimating the significance of the research. Due to these difficulties, this method is least used
in LIS.

1.11 TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

1.11.1 Types of Experiments

E. Greenwood, in his work research method in behavioral sciences projects five types of
experiments based on the types of setting, maturity and extent of control exercised, and the
techniques adopted for manipulating the variables. These five types of experiments are:

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(1) Trial and Error Experiment: In this method, the experimenter does not pre-plan his
study; it is likely to be modified in light of experiences gained. This method lacks scientific
methodology and then is much probability of labor and time going to waste.

(2) Controlled Observational Study: In this method, a stimulus is provided to the subject,
and charges are observed to determine the causal effect of the stimulus. This observation of
the phenomenon under controlled conditions takes this method never to laboratory-type
experiment.

(3) Natural experiment: It is also called field experiment because the experimenter conducts
his experiment in a natural setting. But it is a different form of field study or field observation
because the variables are manipulated. In contrast, in the case of field study, the researcher
simply observes the phenomena silently without manipulation.

(4) Ex-post Facto techniques: This technique also called Field study which is helpful in
studying the varying influence of his identical factors. This technique makes it from cause to
effect and from present to future, but it becomes difficult to locate the subjects of study after
sufficient time.

(5) Laboratory Experiment: According to Neon Festinger, a Laboratory experiment is "one

in which the investigator creates a situation with the exact conditions he wants to have and in
which he controls some and manipulates other variables." The experimenter operates under
the basic assumption that the research situation he wishes to evaluate has never existed and
does not exist. He, therefore, must create it to be able to study it.

The laboratory experiment is different from field experiment in that the latter is
studied in the natural setting with control over independent variables. In contrast, in the
former the setting is artificially created. For instance, if an experimenter does an experiment
with the existing classes in the school, it would be a field experiment. However, if he
develops a classroom and experiments upon it, it will be a laboratory experiment. In short, in
a laboratory experiment, the phenomenon is artificially created and subjected to greater
control and manipulation Control in the essential ingredients of the experimental method.
The main purpose of an experiment is to arrange a situation in which the effect of variables
can be measured.

1.11.2 Experimental Design

An experiment design is to the researcher what a blueprint is to an architect. It enables him to
test the hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about the relationship between independent
variables and dependent variables. Selection of a peculiar design is based upon the purpose
of the experiment, the type of variables to be manipulated, and the conditions of limiting
factors under which it is conducted. The design deals with such practical problems as how
subjects are to be assigned to experimental and control groups, the way variables, are to be
manipulated and controlled, the way extraneous variables are to be controlled, show

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observations are to be made, and the type of statistical analysis is to be employed in

interpreting data relationships.
There are various types of experimental designs which are as follows:
(1) True experimental designs
1. The pre-test – post-test control group design.
2. The Solomon Four Group design.
3. The post-test only control group design.
4. Factorial designs.
(2) Pre-experimental design
1. The one-Short case study.
2. The one group pretest posttest design
3. The static group comparison.
(3) Quasi Experimental design
1. The time series design.
2. The equivalent time samples design.
3. The pretest-posttest non-equivalent control group design.
4. The multiple time series design.
(4) Ex-Post Facto Design

1.11.3 Classical Experimental Design

The way in which the experiment is performed or conducted is called classical experimental
design. In this design there are two groups which are exposed to identical conditions. One
group is called the experimental group, and the other is called the control group. The
experimental group is subject to experiment, it is the group that receives the treatment, and
the comparison group or control group receives no treatment. So, in other words, the
experimental group is exposed to the influence of the factor under consideration, the control
group is not. The control here means that extra influences are prevented or checked to the
extent possible. The researchers then, makes observations to determine what differences
appear or what charges or modification occurs in the experimental groups contrasted with the
control group. The experiment is carried out with the help of some predetermined methods to
observe the influence of independent variables on the experimental group and the results of
the observation and the measurement of the two groups. The causative factors in the

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experimental group are recognized and accepted as the results of the variables responsible for
the changes.
The steps involved are as follows:

(1) Selection of Samples: The first step is the select sample or subject which would be
appropriate to the type of research. Subject here refers to human beings respondents
to the research. The researcher can select subject/sample according to the model he
wants to develop or on the population he want to work with.
(2) Give an explanation to the sample: The things need to be explained to the samples.
(i) Why researcher is doing this research?
(ii) Procedural part of the research.

(3) Randomization of subject : Randomization means randomly dividing subjects into

experimental and control groups. In random procedures, every member of a
population has an equal chance of being selected. It is a scientific method of
eliminating systematic bias. The principle is based upon the assumption that through
random assignments, differences between groups research only form the operation of
probability or chance. These differences are known as sampling error or error
variance and their magnitude can be established by the researcher.

(4) Ensuring simplest objects that they should be exposed to equivalent conditions. In
such type of experiment, both the groups should be equaled as nearly as possible in
order to control the effect of extraneous variables that might otherwise interfere in the
test. So the control group and experimental group should be kept equivalent, they
should be exposed to similar kinds of situations.

(5) Protesting: Pretesting is done after a similar kind of exposure is given to the groups.
At this stage, subject of the both group are pre-tested and the researcher notes down
their percentage and this could be regarded as baseline.

(6) Induction of treatment: Now, at this stage, treatment is given to the experimental
group and not to the control group.

(7) Post-testing: At this stage, the researcher measures the effect of treatment on the
experimental group and not the percentage of change.

(8) Making a comparison: The researcher then compared the baseline recorded at the pre-
testing with the result researcher obtained after post-testing. He can proceed with the
experiment if positive research results are obtained. Thus, the difference that the
researcher obtained is regarded as the result of experimental research.

1.11.4 Advantages of Experimental Research

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(1) This approach is more rigorous. It has the advantage of scientific and mathematical logic
in it as the entire piece of research work is based on a well-founded model.

(2) It offers formal procedures for holding the effect of a variable and observing the effect
over a span of time.

(3) It permits the determination of 'Cause and effect' relationship more precisely and
compared to other methods.
(4) It is the best method for testing a hypothesis. Testing of a hypothesis requires a study of
relationship under various conditions, which is possible only under this method.

(5) This method can create the condition necessary for observation rather than searching in a
natural setting.

(6) Researcher has the liberty to work in an area where more and more controls can be
applied.

(7) Researcher also has the opportunity to vary the treatment systematically to arrive at
precise findings.

Experimental methods can be used to examine the questions such as the effect of certain
types of resources on the success of reference transactions, the effect of changes in facilities
on user behavior, and user's reactions to specific characteristics of reference staff.

1.11.5 Limitations/Criticism
The method of experimental research is not free from limitations. These may be mentioned
as follows:
(1) Experimental studies have been criticized for being articulated and not reflecting real
life situations, affecting our naturalness.
(2) Experimental biomass unintentionally influence of researcher's behavior on the result.
(3) Some independent variables are not available to manipulation like the study of the
effect of damage and pilferage in library collection does not allow a researcher to
damage more books. So these kind of independent variables cannot be manipulated.

(4) There are many difficulties connected with the selection of setting, getting a
representative sample, in eliciting cooperation from the respondents and controlling
the variables created by complexity of social phenomena its dynamic nature and
independence of human behavior.
(5) The unit of study in this method is so short and the approach is so segmented that the
chances of its application are relatively remote. The degree of manipulation of
independent variable pre-supposes that the unit of study must be small and the
experiment must be confined to a short period. In those cases where the time span is
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long, cases may be lost through moving or at least modified. The more highly
developed sciences are not time-bound. Difficulty in practical application is also
caused by the segmented approach of this method. Human behavior is not governed
by many social causes.

(6) There are also practical difficulties concerning random sampling, loss of cases and
shrinkage in numbers in each group during the period of observation and limitations
connected with application of probability tools as a means of estimating the
significance of the result.

(7) This approach is also weak in dealing with historical experiences because in
experimental approach research, establish a research situation which never existed
and does not exist now, where as in case of historical experiences gone cannot lead
them happen again in lab condition.

1.11.6 Difference between Experimental approach and other approaches

Experimental approach differs from other research approaches blog in an experiment, the
observed phenomenon is controlled to varying elegance by the experimenter. Most of the
experimenter are carried out under conditions that are known. An experimenter attempts to
eliminate as many intermixing variables as could be possible.

Unlike other approaches, the experimental approach can be used to study causal
relationships. Above all, an experimental approach is generally considered the most rigorous
(strict, severe, hard) of all the three research approaches.

Conclusion
In conclusion, it could be said that, in spite of various limitations, this approach/research is
regarded as the most useful and powerful one. But in context of LIS, through review of LIS
literature, it was revealed that this approach is the least used one. It is impossible to have
experiments in LIS in the sense that physical sciences use the term. In LIS studies, user is the
crucial factor. In dealing with complex human beings, it is unlikely that all variables can be
successfully controlled, leading to less precise results. We may take on the example of library
catalog by reference staff: use is going to be affected by variables such as competence is
using the catalog, enthusiasm of the staff member, etc.

So based on above explanation, it could be said that experimental research is the most
rigorous of all research methods, but it is the least used in LIS.

1.12 ELEMENTS INVOLVED IN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Causality

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In simple terms causality suggests that a single event (the cause) always leads to another
single event (the effect). In social sciences, normally there are a variety of determining
factors, which increase the probability of a certain event occurring, rather than on a single
factor.

The Conditions For Causality

In an attempt to confirm causality in a relationship, one must consider the conditions or
factors that may exist for casuality.

For example, if a library catalogue were a necessary condition for the effective use of
a large library, than the latter would never occur unless library catalogue had been made
available (of ir library instructions were a necessary condition of effective use of library, then
the latter would never occur unless library instruction had been provided.

Variables/Controlling the variables

Variables are the conditions or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates,
controls, or observes. In all research approaches, one is required to measure variables, but in
experimental research, it is also necessary to control and manipulate certain variables. Also,
there should be variable variation in different conditions, and should have at least two values;
otherwise, they can not be considered variables.

Independent Variables: It is the variable that the researcher manipulates, controls, or

observes in his or her attempt to ascertain their relationship to observed phenomena.

Dependent Variable: It may be defined as the condition or characteristics that appear,

disappear, or change as the experimenter introduces or removes changes independent
variables, so it is "caused" or at least affected by the independent variable.

In case, the subjects going into the experiment are not completely equivalent, then extraneous
variables may be controlled statistically at the data analysis stage. This technique is
considered less reliable than the other because control mechanisms are carried out ex-post
facto (i.e. after the experiment has been completed).
Using, random assignment or randomization technique (not to be confused with random
sampling or selection) one can assume that the groups are equivalent only within a certain
probability level. However, equaling of experimental and comparison groups is essential for
making causal references about the effects of the experimental treatment. It improves the
external validity, i.e., generalizability, of the experiment and its internal validity, as the
dependability of the results. There are certain other methods, such as manipulation,
observation and replication for controlling variables. Variables that are not of direct interest
to the research that are not of direct interest to researcher may be controlled by eliminating
them altogether. But in case, if a researcher finds that in an experiment, extraneous variables

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are insufficiently controlled to true as a valid test of the independent variable, then the
experiment must be abandoned.

1.13 STEPS IN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

The following are the major steps involved in Experimental Approach:

(1) Identifying of the problem area: The research problem must be stated in clear, precise
and conceptual terms.

(2) Review of related literature: The researcher must review the related literature
available.
(3) Formulation of the Research problem

(4) Determination of whether or not the experimental approach is appropriate for the
solution of the problems.
(5) Specification of variables:
(a) Independent variables along with levels,
(b) The range of dependable variables, and
(c) potential intervening variables.
One must include thus dependent variables, which will help in achieving reasonable
test of Independent variables. At this step, we must find out whether or not measures
of dependent variables are readily available. In case, these are not available then these
would have to be developed.

(6) Formulation of Research hypotheses: Research hypothesis serves as a light regarding

the data gathering plan design. These also enable a researcher to determine the
usefulness of such a plan.
(7) Design of the experiment to test the hypotheses:

- The design must adequately implement the necessary conditions to control

intervening variables.
- it should aim at control of bias.
- It is provided for testing of hypotheses.
- Required to establish levels of IV (s).
- it should provide for the collection of data as dependent variables.

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- It should be such that it is possible to reproduce the experiment.

(8) Limitations of the potential conclusions and underlying assumptions in the design:
Limitations are with regard to lack of control of intervening variables, the existence
of certain biases, and non-implementation of certain aspects of independent variables.
(9) Estimate excess potential of proposed experiments success potential is estimated in
terms of goals and needs of research; validity of the test of IV(1) with reasonable
control of intervening variables.

(10) Conduct of the experiment : Once, the investigator feels satisfied about the success
potential, then he takes steps to conduct the experiment. It involves the collection of
data utilizing predetermined measures; the introduction of experimental and control
conditions. While the experiment is going on, a periodic verification is done to
determine whether or not the integrity of the experiment is being maintained. After
post-test measures have been implemented, the experiment comes to an end.
(11) Analysis of Data: To test the hypothesis
(12) Interpretation of results
(13) Writing of a report which contains the following:
 Title page
 Acknowledgement
 Table of contents
 List of tables
 List of Figures

 Introduction : (i) Statement of responsibility, (ii) Hypothesis to be tested (iii)

Significance of the problem (iv) Objectives of the study, v) Assumptions and
limitations (vi) Definitions of important terms.
 Review of related literature
 Design of the study
 Findings of the experiment
 Smarmy and conclusions
 References
 Bibliography
 Appendices

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

6. In__________, a stimulus is provided to the subject and charges are

observed to find out the causal effect of the stimulus.
7. ____________are the conditions or characteristics that the experimental
manipulates, controls, or observes.
8. _____________________have been criticized for being article and of not
reflecting real life situations; so it affects our naturalness.

1.14 SUMMARY

An awareness of the research methods and design also proves helpful for those preparing
research proposals in order to obtain financial support for their research activities. In
addition, it has been found that the study of various research methods can improve one's
ability to think critically and analytically. Once it has been decided that the research will be
primarily basic or applied, the researcher must determine whether it will be quantitative or
qualitative in nature.

1.15 GLOSSARY

Casualty: a person or thing badly affected by an event or situation.

Criticism: the analysis and judgement of the merits and faults of a literary or artistic work.

Evidence: the available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or

proposition is true or valid.

Experiment: a scientific procedure is undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or

demonstrate a known fact.
History: all the events of the past.

Primary Source: A primary source is an original object or document - the raw material or
first-hand information, source material closest to what is being studied.

Secondary Source: a secondary source of information is one that was created later by
someone who did not experience first-hand or participate in the events or conditions you're
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researching. For a historical research project, secondary sources are generally scholarly
books and articles.
Survey: a study of the opinions, behavior, etc. of a group of people.
Variable: not staying the same; often changing.

1.16 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Critical description 5. An Evaluative survey

2. True 6. Controlled Observational Study
3. Primary sources 7. Variables
4. Internal Criticism 8. Experimental Studies

1.17 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain Historical Research Method in detail. What are the criteria for evaluating the
Historical Sources? Give a brief description.
2. What are the basic steps involved in Historical Research? Write a brief note.
3. What do you understand by Survey Research Methods? Explain the various types of
Survey Methods used for conducting the research.
4. What are the steps involved in Survey Research Methods? What are the major
Advantages and Limitations of this kind of method?
5. What is Experimental Research Method? Elaborate by giving suitable examples.
6. What are the basic steps involved in Experimental Research Methods? List and
briefly explain the types of Experimental Designs.
7. What are the essential steps involved in Experimental Research Methods?
8. Differentiate between Historical, Survey, and Experimental Research by giving
suitable examples.
9. List the basic steps involved in the Historical, Survey and Experimental Research
Methods.
10. Write a brief note on External and Internal Criticism in Historical Research.

1.18 REFERENCES

Busha, C.H. and Harter, S.P. (1980). Research Methods in Librarianship. New York:
Academic Press.

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Kerlinger, F.N. (1973). Foundation of Behavioral Research (2nd Ed.) New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.

Krishan Kumar (1992). Research Methods in Library and Information Science. New Delhi:
Har-Anand Publications.

Nachmias, F. and Nachimas, D. (1992). Research Methods in Social Sciences (4th Ed.). New
York: St. Martin Press.
Powell, R.R. & Connaway, L.S. (2004). Basic Research Methods for Librarians (4th Ed.).
London: Libraries Unlimited.

1.19 SUGGESTED READINGS

Sehgal, R L. (1998). Applied Statistics for Library Science Research. New Delhi: Ess Ess
Publications.

Wilkinson, T.S. & Bhandarkar, P.L. (1979). Methodology and Technique of Social Research.
Bombay: Himalaya Publishing House.

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UNIT II: Types of Research Methods

LESSON 2
Case Study
Dr. Gareema Sharma
Assistant Librarian
National Institute of Technology Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Case Study
1.3.1 Conceptual Meaning
1.3.2 Types of Case Studies
1.3.3 Sources of Data
1.4 Objectives of Case Study
1.5 Limitations of Case Study
1.6 Summary
1.5 Glossary
1.6 Answers to In-text Questions
1.7 Self-Assessment Questions
1.8 References
1.9 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this lesson, the students will study the concept of Case study research method.
After reading this lesson, the students will have in-depth knowledge of the case studies, and
they will be easily able to differentiate this research method from other qualitative and
quantitative research methods. The students will also study the application and limitations of
Case studies in this lesson.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

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The case study method is a form of qualitative analysis which involves a careful and
complete observation or investigation of an individual, a situation or an institution etc. It is a
method of in-depth study of something rather than an overview or superficial study. In the
Case study method, a researcher can take one single element or multiple elements for the
research study, and even a situation can be taken for comprehensive study purposes.

In this method, more emphasis is on the exhaustive study or analysis of a limited number of
events or conditions and the study of their inter-relations. The case study deals with the
processes, activities, or situations and their interrelationship. Therefore, the case study is an
intensive investigation of the particular topic or subject under consideration. In this method,
the behavior pattern of the subject taken for research is studied directly and avoids indirect
and abstract approaches.

1.3 CASE STUDY

1.3.1 Conceptual Meaning and Definitions

The case study is a specific field or qualitative research method and thus is an investigation
"of phenomena as they occur without any significant intervention of the investigators". It
seems to be appropriate for investigating phenomena when:
1. A large variety of factors and relationships are included,
2. No basic laws exist to determine which factors and relationships are essential, and
3. When the factors and relationships can be directly observed.

Yin defines a case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary

phenomenon in the context of a real-life situation when the boundaries between phenomenon
and context are not apparent; and which involves using multiple sources of evidence.

Leedy and Ormrod define case study research as " a type of qualitative research in which
in-depth data are gathered relative to a single individual, program, or event to learn more
about an unknown or poorly understood situation".

Harrison also recommends the case study method for investigating organizational structure
and functions or performance.

It is the study of a particular event, are institution in depth, comprehensive study. It helps to
understand the whole life. Cycle of focus for which it is done. Anthropologists first carried it.
Therefore, Anthropologists and biologists are examples who carry general case studies. It is a
method to know in detail everything about something.
The case study is often useful as an exploratory technique. It deals with the peculiarity of the
particular case. It gives insight of typical and particular cases. It is an important method of
social science research.
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A case study design usually involves qualitative research methods, but it also uses
quantitative methods. Case studies are good for describing, comparing, evaluating, and
understanding different aspects of a research problem.

Case Study Method in Library Science

The case study method can be seen as useful in Library Science Research from two aspects:
1. To establish a relationship between investigation and practical aspects.

2. To act as a bridge so that persons in the professional practice sphere may come closer to
research results in a certain way that these can prove useful for them.

The usefulness of the 'Case Study' has been found in the following three areas of Library and
Information Science:

i. Digital Libraries: The case study method is a fine choice to establish a relationship
between research and the empirical component. To begin the study of different
situations, there is a need to confront the theories which have emerged from the
research on digital libraries.

ii. Information Policies: A case study has been employed as an adequate method for
performing micro-level research studies on information policies in specific countries
that represent social, cultural, and psychological reality for establishing and
implementing different types of information policies.

iii. Bibliographic Organization: Case studies performed in the area of bibliographic

organization during the first decade of the 20th century are descriptive, interpret
patterns, and constitute studies aimed at interpretational schemes development. The
case study method is required for generalization and theorization in this area, so
achievements may go beyond simple description. E.g. Case studies have proved
beneficial for planning the development of several information systems, such as the
library catalog (Vargas et al., 2016).

Busha and Harter highlight that the case study is most appropriate for the extensive
data gathering and collection about a single research element which allows focused
attention on a single event and the utilization of various data collection techniques.
Various data collection tools and techniques like questionnaires, schedule and
interviews, including observation methods are employed to collect the varied data in
case studies. Case studies have often proven useful in studying the institution like
Academic library, to assess the contributions of the employees in the growth and
development of the organization or library.

When Case Study can be done?

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A case study is a proper blueprint of research study when you want to gain actual insight and
real understanding and a comprehensive knowledge about a specific real-life situation. Case
studies can be used in a thesis or dissertation work. Case studies keep the research focused
and manageable when there is a time constraint for a researcher to collect the resources for
conducting a large-scale research. One can use just one complex case study where a person
can explore a single subject in-depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and
illuminate different aspects of his/her research problem.

1.3.2 Types of Case Studies

There are four types of case studies which are commonly known in the research literature i.e.

i. Illustrative case studies: These are descriptive studies. They utilize one or two
events to show actually to represent the situation. It serves primarily to uncover the
unfamiliar to become easily amicable and provides researchers an introductory
language about the topic that is under consideration for research study.
ii. Exploratory case studies: Exploratory case studies are used to identify research
questions and methods for a large scale study. The main purpose of an exploratory
case study is to help identify real life situations for the further research.
iii. Cumulative case studies: These studies complete the information located at some
places and collected at different times. The collection of past studies allows the
researcher to generalize past events without putting additional cost or time on
repetitive studies.
iv. Critical instance case studies: Lastly, critical instance case studies are used to
determine the cause and consequence of a particular situation.

Example of Case Study: Hypothesis about the particular specific, small unit.

1.3.3 Sources of Data

The Case studies are not limited to any single source of data rather they employ several
sources as per the need of the study. The most commonly used sources of information for the
case study method include the following:

i. Observations
ii. Life histories
iii. Personal records/Diaries
iv. Personal Interviews
v. Personal documents
vi. Personal letters
vii. Written Confessions
viii. Personal Biographies

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1.4 OBJECTIVES OF CASE STUDY

The objectives of Case Study are:

• Intensive, in-depth study which provides clues and ideas for further research which
are ignored by another method.

• It examines complex factors in a given situation to identify causable factors. It is a

serious study involving historical research methods, questionnaires, checklists etc.

• It is not a valuable method for diagnostic, therapeutic and administrative purposes.

• It derives ideals leading to conclusions/hypotheses to be tested.

• It covers a single gray particular activity.

• Finding of survey can't be generalized and case study.

• General survey: Testing hypothesis about large local aggregates.

1.5 LIMITATIONS OF CASE STUDY

There are certain limitations of Case Study Method which are as follows:

• Generalization can't be done.

• Usually much more time-consuming and costly in some cases.

• Case study alone is inadequate for the analysis of a micro-problem and other research
methods are also required for detailed (information) study.

• Collected subjective data is not helpful for quantitative verification of the data.

• Danger of investigators' biasness due to spending more time with person Institution,
community etc. leading to error of perception, judgement throughout judgement.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Case Study is a method of ___________of something rather than overview or
superficial study.
2. Exploratory case studies are mostly being used to identify questions and
selected types of measurement before the investigation begins. True/False
3. A case study is a proper _______________when you want to gain actual
insight and real understanding and comprehensive knowledge about a specific
real-life situation.

4. _____________serve to complete the information located at some places and

collected at different times.

5. ________________case studies intended to examine one or more sites for the

purpose of assessing a particular situation. This method can be useful for
answering cause-and-effect questions.

6. Case study alone is not adequate for analysis is of a _________and other

research methods are also required for detailed (information) study.

1.6 SUMMARY

In contrast to most survey research, case studies involve intensive analyses of a small number
of subjects rather than gathering data from a large sample or population. Several data
collection techniques are usually employed in case studies. For example, an investigation of
staff burnout in a reference department might utilize questionnaires, interviews, observation,
and the analysis of the documents. Most researchers consider the case studies to be relatively
low in internal and external validity, but it certainly has the potential to be a valuable
research tool. Also, it is found that the detailed observations that case studies provide are
instrumental in documenting phenomena occurring over a period of time or whose
implications are complex.

1.7 GLOSSARY

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Biasness: an inclination of temperament or outlook.

Case Study: a process or record of research into the development of a particular person,
group, or situation over a period of time.

Empirical: based on, concerned with, or verifiable by observation or experience rather than
theory or pure logic.

Exploratory: done in order to discover more about something.

Generalization: a general statement or concept obtained by inference from specific cases.

Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks an

in-depth understanding of social phenomena within their natural setting. It focuses on the
"why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and relies on the direct experiences of
human beings as meaning-making agents in their every day lives.

1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. In-depth study 4. Cumulative Case Studies

2. True 5. Critical Instance
3. Blue print of research study 6. Micro-problem

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is Case Study? Give some standard definitions along with suitable examples.
2. What are the objectives of a Case Study Method? Write a brief note.
3. What are the limitations of 'Case Study Method'? Explain briefly.

1.10 REFERENCES

Alvarez, M. d. C. A., França, I., Cuenca, A. M. B., Bastos, F. I., Ueno, H. M., Barros, C.
R. and Guimarães, M. C. S. (2014). Information literacy: perceptions of Brazilian
HIV/AIDS researchers. Health Information & Libraries Journal, 31: 64–74. DOI:
10.1111/hir.12047.

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Armbruster, C. (2010). Implementing Open Access: Policy case studies. Retrieved from
Social Science Research Network http://ssrn.com/abstract=1685855.

Darke, P., Shanks, G., & Broadbent, M. (1998). Successfully completing case study
research: Combining rigour, relevance and pragmatism. Information Systems Journal,
8(4), 273– 289.

Powell, R.R. & Connaway, L.S. (2004). Basic Research Methods for Librarians (4th Ed.).
London: Libraries Unlimited.

Torres-Vargas, G.A., Garcia, A.A.T. and Vanderkast, E.J.S. (2016). Case Study Method
for Research on Digital Library, Information Policies, and Bibliographic Organization.
New Trends in Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Libraries. World Scientific
Publishing Corporation: 367-376.

Yin, R.K. (2003). Case study research, 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Eisenhardt, K.M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of
Management Review, 14(4): 532–550.

Grover, R. and Greer, R.C. (1991). The Cross-disciplinary Imperative of LIS Research.
Library and Information Science Research: Perspective and Strategies for Improvement,101-
113.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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UNIT II: Types of Research Methods

LESSON 3
Scientific Research and Statistical Research
Dr. Gareema Sharma
Assistant Librarian
National Institute of Technology Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Scientific Method
1.3.1 Conceptual Meaning and Definitions
1.3.2 Spiral of Scientific Method
1.4 Steps in Scientific Method
1.5 Characteristics of Scientific Method
1.6 Statistical Research
1.6.1 Concept of Statistics
1.6.2 Purpose of Statistical Analysis
1.7 Steps involved in Statistical Analysis
1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Answers to In-text Questions
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this lesson, the students will study the concept of the Scientific Method of Inquiry
and various Statistical Research Methods/Techniques available today for the analysis of data.
This lesson will help the students to develop the necessary skills to begin and conduct the
research. After reading this lesson, the students will be able to explain the important

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characteristics of the scientific method of inquiry. The students will also study the important
steps involved in the Statistical Analysis of the data for drawing necessary conclusions.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

All the methods used in modern research are based upon a general approach to human
problems commonly referred to as the scientific method or scientific enquiry. This may be
considered as a particular system of thinking. Inductive reasoning contributed to the
development of what is known as the scientific method or the scientific method of inquiry
(SMI). Thisdiscovering discovery of knowledge has long beeidered to be the "most valid
method for problem solving and the resolution of unanswered questions".

1.3 SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1.3.1 Conceptual Meaning and Definitions

According to John Dewey, Scientific Method is an "active, persistent, and careful
consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of grounds that
support it and the further conclusion to which it ends. Scientific method in its simplest form
"Consisting of working inductively from experience to hypothesis, which are elaborated
deductively for implications based on which they can be tested.

'Scientific Method' refers to methods and procedures that a scientist would accept as
adequate, provided that the same results could always be obtained under like conditions, the
explanation being based on appropriate observations. This method is often used in everyday
life for solving day-to-day problems.

The scientific method may be described as a rigorously organized, systematic and meticulous
method of research based on observation and experimentation, which accepts only such
conclusions as are provable by all available facts.

Leedy describes the scientific method of inquiry as a means by which insight into an
undiscovered truth is sought by:
a) Identifying the problem that will provide the goal of the research,
b) Gathering the data needed to resolve the problem,
c) Developing a Tentative Hypothesis, and
d) Empirically testing the hypothesis by analyzing the data.

Depending upon the research phase, Babbie summarizes the basic steps of the scientific
method as:
a) Theory Construction,
b) Derivation of Theoretical Hypotheses,

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c) Operationalization of concepts, and

d) Testing of Hypotheses

1.3.2 Spiral of Scientific Method

A never-ending spiral of scientific method characterizes scientific method. Each of the cycles
moves amidst the spiral assign believe. Experimentation and Observation are performed with
the help of sensory experience. This leads to the facts of experience and facts are cumulated.

1.4 STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Scientific Research requires a logical approach consisting of various steps:

• Formulation of specific research problem

• Thorough critical review of relevant literacy.

• Collection of previously known facts about the research problem.

• Formulation of research hypotheses or exploratory questions.

• Designing of experiment or other studies to test hypothesis or find answers to

questions.

• Conduct of experiments or studies to collect data.

• Analysis and interpretation of collected data, to arrive at relevant conclusions

• Writing of the research report.

1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Scientific method is characterized by the use of induction. It involves the application of

direct observation of the phenomenon and reaching a concussion by means of evidence
obtained through observing many individual cases. Thus, induction is concerned with the
formulation of a general principle from a number of special individual cases. The scientific
method of inquiry have the following important characteristics:

1. Induction–Deduction: Charles Darwin developed the modern combination of

inductive and deductive methods. An integration of relevant aspects of both methods,
serve as a useful method for the acquisition of reliable and significant knowledge. In
this method, one starts with universal law and the same is applied to the interpretation
of a particular phenomenon. We proceed from generalization to particularization.
Darwin made observations in this literature. He formulated a hypothesis, and tested it
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by making deductions from it. Further, he collected facts, which confined his
hypothesis and thus drawing certain conclusions.
2. Measurement: Scientific method requires that data should be susceptible to
measurement. Observation and recording of phenomena constitute measurement.
With the help of induction (Inductive logic) stated analysis, empirical laws are
deduced from vast fact of experiment.

• With the help of intuition, fundamental laws are sublimated from the vast
cumulated empirical law.

• With the help of deduction, we are able to infer deduced laws (lancers
principles etc. from the fundamental laws.

• Observe of the would of facts is done for confirmation of the deduced laws or
for their denial.

• Reconciliation of deduced laws and the observed facts in the case of non-
conformity, by the elimination of any possible flaw in the logic on the one
side and the observations and experimental technique as the other.

• Preparation of new data, if a crisis is created by the unabridged gulf between

deed laws of observation facts.

• Formulate new empirical law in the light of newly observed facts.

• Repetition of the above cycle.

3. Stages of Experimental Research: Measurement is comparatively easier to achieve
in natural science, including physical sciences than in social services and thematics.
In Social Science and thematic, we use more of comparative and subjective
judgments. Measurement is seldom precise in these fields.
The educational process does not produce anything which could be measured
objectively. This is because educationist have not been able to measure this apart in
objective terms. The problem here is to assure that measurements of input and output
obtained under augmentation conditions can be compared to similar measurements
obtained under control conditions without augmentation.

4. Observation Carefully made and Record: Systematic observation constitutes an

important aspect of the application of Scientific method which involves the use of rigorous
control i.e. observations are carefully made and recorded observe made are based on
manipulation senses as well as through the extension of these senses using instruments of
different kinds. The data obtained can the basis of observations are recorded, published and
disseminated is other for critical examination and for further use.

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5. Measuring Devices (Instruments): The devices (such as pencils, paper tests,

questionnaires are rating scales) used by the library science researcher are called measuring
devices of the treatment. The whole process of collecting state is called instrumentation. An
instrument used by the library science researcher must draw an accurate conclusion. a Valid
instrument is that measures what it is supposed to measure.

In simple words, a test is a device used to gather data. All library science researcher wants
instruments that permit them to draw valid conclusions about the characteristics (ability,
achievement, attitudes, and so on of the individuals they study. Some examples of data
collection instruments: Schedules, questionnaires, rating scales, attitude scales, performance
tests, flow charts etc.

A rating scale is a measured judgment of some sort. A tally short records the frequency of
student behaviors, activities or remarks.

6. Quantification: The quantitative approach is undoubtedly the most dependable scientific

approach. However, quantification is not equally applicable to all sciences. Here we study the
quantity "How much" of any variable present, for e.g. the amount of more spent by the
university library for the library automatic \. Here variable is the amount of money spent).
Quantity will be how much.

7. Controlled Experiment: Pure Science uses a controlled experiment, considered the best
way to perform an experiment. When a phenomena cannot be adequately observed and
measured in naturalistic settings, the scientists often carry out experimentation. The
experimental changes in the phenomenon are observed and recorded as various variables are
manipulated or suppressed under controlled conditions. The great advantage of controlled
experiment is that it makes it possible to achieve direct measure of diff aspects of needed
data.

8. Research Report: In Scientific research, researcher results are recorded, published as a

report and disseminated. The report givens complete description about research done, basic
objective, research analysis, findings and conclusions so that newly acquired insights and
knowledge can be communicated to other researchers for critical examination and use.

9. Generalization: Scientific method enables one to reach a generalization that correlates all
the known facts, providing a satisfactory explanation for all relevant known data. There is
lack of generalizability in the LIS field. Generally, it is possible if conclusions are universal.
We are today in need of the generalized truths. Librarians have been able to achieve intrusion
practical experience. Many of these experiences and have also been recorded. As a result, we
possess a reasonable amount of raw data about devices (cost, character limitation).

10. Verifiable Data: The method adopted to collect data must be objective. This will lead to
objectively verifiable truth. This requires evidence instead of testimony photographs, tape-
recording and video recording can be considered as evidence. But personal obs is testimony.

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11. Reliability: It refers to the accuracy of data in the sense of stability, repeatability or
precision. It should give identical data under the same circumstances.

Universality: This means that the study should be researchable by any competent researcher.
A qualified researcher should be able to conduct the study based on the same design,
obtaining essentially the same results as the original researchers.

12. Control: In the scientific method, control is one of the most important characteristics.
Control is highly applicable in experimental methods because when we try to establish
causality between variables, other factors are ruled out as rival explanations. Such factors
could invalidate the inference that the variables are causally related. So, control is important
parameter or we can say that indicator for our research study. After applying control for the
study, we control the effect of many variables that might interfere with the test of hypothesis.
Control makes a rigorous approach towards our study and with the help of control we get the
repeatable result.

Let's say for example; we consider the following hypothesis that high school students who
study a unit of instruction in library skills in conjunction with coursework in other subjects
such as physics, chemistry, math (i.e. as integrated approach) learn library skills more
effectively than high school students who study an equivalent unit independently of other
school subjects. So, to test this hypothesis, certain variables need to be controlled.

Such as, two groups of students should be roughly equivalent in level of motivation,
intelligence, socio-economic status, age and perhaps other qualities. These variables are
controlled and thus the effect should be the same for both groups.

For Example:

• Information seeking behavior of the faculty member of Delhi.

Here, Certain variables can be controlled i.e. faculty member should be from social science
department only, they should be female, their age vary in between 35-40 yrs, they have at
least 2-3 yrs experience etc

• Effect of online reference service on user ship.

So for this study we may apply specific control, that is, what kind of software used for
providing reference, speed of internet access, no. of terminals, extent of information
providing. We apply control to get a rigorous approach and get generalized result and we
arrive to exactness.
Therefore, Control is one of the important parameters of a research study. It facilitates in
isolating the critical factors and achievement of replication.

13. Controlled Experiment: Actually, controlled experiment is purely applicable in the field
of pure sciences because science we conduct an experiment under known condition and all

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kind of manipulation is done by the experimenter In a controlled experiment, we proceed

very systematically and every change which are occurred during the experiment is carefully
observed and systematically recorded and so that we reached out at the dependable solution.

Controlled experiment is slightly applicable in the library and information science or social
sciences because both the fields dealing with human nature and human nature may affect
natural and hereditary factors. But today in changing environment, when librarian wants
something new or changes in an older one, he may apply the experimental approach.

For Example:

• If a library is going to shift into a new building then the librarian request the users to
fill up the questionnaire that came into the old building. So that he come to know
what kind of shortcomings were occurring in old building and with the help of
questionnaire librarian come to know what sort of facilities requires in new building
for the users.
• In the library, books are classified by DDC and CC, and arrange them on the selves
to determine the reaction of the users.

Thus, with the help of controlled experimental, we systematically proceed towards our
generalized result.
14. Replication: Even if the research is successful and the findings of the research confirm
the hypothesis, it is often advisable to repeat the study to demonstrate the findings are not an
accident or mere coincidence. If the study is repeated, especially with a different sample, a
second confirmation of the findings will further support the contention that the hypothesis
can not be rejected. This exact repetition of a study is called replication.

Replication is related to the criterion of universality. It means that research study is

repeatable. Not only should another competent researcher be able to conduct the study and
get essentially the same results, but he or she should also be able to do so repeatedly.
Scientific studies are repeated numerous times before accepting the results as correct. Thus,
the researcher must design his study so that it can be replicated by himself or someone else.
Otherwise, the findings will not be as convincing as they would if others could check them
through repetition of the study.

However, the ability to reproduce or repeat is almost impossible in Library and Information
Science because we are often involved with relatively unpredictable and uncontrollable
individuals. We need to apply rigorous controls for getting replication in Library and
Information Science.

For Example:

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1. Suppose if a researcher is conducting the study "The impact of OPAC on usership" and he
hypothesized that if it is introduced in libraries, then it would lead to an increase in user ship,
and he confirmed this hypothesis by collecting relevant data on the basis of his observation.

The other researcher can replicate this study with a different sample. However, he should
follow the same design, same methodology and same control those of the original researcher
to accept his findings.

2. Suppose if researcher is conducting the study "Information seeking behavior of faculty

members of Department of Political Science, University of Delhi." and he hypothesized that
most of the faculty members of Department of Political Science, University of Delhi locate
information by using personal searching. He confirmed this hypothesis by collecting relevant
data based on his research.

The other researcher can replicate this study with a different sample (like Department of
History). However, he should follow the same design, same methodology and same controls
those of the original researcher to accept his findings.

Replication means that the research study is repeatable. A competent researcher other than
the original researcher should be able to conduct the study, essentially obtaining the same
result repeatedly. Thus, replication is related to the characteristic of universality.

15. Universality: Universality means that the study should be researchable by any other
qualified investigator. In other words, another researcher should be able to conduct the study
as designed and get essentially the similar results as the original researcher would have
obtained and should be able to generalize the results to comparable solutions.

In the scientific method, we try to search for truth based on facts available, and then we try to
generalize through a process of induction, deduction, and verification. The scientific method
of inquiry leads to laws or principles that may be applied with confidence under similar
conditions in the future. It enables one to reach at universal conclusions. But for reaching at a
universal conclusion, research study should be based on the same design, follow same
methodology and apply the same controls; then only another researcher will be able to obtain
the same results those of the original researcher.

For Example:-
1. In the library and information science field, we have Five Laws of Library Science
given by Prof. S.R. Ranganathan. These five laws are fundamental laws; they are universal in
nature and truly applicable in library and information science field.

2. Bibliometric Laws:- These are used to study and quantify the process of written
communication. These are scientific laws applicable in various library and information
science areas. Like, through the application of Bradford's law of scattering and citation
analysis, one can identify core periodicals in different disciplines etc.

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1.6 STATISTICAL RESEARCH

1.6.1 Concept of Statistics:

The word 'statistics' refers to method of dealing with quantitative information. The methods
by which statistical data are analysed and presented are called statistical methods. Statistics is
synonymous with figures. Different authors or even the same author define the statistics
differently on different occasions.

Quantitative information may be found almost in all sections of the library. It is probably
more commonly referred to as data in quantitative form, which is referred to as statistical
data. A mere collection of numbers will not constitute statistics.

Webster defines statistics as "the classified facts representing the condition of the people in a
state, especially those facts which can be stated in numbers or in tables of numbers or is any
tabular or classified arrangement".
The above definition is too narrow as it restricts the scope to the importance of statistics and
to facts and figures which relate to the conditions of the people in a state.

1.6.2 Purpose of Statistical Analysis

The basic purpose of statistical analysis is to summarize observations or data so that they
provide answers to the hypothesis or research questions. Statistics facilitate drawing general
conclusions based on specific data. Statistics are necessary for most quantitative data
research studies and are particularly crucial at the sampling and analysis stages. The analysis
process should be planned well in advance in order to anticipate problems that may be
encountered. In fact, the analysis of a study is shaped to a considerable extent, before the data
collection. The anticipation of the analysis process determines what kinds of data will be
needed.

1.7 STEPS INVOLVED IN STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Regardless of the techniques or tests employed, certain basic steps are common to virtually
all statistical analyses.

1. The Establishment of Categories: To organize and analyze the data collected for a
study, it is necessary to place them in categories. The identification or establishment
of catgories should occur before the data are gathered. The data's actual
categorization occurs during or after the collection process.

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2. Coding the Data: Once the categories have been established and data "assigned" to
them, it is necessary to convert the new data or responses into a numerical code for
tabulation purposes. These codes are assigned to specified locations in data files,
particularly if computer data analysis is planned. One of the most critical
considerations in coding is reliability. The problems of reliability in coding can result
from inadequacies in the data. For e.g. a poorly worded questionnaire item may not
produce enough relevant information for study.

3. Analyzing the Data by Descriptive and Inferential Statistics: Once the data is
ready for analysis, the researcher can choose to utilize the descriptive or inferential
statistics method individually or both methods per the requirement.
• Descriptive Statistics: It has been found by researchers in library and
information science that descriptive analysis can perform the six basic
functions:
i. The statistical analysis can indicate how many persons, objects, scores
or whatever achieved each value for every measured variable. These
calculations, known as frequency distributions, include simple or
absolute, cumulative, percentage and grouped distributions.
ii. When it is difficult to grasp the overall meaning of frequency
distribution tables, pictorial representations can be used to portray
various characteristics of the cases or individuals concerning the
variables or variables measured. This process involves using one or
more data displays, such as bar graphs or charts, pie charts,
histograms and frequency polygons. Graphs are especially useful for
displaying the findings of a research study with many cases. The
design of such devices has become easier with the widespread
availability and use of word processing and spreadsheet programs.
iii. Descriptive statistics can characterize what is typical in a group of
cases. Such statistics referred to as measures of central tendency,
commonly include the mean, the median and the mode. The mean is
what is commonly called the average. It is the sum of the scores
divided by the total number of cases involved. The median is the value
of the middle item when the scores are arranged according to size. The
mode refers to the category that occurs most frequently.
iv. Descriptive statistics can indicate how widely cases in a group vary.
These statistics are known as measures of dispersion or variability.
The examples include the range of scores (the highest score minus the
lowest score), their mean deviation (the arithmetic mean of the
absolute differences of each score from the mean), the standard
deviation and the variance (the mean squared deviation).

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v. Descriptive statistics can measure the relationship between or among

the different variables in the data. These are generally referred to as
correlational or associational statistics. They can allow the prediction
of one variable based on another, but they cannot be used to establish
casual relationships.
vi. The sixth primary function that descriptive statistics can perform is to
describe the difference between two or more groups of individuals.

• Inferential Statistics: Compared to descriptive statistics, which simply

summarize and describe the data, inferential statistics can perform certain
more sophisticated functions. They are most commonly used to predict or
estimate population parameters or characteristics based on random sample
statistics and to test hypotheses using tests of statistical significance to
determine if observed differences between groups or variables are "real" or
merely due to chance. In simple words, inferential statistics help the
researcher to make inferences and judgments about what exists based on only
partial evidence. Inferential statistics are of two basic types:
i. Parametric Statistics or Tests: These statistics require a normal
population or distribution assumption. Parametric tests are relatively
powerful and are likely to detect a difference between groups if a
difference really exists. Some examples of frequently used parametric
tests inclues Z-test, ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), Tukey's HSD
(Honestly Significant Difference), Student's T-Test, Pearson's
Product-moment correlation coefficient. and Regression etc.

ii. Nonparametric Statistics or Tests: In contrast to Parametric tests,

nonparametric statistics are considered distribution-free. It means they
do not require the assumption of an average population and are often
used with smaller samples. As they involve weaker assumptions, they
are less potent than the parametric tests and require larger samples to
yield the same significance level. These tests are usually but not
always used with ordinal level data and five common e.g. are: Chi-
Square Test, Mann-Whitney U-Test, Wilcoxon Sign Test, Spearman
Rank-order correlation and Kruskal-Wallis Test.

4. Selecting the Appropriate Statistical Test: A researcher should consider the

primary purpose of research in choosing statistics, wehter it is descriptive or
analytical. An appropriate statistical test may be selected as per the requirement
which may meet the certain essential conditions required for that test to be performed.

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5. Testing the Hypothesis: In using statistics to test the hypotheses, a researcher must
always remember that statistical inferences are based on probability, and one can
never rely on statistical evidence alone to judge whether a hypothesis is true. Such a
decision must also be based on the presuppositions or conceptual basis of the
research.

6. Computer-aided Statistical Analysis: In today's digital environment, the

quantitative analysis is almost always done by computer programs using statistical
softwares like SPSS, STATA and MicroCase respectively. It is an efficient technique
for analyzing large amounts of data. An example of such a statistical package is
BMDP (Biomedical Computer Programs). It can be used for various statistical
analyses and is not limited to medical research. Another comprehensive computer
system for data analysis is known as SAS or Statistical Analysis System. It tends to
be used most frequently by researchers in technical fields but the system can be used
for virtually all kinds of data. MINITAB is a relatively easy-to-use statistical and
graphical analysis software package that extensively uses alphabetic data. MicroCase,
another statistical analysis, and data management system, was developed for social
science researchers. The most widely available mainframe statistical package is SPSS
(Statistical Package for the Social Sciences).

7. Analysis of Non-Quantified Data: It is worth to be noted that not all the research
data are susceptible to quantification, and such data do not lend themselves to
statistical analysis. However, they may still have a significant contribution to the
analysis and interpretation of the results of a study and should not be dismissed
perfunctorily. Qualitative data analysis differs from quantitative data analysis, not
only like the data but also the process. One of the significant objectives of qualitative
data analysis is the generation of concepts. One of the critical activities of qualitative
analysis is the coding of data. Coding, similar to indexing, is a critical process since it
organizes the raw information that has been collected and represents the first step in
the conceptualization of the data.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. __________may be described as a rigorously organized, systematic and

meticulous method of research based on observation and
experimentation.
2. Scientific method is characterized by a never ending________________.
3. Systematic observation constitutes an important aspect of the application
of Scientific method which involves the use of____________________.

4. ______________refers to accuracy of data in the sense of stability,

repeatability or precision.
5. Replication is related to the criterion of universality. It means that
research study is repeatable. True/False
6. ______________means that the study should be researchable by any
other qualified investigator.

7. The basic purpose of ________________is to summarize observations or

data in such a manner that they provide answers to the hypothesis or
research questions.
8. Parametric tests are relatively robust and are likely to detect a difference
between groups if a difference really exists. True/False

1.8 SUMMARY

The Landmark contribution of science to developing knowledge is the scientific method. It

may be defined as a rigorously organized, systematic and meticulous method of research
based on observation and experimentation which accepts only such conclusions as are
provable by all available facts or evidence.

Statistical methods are generally used for descriptive purposes and for statistical inference.
Descriptive statistics deal with the tabulation of data; their presentation in tabular, graphical
or pictorial form and the calculation of descriptive measures. Inferential statistics are used for
making inductive generalizations about populations based on sample data and for testing
hypotheses. Both types of statistics permit interpreting quantitative data in such a way that
the reliability of conclusions based on the data may be evaluated objectively utilizing

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probability statements. The investigator must only make the final interpretation of the
analysis as statistics can only facilitate the process.

1.9 GLOSSARY

ANOVA: ANOVA stands for Analysis of Variance. ANOVA tells if there are any statistical
differences between the means of three or more independent groups.
Controlled Experiment: In a controlled experiment, all variables other than the independent
variable are controlled or held constant so they do not influence the dependent variable.
Controlling variables can involve: holding variables at a constant or restricted level (e.g.,
keeping room temperature fixed).
Generalization: a general statement or concept obtained by inference from specific cases.

Hypothesis: a supposition or proposed explanation made based on limited evidence as a

starting point for further investigation.
Reliability: the quality of being trustworthy or of performing consistently well.
Replication: the action of copying or reproducing something.

Scientific Method: a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the
17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the
formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.

Statistical Analysis: It is the science of collecting, exploring and presenting large amounts
of data to discover underlying patterns and trends.
Statistical Methods: Statistical methods are mathematical formulas, models, and techniques
used in the statistical analysis of raw research data.

Universality: the quality of being involved or shared by all people or things in the world or a
particular group.

1.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Scientific Method 5. True

2. Spiral of scientific method 6. Universality
3. Rigorous control 7. Statistical analysis
4. Reliability 8. True

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1.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is Scientific Method of Research? Explain briefly along with defintions?

2. What are the basic steps involved in the Scientific Method of Research? Write a brief
note.
3. Explain in detail the main characteristics of the scientific method of inquiry.
4. What is Statistics and what are the Statistical Research Techniques/Methods?
5. Give a detailed description of the Steps involved in Statistical Analysis.

1.12 REFERENCES

Bailey, K.D. (1978). Methods of Social Research. New York: Free Press.
Busha, C.H. and Harter, S.P. (1980). Research Methods in Librarianship. New York:
Academic Press.

Kerlinger, F.N. (1973). Foundation of Behavioral Research (2nd Ed.) New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.

Krishan Kumar (1992). Research Methods in Library and Information Science. New Delhi:
Har-Anand Publications.

Nachmias, F. and Nachimas, D. (1992). Research Methods in Social Sciences (4th Ed.). New
York: St. Martin Press.

Powell, R.R. and Connaway, L.S. (2004). Basic Research Methods for Librarians (4th Ed.).
London: Libraries Unlimited.

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Sehgal, R L. (1998). Applied Statistics for Library Science Research. New Delhi: Ess Ess
Publications.

Wilkinson, T.S. and Bhandarkar, P.L. (1979). Methodology and Technique of Social
Research. Bombay: Himalaya Publishing House.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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 Master of Library and Information Science-Ist Semester

UNIT-III

RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

Dr. Namrata Rai

Sr. Professional Asst.
Indian Institute of Management
Bangalore
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Tools & Techniques for Data Collection
1.3.1 Questionnaire Method
1.3.2 Observation Method
1.3.3 Interview Method
1.3.4 Checklist
1.3.5 Rating Scales
1.4 Summary
1.5 Glossary
1.6 Answer to In-text Questions
1.7 Self-Assessment Questions
1.8 References
1.9 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

On the completion of this unit, your learning outcomes will be:

 Introduced to various types of data collection tools

 Define and describe a questionnaire and its different types.
 Discuss the advantages and limitations of the questionnaire
 Define the interview method and explain its types, advantages, and
limitations.
 Define the observation method and discuss its types, advantages,and
limitations.
 Define rating scales and attitude scales and discuss the use and limitations.
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1.2 INTRODUCTION

Once a research problem has been formulatedand the research design has been
planned, which was covered in the preceding chapters, the researcher must begin the work of
data collecting to get relevant and adequate data.

We will talk about various methods or tools for acquiring data in this chapter.The
researcher should consider the type of data, such as primary or secondary data, before
choosing the techniques of data collecting for the study.The primary data will provide first-
hand information, which is current data.As a result, this type of data is original. In contrast,
secondary data have already undergone some analysis after being gathered by someone. The
researcher must now choose the information he will utilize for the study and, in turn, the data
collection methods he will employ. The complexity, application, interpretation, design, and
management of tools always vary as per the nature of the research study.The data collection
tools that have proven helpful in educational research, e.g., psychological tests and
inventories, questionnaires, checklists, rating scales, and techniques, namely, observation,
interview,content analysis, etc.

We have tried to familiarize you in this unit with a few popular, widely used data
collection tools& techniques. This unit will also cover some of the most used research tools'
characteristics, types, uses, and limitations.

1.3 TOOLS& TECHNIQUES FOR DATA COLLECTION

For
acquiring the required data, many tools have been developed. Now the researcher would have
to decide which sort of data he would be using for his study. The researcher can select one or
combinations of data collection tools for the study. Some tools are designed to record
qualitative data, and some to get quantitative data. In this unit, we will discuss some data
collection tools.

1.3.1 Questionnaire Method:

A questionnaire consists of a list of questions related to the study. It can be printed or
designed as an online form to share with respondents through emails. The questionnaire
method can be defined as:

A list of written questions carefully formulated to be administered to a selected group

of people for the purpose of gathering information (feedback) in survey research. In libraries,
patrons are sometimes asked to fill out a questionnaire designed to assess the perceived
quality and usefulness of services and resources. The results are then compiled and analyzed
for use in self-assessment and planning.

Reitz, Joan M.
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"A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a

sampling of population from which information is desired."

Barr, Davis & Johnson

Types of Questionnaires
The questionnaire can be categorized in different ways. A few of them are discussed below:

a. Structured Questionnaire:
Structured questionnaires ask concrete, direct and closed questions. A structured
questionnaire is the primary measuring instrument in survey research. Structured
questionnaire always falls under quantitative research. It is always prepared in advance, not
extempore. It consists mainly of closed-ended questions, which means the answers are
already given as options, and respondents only need to select from the given options.
Suppose respondents want to provide a response that is not covered under any options. In that
case, there will be one free text option as "Any other, please specify," which offers flexibility
to elaborate.

b. Un-Structured Questionnaire:
In an Unstructured questionnaire, most of the questions are open-ended, and the
answers are not given as an option or predetermined. Hence the respondent can provide
whatever response he would like to these questions. Though in an unstructured questionnaire,
all questions are open-ended, the sequence of the questions follows an order. The researcher
predetermines this sequence. Open responses are always more reliable, but it is difficult to
measure, and applying the data requires comprehension.

c. Semi-Structured Questionnaire:
This type of questionnaire includes mixed kinds of questions. In this questionnaire,
the researcher can consist of open-ended and close-ended questions related to the study. It
generally has a hybrid approach.

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Self-Assessment Questions:
1) What is Questionnaire method?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2) What are the three types of questionnaires?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Type of Questions
In a questionnaire, selecting questions play an important role in fitting the study's
purpose. Hence the main options are:

• Closed-ended Questions- These questions have pre-assigned responses or 'Yes' or

'No'. It always limits the choice of the response for the respondents.

Example for Close-ended Question

Which credit card do you use for shopping?

a) Visa
b) Mastercard
c) RuPay
d) Dinersclub
e) Any Other (Please specify……)

In closed-ended questions, the researcher may also use response scales in the
questionnaire. Some important scales that are often used:

 Likert Scale: To record agreement/disagreement of respondents with a set of choices

 Guttman Scales: Attitude-wise statement is arranged
 Thurstone Scales: forced choices, Agree/Disagree

• Open-ended Questions- It is a free-form question that allows respondents to respond

to their views based on their knowledge, feeling, and understanding. It means that the
questions don't have a pre-defined set of options.

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Example for Open-ended Question

Tell us your experience working with this organization so far.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
Characteristics of a good questionnaire
1. A good questionnaire must serve two purposes. First, it must translate the objectives of an
investigation into specific questions. It must motivate respondents to communicate the
required information. And it must include a courteous and carefully constructed covering
letter to explain the purpose and importance of the study.

2. The language of the good questionnaire should be simple, concise, and easy to understand.
The researcher should avoid ambiguous phrases and expressions while designing the
questionnaire. Technical terminology will be included in the questionnaire if it is directed to
specific groups; otherwise, it should be avoided.

3. A questionnaire should not be lengthy if not necessary. Suppose it includes too many
questions, then there is a possibility the subject will be tired and not able to respond correctly.

4. The sequence of questions in a questionnaire should receive special attention as it should be

logical to the subject. The easiest questions should come first, which makes the subject
comfortable responding and will place the complex questions later.

5. Combining different questions in a questionnaire is always better to record the subject's

response. Questions requiring an answer in 'Yes' or 'No' tend to be least biased, and responses
are easily tabulated. However, they don't always provide enough data about the issue being
researched. The use of multiple-choice answers is preferable in certain circumstances. When
the respondent is given a limited number of clear options, questions with multiple choice
answers work well.

Merits of Questionnaire

1. The questionnaire is one of the best data collection tools if adequately used.
2. It is very economical in terms of time, effort, and cost.
3. It is easy to plan, formulate and administer.
4. If the study covers a vast geographical region, it is the better tool as it permits
national and international coverage.
5. It allows time for the subject to respond to questions, which leads to less pressure on
the subject.
6. In some instances, responses given by the subjects are available in their language.
7. For an in-depth study, the questionnaire can be a primary tool, and later other
methods can be used.
8. The questionnaire can be used to collect data quickly for the study.

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9. Any statistical software package can analyze the questionnaire, which are structured
by nature.
Limitations of Questionnaire

1. A questionnaire will not be the apt tool to record the response for specific groups like
children/illitrates.
2. It gives a biased sample, and the non-response is the biggest concern in the case of
the questionnaire method.
3. If the subject does not understand the question's context or gives an incomplete
response, nothing can be done.
4. Some respondents resist putting forth their views on controversial issues in writing.
5. The subjects' feelings, emotions, behavior, and reactions are unnoticed.
6. Processing and analyzing data collected through large samples are very time-
consuming.
1.3.2 Observation Method:
An observation method is a research tool used mainly in social and behavioral
sciences. This method helps to understand the social, economic, and cultural changes. All
social research begins and ends with observation. The most important advantage of
observation is that it examines the phenomenon directly, allowing the behavior to be
observed as it occurs. Observation has become a scientific tool and one of the data collection
tools if it serves a formulated research purpose.
"Observation employs relatively more visual and senses than audio and vocal organs."

C.A. Mourse
Observation is a way to figure out what people think and do by watching how they behave in
different places and situations.

Types of Observation

 Controlled Observation and Uncontrolled Observation (or, Structured and Un-

Structured Observation)
Suppose the observation is characterized by careful definitions of the units to be
observed and recorded under standardized conditions with a selection of pertinent
observation data. Then the observation is called "Structured/controlled observation."

Whereas, when the observation takes place without considering the abovementioned
characteristics well in advance, it is termed "Uncontrolled/un-structured
observations." In an exploratory study, most of the observations are unstructured by
nature.

 Participant and Non-Participant Observation

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In research, particularly in the social sciences, we frequently discuss participant and

non-participant types of observation. This distinction is determined by whether the
observer shares the life of the group he observes. Suppose the observer observes by
imitating a member of the group he is observing to experience what the members of
the group experience; the observation is known as "participant observation."
However, non-participant observation occurs when the observer observes as a
detached delegate without attempting to experience what others feel through
participation.

Advantages of Observation

• Observation as a research method is getting better and more accurate to the point
where it could make a big difference in descriptive research.
• Rather than interviews and questionnaires, the best way to study essential parts of a
person's personality that show up in their behavior and attitude is to watch them.
• We get first-hand information by using this method
• The record of observation is available immediately.
• It is a comprehensive method of data collection.

Limitations of Observation

• Since not all occurrences can be immediately observed, its application is limited.
• More extended time requirements and costly procedure
• Impact of Observer on the subject or group: When an observer is present, the subject
becomes aware, which changes how they behave.
• The environment in which the observation is done is limited and all data collected are
limited to that study environment.
• It is useless if the action is covert and cannot be seen.
• The observer needs to have expertise and training.
1.3.3 Interview Method:
An interview is a data collection method widely used for social research. This method
is beneficial in cases where there is a need to attain personalized data. An interview is always
a two-way communication between interviewer and interviewee to exchange ideas and
express views on the research topic.

"The interview constitutes a social situation between two persons, the psychological
process involved requiring both individuals mutually respond though the social research
purpose of the interview call for a varied response from the two parties concerned."

Vivien Palmar
Types of Interviews

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There are several different interviews. The most common types of interviews are:

• Personal Interviews/ Structured Interviews

• Unstructured Interviews
• Semi-Structured Interviews
• Focused Interviews

Personal Interviews/ Structured Interview

This interview requires a person known as the interviewer to ask questions to the other
person or persons in face-to-face contact. (Occasionally, the interviewee will ask questions,
and the interviewer will respond, but the interviewer usually initiates the interview and
collects the information.).

Personal or structured interviews can be either direct personal investigation or indirect

oral investigation. In the case of direct personal investigation, the interviewer must
personally collect information from the sources involved. He must be on the spot and meet
people from whom data must be collected. This method is best suited for in-depth
investigations. However, in some cases, contact the people involved directly, or the direct
personal investigation technique may not be used due to the broad scope of the investigation.
In such cases, an indirect oral examination can be conducted. The interviewer must cross-
examine other people presumed to know something about the problem under investigation,
and the information obtained is recorded.

This method is used by most of the commissions and committees appointed by the
government to conduct investigations. Personal interviews are usually conducted in a
structured manner to gather information. As a result, we refer to the interviews as structured
interviews. Such interviews entail the use of a set of predetermined questions as well as
highly standardized recording techniques.

Unstructured Interviews
A flexible questioning strategy characterizes the unstructured interviews. Unstructured
interviews do not adhere to a system of predetermined questions and standardized
information recording processes. In a non-structured interview, the interviewer has a great
deal more freedom to ask supplemental questions if necessary or to ignore specific topics if
the situation so warrants. He may even alter the order of the questions. During recording the
responses, he has considerably greater latitude to include or exclude some features. This
flexibility, however, renders interviews incomparable, and the analysis of unstructured
responses is far more complex and time-consuming than that of structured responses acquired
from structured interviews.

Unstructured interviews also necessitate a high level of expertise and understanding on

the interviewer's part. In exploratory or formative research investigations, however,
unstructured interviews serve as the primary data collection method. In contrast, a structured
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interview approach is frequently employed for descriptive research since it ismore cost-
effective, provides a secure basis for generalization, and requires comparatively less skill
from the interviewer.

Semi-Structured Interviews
The SSI is based on a list of questions that must be covered during the interview. But
they also enable discussion of emerging areas of interest throughout the interview. Interviews
that are semi-structured when consequently employed to obtain information from a person or
small group discussion on predetermined subjects, while at the same period allowing for the
emergence of new questions during conversations.

They may be conducted with people or groups. Semi-structured interviews are distinct
from traditional interviews and generate formal survey data with these questions. In SSI,
questions are not always asked in the same sequence and manner in each interview.
Questions can be added or removed as desired.
During semi-structured interviews, respondents are frequently asked open-ended
questions and encouraged to provide instances or comment on various aspects of things that
interest them or seem to be of interest to them or significant to them. It can lead to vital
concerns being overlooked.

Focused Interviews
The purpose of a focused interview is to focus on the respondent's provided experience and
its repercussions. Under this method, the interviewer has the freedom to determine the
technique and order of questioning and inquire into the candidate's motivations. The primary
responsibility of the interviewer in a focused interview is to constrain the respondent to a
discussion of the topics on which he wishes to dialogue. Such interviews are commonly
employed in creating hypotheses and represent the most prevalent sort of unstructured
interview.

Advantages of Interview
 It is an apt data collection tool when dealing with young children, illitrates, etc.
 This data collection tool is used for practical purposes rather than for gathering data.
It will be used for counselling, placement, guidance, etc.
 The interviewer can assure the candidate that the shared information will be used
properly.
 In an interview, the interviewer can create a friendly atmosphere to get the desired
information related to the study.
 It permits to exchange the of ideas and information from both sides.
 The data collected through the interview is quite reliable.
 In other methods, bad handwriting, poor expressions, etc., can be avoided.

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 There is always a possibility of cross-questioning and adding supplementary

questions during the course of action.

Limitations of Interviews
 The technique is more time-consuming and challenging to employ successfully.
 It can be not very objective
 Interviewer objectivity and sensitivity play a very crucial role during the interview.
This procedure requires a level of expertise.
 A person with many tasks can fill the questionnaire in their leisure time rather than be
part of a lengthy interview.
 Recording data from the interview is the most challenging part.
 Using technology to record the interviews is not a cost-effective option.
 It will not work well if the respondent is shy, deaf, and mad.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
3. Define the observation and Interview methods.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Discuss different types of observation &Interviews.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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1.3.4 Checklist
The checklists include a list of things or behaviors, with a space designated for a checkbox or
a "yes" or "no" mark. The primary objective of the checklist is to ensure that no significant
part of an item or circumstance is ignored by drawing attention to the multiplicity of
components that make up either. It is a straightforward apparatus in the form of a To-Do-list,
consisting of a pre-prepared list of goods. It is a type of questionnaire that takes the form of a
list of categories with checkboxes for the respondent to select. Recording the existence or
absence of the phenomenon being studied is one of its primary functions.
How to construct a checklist
One can construct a checklist by using the following way.

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 Master of Library and Information Science-Ist Semester

 One of the arrangements calls for each component of a given scenario to be

examined.For instance, a topic might be requested to evaluate the situation by filling
in the blank next to each activity carried out in a class (with the letter "P"), for
example.

- Cleanliness in the class( )

- Availability of projectors()
- sufficient Tables and Chairs for students ()

 In the second form, the respondent is prompted to indicate whether they agree or
disagree by marking yes or no on a checkbox. They are requested to either circle or
underline the appropriate response to the item provided.

 In the third form, every item is a positive statement with a checkbox (P) to indicate
that it has been verified.

 The items are provided in sentences in the fourth format, and the suitableresponse
from the submitted responses is either checked off, highlighted, or encircled.

1.3.5 Rating Scales

Rating is a term used to express one's opinion or judgement about a situation, object, or
character. Rating techniques are devices that allow such judgments to be quantified. Opinions
are typically expressed on a scale of values.

"Rating is an essence and direct observation."

Ruth Strong
"A rating scale ascertains the degree, intensity and frequency of a variable."
Von Dallen
When it comes to evaluating quality, the rating scale is an extremely helpful tool, particularly
in situations where it can be challenging to quantify quality in an objective manner, such as
in extension and development programmes.
Example: How impactful is India's "Swach Bharat Abhiyaan" initiative?
The above question is difficult to respond to in an objective manner. In the context of this
discussion, rating scales and test scales measure or order entities with respect to the
quantitative characteristics or characteristics of the aforementioned programme. While some
rating scales provide for the assessment of magnitudes of the programme on a scale, other
systems just provide for the relative ordering of the items to be ranked.
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 Master of Library and Information Science-Ist Semester

Types of Rating Scales

Rating scales are various types, some of the most common rating scales are mentioned
below:
• Numerical Scales
• Descriptive Scales
• Graphic Scales
• Itemized Scales
• Forced Choice Scales
• Rating by cumulative points
Numerical Scales
The numerical scale employs numbers to indicate the degree to which an individual is
thought to exhibit certain characteristics or types of behavior. One of the most basic types of
rating scales is one in which the rater checks a number to indicate the extent to which a
characteristic exists. Typically, each number in a series is given a verbal description that
remains consistent from one characteristic to the next. This scale is useful when the
characteristic to be rated can be divided into small categories.
Example of the behavior of the sales staff in a supermarket on the rating scale
Directions: As you rate the sales staff on each of the following items. Circle 1 forinferior, 2
for below average 3 for average. 4 for above average and 5 for superior.
a) Cooperates with customers 1 2 3 4 5
b) Cooperates with procurement team 1 2 3 4 5

Descriptive Scales
On this particular rating form, the points on the graphical scale are denoted by a series of
descriptive sentences. The descriptions illustrate, in terms of behavioral characteristics, what
the individuals are like at various points along the scale. It is also known as the "Behavioural
Statement Scale."
Graphic Scales
A horizontal line attached to each attribute at the end of the graphic rating scale sets it apart
from other rating systems. The rating is denoted by the placement of a checkmark or a cross
on a line to indicate the existence or absence of a particular characteristic.
Example:
How effective lecture delivered by the professor in the class
Very Effective Slightly Effective Average Slightly Ineffective Very Ineffective

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 Master of Library and Information Science-Ist Semester

There are many advantages to the use of graphic scales. It is very simple and easy to
formulate.
Itemized Scales
In some cases, it is also known as the special category scale. When using this scale, the
respondent chooses the option that most accurately depicts the action or quality of the thing
being scored. Imagine that the conduct of delegates at the conference is being evaluated. One
of the attributes that may have been assessed highly is attentiveness, while another may be
imaginativeness.
It can be depicted as "How attentive he/she is in the lecture."
• Very Alert
• Alert
• Less Alert
• Not at all alert
Forced Choice Scales
When using 'forced-choice rating' methods, the rater is asked not to say whether the ratee
possesses a particular trait or how much of it the ratee possesses, but rather to say, in essence,
whether he or she possesses some or one trait or another of a pair. In other words, the rater is
asked to choose between two options. For instance, rather than determining whether an
individual's leadership qualities are exceptional or above average, it may be preferable to
inquire as to whether the individual has a significant influence on his or her colleagues, can
motivate others to take action, and is assertive while attending functions.
Rating by cumulative points
Rating by cumulative points is unique and distinctive because it has a wide range of
applicability and is simple to score. A rating score can be calculated by adding all the
weighted or unweighted points awarded to an attribute, object, or individual. This grading
classification includes the "checklist approach" and the "guess-who technique." "Checklist
methods" are appropriate in the context of evaluating the performance of individuals in a job.
Every positive and negative trait, characteristic, or attribute is given a weight of 1, and the
individual's score is calculated by adding up all of the individual's weights.
Advantages of Rating Scales
 The raters find rating methods highly engaging, mainly when graphic rating methods
are applied.
 There is no restriction to use the number of triggers that can be presented to a rater at
once while using rating scales.
 Rating scales can be used with little training and complete understanding of the
purpose
 Rating scales have a wide range of applicability, it can be used to assess appraisal
systems, the performance of the group, personality rating, teaching rating, etc.
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 Master of Library and Information Science-Ist Semester

Limitations of Rating Scales

Rating scales have many limitations as well. Some of them are mentioned below:
 Error of Leniency- The raters frequently give those they are familiar with greater
ratings than they ought to. The term "leniency error" describes a widespread and
constant inclination for raters to provide an incorrect rating, regardless of the
justification.

 Error of Central Tendency- The majority of the raters are hesitant to assign ratings to
individuals on the extremes of the scales; as a result, they typically assign ratings to
those somewhere in the middle of the scale. The outcomes are impacted as a result.

 Halo-effect-Halo-effect is a mistake that hides the patterns of a person's traits. The

rater develops an overall view of the person's merit, and this impression significantly
impacts how the rater rates certain features. The attributes that are scored show an
erroneous positive connection as a result.

 The logical error- Because judges tend to rate features similarly when they believe
they are logically related, this logical fallacy exists.

 The Contrast Error- The contrast error is caused when a rater tends to rate the
individuals in the opposite direction (contrasting) from himself or herself in a trait
being measured.

 The Proximity Error- Adjacent qualities on a rating scale tend to inter-correlate more
than remote ones, although having identical similarities. Similar qualities can be
placed farther apart and dissimilar ones to offset this mistake.
Attitude Scales
By summing up the numerical scores that researchers assign to people's responses to
sets of statements that explore dimensions of an underlying theme, attitude scales can provide
a quantitative measurement of attitudes, opinions, or values. This is accomplished through
the use of attitude surveys.
Types of Attitude Scales
Providing individuals with a list of words or descriptors and asking them to answer
each sentence or adjective in accordance with their genuine feelings is the method that is
used the most frequently when attempting to measure individuals' attitudes. These kinds of
lists are referred to as "Scales." Several different "scaling"methods' have resulted in various

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 Master of Library and Information Science-Ist Semester

scales for measuring distinct attitudes. The Likert scale, the Guttman scale, the Thurstone
scale, and the Semantic Differential scale are the ones that are used the most commonly.

Likert Scale
The Likert Scale, which consists of five degrees of agreement and disagreement, is the
type of attitude scale used most frequently. Although many of its construction rules are
frequently ignored, its strict format requires an extensive list of statements (around 100) from
a much larger list of 'possible,' as well as rigorous testing for internal consistency.
These scales make it possible to determine the extent of respondents' agreement or
disagreement with a statement. The Likert scale assumes that the degree to which something
is experienced and its intensity is linear. As a result, it shifts from total assent to total
opposition, presuming that attitudes may be evaluated in some way.

Fig. 1 Likert Scale (Source: https://www.questionpro.com/blog/likert-scale-examples/ )

Guttman Scale
The Guttman scale comprises a series of statements relating to an individual's
perspective on a particular topic or item. The Guttman scale has two distinguishing features:

First, the statements included on such a scale reflect increasingly positive feelings in
relation to an attitude toward an object; the scale itself has a specific name. Second, the
endorsement of any statement constitutes an endorsement of all statements, even those with a
less positive connotation.

Thurstone Scale
The method developed by Thurstone is sometimes referred to as the technique of equal
seeming intervals. Suppose one accepts that attitude is a unidimensional linear continuum. In

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 Master of Library and Information Science-Ist Semester

that case, Thurstone's suggestion that it be measured by statements that are scaled using the
method of equal-appearing intervals would be applicable.

Semantic Differential Scale

It is a technique for evaluating different facets of the meaning of various concepts. As a
method to assess attitude, it sees the widespread application. It is made up of a collection of
seven-point bipolar scales as well as a collection of concepts. On each scale, each concept is
given a rating.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

5. State the definition of following methods:

Attitude Scale, Checklist
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
6. What is a different types of Attitude scales?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

1.4 SUMMARY

This chapter provides information on the various tools and data collection
techniques. The definitions of the questionnaire, rating scale, attitude scale, checklist,
interview, and observation were all discussed. In addition to explaining the purpose of each
of them, we also went over their various applications, advantages, and disadvantages.It is
recommended to utilize multiple ways to complement one with others to fight bias and
provide more acceptable data. Because each data-gathering device has its limits, it is
recommended to use various methods.

1.5 GLOSSARY

Attitude:attitude, in social psychology,is a cognition, often with some degree of aversion or

attraction (emotional valence), that reflects the classification and evaluation of objects and
events. While attitudes logically are hypothetical constructs

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 Master of Library and Information Science-Ist Semester

Attitude Scales:a measure of the relative quantity of an attitude possessed by an individual

as contrasted with a reference group.

Qualitative Data:Qualitative data describes qualities or characteristics. It is collected using

questionnaires, interviews, or observation and frequently appears in narrative form.((All
Guides: Data Module #1: What Is Research Data?: Qualitative vs. Quantitative, 2021)

Quantitative Data:Quantitative data are used when a researcher is trying to quantify a problem or
address the "what" or "how many" aspects of a research question. It is data that can either be counted
or compared on a numeric scale.(All Guides: Data Module #1: What Is Research Data?:
Qualitative vs. Quantitative, 2021)

Rating Scales:It is the qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or

traits of a person. Theclassifications may be set up in five to sevencategories.

1.6 ANSWER TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. The researcher creates a list of questions to gather factual data on the subject of research
called the questionnaire method.
2. The three types of the questionnaire are:
 Structured Questionnaire
 Unstructured Questionnaire
 Semi-Structured Questionnaire
3. Interview- An interview is a technique to gather data with an interviewee face-to-face
or get a response orally.
Observation- is a method of immediately gathering data by observing an individual's
activities in various environments.
4. Types of Interviews:
 Personal Interviews/ Structured Interviews
 Unstructured Interviews
 Semi-Structured Interviews
 Focused Interviews
Types of Observation:
 Controlled and Uncontrolled Observations
 Participant and Non-Participant Observations
5. Attitude Scale- The most common method of assessing attitude involves giving
people a list of statements and asking them to answer to each one in line with their
actual emotions.
Checklist- A checklist is a list of statements that describe the characteristics and
performance of the subject.
6. Types of Attitude Scale:
 Likert Scale
 Guttman Scale

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 Master of Library and Information Science-Ist Semester

 Thurstone Scale
 Semantic Differential Scale

1.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the advantage of the Questionnaire method?

2. What is a checklist? Prepare a sample checklist to evaluate the performance of the
supermarket.
3. What are rating scales? Describe types of rating scales with their limitations.

1.8 REFERENCES

Busha, C. H., & Harter, S. P. (1980). Research Methods in Librarianship. Academic

Press.
GOODE, W.J., and HATT, P.K.(1982). Methods in social research. McGraw-Hill, New
York.

Kothari, C. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age

International Ltd.

Pandey, P., & Pandey, M. M. (2015). RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: TOOLS AND

TECHNIQUES. Bridge Center.

Payne, G., & Payne, J. (2004). Attitude scales. In Key concepts in social research (pp.
18-22). SAGE Publications, Ltd, https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781849209397.n3

Personality assessment - Assessment methods. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica;

www.britannica.com. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from
https://www.britannica.com/science/personality-assessment/Assessment-
methods#ref415023

Reitz, J. M. (n.d.). ODLIS Q. ODLIS Q; products.abc-clio.com. Retrieved August 15,

2022, from https://products.abc-clio.com/ODLIS/odlis_q

Top 10 Likert Scale Examples for your next survey! | QuestionPro. (2018, February 9).
QuestionPro; www.questionpro.com. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/likert-scale-
examples/

1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Singh, S.P.(2002).Research methods in Social Sciences: a manual for designing

questionnaires. Kanishka, New Delhi.

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 Master of Library and Information Science-Ist Semester

Young, P.V. (1984).Scientific Social Survey and Research. rev. ed. 4. Prentice Hall, New
Delhi.
Krishan Kumar (1999). Research methods in Library and Information Science.
Har-Anand Publications, New Delhi.

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 LESSON 1

LIBRARY RECORDS

Author Name : Dinesh Kumar

Designation: Deputy Librarian
Institute/
University: Dr. B.R.Ambedkar
University Delhi
Email Id: [email protected],
[email protected]

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.2.1 Purpose of the Library Records
1.3 Area and Type of Library Records
1.3.1 Types of Records
1.3.2 Control Records
1.3.3 Statistical Records
1.4 Section Wise Library Control Records
1.4.1 Acquisition Section
1.4.2 Technical/ Processing Section
1.4.3 Circulation Section
1.4.4 Periodical Section
1.4.5 Maintenance Section
1.4.6 Administration and Management Section
1.5 Section Wise Library Statistical Records
1.5.1 Acquisition Section
1.5.2 Technical/ Processing Section
1.5.3 Circulation Section
1.5.4 Maintenance Section
1.5.5 Periodical Section
1.5.6 Reference Service Section
1.5.7 Administration Section
1.6 Confidentiality of Library Records
1.7 Impact of Information Technology on Library Records

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1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Answers to In-text Questions
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Readings

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

● identify various types of library records;
● explain the importance of records for carrying out library routines on periodic basis;
● list various records required for each division of the library;
● categorize records of the library
● specify the advantages of computerized library records;
● explain the records for accreditation of NAAC and IQAC;
● explain the role of records in library developmental plans.

We expect that you would have some idea of working in a library before studying this
program. Let us start this course by understanding the records which are kept in a library.

Based on established norms, libraries maintain various types of records to keep track of their
routine work. Some records are created before the period of operation of the library and
others are created and captured during operations and services of the library. Being a student
of library science you should learn and understand about the nature and types of such records
and their functions in the context of library work. In this chapter, we will discuss the
meaning, need, importance, type of records and role of records in different sections of
Libraries.

A record is information created or received and maintained by an organization that is used to

control, support or document the organization's activities and transactions, regardless of the
media.

A library record is defined as “any recorded information generated or required in the course
of any library activity and which must be maintained to meet fiscal, legal, historical or
administrative needs of the organization.” The purpose of library records is to help in
planning library activities, to know readers’ requirements, allocation of budget and for
monitoring progress of a library. Records are also a valuable tool to access the workload in
the library.

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Records may be any written, photographic, machine-readable, books, letters, documents,
printouts, photographs, film, tapes, microfiche, microfilm, photostats, sound recordings,
maps, drawings, and voice, data or video representations or other recorded information
created or obtained by or on behalf of the Organization kept in computer memory. These
records are maintained for administrative, financial, historical or legal reasons. (The Texas
a&M System)
Following examples may be considered as library records:

● Databases and tables

● Electronic media, tapes, disks, hard drives, and portable storage devices
● Electronic messages, including email, IM, and voicemail
● Financial transactions
● General correspondence and administrative records
● Metadata associated with records
● Personnel and employment documentation
● Significant working papers, drafts, and versions
● Student and class documentation
● Web sites
Records could be on paper as files and registers or as data in a computer, or on a disc. The
records are evidence of the work done in a library. For example, increase or decrease in the
number of members in a library can be ascertained only through records. Library is also a
storehouse that houses books, non-book material, equipment, and furniture. Records of all
these items are maintained in the library. These records help to justify the financial support
received by the library and are, thus, essential for planning and maintenance.

1.2.1 Purpose of Records

The control records are maintained in a library to:
● Bring about uniformity in carrying out routines in a department/section by staff,
which may change from time to time,
● Meet the audit (or checking) requirements for the financial transactions carried out by
a library,
● Serve as proper inventory of library stocks and equipments,
● Serve as an aid to verify details about the date, price, source of supply, etc. of library
and equipment, furniture and
● Assist stock verification of books, furniture, equipment, etc.
The statistical records are maintained to:
● Serve as an indicator of workload, department-wise and staffwise,
● Add authenticity to the annual report of the library, Provide useful data for planning
of the activities of a library, such as opening hours, type of readers’ services, etc. in
its various departments,
● Support proposals for staff requirements in a library,
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 ● Work out rational distribution of work-load among staff,
● Provide guidelines for collection development as per readers’ preference, and
● Justify utility and desirability of library services.

Records are kept and maintain in the following sections of the library:

a) Acquisition Section
b) Technical/ Processing Section
c) Circulation Section
d) Periodicals/ Serials Control Section
e) Reference Section
f) Maintenance Section
g) Administration and Management Section

Let’s learn about the control type and statistical type records in various sections of a library.
1.3.1 Types of Records
Records are developed to have;
a) Uniform system in day-to-day activities of its various departments and sections, and
b) Planning its budgetary requirements, staff needs and modernization of its functioning.
Records of libraries fall under two broad categories:
● Control records
● Statistical records

1.3.2 Control Records

The control records are developed and maintained in each department/section of a library in
the form of ledger, register, files and cards or slips, etc. depending upon the nature of
activities to facilitate its working in a systematic manner. Most of these are common to all
types of libraries, though their size and scale may vary from library to library, e.g.,
accession record, shelf list, etc.

1.3.3 Statistical Records

Statistical records are described in quantitative terms, and may be called secondary records
as they are derived from control records. These records present the volume of library
routines of the various departments/sections in quantitative terms. Statistical records are
maintained department-wise and are tabulated in consolidated form month-wise and year-
wise as per library needs in the administration department of the library.

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Let us first know about the control type records that are maintained in various sections or
sections of a library.

1.4.1 Acquisition Section

The primary function of the Acquisition Section is to build up a collection of reading
materials in a library. This section acquires books through purchase, exchange and gifts. At
any given time, some books are on order with vendors, some have been received and are
awaiting checking and accessioning. While others are ready for transfer to the processing
section.
The Section is expected to purchase books as per amount earmarked in the library budget
for a subject discipline and/or in a specific language. In acquisition work, precaution is
taken to avoid unwanted duplication. Bills cleared for payment are properly scrutinized to
check publishers price and conversion of foreign currency price at approved conversion
rate, etc. The Acquisition Section has to maintain various forms of control type records to
fulfill these obligations.
Some conventional control records for acquisition work are:
a) Budget allocation register: To record and keep track of expenditure incurred
under various heads for acquisition of reading materials such as books,
periodicals, online and digital (both in printed form as well as, on line), binding,
furniture and equipment, etc.
b) Bill register: To record bills received in the library for materials supplied.
c) Directory of institutions: To record name and address of institutions and
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 organizations having exchange relations with the library.
d) Accession Register: To accession all the books and periodicals acquired by the
library.
e) Cards for books on order: These are kept in alphabetical order by author name
to avoid duplication while ordering books.
f) Cards of books awaiting accessioning: As Above
g) Cards of books suggested for acquisition
h) File containing suggestions lists for acquisition received from the authorities/
users community.
i) Acquisition policy file

1.4.2 Technical/ Processing Section

The Processing Section of the library, also known as Technical Section, carries out–
a) the task of assigning call number to a book and
b) prepares its corresponding catalogue cards and enters data in LMS (Library
Management Software) to meet all the approaches of library users.
The universe of knowledge is an ever-changing phenomenon. The scheme of classification
adopted in a library often necessitates certain local preferences for representing a subject or
its subordinate classes. To maintain consistency in such local variations must be recorded in
a file for guidance of new entrants to the Section. Similarly, modifications or extent of
bibliographical details to be provided in the catalogue card, number of readers’ approaches
decided to be satisfied through a catalogue also needs recording to ensure consistency.
The Technical Section, therefore, maintains:
● Authority file for classification: To record modifications in classification schedule of
the approved scheme of classification.
● Authority file for cataloguing: To record decisions regarding bibliographical details
to be provided and number of added entries to be constructed.
● Authority file for filing cards in the alphabetical part of the catalogue. Some libraries
also maintain a duplicate shelf-list/shelf card for the use of the library staff to save
them from frequent visits to the public catalogue. An authority file for recording
policy for filing cards in alphabetical/dictionary catalogue is also maintained in some
libraries.

1.4.3 Circulation Section

The Circulation Section is concerned with charging and discharging reading material for
home reading. Some libraries may add to this activity the service of providing books
obtained on inter-library loan from other libraries. To regulate the circulation work so as to
provide all readers equal opportunity to read library books, the Circulation Section accepts
reservation for a title already on loan. It also issues reminders to recall books from members
for over holding a title. Punitive measures such as imposing fine or withdrawing borrowing
privilege as per library-policy, are also taken by this department. Records related to all the
above are maintained by this section.

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 ● Enrollment of new members, controlling entry to libraries, replacing used books and
rectification of shelves also come within the purview of the circulation section in
small libraries.
● Large libraries may have separate sections for membership and for maintenance of
stacks.
The following Control-type records are associated with Circulation Section:

● Library membership record: In the form of cards in a tray or formsina file

containing personal data and address of the member.
● Books on loan record: Book cards along with borrowers’ cards.
● Record of overdue charges collected and deposited with the accounts office.
● Inter-library loan record
● Record of temporarily removed books from the collection for binding/repair or
other administrative reasons. Some of these records are in files, some in register,
some in electronic form and still others in card form.

1.4.4 Periodicals Section

Periodicals, also known as “journals” or in certain countries “serials”, are an important

component of library collection in libraries of colleges and universities and research
institutions. Their acquisition and preservation present more problems than those of books.
Their operation is thus organized in a separate section. Payment for periodicals is made on an
annual basis and in advance. Some periodicals are procured directly from publishing
agencies. But most of them are procured through a vendor, selected and appointed by the
library. Titles selected for acquisition once are generally acquired year after year. Research
journals often split into two or more journals and sometimes two titles merge together to
become one journal. Often old titles are dropped and replaced by new titles. All these call for
alertness on the part of the Periodicals Section. Once a volume is complete, it has to be
bound and sent for accessioning and processing.
All these activities call for maintenance of various types of control records. The actual
number and format of these records may vary from library to library. These records are
maintained in the form of a register, files and cards, or electronic form depending on their
nature and use.
In major libraries, the following records are associated with Periodical section:
● Registration record
● Lists of periodicals received and each one arranged by title; vendor; subject and by
mode of procurement, i.e., subscription, exchange or gift.
● Bill register: To record bills received, processed and passed for payment
● List of periodicals sent for binding.
● Budget allocation register (Department/Subject-wise): To keep the expenditure on
subscription, within the allocated amount.

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1.4.5 Maintenance Section
Maintenance operation involves keeping the library collection in proper order to ensure
efficient retrieval of materials. The Maintenance Section carries out annual stock
verification. The routine of the Maintenance Section does not require much control-type
records as the jobs carried out are mostly to maintain order in collection. However, it does
maintain shelf-list or shelf-register to ensure annual stock verification. Another record
maintained in file or register form or electronic form relates to books sent for binding and/or
withdrawn from circulation where such records are maintained by circulation section.
In some libraries, maintenance and repair of building, furniture and equipment also falls
within the purview of the Maintenance Section. In that case, it has to maintain an inventory
register of movable items.

1.4.6 Administration and Management Section

The Administration Section, as is commonly understood, is concerned with organizing the

manpower and material resources of the library.
The Section has a considerable amount of control type records related to human resources,
financial resources, furniture and equipment and reading material. The Section draws up
plans to organize its resources and activities so as to fulfill the main objectives of supporting
the activities of its parent organization. In order to make the optimum utilization of
resources allocated, it has to develop records relating to:
● Manpower available-quantity, quality and time span
● Financial resources-for books, furniture, equipment, preservation materials such
chemicals, etc.
● Inventory of furniture and equipment.
● Records of policy decisions (Proceedings of Library Committee Meetings)
● Records of activities of the library (year-wise annual reports)
● Staff deployment chart
● Record of staff attendance on a given day.
● Maintaining of office files, diaries and remittances
● Stock Register
● Miscellaneous records: taking care of fittings of library building, furniture,
equipment, water and electrical equipment.

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As we have discussed earlier, statistics of library activities are collected, in broad terms, to
serve as a guide for planning, or improving already planned activities of the library. They
assist in carrying out cost-benefit analysis, better deployment of manpower and proper
utilization of financial resources of a library. Effective deployment of manpower depends
upon availability of data about workload and manpower resources available in various
sections of the library.
The format of recording statistics in various departments/sections of the library varies from
library to library. Let us learn about the types of statistics generally maintained in various
departments/sections of a library.

1.5.1 Acquisition Section

The Section is concerned with acquiring recommended/suggested books, accessioning them
and transferring them to the Technical Section. Statistics maintained in the Section relate to:
● Number of book accessioned
● Number of book selection slips prepared, checked and filed
● Number of bills processed and passed for payment
● Number of orders placed with the vendors and number of reminders issued.

These statistics serve as an objective index of the level of efficiency of the Department,
when these are compared with standards developed for these routines.

1.5.2 Technical/Processing Section

The Processing Section is concerned with assigning call numbers and preparing catalogue
cards to meet various approaches of users in identifying books of their need. Before a book
is classified and catalogued, it is to be checked with the catalogue to see if:
● It is altogether new book or
● It is an additional copy of a book already in the library, or
● A new volume in a multi-volume title

Statistical records in Processing Section include statistics for:

● Number of titles checked with the catalogue

● Number of titles classified
● Number of books catalogued
● Number of catalogue cards filed
● Number of books prepared for processing (pasting due date slip, tag library label, etc.)
● Number of books prepared for release (writing call number at various places in a book
and on catalogue cards)

These statistics are collected on a daily basis and are accumulated at monthly intervals.

1.5.3 Circulation Section

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The statistical records in Circulation Section are kept in tabular form to show daily routines
relating to number of:
● Books issued, total number as well as subject-wise
● Books returned
● Reminders written for overdue books
● Intimation letters for reserved books
● Titles obtained on inter-library
● Visitors/footfalls to the library

Circulation Statistics
Subject-wise statistical records of loaned books is an important indicator of preference of
library users. This information is also helpful in collection development. Registration of
new users is also the responsibility of the Circulation Section in many libraries. Statistical
records of members enrolled or membership cancelled are also maintained. The chief
statistical data collected by this section is the number of daily visitors to the library and
number of books consulted in a day. In larger libraries, there are usually separate sections
for membership and maintenance, where statistics regarding these operations are recorded.

1.5.4 Maintenance Section

Maintenance work of a library is indirectly related to the use of library collection. In large
libraries, statistical record of activities is usually the responsibility of an independent
department, separate from the Circulation Section. In small libraries maintenance work is
overseen by the Circulation Section. Statistical records of the following activities by users
are maintained by the Maintenance Section:
● Books consulted in the library reading room
● Books shelved
● Shelves rectified
● Books identified for binding and for repair work
● Misplaced books traced
These statistics help to plan details related to access to the library, a period during which the
library should remain open every day and reflect preference of users regarding books
borrowed and consulted.

1.5.6 Periodical Section

As periodical issues are received every day in the library, these must be entered in relevant
control type records on a daily basis. Follow up of missing issues of periodicals and sending
reminders are to be organized on a weekly basis.
Once a volume is complete, it has to be prepared for binding by putting title, index and
content in the beginning of the volume and placed in safe custody till sent to the binder.
Correspondence related to subscription of new titles, renewing subscription of already
available titles, chasing missing issues, seeking clarification regarding bills received from
vendors, etc. are some of the activities that fall within the purview of the Periodicals
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 Section. Statistics recording daily, weekly, monthly and ad hoc operations in the Section are
usually kept in tabular.

1.5.7 Reference Service Section

There are few control records maintained in the Reference Service Section. Scholars’ profile
is one control record which is maintained by the Reference Service Section. The statistical
records maintained in this section too are very limited. However, as the Reference Section
extends its activities to include bibliographic and documentation services, the quantity of
the statistical record increases. Notable statistical records in this Division include the
number of:
● Reference queries (both long as well as short range) attended
● Index cards prepared
● Abstracts prepared
● Topical Bibliographies compiled
● SDI services provided
● Orientation programme for user community
In addition to the above statistical records, details related to subject categories, level of staff
employed and queries answered from individual library’s files are also maintained.

1.5.8 Administration Section

Administration work is concerned with planning and organizing the overall library
operations. A successful execution of the vision of a library depends upon regular
monitoring of the activities in various sections in a library. Proper deployment of resources,
both human and material, ensures achievement of the desired goals. The Section has,
therefore, to maintain statistics and also collect statistical records from all the other sections
in order to compile a unified statistical chart for its use. The collected data also serves as a
basis for the library’s annual report. Besides this, the statistics are used for drawing up
various future plans and programmes for which it has to obtain approval of its parent body.
Some of the statistical records collected in the Administration Section are:
● Daily record of staff in attendance/on leave
● Number of orientation programmes for staff organized
● Consolidated statistical records collected from individual section
● Correspondence parent body /with outside agencies.

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It is the moral responsibility of the library staff to protect the privacy of the patrons of the
library. According to the American Library Association Policy on Confidentiality of Library
Records, "Confidentiality extends to information sought or received, and materials consulted,
borrowed, acquired, and includes database search records, reference interviews, circulation
records, interlibrary loan records, and other personally identifiable uses of library materials,
facilities, or services."
This means that any library records which contain personal information of users should not
be disclosed. Some of them are as follows:
● Circulation records
● Reference queries including SDI profile
● Personal information related to the users (phone number, address, etc.)
● Inter library loan transactions
● Financial information (Bill, Overdue Charges etc.)
● Acquisition requests
● Material consulted or borrowed
● Database search records
● Registration records

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 Implementation of ICT reduces the workload of the staff and increases the efficiency
of the library. It involves the process of replacing traditional, paper-based systems with
computers and software. It makes information more available and accessible in an easier
way.
A library has to maintain and make use of various records in all sections of the library
including the acquisition section. Manual management systems libraries face the problem of
maintaining huge data, files, records and equipment records including routine work. An
automated system is expected to perform all housekeeping functions and certain managerial
functions apart from reducing the existing clerical functions, Such as budget allocation,
detailed information about vendors, pre-order search, specially designed to avoid duplicate
orders, creation of purchase orders, invoice processing etc.
IT enabled cataloging Libraries are able to trace the location of books, making
catalogue cards, book search (through title, author, publisher, key words, series, ISBN, self
list etc.), arrangement of books on shelves. The IT enabled cataloging package includes
electronic formatting of catalogs and automated subscription details along with many other
functions. Now libraries can share its catalogue to all library users through OPAC or WEB
OPAC facility. Due to ICT implementation libraries can access the data of other libraries i.e
OCLC, Library of congress ect.
Circulation is an important section of the library, which deals with the issue and
return of library materials, reservation, statistics, sending reminders for overdue materials,
etc. There is some possibility of error in manual circulation systems and takes more time to
process the task. Some of the functions provided by an automatic circulation system are
Breakdown of transactions subject–wise and category–wise, calculation rules and regulation,
fines for overdue items, Inter Library Loan, Inventory and circulation status, Loans and
reservations, Membership details, Number of transactions in an hour, in a day, in a week, in a
month etc., Prioritized reservation queries, Bar-coding scanning for both the materials and
patrons is a major advantage.
The serial section is one of the most important and complex features of the library.
The manual system may be error-prone in managing records but the use of ICT ensures
smooth and error-free ordering in libraries to manage various steps such as receiving quotes
from vendors, title selection, placing new orders, invoices processing, renewing
subscriptions, checking-In process handling, missing issues, cancellation of orders,
Reminders, binding of journals, current status of journals etc. Further, a Union List of Serials
holdings by libraries within a geographical region are useful and can be easily done by the
ICT.
Other than above the following Library services are affected with the emergence of
ICT:
● Current Awareness Service
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 ● Retrospective searches
● Reference Services
● Interlibrary loan service
● Document Delivery Service
● Consortia membership
Information communication technology management systems is a more effective and
efficient way of locating library records and their access. Special software and databases
have been developed for accessing library material which saves a lot of searching time,
accuracy and paperwork. ICT helps to develop the report of the records and its faster
circulation.
However, maintaining a backup of the electronic record system is very essential. With the
application of ICT documentation and information services in large academic and research
libraries have resulted in new records including to introduce new types of library services i.e
E-Current Awareness Services (CAS), E-Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI) and
Online literature search services etc.

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In recent years, electronic information has gradually become a major and necessary tool to
strengthen the overall information management in every university library. ICT lays
emphasis on integrating, managing, better information, record tracking and quick access
delivery to the authorities as well as management to help in the smooth functioning of the
library.

Integration of ICT in libraries, Librarians can now have easy and quick access of the library
records on daily, monthly or early basis. ICT enables library staff to manage all the daily
based activity as per their need. The records of the library can be stored in a device safely
and away from any calamity. ICT has affected all the record keeping process of the library
for its easy access and circulation as and when required.

ICT has played a great and major role in the creation and distribution of records. This can be
evidenced in the secure, quick retrieval and updating of records, accuracy in the
dissemination of records and tracking of records through the use of databases and other
measures. However, challenges still exist of having less skilled, untrained and other
employees who are not ethical enough when dealing with users regarding record delivery.

CAS: Current Awareness Service.

SDI: Selective dissemination of information.
ICT: Information and Communication Technology.

1. True 9. Miscellaneous records

2. Statistical Records 10. True
3. True 11. True
4. Secondary Records 12. True
5. True 13. Web OPAC
6. Acquisition Section 14. True
7. Maintenance work 15. True
8. Maintenance section

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© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

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 1. What is a library record? Discuss the area and types of records in the field of various
sections of the library.
2. Confidentiality of library records is essential for libraries, why?
3. Explain the impact of Information and communication technology on library records?

Burton, Paul F. (1992). Information Technology and Library and Information Services. In:
Information Technology and Society: Implications For The Information Professions. London:
Library Association. 92-102.

Morris, Dilys E. (1989). Electronic information and technology: impact and potential for
academic libraries. College and research libraries, 50(1), 56-64.

Mitchell, Maurice; Saunders, Laverna M. (1991). The Virtual Library: An agenda for the
1990s. Computers In Libraries, 8-11.

Kanakachary, M. (1995). Information Technology Vis-à-Vis the Libraries. In: Raju, A. A. N.;
Ramaiah, L. S.; Laxman Rao, N.; Chandra, Prafulla T. V. (Eds.) New Vistas in Library
and Information Science: Papers in Honour of Professor G. V. S. L. Narasimha Raju. New
Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 423-432.

Howe, D. (1996). Free Online Dictionary Of Computing. from http://wombat.doc.ic.ac.uk

Rowley, Jennifer. (1996). The Basics of Information Systems. London: Library Association
Publishing.

Parekh, Harsha; Shah, Parul. (1998). Information Technology and Its Impact on Information
Services. In Quest of Bharateeya Shikshan, 9(1-3), 37-51.

Barker, Philip. (1999). Electronic Libraries of the Future. from

http://web.singnet.com.sg/~abanerji/sect5.htm

Brophy, Peter. (2000). Towards a Generic Model of Information and Library Services in the
Information Age. Journal of Documentation, 56(2), 161-184.

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© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

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Brophy, Peter. (2001). The Library on the 21st. Century: New Services for the Information
Age. London: Library Association

Bentley, T. J. (2004). Report Writing In Business : The Effective Communication of

Information (1st ed.). New Delhi: Viva Books Pvt. Ltd., print.

https://www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/SrSecLibrary/LCh-015A.pdf

Adams, Roy J. (1986). Information Technology and Libraries: A Future For Academic
Libraries. Kent: Croom Helm. (Chapter: Staffing Requirements. 144-160)

Mitchell, Maurice; Saunders, Laverna M. (1991). The Virtual Library: An Agenda For The
1990s. Computers In Libraries, 8-11

Burton, Paul F. (1992). Information Technology and Library and Information Services. In:
Information Technology and Society: Implications For The Information Professions. London:
Library Association, 92-102.

Kanakachary, M. (1995). Information Technology Vis-à-Vis the Libraries. In: Raju, A. A. N.;
Ramaiah, L. S.; Laxman Rao, N.; Chandra, Prafulla T. V. (Eds.) New Vistas in Library and
Information Science: Papers in Honour of Professor G. V. S. L. Narasimha Raju. New
Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 423-432.

Howe, D. (1996). Free Online Dictionary Of Computing. from http://wombat.doc.ic.ac.uk

Balakrishnan, N. (1996). Impact of Information Technology on Library Science. In: Malwad, N.M.;
Rajashekhar, T. B.; Ravichandra Rao, I.K.; Satyanarayana, N.V. (Eds.) Digital libraries: dynamic
storehouse of digitized information. New Delhi: New Age International, 192-206.

Brophy, Peter. (2000). Towards a Generic Model of Information and Library Services in the
Information Age. Journal of Documentation, 56(2), 161-184.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************
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 LESSON 1
LIBRARY REPORTS

Author Name: Dinesh Kumar

Designation: Deputy Librarian
Institute/University: Dr. B.R.Ambedkar
University Delhi
Email Id: [email protected],
[email protected]

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 What is a Library Report?
1.3.1 Report Stages
1.3.2 Types of Library Report
1.3.3 Characteristics of Report
1.4 Library Report Writing : Style and Structure
1.4.1 Style of a Report
1.4.2 Structure of a Report
1.5 Layout of the Report
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

Here we will discuss the library reports. Before going into details, there are some objectives
which are as under:
● Library reports and their writing structure;
● Analysis of the types of reports with unique references, which are helpful to the
library staff;
● Explain the style, structure and order of the report
● Explore some comprehensive tips on report writing;
● Use fewer relative clauses in your writing and speech; and
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 ● Prepare an internal investigation report.

It is a regular practice in every organisation to report on the progress and status of

various activities for making sound decisions.

A report is a systematic presentation of facts and information about a specific

objective to provide a direction to management for decision making and follow up action
with findings and recommendations on particular issues. In other words, report is a non-
fiction account that presents facts about a specific event, topic or issues. The main idea of
report generation is that people unfamiliar with the subject can get everything they need to
know from a good report. Reports make it easy for a person to grasp a topic quickly,

Reports are an essential part of job communication in any organisation, including

libraries. As a librarian, we have to write different types of reports. These reports can be
short in memos, letters or more comprehensive reports, which can be in manuscript form.
Sometimes reports are prepared on the directions issued by senior officers within the
organisation/library and submitted within the organization.

In this course material, let us discuss the different types of reports. We, as librarians,
have to write in our day-to-day working environment. As such, several types of reports are
used for internal and external audiences in brief and detailed reports i.e narrative, statistical,
periodic, one-time reports, formal, informal, and Confidential are prepared.

It
ultimately comes from the Latin reportāre, meaning to carry. A report is a compilation of
information sought, aggregated, filtered, organized and written to give a specific and clear
message.

According to Oxford English Dictionary, a report is defined as “an account given on

a particular matter, especially in the form of an official document, after thorough
investigation or consideration by an appointed person or body.”.

Although the term report is used to refer to hundreds of different types of written
communications. Report writing comes in various sizes and styles depending on the
requirements. Some reports have all the usual components of report writing, while others
have only a few. Essentially, a report is a short, sharp, concise document and a factual paper
that analyses and explains a situation to determine the problem and makes recommendations
for future courses of action.

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 Library reports are the reports which contain the data related to library administration,
users, circulation, data processing, acquisition of material, and staff associated. For example,
preparing a report of new arrivals in the library for display, report of enrolled users, a report
of issued identity cards, annual report etc. The reports are prepared in a structured format i.e.
title, purpose, utility etc.

Reports are playing a vital role in the communication needs of libraries and contribute
to the decision-making process for improving library functions.

1.3.1 REPORT STAGES IN LIBRARY

The following stages are involved in while us writing a report:

● Planning your wor k: Planning is a practical process of defining the vision, mission,
objectives, strategies and actions of community groups and helping them to develop
practical ways to progress
● Collecting infor mation; Libraries collect a large amount of data from various
resources, which is used to make major decisions about library anecdotes, past
practice staffing and services.
● Or ganizing and str uctur ing information: T organise the collected information in a
structured way as per planning of a document prepared to fulfill the objectives of the
report.
● Wr iting the fir st dr aft: Preparing a draft needs to know about the targeted audience
background, need, what they know, what they want to know and how you can
contribute more.
● Checking and r e-dr afting: Working with librarians and colleagues, you will
typically receive feedback in the form of comments, queries, suggestions always etc.
Before finalisation of the report you should have incorporated all the points raised by
your fellow colleagues with solutions. This process will also be helpful to improve
the writing skill.

1.3.2 TYPES OF LIBRARY REPORTS

Every organization prepares various types of reports as per requirements of

the tasks. Some are regular and are produced frequently,while others are less general
and more complex. Here we will describe the use of reports in every section of
libraries

● Acquisition Section: This section works as a knowledge container in the library.

These containers may contain the information in print, non-print, electronic formats
and audio and audio visual. The major function of this section is to select, order,
receive supplies, make record entries in the stock register/ accession register and
process the bills for making payment. There are three main check controls in the
acquisition section for library material,
(a) Fund Availability,

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 (b) Reading material use, and
(c) Library users requirement.
On the basis of the section control the following reports may be generated in this
section
1. Vendor registration/ empanelment,
2. Report on Requisitions received,
3. Report of approvals,
4. Invited quotations,
5. Report on invoicing process,
6. Report on budget estimates,
7. Annual data report,
8. Agreement report with vendors/agencies
9. Report on receiving books and
10. Maintaining the ordering process.

● Technical Section: The main function of this section in the library to process newly
acquired books and prepared for library use. To fulfill the utility purposes these
sections are classifying, catalogue, display on recks or stacks for easy access. This
section prepares the following reports, which are helpful to develop the holding
statistics in the library, for example
1. No. of books received from acquisition,
2. No. of books classified,
3. No. of books catalogued,
4. No. of books are shelved,
5. No. of books processed by a staff member,
6. No. of invoices processed,
7. Report of new arrivals.

● Circulation Section: This Section deals with lending library material (books, serials,
sound recordings, moving images, cartographic material, etc.) and user’s registration
and borrowing material. Library circulation includes checking library materials for
library users, renewing borrowed items, making of library cards, reserving check out
items for patrons, checking returned materials, checking materials for damage at the
time of return, If found damaged it may be sent to the responsible person for repair or
replacement if it is not repairable, material renewal, receiving payment of overdue
charges or damaged books and other charges, maintaining order of book shelving or
reshelving of material as per call number given on the books. This section also
provides the basic search and reference services to library users and placement of
information sources. The following reports are generated by the circulation Section:
1. How many users are registered in a particular year,
2. How many students have taken No due from library,

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 3. How many students have visited the library on a daily/monthly/yearly basis,
4. How many books were consulted by the users,
5. How many books were issued/returned in the library,
6. How much overdue charges were collected in a particular time,
7. How many books are reserved by the users,
8. How many books are reshelved in a day etc.

● Reference Section: The reference section occupies an important place in the library,
where information-intensive resources such as encyclopedias, dictionaries, thesauri,
atlases and reference books are kept. Reference shelves are arranged separately from
other book cabinets. If you have any trouble finding them, ask the library staff to let
you know. In this section the following reports are generated for smooth functioning
of the library service:
1. Total number of reference sources with titles,
2. How many reference queries received,
3. How many reference sources are consulted,
5. How many new reference titles are added in a particular time,
6. Prepared report of indexed documents in reference section,
7. Report on current awareness service offered etc.

● Serials/Periodical Section: The periodical section is the most important part of any
library, especially in higher education institutions. This section maintains all the
subscribed collections of the library which are published from time to time. Periodic
records (such as a journal, magazine, newspaper) are an administrative tool as well as
a component of the information service that the library provides to its employees as
well as readers for learning, teaching and research. Periodical section first receives
the current issue of the volume of a periodical publication. Later, completed volumes
can be bound and shelved. This section creates the following reports:
1. report of subscribed periodicals,
2. report of consulted resources,
3. report on use of periodicals,
4. report of bound periodicals.

1.3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIBRARY REPORTS

A good report is a mirror of the activities carried out in the library to fulfil the
mission and vision.

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 F igurer 1.2 Characteristics of a Good Report

On the basis of the above diagram, we will discuss some characteristics of the library
reports.

1. Well Str uctur e - The structure of the report should be clear, logical and presentable
which will help in thinking and acting. It will also help us to decide where to put each
fact, information and idea.

2. Selectivity of the Vocabular y – The word selection should be done carefully while
preparing the report. Careful choice of words enables the meaning of the words to be
conveyed correctly.

3. Conciseness – Conciseness is one of the core qualities of authoritative reporting.

Conciseness means conveying complete information about a topic or idea in a few
words. So, most of the official reports are smaller in size, maybe in a few pages

4. Accur acy – Accuracy refers to the correctness, truthfulness, and overall excellence
and quality of the information. Accuracy means to tell as it is, to summarize and to
tell everything. The report must be factually accurate. To summarize means to use
quantitative rather than vague and precise descriptions. Do not hide anything, hence
fact checking is necessary before preparing the report. There should be no place for
misinformation except for accuracy.

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5. For mat of the Repor t - There are some standard formats available for report
preparation i.e Title page, Acknowledgements, Contents, Executive Summary or
Abstract, Introduction, Methodology, Results/Findings and Discussion. But these
standard formats can be modified as per the work requirement or preparing short
reports i.e memo and the manuscript format.

6. Objective of the Repor t – The objective of the report must be clear in content with
proper justification of material based on collected data/information. The report must
be helpful to fulfil the needs of the users as per their aspirations. The report should
include the related problems, solutions, findings modalities of the structure etc.

7. Simplicity - The used language shall be as simple as possible so that a report should
be easily understandable. Jargons and technical words should be avoided.

8. Clar ity - The report should be clear and concise and it should be enough to answer
the questions in the minds of the reader. It is essential that when we write any report
the purpose and the motto of the report should be to clarify the content. The language
should be transparent and straight, and it’s clearly expressing what is intended to be
expressed. For that reason the report has to be written in correct and accurate form.

9. Pr esentation - A good report needs an attractive presentation. It depends on the

quality of typing or printing as well as the quality of paper used. In this way, it is
important that when we write any type of report, we should focus more and more on
their presentaion.

10. Punctuation - While we write any types of reports it’s important that we be aware
about using punctuation marks very carefully and correctly otherwise the meaning of
the sentences may be misunderstood and misrepresented.

11. Evidence – One of the most important characteristics of report drafting is that it is
based on evidence. Thus, when we write a report we must provide solid evidence that
justifies our content. Don't base your analysis on weak evidence. Strong evidence-
based recommendations and analyses are acceptable reasons only, otherwise not.

In the light of the above explanation we should find that the characteristics of
a good report are the guidelines and rules which will help us to prepare a report in an
accurate manner.

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 Report writing is an art. It’s the presentation of facts and data in precisely well
mannered. In this way, we will discuss the style, structure and order of a report which will
help us for better understanding about report writing.

1.4.1 Style of a Report:- the report should be concise, with concrete details and derogatory
language must be avoided. If appropriate, the data can be presented in the form of charts, graphs or
tables. Description of the report methodology should be in detail enough and clear to allow someone
else to replicate them properly. The informational content of the report must be accurate and it must
be factual, no fact should be omitted and conveyed concretely, analytical material should be
objective, reasoned and supported with anecdotal evidence.
Sometimes all the qualities of a good report can not be accommodated in absolute terms. The
terms used above are applicable on general reports irrespective of other factors. The most important
fact in a report is that it should be sensitive to factors such as who initiates it.
There are some affecting variables of a report:-
● Who originates the report?
● Who receives the report?
● What is the subject matter of the report?
● Where is the report to be sent: within or outside the institution?
● Why is the report being prepared?
● How will the report be received?

In that way other three variables related with;

● Degree of formality
● organization of the report
● Order or presentation of the report

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1.4.2 Structure of Report: The structure of a report depends on several factors. A report has a
base structure. It has many parts. Thus the following ten parts are prominent. Such as the purpose of
the report, audience, whether they belong to the same institution or are external, are they exclusively
internal or external, conventions followed by the institution, format prescribed by the institution, etc.
the same structure of the report is used by the libraries. The general report has been divided into ten
parts as given below.

Figure:- Structure of the Report Writing

1) Title Page –The title page of the report includes the name of the reporter who wrote
it, their organizational details, and the date of the report. As such, the information that
appears on the title page includes:
● The details of title and subtitle if any properly.
● The name of Organisation/department along with designation and name of
the leading person who have prepared the report.
● Date Month and year clearly be mentioned in the report
● Name of the receiving organization/department and the designation of the
person concerned.

2) Abstr act – An abstract is a brief informational summary of the entire report. So it

should be written only after the report is written. The abstract includes the following;
● one paragraph abbreviation
● limit upto 300 words.

3) Content Page/ Table of Content - This page is known as table of content page aslo.
This page is a list of all the headings of chapters/sections of the entire report with
page number. It helps the reader to find specific information and indicates how the
information is organized in the report. Which include:
● Table of contents
● List of Figures
● List of tables
● Specific location of the desired content in the report.

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4) Executive Summar y – An executive summary is an overview of the main points of a
larger report. It is often written and shared with individuals who do not have much
time to review the entire report. So that the reader should be able to make a decision
based on reading the executive summary. The executive summary is the glimpses
report and covers more details in comparison to abstract and focused on purposes,
findings, conclusions, results and recommendations.

5) Intr oduction - Introduction is the introductory and important section of the report
which provides a platform to the reader. It refers to the report and generates the
reader's interest in the report. The introduction should include too many details and
give the reader an idea of where the report is going. The report introduction part
covers Background, purpose and scope of the report in proper manner.

6) The body of the r eport - This will be the longest and most important part of the
report which includes the necessity, scope , purpose, subheadings, methodology,
sample design, analysis of data, findings, recommendation, conclusion, comments in
details and identify the intended audience of the report.

7) Conclusions - Based on the findings, each report has conclusions. Conclusions are
always directly related to the problem statement. It should be shor, concise and
specific. Conclusions should be listed in order of priority, with most important first
and least important one last.

8) Recommendations –The recommendation should be based on the data analysis

collected by the report maker. This should be closely related to the aims and
objectives of the report.

9) Bibliogr aphical Refer ences - This section of the report refers to all advisory reading
materials used to prepare the report. This section must contain bibliographic details of
the consultancy sources and documents used for the report. Reports have several
writing styles for bibliographic references i.e ALA, MLA, Chicago etc. for citing the
readings.

10) Appendices -An appendix contains supplementary material that is not an essential
part of the main body of the report but may be helpful in providing a more
comprehensive understanding of the research problem and includes:
● incidental information that is to the report;
● evidence and raw data which supports the report;
● too long technical data which supports the report;
● folded diagrams, tables of results, letters, and maps are some examples.

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Repor t Layout – layout means the outline of the report. The outline shows the order of the
different subjects, the relative importance of each, and the relationship between the different
parts. There are many ways to organize the different parts of a subject. Sometimes normal
practice is to use one of the following two layout systems;

(i) Decimal numbering system or

(ii) Alpha-Numeric numbering system

Once a system is selected, it is necessary to use the same system throughout

and continuously.

(i) Decimal Number ing System

This is a very popular numbering system in report writing. The convention is

to use the decimal system in the following way:

Level 1 Headings Main sections 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

Level 2 Headings Main divisions of sections 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Level 3 Headings Sub-divisions of main divisions 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4
Note: zero (0) can be omitted

(ii) Alpha-Numer ic Number ing System

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 Thus, we have to use a combination of letters and numbers in defining the
squares, where the main squares are represented by the same letter and the squares
below it by numbers, as shown below:

Level 1 Headings Main sections A B C D

Level 2 Headings Main divisions of sections A.1 A.2 A.3 A.4
Level 3 Headings Sub-divisions of main A.1.1 A.1.2 A.1.3 A.1.4
divisions

Other Number ing Systems

Though the above mentioned two systems are popular to lay out the report, many report
makers use other systems too. such as the use of roman numbering, small and big alphabets and their
combinations and so on.
Such systems of numbering help the reader to get a strong indication of the relationship and
relative importance of the parts and text in the report.

In this lesson, we have discussed the various aspects of a report. Reports play an important
role to keep the records up to date in an organisation/ library. In the above explanation it was
found that library report writing is an essential part of library management. While preparing a
report we must keep in mind about the audience as well as proper content, format, structure
and order of the report. Many organisations have prepared prescribed formats for making
reports and the writer must follow the structure/layout of the prescribed formats prepared by
any organisation. If the organisation/library does not have prescribed formats, the employee
can prepare his/her report by using the elements described in this unit. Even for internal
purposes, one needs to understand and follow the type of format that is popularly used in the
organisation. But the employee/writer must ensure that the used preform of the report is
accurate in all respects and fulfil all the objectives of the work.

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Accuracy : The quality or state of being correct or precise. It is the ability to do something
without making mistakes.
Appendices : A section or table of subsidiary matter at the end of a book or document.
Conciseness : The quality of being short and clear, and expressing what needs to be said
without unnecessary words.
Layout : Layout is the way where something is designed or arranged.

1. Latin Language 9. APA and MLA

2. True 10. Citation of the document
3. True 11. True
4. Circulation Section 12. Alpha-Numeric Numbering System
5. Presentable 13. True
6. True 14. Roman Numbering System
7. Scope 15. True
8. Style of the Report

1. Explain the concept of Report. Discuss their characteristics while writing a report for
the library.
2. Discuss the various types of library reports with their suitable example.
3. Describe the style and structure of the report.

Netzley, M. and Snow, Craig. (2001). Guide to Report Writing (Guide to Business
Communication Series) (1st ed.). Prentice Hall, print.

Bentley, T. J. (2004). Report Writing In Business : The Effective Communication of

Information (1st ed.). New Delhi: Viva Books Pvt. Ltd., print.
Greenhall, M. (2004). Report Writing Skills Training Course. UK, Lancashire: Universe of
Learning Ltd., print.

Kuiper, S. and Kohut, G. F. (2005). Contemporary Business Report Writing. USA:

Southwestern Cengage Learning, print.

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https://www.nust.na/sites/default/files/documents/Report%20writing.pdf

Bentley, T. J. (2004). Report Writing In Business : The Effective Communication of

Information (1st ed.). New Delhi: Viva Books Pvt. Ltd., print.

Bowden, J. (2011). Writing a Report: How to Prepare, Write & Present Really Effective
Reports (9th ed.). London: How To Books, print.

Greenhall, M. (2004). Report Writing Skills Training Course. UK, Lancashire: Universe of
Learning Ltd., print.

Kuiper, S. and Kohut, G. F. (2005). Contemporary Business Report Writing. USA:

Southwestern Cengage Learning, print.

Netzley, M. and Snow, Craig. (2001). Guide to Report Writing (Guide to Business
Communication Series) (1st ed.). Prentice Hall, print.

https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/company/drafting/top-11-characteristics-of-a-good-
report/75197

https://knowledge.transparent.com/types-of-reports-and-accessing-usage-statistics-libraries

http://www.simplynotes.in/e-notes/mbabba/business-communication/report-writing-
characteristicsstructure-and-types/

https://www.caselle.com/help/cx_help_files/aa0/Reports/Report_Base/201802/Report_order/
What_is_the_Report_Order_.htm#MiniTOCBookMark1

https://www.lboro.ac.uk/media/wwwlboroacuk/content/library/downloads/advicesheets/Repo
rt%20writing-1.pdf

https://www.nust.na/sites/default/files/documents/Report%20writing.pdf

https://www.librarianshipstudies.com/

**************LMS Feedback: [email protected]**************

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UNIT – IV: Statistics and its Applications

LESSON 1

Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics

Ms. Rekha Devi

Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1
Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Statistics:
1.3.1Meaning and Definition
1.3.2Functions of Statistics
1.4 Data Analysis and Interpretation
1.4.1Data Analysis: Meaning andDefinition
1.4.2Phases of Data Analysis
1.4.3Types of Data Analysis
1.4.4 Types of Data
1.4.5Data Interpretation: Meaning and Definition
1.4.6 Hypothesis
1.5 Descriptive Statistics
1.5.1Measures of Central Tendency
1.5.2Measures of Dispersion
1.6 Inferential Statistics
1.6.1Measures of Correlations
1.6.2Linear Regression
1.6.3Chi-Square Test
1.6.4T-Test
1.6.5 Z-Test
1.6.6 F-Test
1.7 Hands-On through Statistical Software: SPSS
1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary

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1.10 Answers to In-text Questions

1.11 Self-Assessment Questions
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing the lesson, you will be able to:

• Understand the meaning of Statistics and its major functions

• Define the Data Analysis and Interpretation
• Know about Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics and its various
applications using different tests and measures.
• Get hands-on through commonly used statistical software SPSS

1.2 INTRODUCTION

In this lesson, we are going to learn about Statistics and its application. The major focus of
this lesson is on Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics. You will learn the
fundamental ideas behind data description through descriptive statistics.The fundamental
characteristics of a dataset identified in a particular study are described, illustrated, and
summarised using descriptive statistics. The summary provides details on the data sample
and its measurements.It aids in better data comprehension for analysts. The available data
sample is represented by descriptive statistics, which exclude hypotheses, judgments,
probabilities, and conclusions. For inferential statistics, that is a task.Inferential statistics is a
subfield of statistics that uses a variety of analytical techniques to infer information about the
population from sample data. While descriptive statistics lists the characteristics of the data
set, inferential statistics aids in drawing conclusions about the population. Inferential
statistics helps to acquire a good understanding of the population data by studying the
samples obtained from it. It aids in making generalisations about the population by
employing various analytical tests and instruments.

1.3 STATISTICS

1.3.1 Meaning and Definition:

Statistics is the discipline that concerns -
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• the collection
• organisation
• analysis
• interpretation,
• and presentation of data.

1.3.2 Functions of Statistics:

Statistics two major functions-

• Organisation of numerical data(Descriptive Statistics).

• Interpretation of numerical data(Inferential Statistics).

1.4 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Data Analysis :

The word analysis means the categorizing, ordering and summarizing the data statistically to
obtain answers to research questions.

In a way, analysis of dataconsist of putting all the factual information collected into an order
and summary according to the variable studied, objectives drawn and the hypothesis stated.
Interpretation :
Interpretation means that you:
• study the results of the analysis,
• make inferences about its occurrences of relations,
• and draw conclusions about these relations.
Interpretation becomes easier, if you put the data into forms that are understandable.

Data Analysis and Interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to the collected
information and determining the conclusions, significance, and implications of the findings.
It enables the researcher to reduce, summarize, organize, evaluate, interpret and
communicate numeric information in the descriptive form.

According to Francis Rummel, “the analysis and interpretation of data involve the objective

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material in the possession of the researcher and his subjective reaction and desires to derive
from the data the inherent meaning in their relation to the problem. To avoid making
conclusions or interpretations from insufficient or invalid data, the final analysis must be
anticipated in detail when plans are being made for collecting information.”

1.4.1 Data Analysis: Meaning and Definition

Kaul defines data analysis as, “Studying the organized material in order to discover
inherent facts. The data are studied from as many angles as possible to explore the new
facts.”

In his book on research methodology, C. R. Kothari explains that the term analysis
refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of
relationship that exist among data-groups. He quotes G.B.Giles to further elaborate the
concept as “in the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting
with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to
determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions”

Hence, whether it is a qualitative or quantitative research even if the data is sufficient

and valid, it will not serve any purpose unless it is carefully processed and scientifically
analyzed and interpreted.

1.4.2 Phases of Data Analysis:

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1.4.3 Types of Data Analysis:

1.4.4 Types of Data:

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Fig 1.1: Types of Data(Source: (Garth, 2008))

Typically only data from the last two types might be suitable for parametric methods,
although as we'll see later it isn't always a completely straight forward decision and when
documenting research it is reasonable to justify the choice of analysis to prevent the reader
believing that the analysis that best supported the hypothesis was chosen rather than the one
most appropriate to the data. The important thing in this decision, as I hope we'll see, is not to
make unsupported assumptions about the data and apply methods assuming "better" data than
you have(Garth, 2008).

1.4.5Data Interpretation: Meaning and Definition

The Data analysis is usually the first step taken towards data interpretation. Once the
data has been processed and analyzed, the final step required in the research process is
interpretation of the data.

Data interpretation is the process of reviewing data through some predefined

processes which will help assign some meaning to the data and arrive at a relevant
conclusion. It involves taking the result of data analysis.

Interpretation consists of conclusions that the researcher has reached after the data has been
processed and analyzed. It is evident that the interpretation of data is very important, and as
such needs to be done properly.

1.4.6 Hypothesis
Hypothesis is an assumption which needs to be proved and once proved then it becomes a
fact. For example, you might want to check the effectivity of a training program on the
employees and you can apply t test for 2 samples or paired t test to test the effectivity. When
you are evaluating a hypothesis, you need to account for both the variability in your
sample and how large your sample is. Based on this information, you'd like to make an
assessment of whether any differences you see are meaningful, or if they are likely just due
to chance. This is formally done through a process called hypothesis testing. There are 2
important tests in Hypothesis testing : z test and t test and this course gives a great insights on
both z test and t test. Lets discuss them briefly:

Five Steps in Hypothesis Testing: (“Tests of Hypothesis,” n.d.)

1. Specify the Null Hypothesis

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2. Specify the Alternative Hypothesis

3. Set the Significance Level which generally is take as 5%
4. Calculate the Test Statistic and Corresponding P-Value
5. Drawing a Conclusion

1.5 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Descriptive analysis, also known as descriptive analytics or descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics can be useful in communicating the overall picture of your dataset. It is
used to describe the situation or the event or whatever the property that you are measuring. It
draws insights solely from past data, by manipulating in ways that make it more meaningful.

For Example,for discussing marks of students in the exam. Than you might be interested in
“What is the average marks scored by the students” or “what is the spread or division of
marks? Or you want to communicate what was the average age of the subject analyzed in the
dataset or what percentage of subject are below a particular range.

1.5.1 Measures of Central Tendency:

MEAN
The Mean is the average of all the scores in a discrete or continuous distribution.
Method of calculation of this mean is different for discrete distribution and the continuous
distribution.
This average so calculated is called the Mean or mathematical average.
Use mean when data is continuous and normal.

a) Mean for an ungrouped data:

M = Mean
∑ = Sum of
X = Observations in a distribution
N = Total number of observations.

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b) Mean for grouped data

M = Mean
AM = Assumed Mean
x′= [Midpoint score(x) - AM]/(length of the class interval)

∑ fx′= Sum of the products of frequencies and deviation of observations from the
assumed mean.
i = Width of the class-interval
N = Total number of observation

MEDIAN
It is also called Positional average. It is the midpoint of a series of data.
Median is a value that divides your entire observation or value into two equal parts. Also to
communicate the location of the score. Used in case of high dispersion data or non-normal data.

For non-parametric test we always use median.

Use median when data is continuous and non-normal.

a) Median for Ungrouped data : The middle score is determined by counting up half the value of N
if the number of observation (N) is even. When the number of observations (N) is odd, the mid-
observation value is median.

b) Median for grouped data :

Mdn = Median

l = Exact lower limit of the class-interval upon which the median lies.

N/2 = One half of the total number of observations F = Sum of all frequencies below l.

f = Frequency within the class-interval upon which the median lies.

i = Width of the class interval in which the median lies.

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MODE
It is used to report a value which is most frequently occurred in a dataset.
It is possible that for a distribution with a discrete random variable can have more than one mode,
especially if there are not many terms. A distribution with two modes is called bimodal. A
distribution with three modes is called trimodal.

Use mode when data is in the format of frequencies.

a) Mode for Ungrouped Data :In a simple ungrouped series of measures, the crude or empirical
mode is that single measure which occurs most frequently.

b) Mode for grouped data :

l = Lower limit of the modal class i.e., the class interval having maximum frequency

fm = Frequency of the modal class.

f1 = Frequency of the class-interval preceding the modal class.

f2 = Frequency of the class-interval following the modal class.

i = Width of the modal class.

1.5.2 Measures of Dispersion:

STANDARD DEVIATION
Standard deviation is most widely used measure of dispersion of a series.

It refers to the deviation of scores from the mean.

Specifically, it shows you how much your data is spread out around the mean or average. For
example, are all your scores close to the average? Or are lots of scores way above (or way
below) the average score?

a) Standard Deviation for Ungrouped Data :

X = Raw score

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N = The number of scores in the distribution.

b) Standard Deviation for Grouped Data :

i = Width of the class-interval

N = Total number of measures
f = Frequency of class-interval

x1 = Deviation of the raw measure from the assumed mean divided by the length of class-
interval.

VARIANCE
The term variance was used to describe the square of the standard deviation by R.A. Fisher in
1913.
Variance is so commonly used that it is also called dispersion.

Variance is a numerical value that describes the variability of observations from its arithmetic mean.

The variance is computed as the average squared deviation of each number from its mean.

a) Variance for Ungrouped Data :

X = Raw score
N = The number of scores in the distribution.

b) Variance for Grouped Data :

i = Width of the class-interval

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N = Total number of measures

f = Frequency of class-interval

x1 = Deviation of the raw measure from the assumed mean divided by the length of class-
interval.

RANGE
Of all measures of dispersions, range is the simplest.
It is defined as the difference between the largest and the smallest observations.

Range(X) = Max(X) - Min(X)

STANDARD ERROR OF MEAN

Of allThe Standard error of mean measures the degree to which the mean is affected by the errors of
measurement as well as by the errors of Sampling or Sampling fluctuations from one random sample
to the other.

σ = Standard deviation of the population and

N = The number of cases in the sample.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Range defined as the difference between the largest and the smallest
observations.True / False
2. Descriptive analysis, also known as descriptive analytics or descriptive
statistics. True / False
3. Hypothesis is an assumption which needs to be proved and once proved then
it becomes a fact. True / False
4. Descriptive Statistics is related to the organisation of numerical data. True /
False
5. Statistics is the discipline that concerns:
a) collection b) organisation
c) analysis d) interpretation
e) All of these

1.6 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

As a researcher, we often use the Interpretation of numerical data. Also, call it

Interpretation/ inference.The practical use of statistics is to draw inferences from the
numerical data.
When it comes to drawing inferences, we have to go by two approaches and that depends
upon the nature of our data.

So, we can have two types of approaches here, depending upon the shape of the distribution
and certain assumptions whether our data fulfill them or not and we call these two
approaches:

1) Parametric Statistics and

2) Non- Parametric Statistics

1.6.1 Measures of Correlations:

The most commonly usedcorrelation is Pearson Correlationwhich measures the
degree of linear relationship between two variables. By linear relationship we mean that the
relationship can be well-characterized by a straight line.
Correlation ranges from -1.0 to +1.0
Pearson correlation is given by the letter “r”. For Example,r = .55

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You will never see a correlation of 1.2 value or above the range given in previous
line. If your answer comes outside this range than there is something wrong.

There are three types of Relationships:

1. Positive:Higher scores on X are associated with higher scores on Y and vice versa.
2. Negative:Higher scores on X are associated with lower scores on Y and vice versa.
3. No relationship: there is no predictable relationship between X and Y.

1.6.2 Linear Regression:

Linear regression is the next step up after correlation. It is used when we want to predict the
value of a variable based on the value of another variable. The variable we want to predict is
called the dependent variable (or sometimes, the outcome variable). The variable we are
using to predict the other variable's value is called the independent variable (or sometimes,
the predictor variable)(“Linear Regression Analysis in SPSS Statistics - Procedure,
Assumptions and Reporting the Output.,” n.d.)

For example, you could use linear regression to understand whether exam performance can
be predicted based on revision time; whether cigarette consumption can be predicted based
on smoking duration; and so forth. If you have two or more independent variables, rather
than just one, you need to use multiple regression.

In statistics, Linear Regression is a linear approach of modelling the relationship between a

dependent and independent variable(“Linear Regression,” 2022)

Kumari, K., & Yadav, S. (2018) in their article defined linear regression as a statistical
procedure for calculating the value of a dependent variable from an independent variable.
Linear regression measures the association between two variables. It is a modelling technique
where a dependent variable is predicted based on one or more independent variables. Linear
regression analysis is the most widely used of all statistical techniques.

Before carrying out linear regression in SPSS, lets understand the different assumptions that
your data must meet in order for linear regression to give you a valid result.

Assumptions for Linear Regression

• Assumption 1: Your dependent variable should be measured at

the continuous level (i.e., it is either an interval or ratio variable).
• Assumption2: Your independent variable should also be measured at
the continuous level (i.e., it is either an interval or ratio variable).
• Assumption 3: There needs to be a linear relationship between the two variables.
• Assumption 4: There should be no significant outliers.

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• Assumption 5: You should have independence of observations, which you can

easily check using the Durbin-Watson statistic, which is a simple test to run using
SPSS Statistics.
• Assumption 6: Your data needs to show homoscedasticity, which is where the
variances along the line of best fit remain similar as you move along the line.
• Assumption 7: Finally, you need to check that the residuals (errors) of the
regression line are approximately normally distributed.

1.6.3 Chi-Square Test:

A chi-squared test, also written as χ2 test, is a statistical hypothesis test.

The Chi-Square statistic is commonly used for testing relationships between

categorical variables.

The null hypothesis of the Chi-Square test is that no relationship exists on the
categorical variables in the population; they are independent.

The Chi-square test is used for comparing experimentally obtained results with those
to be expected.

Types of Chi-Square Tests

There are three types of Chi-square tests,
1. Test of goodness of fit: It is used to find out how the observed value of a given
phenomena is significantly different from the expected value. Here the term goodness
of fit is used in order to compare the observed sample distribution with the expected
probability distribution

2. Test of independence: It looks for an association between two categorical variables

within the same population. It is applied to test the relationship between variables. In
this we test whether two variables are dependent or independent to each other.

3. Test of homogeneity: The test for homogeneity determines if the distribution of a

variable is the same in each of several populations (thus allocating population itself as
the second categorical variable).
All three tests also rely on the same formula to compute a test statistic.

1.6.4 T-Test:
One Sample T-Test

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The reason we use one sample t-test here is that when we have one variable. The One
Samples T-Test is a parametric test. One important thing in one sample t-test is to look at the
test value box and put the value that we comparing our scores to.

Independent Sample T-Test

The Independent Samples t Test compares the means of two independent groups in order to
determine whether there is statistical evidence that the associated population means are
significantly different. The Independent Samples T- Test is a parametric test.

Dependent Sample T-Test

In Dependent sample t-test, we do not have grouping variable rather we have only one group
of people. So we do not have two separate groups or unrelated groups or independent groups.
So these values are naturally dependent and related because same person producing them.

Dependent Sample t-test Known by different name like Dependent Sample t-test or Paired
samples t-test or Related Samples t-test. It is a parametric test.

1.6.5 Z-Test:
Z-tests are the statistical tests that can be used to compare population averages to a
sample’s. The z-test will tell you how far, in standard deviations terms, a data point is from
the average of a data set. A z-test will compare a sample to a defined population that is
typically used for dealing with problems relating to large samples (i.e., n > 30) and are very
useful when the standard deviation is known(“Tests of Hypothesis,” n.d.).

Z test is a statistical test that is conducted on data that approximately follows a normal
distribution. The z test can be performed on one sample, two samples, or on proportions for
hypothesis testing. It checks if the means of two large samples are different or not when the
population variance is known.

A z test can further be classified into left-tailed, right-tailed, and two-tailed hypothesis tests
depending upon the parameters of the data.
A z test is a test that is used to check if the means of two populations are different or not
provided the data follows a normal distribution. For this purpose, the null hypothesis and the
alternative hypothesis must be set up and the value of the z test statistic must be calculated.
The decision criterion is based on the z critical value.

A z test is conducted on a population that follows a normal distribution with independent

data points and has a sample size that is greater than or equal to 30. It is used to check
whether the means of two populations are equal to each other when the
population variance is known. The null hypothesis of a z test can be rejected if the z test
statistic is statistically significant when compared with the critical value.
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The z test formula compares the z statistic with the z critical value to test whether there is a
difference in the means of two populations. In hypothesis testing, the z critical value divides
the distribution graph into the acceptance and the rejection regions. If the test statistic falls in
the rejection region then the null hypothesis can be rejected otherwise it cannot be rejected.
z tests are a statistical way of testing a hypothesis when either:
• We know the population variance, or
• We do not know the population variance but our sample size is large n ≥ 30

If we have a sample size of less than 30 and do not know the population variance, then we
must use a t-test(Meena, 2020)

One-Sample Z test
We perform the One-Sample Z test when we want to compare a sample mean with the
population mean.

Formula:

Two Sample Z Test

We perform a Two Sample Z test when we want to compare the mean of two samples.

Formula:

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1.6.6 F-Test:
The term F-test is based on the fact that these tests use the F-values to test the
hypotheses. An F-statistic is the ratio of two variances and it was named after Sir Ronald
Fisher. Variances measure the dispersal of the data points around the mean. Higher variances
occur when the individual data points tend to fall further from the mean(Frost, 2017)

F test can be defined as a test that uses the f test statistic to check whether the
variances of two samples (or populations) are equal to the same value. To conduct an f test,
the population should follow an f distribution and the samples must be independent events.
On conducting the hypothesis test, if the results of the f test are statistically significant then
the null hypothesis can be rejected otherwise it cannot be rejected(“F Test - Formula,
Definition, Examples, Meaning,” n.d.).

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) uses F-tests to statistically assess the equality of

means when you have three or more groups.

In One Way ANOVA, the one way stands for one independent variable. Itssimilar to
independent sample t test and that is used to compare independent or unrelated groups. But
Independent Sample t test is used to compare only two groups, whereas ANOVA can be used
to compare two, three, four, five, six or more groups, as many as you need to test. There is
two way ANOVA also.The two way stands for two independent variable, Like we could have
volume , gender( males and females)( two independent variables) and then exam scores.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. Correlation ranges from -1.0 to +1.0. True / False
7. ANOVAstands for ___________.
8. A chi-squared test, also written as ____________.
9. Linear Regression is a linear approach of modelling the relationship between a
dependent and independent variable.True / False
10. Z test is a statistical test that is conducted on data that approximately follows a
normal distribution. True / False

1.7 Hands-On Through Statistical Software: SPSS

1.7.1 Descriptive Statistics:

Fig 1.1: SPSS: Descriptive Statistics (Source: SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences—Quick Overview. (n.d.). Retrieved June 13, 2021, from https://www.spss-
tutorials.com/spss-what-is-it/)

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Measures of Central Tendency

Calculating - Mean, Median and Mode

Measures of Dispersion

Calculating – Standard Deviation, Variance, Range and Standard Error of Mean

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1.7.2 Inferential Statistics:

Measures of Correlations

How to calculate Correlation Coefficient in SPSS.

Run Correlation in SPSS Using Below Example

We have two variables - Hours of media or hours media and college GPA.

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We recorded the number of hours of media during a given week that individuals engaged in,
and media could be TV, movies, internet and so on. And then we also obtained their college
GPA.

We want to see if there’s a relationship between these two variables, as measured by

Pearson’s r (our correlation).

So here will check the negative correlation which means that High on hours of media leads to
low college GPA and vice versa.
So let’s run the analysis and see what happens.

Go toAnalyze→ Correlate →Bivariate

Bivariate means two and it’s just another name for a variable. So, we use Bivariate when we
have two variables.

Then Bivariate correlation box opens. Select the variables and move to the right box. And
click OK.

Output of Correlation

Interpret of Correlation
Now we want to see where Hours of media and college GPA intersect or meet. So as per the
result shown in the output, they meet at -.727. Either box is fine to look at.
Our Pearson’s Correlation is = -.727 and p-value is =.001
Will use the decision rule here with an alpha value .01

If p is less than or equal to .01, the test is significant (there is a significant relationship
between hours of media watched and college GPA).
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If p is greater than .01, the test is not significant (there is not a significant relationship
between hours of media watched and college GPA).

In our example, p-value is =.001 which is less than .01 and which indicates that the test is
significant (there is a significant relationship between hours of media watched and college
GPA).

Graph Output--Correlation

Graph Output--Correlation
Notice the circles in the graph, they will be the total number of people, like in our example it
is 17. Each circle represents the value for a given individual in my data set.
Double-click the graph to read it. This characterises a negative relationship, high on one
variable and low on other or vice versa. That is how we define a negative relationship.

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Now right-click the plot and then a shortcut menu opens and select Add a fit line at total and
then select linear and then close.
Now you can see the line is used to represent or fit the data points in general.

This is what we are doing in Pearson’s correlation. We are using correlation that estimates
the linear or straight-line relationship.

Linear Regression
SPSS Statistics procedure to perform a Linear Regression using Below Example
How to run simple regression.
Example- We have two variables- high school GPA and College GPA. and reported for 10
people.
Regression is very similar to correlation.
Simple Regression - use scores on one variable, X, and predict scores on another variable,
Y.
X= predictor or independent variable (IV) (high school GPA)
Y= criterion or dependent variable (DV) (College GPA)
(Simple regression uses one X: Multiple regression uses two or more Xs)
Run the simple Regression in SPSS -
Go to Analyze→ regression→ linear (for linear relationship in the two variables)
High school GPA- IV and College GPA- DV and click OK

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Output of Regression

Interpret of Regression
First Table - Variable Entered/Removed Table: here we just have our independent variable.
Second Table - Model Summary: R and R square are two important values here.

In Model Summary Table

R = Multiple correlation coefficient; in simple regression it is equal to the Pearson’s
correlation.

R = .81; correlation of .81 between HS_GPA and College_GPA (we also saw this in the
correlation table)

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R square = the amount of variance in the DV (criterion) that is accounted for or explained by
IV(predictor).
Convert the R square value to percentage by multiplying by 100
HS_GPA explains 65% of the variance in College_GPA

Variance in dependent variable college gpa, if it is represented by circle and that circle could
be a pie or pizza.

So 65% (⅔ of pie), that’s how in terms of the v ariability in the college GPA scores., the
variability in those values we can account for or explain.

Third Table- ANOVA: here will assess if high school GPA is a significant predictor of
college GPA or not.
Does it help to predict college GPA beyond chance alone?
We can use either ANOVA or Coefficient table for this.
ANOVA p value=.005
Coefficient p value=.005
Both are identical. These are testing the exact same thing.
Use decision rule now with alpha value .05

If p is less than or equal to .05, the test is significant (high school GPA is a significant
predictor of College GPA).

If p is greater than .05, the test is not significant (high school GPA is a significant predictor
of College GPA).

In our example, p value is =.005 which is less than .01 and which indicates that the test is
significant (high school GPA is a significant predictor of College GPA).

Chi-Square Test

SPSS Statistics procedure to perform a Chi-Square Goodness of Fit test using Below
Example
In this hypothetical study we had 60 people who engaged in a blind taste test of the two
leading brands of COLA. Referred to them as COLA A and COLA B.
We have Two variables: Cola and frequency.
Will conduct a Chi square goodness of fit test to assess the following...
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Of two leading brands of Cola, do people prefer one over the other?
So, you can use Chi square goodness of fit test when you are seeing if there’s a significant
preference for one or more categories.
In our study we have only two categories called A and B.
Here 1 = Cola A and 2 = Cola B

So, of the 60 people, 28 people ended up choosing A and 32 ended up choosing B. without
knowing which is which.
So will run the test to see if there is a significant preference for one of the two colas.

Procedure
Now first thing we need to do here before running the test is to, weight the frequency
variable.

If we look at the frequency value : SPSS will think that it's just an ordinary value or score in
a exam.

But we actually mean this to indicate that there were 28 people who chose Cola A and 32
people who chose Cola B
For telling SPSS this we have to do something.

So go on Data click on weight cases and now we want to select the variable frequency . So
select the variable frequency and click on weight cases by. And now move the frequency
variable in the frequency variable box. And now click OK.
Now see at the bottom of the screen it will say “weight on” which indicates that one of the
variable is currently being weighted.
So now SPSS will interpret 28 people choose Cola A and 32 people choose Cola B.
Will use Alpha value : 0.05 And for the chi-square its similar to the ANOVA F and that is
really just one tailed by design.
Lets run the Chi Square Goodness of Fit test in SPSS

Go to Analyze→then scroll down to nonparametric testsselectLegacy Dialogs

go to Chi Square. Now the Chi square test dialog box opens.
Move Cola to the test variable list, and click OK

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Output: Chi-Square Test

Interpret: Chi-Square Test

We have two tables 1)Frequencies Table and 1) Test Statistics table

In the first table frequencies we have our variable Cola and notice the observed and that
indicated what we actually got in our study.
Observed N - 28 people chose cola A and 32 people chose Cola B
Expected N - that are the frequencies that are expected if there’s no preferences for either
Cola.

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So if there is no preference, in the long run will expect that half of the people will chose cola
a and cola b.
Question is - this 28 and 32. Is that different enough to be significant or not?
Now will go to our Test Statistics Table to answer that question.
So will look at the p value, which is given here as Asymptotic Significance =.606
So will use our decision rule here .
Will use our decision rule here. With alpha value 0.05

If p is less than or equal to .05, the test is significant(there is a preference for one of the two
types of colas).

If p is greater than .05, the test is not significant(there is not a preference for one of the two
types of colas).
As our P value is .606 which is greater than .05 so the test is not significant(there is not a
preference for one of the two types of colas).
Write Results in APA format
There was not a significant preference for either type of cola, χ2 (1,N=60) = .27, p= .606.

T-Test

One Sample T-Test

The reason we use one sample t-test here is that when we have one variable. The One
Samples T-Test is a parametric test. One important thing in one sample t-test is to look at the
test value box and put the value that we comparing our scores to.
For example - We took Data of 30 people on variable name Perception.

Do People view the politicians as either as significantly favourable or unfavourable?

Thirty people were asked: How do you view___?
1. Highly unfavourable
2. Somewhat unfavourable
3. Slightly unfavourable
4. Neither favourable nor unfavourable
5. Slightly favourable

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6. Somewhat favourable
7. Highly favourable

Test the response of the people against test value 4.(neither favourable nor
unfavourable).

So we want to test in SPSS whether the opinion of the 30 people differed significantly
from a 4 as a 4 indicates neutral response.

Output - One Sample T-Test

Fig 1.1: Output: One Sample T-Test (Source: SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences—Quick Overview. (n.d.). Retrieved June 13, 2021, from https://www.spss-
tutorials.com/spss-what-is-it/)

Interpret - One Sample T-Test

Let’s evaluate whether or not the test is statistically significant for which we will use
decision rule.
Our P value =.379 and it is greater than .05.

So the test is not significant, which means that sample is not significantly different from the
mean for the response of 30 people. The mean response did not significantly differ from a 4.
Now notice the 95% confidence interval of the difference here.

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If the confidence interval include zero in the range that means the test is not statistically
significant. In our case it does include zero. Which indicates that our test is not statistically
significant.

We can always look at the confidence interval whether or not the test is statistically
significant.

Independent Sample T-Test

The Independent Samples t Test compares the means of two independent groups in order to
determine whether there is statistical evidence that the associated population means are
significantly different. The Independent Samples T- Test is a parametric test.
For example - We have two variables treatment(1=acupuncture, 2=massage) and pain_level
After receiving this treatment for period of two weeks then respondent gave response on one
to seven scale, the amount of pain they were currently experiencing at the end of the last
treatment.
7 - indicates highest degree of pain
1- indicates the lowest degree of pain

Output - Independent Sample T-Test

Fig 1.1: Output: One Sample T-Test (Source: SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences—Quick Overview. (n.d.). Retrieved June 13, 2021, from https://www.spss-
tutorials.com/spss-what-is-it/)

Interpret - Independent Sample T-Test

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Let’s evaluate whether or not the test is statistically significant for which we will use
decision rule.

Levene’s test shows f=.026 and sig.=.873. Now on the basis of this we have to select which
row of t will go for. As sig. (p value) .873 > .05 so variances are not significantly different.
And will interpret the top row of results for t. So this leven test we do just to decide whether
to interpret the top or bottom row of t .
Now the top row of t have t value=.692, df=28, sig(2-tailed) .494.

So our P value= .494 and it is greater than .05 which means that the test is not significant (
the pain level do not differ significantly for the treatment of acupuncture and massage).
Write results in APA format.

There was not a significant difference in the reported pain levels for those who receive
acupuncture and massage therapy as treatment, t(28)=.69, p=.494.
Now notice the 95% confidence interval of the difference here.

If the confidence interval include zero in the range that means the test is not statistically
significant. In our case it does include zero. Which indicates that our test is not statistically
significant.

Dependent Sample T-Test

In Dependent sample t-test, we do not have grouping variable rather we have only one group
of people. So we do not have two separate groups or unrelated groups or independent groups.
So these values are naturally dependent and related because same person producing them.

Dependent Sample t-test Known by different name like Dependent Sample t-test or Paired
samples t-test or Related Samples t-test. It is a parametric test.

For example - we asked people to rate their openness to using E texts in the classroom and
here we asked people on their freshman year, how open are you to using E texts in the
classroom.

So electronic text in place of the regular physical textbooks and their response could range
from 1 to 10.
1 - indicates they were not at all open to using e texts.
10 - indicates that they were very much open to using e texts in classroom.
And than in the senior year, they were asked the same question again.

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Hypothetical question is - Do people’s opinions change towards using E-texts from their
freshman to their senior years? So we want to see whether people’s opinions change over
time, that is from freshman year to senior year.

Output - Dependent Sample T-Test

Fig 1.1: Output: Dependent Sample T-Test (Source: SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences—Quick Overview. (n.d.). Retrieved June 13, 2021, from https://www.spss-
tutorials.com/spss-what-is-it/

Interpret - Dependent Sample T-Test

Let’s evaluate whether or not the test is statistically significant for which we will use
decision rule.

If p value is less than or equal to .05 than test is significant (openness to e-texts changed from
freshman to senior years).

If p value is greater than .05 than test is not significant (openness to e-texts do not changed
from freshman to senior years).

Our p value is .004 < .05 so test is significant (openness to e-texts changed from freshman to
senior years).

Z-Test

Here’s an Example to Understand a One Sample Z Test

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Let’s say we need to determine if girls on average score higher than 600 in the exam. We
have the information that the standard deviation for girls’ scores is 100. So, we collect the
data of 20 girls by using random samples and record their marks. Finally, we also set our ⍺
value (significance level) to be 0.05.

One-Sample Z test

We perform the One-Sample Z test when we want to compare a sample mean with the

population mean.
Here’s an Example to Understand a One Sample Z Test

Let’s say we need to determine if girls on average score higher than 600 in the exam. We

have the information that the standard deviation for girls’ scores is 100. So, we collect the

data of 20 girls by using random samples and record their marks. Finally, we also set our ⍺

value (significance level) to be 0.05.

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In this example:

• Mean Score for Girls is 641

• The size of the sample is 20
• The population mean is 600
• Standard Deviation for Population is 100

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Since the P-value is less than 0.05, we can reject the null hypothesis and conclude based on
our result that Girls on average scored higher than 600.

Two Sample Z Test

Here’s an Example to Understand a Two Sample Z Test
Here, let’s say we want to know if Girls on average score 10 marks more than the boys. We
have the information that the standard deviation for girls’ Score is 100 and for boys’ score is
90. Then we collect the data of 20 girls and 20 boys by using random samples and record
their marks. Finally, we also set our ⍺ value (significance level) to be 0.05.

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In this example:
• Mean Score for Girls (Sample Mean) is 641
• Mean Score for Boys (Sample Mean) is 613.3
• Standard Deviation for the Population of Girls’ is 100
• Standard deviation for the Population of Boys’ is 90
• Sample Size is 20 for both Girls and Boys
• Difference between Mean of Population is 10

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Thus, we can conclude based on the P-value that we fail to reject the Null Hypothesis. We
don’t have enough evidence to conclude that girls on average score of 10 marks more than
the boys.

F-Test in One-Way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

For Example - we have two variables: Volume (independent variable) and Exam
scores(dependent variable). Background of the study is that we have people who listened to
either they have no music, low volume or they had high volume playing while they were
studying and then the next day they took the exam and these once again are their exam
scores.

So we use the ANOVA to see if there is a significant difference between these groups
one, two and three are no volume, low volume or high volume groups.

In this example our independent variable is volume and it consists of three groups...no
volume, low volume or high volume. These groups can also be called levels. New
terminology used in ANOVA are Levels and factors.
Hypothetical question for one way ANOVA test is...

Does the volume of background noise while studying for an exam have an impact on
exam scores?

In the study we have 30 people and they were randomly assigned to the respective
groups.

Output : One-Way ANOVA(Analysis of Variance)

Source :SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social Sciences—Quick Overview. (n.d.).
Retrieved June 13, 2021, from https://www.spss-tutorials.com/spss-what-is-it/

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Interpret : One-Way ANOVA(Analysis of Variance)

Let’s evaluate whether or not the test is statistically significant for which we will use
decision rule.
In ANOVA we get f value instead of t. F value = 4.622 and sig.(p value)=.019

If p value is less than or equal to .05 than test is significant( the test scores differ significantly
somewhere between the groups).

If p value is greater than .05 than test is not significant(the test scores differ significantly
somewhere between the groups).

Our p is .019 < .05 so test is significant( test scores differ significantly somewhere between
the groups ).

Write results in APA format.

The level of volume of music played while studying had a significant impact on exam
performance , F(2,27)=-4.622, p=.019.

Now notice the 95% confidence interval of the difference here.

If the confidence interval include zero in the range that means the test is not statistically
significant. In our case it does not include zero. Which indicates that our test is
statistically significant.

1.8 SUMMARY

In this lesson, the learner will get the brief understanding of Statistics and its
application in research. We have discussed about two important functions of Statistics i.e.,
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics. In Descriptive Statistics, we discussed measure of
central tendency and measures of dispersion with example in SPSS. In Inferential Statistics,
we discussed measures of correlation, linear regression and various tests conducted in
research like chi-square test, t-test, z-test and f-test with example in SPSS.

1.9 GLOSSARY

Statistics:It is defined as the process of collection of data, classifying data, representing the
data for easy interpretation, and further analysis of data.

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DataAnalysis:Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming,

and modelling data with the goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions,
and supporting decision-making.

Data Interpretation:Data interpretation refers to the process of using diverse analytical

methods to review data and arrive at relevant conclusions.

Descriptive Statistics:A descriptive statistic (in the count noun sense) is a summary
statistic that quantitatively describes or summarizes features from a collection of information.

Inferential Statistics:A inferential statistics focus on making generalizations about a larger

population based on a representative sample of that population. It focuses on making
predictions (rather than stating facts) its results are usually in the form of a probability.

1.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. True 6. True
2. True 7. Analysis of Variance
3. True 8. x2 test
4. True 9. True
5. (e) 10. True

1.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain Descriptive Statistics with examples.

2. Explain Inferential Statistics with examples.
3. Define Statistics
4. Conduct chi-square test using real life example.
5. Conduct z-test and t-test using real life example.

1.12 REFERENCES

Data analysis. (2022). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&oldid=1115362539

F Test—Formula, Definition, Examples, Meaning. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2022, from

Cuemath website: https://www.cuemath.com/data/f-test/

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Frost, J. (2017, April 6). How F-tests work in Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Retrieved

October 18, 2022, from Statistics By Jim website: http://statisticsbyjim.com/anova/f-

tests-anova/

Garth, A. (2008). Analysing data using spss. Retrieved October 18, 2022, from

https://www.studypool.com/documents/5000244/analysing-data-using-spss

Kumari, K., & Yadav, S. (2018). Linear regression analysis study. Journal of the Practice of

Cardiovascular Sciences, 4, 33. https://doi.org/10.4103/jpcs.jpcs_8_18

Linear regression. (2022). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from

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Linear Regression Analysis in SPSS Statistics—Procedure, assumptions and reporting the

output. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2022, from https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-

tutorials/linear-regression-using-spss-statistics.php

Meena, S. (2020, June 17). Hypothesis Testing | Difference between Z-Test and T-Test.

Retrieved October 18, 2022, from Analytics Vidhya website:

https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2020/06/statistics-analytics-hypothesis-

testing-z-test-t-test/

Tests of Hypothesis: Z test and t-test. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2022, from Udemy

website: https://www.udemy.com/course/tests-of-hypothesis-z-test-and-t-test/

What Is Hypothesis | Know It Info. (n.d.). Retrieved April 29, 2021, from
https://knowitinfo.com/what-is-hypothesis/Research Methodology—- Unit 4—Week 4. (n.d.).
Retrieved May 4, 2021, from
https://onlinecourses.swayam2.ac.in/cec20_ge37/unit?unit=24&lesson=30

Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Age

International.
Prabhat Pandey, M. M. P. (2015). Research Methodology: Tools and Techniques.
http://archive.org/details/adela_rmtt

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 M-105 - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

SPSS Masterclass: Learning SPSS From Scratch to Advanced. (n.d.). Udemy. Retrieved
April 26, 2021, from https://colonline.udemy.com/course/spss-statistics-foundation-course-
from-scratch-to-advanced/

Kumar, R. (2011). Research Methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners (3rd ed.).
SAGE Publications Ltd.

Bush, T. (n.d.). Descriptive Analysis: How-To, Types, Examples. Retrieved May 24, 2021,
from https://pestleanalysis.com/descriptive-analysis/

Parametric vs. Non-parametric tests. (n.d.). Retrieved May 24, 2021, from
http://changingminds.org/explanations/research/analysis/parametric_non-parametric.htm

Statistics. (2021). In Wikipedia.

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Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio Scales with Examples. (2018, May 22). QuestionPro.
https://www.questionpro.com/blog/nominal-ordinal-interval-ratio/

Concept of Central Tendency. (n.d.).

http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/23458/1/Unit-1.pdf

Create a cross-reference. (n.d.). Retrieved June 14, 2021, from

https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/create-a-cross-reference-300b208c-e45a-487a-
880b-a02767d9774b

Measures of Dispersion. (n.d.).

http://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/19504/1/Unit-5.pdf
Concept of Dispersion. (n.d.).
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Statistics / Data Analysis in SPSS: Inferential Statistics. (n.d.). Udemy. Retrieved May 27,
2021, from https://colonline.udemy.com/course/inferential-statistics-spss/

Unit-16 Measure of Skewness. (2017). IGNOU.

http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/13544

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEAN DIFFERENCES, STANDARD ERROR OF THE MEAN. (n.d.).

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SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS. (n.d.).

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DATA PRESENTATION AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS. (n.d.).

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Analyzing and Interpreting Data. (n.d.). Office of Institutional Research. Retrieved June
12, 2021, from https://institutionalresearch.syr.edu/assessment/asesspp/analyzing-and-
interpreting-data/

Data Analysis and Research Report. (n.d.).

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Data Analysis and Interpretation. (n.d.). https://www.patnauniversity.ac.in/e-

content/social_sciences/mlis/MLIS20.pdf

Yeager, K. (n.d.). LibGuides: SPSS Tutorials: Independent Samples t Test. Retrieved

April 29, 2021, from https://libguides.library.kent.edu/SPSS/IndependentTTest

Mann-Whitney U Test in SPSS Statistics | Setup, Procedure & Interpretation | Laerd

Statistics. (n.d.). Retrieved April 29, 2021, from https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-
tutorials/mann-whitney-u-test-using-spss-statistics.php
SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social Sciences—Quick Overview. (n.d.). Retrieved
June 13, 2021, from https://www.spss-tutorials.com/spss-what-is-it/

Statistical Analysis Software, SAS/STAT. (n.d.). Retrieved June 13, 2021, from
https://www.sas.com/en_in/software/stat.html
Data Analysis. (n.d.). IGNOU.
file:///D:/PhD/Course%20work/Course%20I/Presentation%20material/Data%20analysis..
pdf

IEC - Standards Development > Drafting IEC publications > Writing & formatting >
Tips & Recommendations > Creating cross-references in Word. (n.d.). Retrieved June
14, 2021, from
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ecommendations/cross_references.htm

Labaree, R. V. (n.d.). Research Guides: Organizing Your Social Sciences Research

Paper: Independent and Dependent Variables [Research Guide]. Retrieved April 29,
2021, from https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/variables

Chi Square Test | Simply Psychology. (n.d.). Retrieved July 24, 2021, from
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Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test. (n.d.). Retrieved July 24, 2021, from
https://www.jmp.com/en_ca/statistics-knowledge-portal/chi-square-test/chi-square-
goodness-of-fit-test.html

Chi-squared test. (2021). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chi-

squared_test&oldid=1028935334

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Using Chi-Square Statistic in Research. (n.d.). Statistics Solutions. Retrieved July 24,
2021, from https://www.statisticssolutions.com/free-resources/directory-of-statistical-
analyses/using-chi-square-statistic-in-research/

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

ALVESSON (M) and SKOLDBERG (K). Reflexive methodology: new vistas in qualitative
research. Ed. 2 Rev. 2009. Sage Publication, London.
BUSHA (C H). Research methods in librarianship. 1990. Academic Press, New York.

GOODE (W J) and HATT (P K). Methods in social research. 1982. McGraw-Hill, New
York.

GREENFIELD (T). Research methods: guidance for postgraduates. 1996. Hodder Arnold,
London.
KRISHAN KUMAR. Research methods in library and information science. Rev. Ed. 1999.
Har-Anand Publications, New Delhi.

LANCASTER (F W) and POWELL (R R). Basic research methods for librarians. 1985.
Ablex publishing, New Jersey.

POWELL (R R) and SILIPIGNI (C L). Basic research methods for librarians. Ed. 4. 2004.
Libraries Unlimited, Westport.

SINGH (S P). Research methods in social sciences: a manual for designing questionnaires.
2002. Kanishka, New Delhi.

SLATER (M), Ed. Research methods in library and information studies. 1990. Library
Association Publishing, London.

YOUNG (P V). Scientific social survey and research. Rev. Ed. 4. 1984. Prentice Hall, New
Delhi.

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 Master of Library & Information Science

LESSON 12

PRESENTATION OF DATA: TABULAR, GRAPHIC,

BAR DIAGRAM AND PIE CHART, etc.
Dr. Deepak Kumar
Librarian
Gandhi Memorial National College, Ambala
Cantt. (Haryana), NAAC Accreditted ‘A++’
Affiliated to Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra
Email Id: [email protected]
STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Objectives of Data Presentation
1.4 Principle of Data Presentation
1.5 Textual Or Descriptive Data Presentation
1.5.1 Important Factors during Textual Presentation of Data
1.5.2 Advantages of Textual Presentation
1.5.3 Disadvantages of Textual Presentation
1.6 Tabular Data Presentation
1.6.1 Tabulation Of Data And Parts of a Table
1.6.2 Qualitative
1.6.3 Quantitative
1.6.4 Temporal
1.6.5 Spatial
1.6.6 Limitation of tabular data presentation
1.7 Visual Data Presentation.
1.7.1 Graphical Presentation
1.7.2 Diagrammatical Presentation
1.7.2.1 Non-Frequency Diagram
1.7.2.1.1 Bar Diagram
1.7.2.1.2 Line Diagram (Historiagram)
1.7.2.1.3 Pie Diagram or Pie Chart
1.7.2.2 Frequency Diagram
1.7.2.2.1 Histogram
1.7.2.2.2 Frequency Polygon
1.7.2.2.3 Ogives
1.7.2.2.3.1 Less than types Ogives

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1.7.2.2.3.1 More than types Ogives

1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Answers to In-text Questions
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the lesson are to develop a holistic approach todevelopan

understanding of data presentation. After finishing the lesson, you shall be able to
 Understand how you will presentyour discrete data in any format
 Identify the different typesof data presentation mode
 Know the importance, arrangement, and standard of data presentation
 Design the procedure fordata presentation
 Know about both tabular and diagrammatic presentation of data
 Improve your data presentation
 Examine the data in differentformats, styles, and presentation

1.2 INTRODUCTION

The term data is quite familiar today, sometimes its overlaps with term information
often used as synonyms. It is important for LIS professionals to understand the meaningof
data and to adopt appropriate methods while presenting the data. The important part of data is
how and where it comes from. Data is basically of two types: i) primary data (original source
i.e, collected by own) ii) secondary data (derived from primary data). There are several
methods of data collection inmultiplefields. Itdepends on which type of research is going to
conduct such as interdisciplinary, multi-disciplinary or cross-disciplinary, etc. Some of the
data collection methods are observation method, survey method, interview method,
questionnaire method, etc. After the collection of data is completed, your work should focus
on transforming these raw data into a usable format that will lead to the presentation of the
data in the form of a chart and table. The systematic arrangement and classification of data
are very important before selecting the structure of the graph. The presentation of data is a
very careful and useful step while displaying our findings for that we need to decide on the
appropriate structure and shape of the graph. Data must be presented in a concise and
appealing manner because they are frequently large in size. This chapter focuses on the
accurate presentation of data so that the vast amounts of information gathered can be
rendered usable and understandable. Data presentation typically takes one of three forms:

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I. Textual or Descriptive presentation

II. Tabular presentation
III. Diagrammatic presentation.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF DATA PRESENTATION

Thedata should be presented in a simple, concise objective orientated manner. It should
arose the interest of the learner. Further, facilitate statistical analysis and suggest a solution to
the problem. It should convey its message as simply as possible.It must not exceed its word
limit, be flexible, and learner center. The data presentation's goal is clear, and it always aids
value in delivering the facts in the form of:
 Visual communication
 Charts, Graphs, and Image
 Design Principles
 Audience and Context
 Storytelling
 Persuasiveness
 Dashboards

1.4 PRINCIPLE OF DATA PRESENTATION

Data presentation is arts. It should be carried out in a way that satisfies the user's
informational requirements. It must provide a comprehensive overview ofthe subject and
help in future endeavors. It must be attractive, and comparative, and draw attention to the
important points. The principles of data presentation itself have a variety of opinions. Mike
Bell (2021) in his presentation listed ten principles of data presentation as follows:
i. Asses variation before assurance
ii. The control chart should dominate
iii. Other key charts are the Run/Line, Pareto & Distribution Charts
iv. A number of charts the whole system view
v. Capture balancing measures
vi. Use raw data whenever possible
vii. Metrics Should be plotted in fixed units of time
viii. The One minute test
ix. The narrative should support the charts
x. Consider all forms of intelligence

1.5 TEXTUAL OR DESCRIPTIVE DATA PRESENTATION

Data are described in the text when presented textually. This type of presentation is more
appropriate when the amount of data is not too large.Textual resources with extra metadata

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that are utilized for language and linguistic research include lexicons, text corpora, speech
and text databases, and other sources. Uses of text corpora include: dictionaries, instructional
aids, word lists spelling checks, etc. Data compression is a term most likely used in the case
of summarising textual or descriptive data in a shorter form while going for representation.
Data compression refers to any technique that reduces the length of the text in a particular
data file. Text is represented in either natural languages or written into any programming
language like HTML that produces the document in HTML format and other formats also
accept textual representation of data like Docx format, pdf, etc. The major problem of this
type of representation is that one must read the presentation's entire text to understand it. But
it's also true that this issue frequently allows one to highlight particular aspects of the
presentation.

1.5.1 Important factors during textual presentation of data

While presenting the contextual data, textual presentation is very useful. It helps to point out
the specific information during explanation and analysis. The following points are useful
while considering the textual presentation:

1. Language should be written in an understandable format highlighting the main points

targeting their base audience.
2. Any kind of unfairness should be avoided like slanted, biased, or emotionallanguage,
and maintained accuracy with numbers and percentages.
3. Make a simple presentation and avoid unnecessary details.
4. Data should be monotonous do not contain the same information again and again.
5. Avoid long statements, and short as much as possible.
6. Do not use qualifiers words like little, never, must, exactly, all, always, etc.
7. Use scholarly language instead of decorative language.
1.5.2 Advantagesof textual presentation
According to In and Lee, 2017, the text is the principal method for explaining findings,
outlining trends, and providing contextual information. The textual presentation is more
appropriate for a detailed explanation of data. Some of the advantages of textual data
presentation are:
1. It helps to explain contextual information more elaborately.
2. It is an effective method for qualitative data that is difficult to explain in other
formats like tables or graphs.
3. It helps to emphasize some crucial points in the data and also allows the user to draw
their own conclusion about the text.
4. It is mainly suitable for a small set of data where a table or graph is not required. For
example, The total strength of the bus is 40 out of which 25 are male and 15 are
female.
1.5.3 Disdvantagesof textual presentation
The textual presentation always contains words and paragraphs that are not appropriate for
the presentation. Some of the disadvantages of textual presentation are:
1. It is an ineffective method for large data because it doesn’t use a table or graph.
2. It very drawsa conclusion from textual data and same it is time taking.
3. Sometimes it may lead to wrong analysis because of wrong interpretation.
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4. It requires reading of the whole text sometimes it is not possible.

1.6 TABULAR DATA PRESENTATION
Tabular data presentation most accurate mode of data presentation while considering large
data. It is easy to read and well-coordinated in rows and columns. Its construction parts
require some skill but the layout is simple. It is suitable to compare two or more tho subjects.
It significant part that it provides additional decision-making and statistical treatment. There
are four types of analysis utilized in the tabulation. As follows:

1. Qualitative
2. Quantitative
3. Temporal
4. Spatial

1.6.1 Tabulation of data and parts of a table

The tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in the column and rows with respect to the
characteristics that providea comparison, and statistical analysis, reduce the chance of error
and must be compact and self-explanatory. The main objectives of tabulation are as follows:

i. It provides a comparison
ii. It provides statistical analysis
iii. It provides additional value to data
iv. It also helps in avoiding the unnecessary gap.
v. It makes data understandable to the common layman.
PARTS OF TABLE

TABLE It is a unique identification number given to each table

TITLE It narrates the table content and is always at top of the

table
CAPTIONS OR COLUMN The column heading is known as “ CAPTION”. Always
HEADINGS top first column explains about column contents.
STUBS OR ROW The first row heading horizontally to the table is known as
HEADINGS “STUBS”. It explains about rows content
BODY OF THE TABLE It is numeric facts arranged in both columns and rows that
are read vertically from top to bottom and horizontally
from left to right respectively.
UNIT OF MEASUREMENT It is a kind of measurement used for both tables and rows
and should be mentioned along with the title or alongwith
‘stubs’ or ‘captions’.
SOURCE The bottom of the table indicates the original source of
data
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 Master of Library & Information Science

NOTE The last part of the table mentions specific features that
are not self-explanatory in nature
Source: Retrieved from https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/kest104.pdf on 23
September 2022
1.6.2 Qualitativetabular data presentation
Qualitative data are descriptive, not measurable, exploratory, and always expressed in the
form of quality such as color, appearance, texture, and other qualities. The classification of
such data based on one of its qualities is known as qualitative classification. It provides
understanding but is less reliable and objective. This kind of presentation is basically focus
on theme rather than factual information and during presentation of data there will be chance

of error. In this table sex and location both are qualitatives attributes

Source: Retrieved from Census of India 2011. (Literacy rates relate to the population
aged 7 years and above) on 24 September 2022
1.6.3 Quantativetabular data presentation

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 Master of Library & Information Science

Qualitative data are measurable data. It can be of two types such as discrete and continuous
data. These characteristics are expressed in numbers and expressed in factual findings. They
range from lower to upper limits. In this type of data visual presentation is easy in tables and
charts. There are a number of methods are used to present quantitative data such as line
graphs, scattergrams, bar charts, and histograms.
TABLE: DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS OF PEOPLE PARTICIPATED IN THE
WORKSHOP
AGE GROUP (YRS) NO. OF RESPONDENT
20-25 5
25-30 9
30-35 5
35-40 7
40-45 4
All 30
1.6.4 Temporaltabular data presentation
In the temporal tabulation method, variables are classified on the time factor. It may be any
form like a minute, days, hours, months, weeks, year, etc.
TABLE: YEARLY SALES OF BOOK FROM 2015 TO 2020
YEARS NO. OF BOOKS
2015 200
2016 249
2017 351
2018 365
2019 402
2020 289
ALL 1856
1.6.5 Spatialtabular data presentation
In spatial classification, location factors are used for classification. It may be any place like
rural /urban, block, district, state, country, etc.
TABLE: LOCATION-WISE SALES OF BOOKS( FOUR MAIN CITIES)
PLACE NO. OF BOOKS
DELHI 405
MUMBAI 509
KOLKATA 614
CHENNAI 756
ALL 2284
1.6.6 Limitationof tabular data presentation

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Tabular data presentation has several advantages and disadvantages. Advantages are
mentioned in the objectives of the tabular data presentation part. Some of the limitations of
the tabular data presentation are listed below:
i. Lacks description
ii. Not represent a single item alone
iii. Required special skills.
iv. It is not easy to understand for laymen. etc

1.7 VISUAL DATA PRESENTATION

Visual data presentation refers to the graphical or diagrammatical representation of data and
information in the form of bar graphs, histograms, etc. It isanexcellent way of
communicating data to a non-technical audience. It helps to understand patterns, trends, and
outliers of market strategies. There are several methods of presentation of visual data in
common use. Amongst them, the two major types are as follows:
 Graphical visual data presentation
 Diagrammatic visual data presenation
1.7.1 Graphical visual data presentation

The graphical visual data presentation is a visual representation between two variable along x
and y axis for statistical data in the form of graphs, plots, and charts. It helpto correlate the
influence of one variable upon the other variables. It is attractive method for analysing and
representing quantative data. It suitable for large audience for effective understanding. There
several graphical visual data representation such as Pie diagram , histograms, frequency
graph etc.
1.7.2 Diagrammaticvisual data presentation
It is method of presenting quantative data through diagram such as cartograms, pictograms,
bar diagrams and pie diagrams. It is most suitable for statistical data to presenting into
attractive layout that are understand for large auidences. There are two major types of
diagrammatical visual data presentation are :
 Non-frequency diagram
 Frequency diagram
1.7.2.1 NON-FREQUENCY DIAGRAM
Non-frquency diagram doesn’t measure the repeation of the observation. For example ,
height of people in group. There are several types of non-frequency diagram such as:

1.7.2.1.1 BAR DIAGRAM:The visual display of data (often grouped) in the shape
of vertical or horizontal rectangular bars, with the length of the bars

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corresponding to the measure of the data, is called a bar diagram. Bar

charts are another name for them.

BOOKS ALLOTED BY DEPARTMENT PAPER-WISE

digitilization
automation
information literacy
cataloguing
classification
managemnet

0 50 100 150 200 250

1.7.2.1.2 LINE DIAGRAM: It use the line that connects the points or portions of
the various data in the graph by taking two variables on horizontal and
vertical axes. Line diagram may of single , double or multipe line diagram.

BOOKS ALLOTED BY DEPARTMENT PAPER-WISE

250
200
150
100
50
0
managemnet classification cataloguing information automation digitilization
literacy

1.7.2.1.3 PIE DIAGRAM OR PIE CHART: Representation of data by using

circles and spheres. In the pie diagrams, a circle is divided into parts, such
that each part shows the proportion of various data.

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 Master of Library & Information Science

BOOKS ALLOTED BY DEPARTMENT PAPER-WISE

managemnet classification cataloguing

information literacy automation digitilization

1.7.2.2 FREQUENCY DIAGRAM

Frequency Diagramfrequency data are presented. Data having class interval are presented in
this diagram. There are basically three main types of frequency diagram exists are as follows:
1.7.2.2.1 HISTOGRAM:Histograms are also similar to bar diagrams; they use
rectangular bars to represent the data. But all the rectangular bars are kept
without any gaps.

1.7.2.2.2 FREQUENCY POLYGON: The frequency polygon is a substitute forthe

histogram that is represented in the x and the y-axis where the x-axis
indicates the dataset value and the y- axisindicates severaloccurrences in
particular categories and a curve is known as the frequency polygon.
NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN AGE GROUPS IN MLIS
CLASS LIMITS FREQUENCY
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15-21 4
22-28 9
29-35 6
36-42 8
43-49 3

FREQUENCY PLOYGON
10
NO. OF STUEDENTS

5
0
11 18 25 32 39 46 53

MID-POINT

1.7.2.2.3
OGIVES: It also deals with frequency cumulative distribution and
explains data in a horizontal plane. Cumulative frequency is the sum of all
the previous frequencies up to the current point.There are two types of
ogives exits:
TABLE: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF MARKS OF MLIS STUDENTS

Frequency distribution of Less than cumulative More than the cumulative

marks of mlis student frequency distribution of frequency distribution of
marks obtained in mlis marks obtained in mlis
Marks Number of Marks ‘Less than’ Marks ‘More than’
student cumulative cumulative
frequency frequency
0-20 9 Less than 9 More than 0 80
20
20-40 8 Less than 17 More than 71
40 20
40-60 35 Less than 52 More than 63
60 40
60-80 24 Less than 76 More than 28
80 60
80-100 4 Less than 80 More than 4
100 80
Total 80

1.7.2.2.3.1 LESS THAN TYPES OGIVES: The frequency of a class is increased

by the frequencies of all preceding classes. The less than cumulative
series is what this group is known as. The first-class frequency is added

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 Master of Library & Information Science

to the second-class frequency, followed by the third class frequency, and

so on, to create the final frequency. The less-than-cumulative series is
the consequence of the downward cumulation.

LESS THAN OGIVE

100
80
Frequency

60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Mark of students

1.7.2.2.3.2 MORE THAN TYPES OGIVES: The frequency of a class is increased

by the frequencies of the next classes. The more than cumulative series
is the name given to this set of numbers. It is created by taking the first
class, the overall frequency, the second class frequency, the third class
frequency, and so on. The result of the upward cumulation exceeds or
exceeds the cumulative series.

MORE THAN OGIVE

100
80
FREQUENCY

60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80

Mark of students

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 Master of Library & Information Science

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. The data presentation help in visual _____________.
2. The data are basically ___________ and ____________ type.
3. Data presentation is useless for current scenario.True / False
4. Tabular data presentation are caterogrises as
a) Qualitative b) Quantative
c) Temporal d) All of these
5. The textual data also help in ____________________ presentation.
6. The temporal data presentation time factors consider. True / False
7. In spatial data presentation which factors shoud be
consider_______________.
8. Visual data presntation divided into two parts _____________ and
___________.
9. Examples of non-frequency diagram include
a) Bar diagram b) Line Diagram
c) Pie diagram d) All of these
10. Ogives are basically how many types ____________________.

1.8 SUMMARY

In this module, you are going to develop an understanding of data presentation and going to
understand various types of diagrams used for data presentation. As per the need and nature
ofdata appropriate data presentation method should be selected to make the presentation
more attractive and effective. A most important section of data presentation is the
identification of the nature of data and mode presentation whether it may textual, tabular, or
visual presentation. Before collection of data, we should be clear about our target population
and for whom it is intended. All the data presentation methods are effective but things that
always keep remembering are that it should be clear, simple, free from language bias, and
understandable to laymen. After completing this module, you’ll be able to draw reports and
also going to enhance your chances of getting appreciation among scholar communities and
business practices.

1.9 GLOSSARY

Data: A raw fact

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Primary data: It is collected by own (original data)

Secondary data: Derived from primary data
Contextual: Textual representation method that depends on a context
Tabular: Data presented in table form.
Visual: It is related to seeing graphs, diagrams, etc.
Frequency: Repetition of events.
Polygon: A flat Shape having more than three sides.
Temporal:classification of data based on time
Spatial: Classification of data based on place

1.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Communication 6. True
2. Primary and Secondary 7. Location
3. False 8. Graphical and diagrammatic
4. All of these 9. All of these
5. Contextual data 10. 2

1.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the data presentation Discuss thevarious types of data presentation methods
with suitable examples if needed.
2. Differentiate between frequency and non frequency diagrammatic presentation.
Discuss its types with a suitable diagram.

1.12 REFERENCES

Admin, 3. (2018, September 12). Enterprise search software & semantic search engine: 3RDI
enterprise search. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from https://www.3rdisearch.com/5-
common-techniques-used-in-text-analysis-tools

Admin. (2021, April 14). Tabular presentation of data - main parts of table. Retrieved
September 23, 2022, from https://byjus.com/commerce/tabular-presentation-of-
data/#:~:text=What%20is%20Tabular%20Presentation%20of,simple%20to%20prepare
%20and%20read.

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 Master of Library & Information Science

Admin. (2021, April 27). Diagrammatic presentation of data: Meaning, definition, example,
concept. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from
https://byjus.com/commerce/diagrammatic-presentation-of-data/

Admin. (2021, March 02). Line graph (line chart) - definition, types, sketch, uses and
example. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from https://byjus.com/maths/line-graph/

Admin. (2021, March 02). Line graph (line chart) - definition, types, sketch, uses and
example. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from https://byjus.com/maths/line-graph/

Admin. (2022, April 25). Data collection methods: Methods of primary and secondary data.
Retrieved September 23, 2022, from https://byjus.com/maths/data-collection-methods/

Data presentation. (2022, January 15). Retrieved September 23, 2022, from
https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/other/data-presentation-
guide/

Data presentation. (2022, January 15). Retrieved September 23, 2022, from
https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/other/data-presentation-
guide/

Data: Textual data. (n.d.). Retrieved September 23, 2022, from

https://guides.library.ualberta.ca/data/text

Devanshi, &KavitaRoy. (2020, April 24). Explain any two advantages and disadvantages of
textual presentation of data. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from
https://www.sarthaks.com/720799/explain-any-two-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-
textual-presentation-of-data

Diagrammatic presentation of data - TOPPR-guides. (n.d.). Retrieved September 23, 2022,

from https://www.toppr.com/guides/business-economics-cs/descriptive-
statistics/diagrammatic-presentation-of-data/

Graphic presentation of data and information | types of graphs. (n.d.). Retrieved September
23, 2022, from https://www.toppr.com/guides/business-economics-cs/descriptive-
statistics/graphic-presentation-of-data/

Keshan, A. (2018, September 17). Textual, tabular & diagrammatic presentation of Data.
Retrieved September 23, 2022, from https://kailashafoundation.org/2018/09/16/data-
presentation-in-statistics/

Lisbdnetwork. (2022, February 26). Graphs and its use. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from
https://www.lisedunetwork.com/graphs-and-its-use/

Presentation of data Ch.-4 (VER-5) - NCERT. (n.d.). Retrieved September 23, 2022, from
https://www.ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/kest104.pdf

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 Master of Library & Information Science

ResearchArticles.com. (2019, March 02). Textual presentation of Data. Retrieved September

23, 2022, from http://researcharticles.com/index.php/textual-presentation-of-data/

Ruby Ocenar Follow Instructor. (n.d.). Presentation of data. Retrieved September 23, 2022,
from https://www.slideshare.net/rubyocenar/presentation-of-data-37973327

Sciences, R. (n.d.). Presentation of data PPT. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from
https://www.slideshare.net/Sujarvs/presentation-of-data-ppt

Unit-7 Data presentation. (1970, January 01). Retrieved September 23, 2022, from
https://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/11213

Wafa, &Yaana. (2021, June 05). "there are generally three forms of diagrammatic
presentation of data" explain. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from
https://www.sarthaks.com/1097772/there-are-generally-three-forms-of-diagrammatic-
presentation-of-data-explain

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Presentation of data Ch.-4 (VER-5) - NCERT. (n.d.). Retrieved September 23, 2022,
from https://www.ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/kest104.pdf

Services, E. E. (2015). Data Science and Big Data Analytics: Discovering, analyzing,
visualizing and presenting data. Wiley.

Simmonds, D., Bragg, G., & Britain), I. O. (1980). Charts & graphs: Guidelines for the
visual presentation of statistical data in the Life Sciences. Lancaster.

Singh, Y. K., & Bajpai, R. B. (2009). Research methodology: Data presentation. New
Delhi: A P H Publishing.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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LESSON 12

REPORT WRITING

Dr. Deepak Kumar

Librarian
Gandhi Memorial National College, Ambala
Cantt. (Haryana), NAAC Accreditted ‘A++’
Affiliated to Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra
Email Id: [email protected]
STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Importancesof report writing
1.4 Characteristics of a good report
1.5 Standards of a good report
1.6 Types of report
1.6.1 Oral Report
1.6.2 Written Report
1.6.2.1 Short Vs Long Report
1.6.2.2 External Vs Internal Report
1.6.2.3 Lateral Vs Vertical Report
1.6.2.4 Formal Vs Informal Report
1.6.2.5 Functional Report
1.6.2.6 Descriptive Report
1.6.2.7 Analytical Report
1.6.2.8 Technical Report
1.6.2.9 Informational Report
1.6.2.10 Popular Report
1.6.2.11 Proposal Report
1.6.2.12 Research Report
1.6.2.12.1 Brief Report
1.6.2.12.2 Detailed Report
1.6.2.12.3 Technical Report
1.6.2.12.4 Business Report
1.7 Method of report writing
1.7.1 Identification of Outlook
1.7.2 Outline of Framework
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1.7.3 Sorting of data

1.7.4 Initiation of Report writing
1.7.5 Formulating the initial Draft
1.7.6 Revise and Redraft into Final Report
1.8 Report Writing Format
1.8.1 First Section (Formality Part)
1.8.2 Body section (Main Report)
1.8.3 Appendix Section
1.9 Key consideration in Report Writing
1.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Report Writing
1.11 Citation Writing
1.12 Summary
1.13 Glossary
1.14 Answers to In-text Questions
1.15 Self-Assessment Questions
1.16 References
1.17 Suggested Readings
1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the lesson are to develop a holistic approach to both understanding
and writing of research report. After finishing the lesson, you shall be able to

 Understand how you will write a report

 Identify the different typesof report writing
 Know the importance, characteristics, and standard of report writing
 Design the procedure for report writing
 Know about the format of report writing
 Improve your report writing
 Examine the report in both contexts research finding and its presentation

1.2 INTRODUCTION

The writing of the report is an art and it includes various stages including preparation
and presentation. This is one of the self-assigned tasksthat is necessary not in research areas
but in almost every technical and non-technical field. The only possible way to improve
report writing is by practicing the skillof professional writing in a particular area. Every
professional must needed the skills of report writing in their field. The reportis only
considered relevant when it is presentedconcisely, transferable, meaningful, and devoted to
the purpose for which it was constructed.

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Everyone must know that any project/work is never completed until an appropriate
research report not submitted. Report writing gives an exposure to interact with a different
audience and also know about current research findings. Somehow it is a two-way
communication where you tell about your own work in the form of a report and at the same
time, you understand the value of the other work byacknowledging their research finding.
But every report has its subsequent importance because the different report has different
purpose with different audiences. But when we report our research we must be neutral
because the report isone of way communication.

Report writing is the way to communicate research in the form of written documents
complied by experts in that area or persons who the part of that particular project to convey
their findings to target audiences. It requires all the things that are necessary to prepare a
good report like time, money, expertise, experience, imagination, and a set of skills.
DEFINITIONS:

1) According to Oxford English Dictionary a report is defined as “an account given

on a particular matter, especially in the form of an official document, after
thorough investigation or consideration by an appointed person or body”. For
example “The Annual Report Library”
2) Report is simply defined as the articulate, arranged, concise, and well-presented
form of the written document.
3) Research Report is somehow different from an ordinary report because it contains
relevant information related to particular research areas.
4) In other words we called a research report is a type of report writing where
relevant information is articulated, arranged, concise, and well presented to
particular research areas.

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF REPORT WRITING

There are several purposes associated to report writing while we consider the types of
reports.It gives usa clear view when we link research findings with the researchhypothesis.
Report writing is very important for the accomplishment of your degree, writing for a
journal, or communicating to a large audience. Some of the basic purposes of report writing
are as follows:
 It is tangible evidence for the study
 It considers a more authentic result and quality work
 It provides a comprehensive overview of the selected topic
 Recorded document serves more conveniently for future endeavor
 It is a tool that is useful for professional advancement
 It helps to tackle advanced and complex situations.
 It also helps to locate the exact and quick information and decision-making.

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The timely communication of the research finding to the target audience is very
important when considering the reporting of the research. Relevancy of the information
decreases with the time span so while talking about a detailed report it must be in a
comprehensive, objective manner to the right person at the right time.

1.4 CHARACTERISTCS OF A GOOD REPORT

A good report should have a number of characteristics while considering the standard. It
must not exceed its word limit, be flexible, and learner center. It should convey its message
in a simple and objective orientated. The characteristics are:
• It should be simple
• It must be readable
• It should contain brevity
• The report should haveclarity in conveying the message.
• Text contains positivity while explaining the findings.
• Punctuationshould be placed properly.
• Itapproachmust be clear
• All the contains should be in logical Sequence
• Accuracy of the report should consider while evaluating
• The standard structure should be followed
• Presentation as per international standard.

1.5 STANDARD OF A GOOD REPORT

Every report has unique in itself because the report may vary from person to person
based on imagination, creative abilities, personality, experience, etc. However, the most
experts agree that the following standards must be kept in mind while we are going for report
writing. These standards are often called the essentiality of a good report.
 Selectiveness
 Cost-effectiveness
 Objectivity
 Comprehensiveness
 Preciseness
 Simplicity
 Accuracy
 Proper Language
 Reliability
 Proper Format
 Attractive

1.6 TYPES OF REPORT

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Kerlinger (2004) states that the results of a research investigation can be presented in a
number of ways via a technical report, a popular resort, a monograph, or at times even in the
form of oral presentation." There are different types of reportsthat may differ in their length,
writing style, purpose, use of key terms, and types. Initially, the report categorizes into two
types oral and written reports later based on different criteria further itis divided into different
categoriesSome of them are:

1.6.1 ORAL REPORT: It is face-to-face communication that has an informal mode of the
report that is presented mostly in verbal form. It doesn’t contain anyrecords. Most people
denied this type of report. It may contain oral and written presentations but it contains mostly
factual information.

1.6.2 WRITTEN REPORT:It is the most commonly used formal report writing where
people often recorded their information for future endeavors. Written report writing is also
categorizedinto several types based on length, orientation, popularity, specificity, areas of its
covers, and purpose for whom it writing. Some of the written reports are as follows:

1.6.2.1 Short Vs Long Report: A short report is an informal kind of report small in length
and was written for seeking routine work whereas aLong report needs costs,
locations, personnel, safety, or equipment and it is a formal report having exhaustive
and extensive documentation work.
1.6.2.2 External Vs Internal Report:As the name explains, an Internal report is always
made for within an organization and circulated among itself. This type of report is
known as a private report but an external report always has a widespread distribution
outside oforganizations We often called this report a public report.
1.6.2.3 Lateral Vs Vertical Report: It deals with the movement of the report within or
outside the organization. If the report moves upward or downward we called them a
vertical report but if it moves among the same level of associate, it is known as the
lateral report. It is all about the hierarchy of report migration.
1.6.2.4 Formal Vs Informal Report: Informal reports do not deal with complex issues like
a formal report. Their target audiences are small or even within an organization. It
contains short messages and causes language. They only informed their employees
about basic policies. Some of the informal reports are web postings, emails, memos,
letters, etc. It includes four basics steps:
 Plan
 Write
 Revise
 Edit
Formal reports are well structured, deal with complex issues, and are essentials for decision
makers like directors, educational professionals, community leaders, government officials,
etc. It is most widely used in the field of science, business, education, government work, etc.
Some of the common types of formal reports are research reports, problem-solving reports

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 Master of Library & Information Science

analytical reports, descriptive reports, instructional reports, etc. Formal reports follow some
basic guidelines during the preparation. It contains two sections.
I. SECTION A: It is also called a front matter. It contains the cover, title page, letter of
transmittal, table of contents (including figures), and abstract or summary of the
report.
II. SECTION B: It is also called the end matter provided at the last of the report. It
contains a glossary, footnotes, endnote pages, and an appendix (ces).
Based on the complexity each formal report contains the following attributes:
a. Title Page
b. Letter of Transmittal
c. Table of Contents
d. Summary or Informative abstract
e. Introduction
f. Body or Development (report text)
g. Conclusions
h. Costing
i. Recommendation
j. Glossary
k. Appendix (ces)
l. Bibliography
There are various types of formal and informalreports and every report has different
purposes. Some of the types of reports are:
I. Informational Reports: It deals with sharing of information such as fact, findings,
and data and their background information.
II. Analytical Report: It is quite similar to information reports but differs by analysis or
recommendation and conclusion that encapsulated the findings.
III. Progress Reports: It will help us to upgrade the status of the report that has been in
progress, the landmark achieved, steps still pending, etc.
1.6.2.5 Functional Report: It deals with an individual role within an organization involved
in the functional level strategy based on its specialized nature it shares mutual
responsibility between positions or organizational units at discrete management
levels. Some of the functional reports are accounting reports, marketing reports, and
financial reports.
1.6.2.6 Descriptive Report: It is one of the most popular methods of report writing that
describes the facts, experienced, trends, or findings gathered during the research
activities. This type of report is very difficult to understand the value of the study at
once. Basically, a descriptive research report consist of the following elements:
a) Title pages
b) Abstract
c) Tables of Contents
d) Preface
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e) Body
f) List of sources and literature
g) Indexes
h) Appendixes
1.6.2.7 Analytical Report: It is mostly used for complex business activities that are based on
statistics and historical data for anlaying and interpretation facts and situations. It is a
kind of predictive foretelling analysis using multidimensional charts and data
visualization tools. Apart from this, talking about structure it should include the
following :
a) Title page
b) Tabe of contents
c) A clause
d) Body (discussion)
e) Conclusion
f) Recommendation
g) Bibliography or appendices ( if necessary then)
1.6.2.8 Technical Report: It is a technically loaded scientific written document that provides
information related to technical research. The technical report emphasizeson three
basic key features:
I. PROCESS
II. PROGRESS
III. PRONOUNCEMENT
The process elaborates the method employed whereas progress is assumptions made during
the study and the finding, limitation, and evidence supporting the research is discussed in the
pronouncement part. The basic outline of the technical research report is as:
a) Abstract: Discussed finding in 2-3 pages
b) Nature of the study: General objectives
c) Methodology: Method used and their limitation
d) Data: Method of data collection, source, and limitations
e) Analysis and Interpretations: Deals with the presentation data in chart and table
and supporting the finding.
f) Conclusions: Discuss detailed findings and policy implications
g) Bibliography: list of references consulted.
h) Technical Appendices: It contains questionnaires, technique descriptions,
mathematical derivation, etc.
i) Index: Alternative guide of the alphabetically arranged list of terms.
1.6.2.9 Informational Report: This particular report is already mentioned in section
1.6.2.4formal vs informal report so please refer above one.
1.6.2.10 Popular Report: This type of report is a trending report that emphasizes attractive
layout and simplicity. The simplicity is reflected by less use of technical terms,
clear writing, and detailed and liberal use of diagrams and charts. Attractiveness
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contains many heading and subheadings, clear print, and sometimes occasional use
of caricature. The basic framework for the popular report is:
a) Findings and their Implications
b) Recommendations for improvement
c) Objective project under study
d) Methodology
e) Result and conclusion
f) Technical appendices
1.6.2.11 Proposal Report: It is an extension of problem-solving/ analytical reports. This
type of report is mostly needed in business setup and it is a solution-oriented report.
Some examples of proposal reportsareweb designing proposal reports, digital
library proposal reports, etc.
1.6.2.12Research Report: It is either popular or technical in scope. It may be one-way
communication while providing the recommendation and conclusion. A good
research report must have the following qualities:
• It must have a detailed presentation, precise in nature, and written lucidly.
• Language should be simple, formal, and systematic and presented in table and charts
• Finding should justify the objectives of the study
• Data collected from primary source either secondary source must be arranged and
presented in a lucid manner.
• Avoid the use of pronouns like My, Me, etc it should be written in the third person.
• It should have a proper heading, sub-heading, titles, graphs, tables, proper
punctuations, etc.
• Report generally provides recommendations for several issues.
The research report may vary based on the descriptions, length, areas cover, etc. It may
further be divided into four main types such as:
1.6.2.12.1 Brief Report:Itslength does not exceed 4-5 pages. It does not have any formal
structure. It has scope, design of research, the methodology followed instrument
designed and findings must be recorded. It is concrete proof of the study. The
survey report is an example of a brief report.
1.6.2.12.2 Detailed Report: It is written in both technical as well as popular reports. It
contains caricature because it targets a common audience outside their domains.
This type of report is mostly used in marketing research studies.
1.6.2.12.3 Technical Report: It is already mentioned in section 1.3.2.8 Technical report
under the heading written report. Please refer above text.
1.6.2.12.4 Business Report: This type of report is technical in nature and the report must be
written in business terms that will be understandable to a business tycoon which
enables them for decision making.
1.7 METHOD OF REPORT WRITING

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Report writing is an art but still, no set of rules is mentioned for writing a report or any
guidelines. The only possible way to write an effective and attractive research report only
practicing and enhancing critical thinking. However, the general guidelines listed below can
help you in writing reports:
1.7.1 Identification of Outlook: The researcher should identify the purpose of the study
and the conjecture associated with the study. Its outlook is well designed and a formal
format for academic reports should be followed and also identify some of the
questions like Is there any format of reports? What is the process of report evaluation? Is
there a word limit? etc.
1.7.2 Outline of Framework: It is necessary to establish a road map for creating the report
based on the purpose, facts, and evaluation requirements. Every project work has
some time span for submitting the report for this we need to draw an outline of
thewrite-up.It is the very first stage of report writing during this phase reporter should
cover the time frame within the report.
1.7.3 Sorting of data: Based on the purpose reporter should consider only relevant data for
report writing that must be arranged sequentially so the right user will be obtained at
right time at the purpose. All the caricatures should be named properly.
1.7.4 Initiation of Report writing:This is the most important part of the report writing
start with the introduction and provide the first site of your report. It should follow
some order instead of writing haphazardly.
1.7.5 Formulating the initial Draft: Report should be prepared in multiple drafts because
it needsa series of revisions. Then only it going to be an excellent report.
1.7.6 Revise and Redraft into Final Report: This is the final step of report writing. The
report always has some scope for improvement. So, the reporter must read again and
again and rewrite the report until it has less scope for improvement. Throughout the
layout, format, grammar, methodology, etc. everything should be carefully checked.
After rewriting the final draft it should be confirmed one more time then it will be
submitted to the concerned authority.
1.8 REPORT WRITING FORMAT
Once you decided on the problem of the study then you have to draw an outline of your
report which may containa formality section or first section, body, and appendix section. Its
layout should follow as below:
1.8.1 First Section (Formality Part)
i. Cover page
ii. Title page
iii. Certificate or statement
iv. Index (brief contents)
v. Table of contents (detailed index)
vi. Acknowledgement
vii. List of tables and figures used
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viii. Preface/forwarding/introduction
ix. Summary report
1.8.2 Body section (Main Report)
i. Statement of objectives
ii. Methodology and research design
iii. Types of data and its sources
iv. Sampling decisions
v. Data collection methods
vi. Data collection tools
vii. Fieldwork
viii. Analysis and interpretation (including tables, charts, figures,
etc.)
ix. Findings
x. Limitations
xi. Conclusions and recommendations
xii. Any other relevant detail
1.8.3 Appendix Section
i. Copies of forms used
ii. Tables not included in findings
iii. A copy of questionnaire
iv. Detail of sampling and rate of response
v. Statement of expenses
vi. Bibliography – list of books, magazines, journals, and other
reports
vii. Any other relevant information
1.9 KEY CONSIDERATION IN REPORT WRTING
Curtin (2015) suggested that a report prepared after research often provide recommendation
for acting on the progress of work. Report writing needs lots of hard work while preparing a
report we keep key considerations our mind. Some of the considerations are as follow:
a) Problem definition
b) Objectives
c) Type of problem
d) Domain of research
e) Target audience
f) Format including language, a form of writing, style, color, font, binding, etc.
g) Content and its order
h) Assessment proof
i) Length of report
j) Time and money
k) Possible solution
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l) Report checklist
The reporting checklist is the most important part of report writing where we make a series of
questions related to the completion of the report and in the final stage cross-check with the
report checklist, whether it is completed or not.

1.10 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF REPORT WRITING

A written report act as a measuring document for addressing the problem in study and also
informed about progress and growth for performance evaluations so, while writing a report
we should need proper knowledge because there are several advantages and disadvantages of
the report that are mentioned below:
ADVANTAGES:
i. A successful report means successful work.
ii. A good report will specify the proper methodology adopted during the study.
iii. Report will also identify correct procedures to determine particular work for that
instance.
iv. It works for others as a motivational factor.
v. It also highlights the brief description of the issue.
vi. It sometimes works aa s monitoring measure for performance evaluations.
vii. It provides insight and a better understanding of the topic for future endeavours.
DISADVANTAGES:
i. Time -consuming process.
ii. Expensive to conduct and write.
iii. Difficult to understand some technical words
iv. Biasness in data may lead to incorrect conclusion
v. Difficultes in implementation of recommendation
vi. Quality of report also affects the reliability of the report.
vii. It is one-way communication and doesn’t allow you to ask a question and provide
feedback.

1.11 CITATIONWRITING

A citation is a compulsory part of report writing where we are giving the credit to the original
creator if anything is consulted from other sources. Reference is mandatory if we take any
ideas, words, or information like figures, tables, diagrams, or even text. Basically, we have
two methods to cite a person’s work:

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I. In-Text Citation: Citation within the text

Example:
Research is a combination of two words adding “RE” as a prefix to the word
“SEARCH”. ‘Re’ means again and ‘Search’ means to find out. Smith (1981) suggests
that research is a "disciplined inquiry" that. . . must be conducted and reported so that
its logical argument can be carefully examined.
II. End–of–Paper Citation / Bibliography: It is always given at the end of the report. It
includes all the bibliography details like title, author, publication,n etc.
Example:
Kagan, D., Moran-Gilad, J., & Fire, M. (2020). Scientometric trends for
coronaviruses and other emerging viral infections. GigaScience, 9(8).
https://doi.org/10.1093/gigascience/giaa085

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. The report should be written _____________ manner.
2. The size of informal report should be ___________.
3. Report often need the typical language. True / False
4. Basically formal and informal report are caterogrises as
a) Informational report b) Analytical report
c) Progress report d) All of these
5. The first step of informal report writing____________________.
6. The language to be used for this purpose should be hard. True / False
7. In technical report abstract discuss in how many _______________.
8. Report writing format divided into three parts formality part, body part and
_____________.
9. Technical report have following basic key features:
a) Process b) Progress
c) Pronouncement d) All of these
10. Citation are basically how many types ____________________.

1.12 SUMMARY

In this module, you are going to develop an understanding of report writing and the types of
report writing. The report starts by stating the purpose of the report and drawing an outline of
a written report as per the objectives of the report. As per need, a report may be of a different
kind with slight modification but structure somehow common. Most important section of
written report includes its finding fulfilling the objective of the study with suggestions for

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improving the further study. References are compulsory section of report writing either, it is
in the form of in-text citation or bibliographgy. After completing this module , you’ll be able
to draw report and also going to enhance your chances to getting appreciation among scholar
communities and business practices.

1.13 GLOSSARY

Report: A detail of the study

Front Matter: It contains the title cover, title page, letter of transmittal, table of contents
(including figures), and abstract or summary of the report
Formality: A mandatory portion of report
Abstract: A summary of whole report.
Pronouncement: It is brief elobration of finding, limitation and supporting data.
Literature Review: Method help to identify research gap and recent trend
Methodology: Method employed in a particular study.
Results Finding of the study including recommentions/ suggestions.
Recommendations: Advice to do for future improvement.
Reference List: A list of consulted document.

Appendices: Extra Information of the study like Graphs, tables, charts, tables, but in
essential.
Citation: A credit to original creator

1.14 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Systematic 6. False
2. 1-3 pages 7. 2-3 pages
3. False 8. Appendix part
4. All of these 9. All of these
5. Plan 10. 2

1.15 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the concept of report writing. Discuss the various types of report writing with
suitable examples if needed.

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2. Differentiate between oral and written report. Illustrate a research report with using
all three section.

1.16 REFERENCES

Report writing, characteristics, structure and types. (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from
http://www.simplynotes.in/e-notes/mbabba/business-communication/report-writing-
characteristicsstructure-and-types/2/

Davies et al. (n.d.). Research reports - library. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from
https://library.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/1924146/Research_Reports.
pdf

Practical-13 writing a paper/research report. (1970, January 01). Retrieved August 19, 2022,
from https://egyankosh.gkpad.com/page/32424

Venkatesh D Follow Sales Executive. (n.d.). Types of report writing. Retrieved August 19,
2022, from https://www.slideshare.net/Dharmam/types-of-report-writing

MA (Economics) II semester statistical inferences and research methods ... (n.d.). Retrieved
August 19, 2022, from
http://www.jiwaji.edu/pdf/ecourse/economics/MA(Economics)%20II%20Sem%20Stati
stical%20Inferences%20and%20Research%20Methods%20(203).pdf

Module 19:Report writing - epgp.inflibnet.ac.in. (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from
https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S001610/P001749/M02275
3/ET/1505113821Module24Quadrant1.pdf

Report writing - meaning, definition, types, quality, layout: Office. (n.d.). Retrieved August
19, 2022, from https://www.brainkart.com/article/Report-Writing_35377/

Take online courses. earn college credit. Research Schools, Degrees & Careers. (n.d.).
Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://study.com/academy/lesson/types-of-informal-
reports.html

Digital Marketing Evangelist Follow. (n.d.). Types of formal reports. Retrieved August 19,
2022, from https://www.slideshare.net/RAIAB2/types-of-formal-reports

(n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from http://www2.uiah.fi/projekti/metodi/195.htm

Advantages and disadvantages of company reports. (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from
https://www.upcounsel.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-company-
reports#advantages-of-business-reports

Report writing: Key considerations. (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from
https://libguides.dbs.ie/c.php?g=663951&p=4739871
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Pros and cons of writing lab report. (2022, January 25). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from
https://topscholarshelp.com/2022/01/25/pros-and-cons-of-writing-lab-report/

Techthug99. (2022, May 05). What is report writing? parts, types, structure, process.
Retrieved August 19, 2022, from https://www.geektonight.com/report-
writing/#:~:text=A%20written%20report%20also%20provides%20the%20following%
20advantages%3A,written%20report%20conveys%20a%20message%20without%20an
y%20distortion.

Research skills tutorial: What is a citation? (n.d.). Retrieved August 19, 2022, from
https://subjectguides.esc.edu/researchskillstutorial/citationparts

1.17 SUGGESTED READINGS

Hering, H. (2019). How to write technical reports understandable structure, good design,
convincing presentation. Retrieved August 19, 2022, from
https://www.amazon.com/How-Write-Technical-Reports-
Understandable/dp/3540699287

Business Writing Essentials - How To Write Letters, Reports and Emails (Clare Whitmell) (z-
lib.org). (n.d.).
Davies, M. (2011). Study skills for international postgraduates. Palgrave Macmillan.
Forsyth, P. (n.d.). How to Write Reports and Proposals, Second Edition.
Thakur, H. K. (n.d.). Research Methodology WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT The
Myanmar Coup: What Does it Entail for India and China? View project Tribes of
Ladakh View project. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354533791
Words at Work - How to Book of Writing Skills - Improve Your English Report, Email or
Business Writing Skills (J H Hood) (z-lib.org). (n.d.).
Writing that works how to communicate effectively in business, e-mail, letters, memos,
presentations, plans, reports,... (Kenneth Roman, Joel Raphaelson) (z-lib.org). (n.d.).
**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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LESSON 13

STATISTICAL PACKAGES – MS Excel, SPSS, and

Web-based Statistical Analysis Tools, etc
Dr. Nitin Paliwal
Incharge (Central Library)
National Institute of Technology Hamirpur
Himachal Pradesh, India
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

13.1 Learning Objectives

13.2 Statistical Packages
13.3 MS Excel (Microsoft Excel)
13.3.1 Data formatting
13.3.2 Importing Data
13.3.3 Subtotal Tool
13.3.4 Pivot Table Tool
13.3.5 Statistical Functions
13.3.6 Data Analysis add-ins
13.3.7 Running an Analysis
13.3.8 Creating Chart
13.4 SPSS (Statistical Product and Service Solutions)
13.4.1 Types of Files
13.4.2 Types of Display
13.4.3 Sample Files
13.4.4 Entering Data
13.4.5 Importing Data
13.4.6 Running an Analysis
13.4.7 Creating Chart
13.5 Web-based Statistical Analysis Tools
13.5.1 R (R Foundation for Statistical Computing)
13.5.2 MATLAB (The Mathworks)
13.5.3 SAS (Statistical Analysis Software)
13.5.4 GraphPad Prism
13.5.5 Minitab
13.6 Summary
13.7 Glossary
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13.8 Answers to In-text Questions

13.9 Self-Assessment Questions
13.10 References
13.11 Suggested Readings

13.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the lesson are to introduce the various statistical packages which
may be used for statistical analysis.
After reading this Unit, you would be able to:

1. define the word “Statistical Packages”

2. describe the features of statistical packages like MS-Excel and SPSS; and
3. Portray some Web-based Statistical Analysis Tools.

13.2 STATISTICAL PACKAGES

Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines statistics as a branch of mathematics dealing

with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical data OR
a collection of quantitative data. In other words, it is used as a "collection of numerical facts
or data".

It is very difficult to apply statistics on large amounts of quantitative data manually.

Hence, specially built computer programs are needed to apply statistical functions on large
amounts of data. A statistical package is the software that is used for collecting, organising,
interpreting, and presenting numerical information. The advancement in technology made it
possible to run all the statistical functions using specialised packages known as statistical
packages.
According to Yo, I. (2021) , the Statistical package is a software product designed for
statistical data processing; usually this package includes business graphics, analysis of
variance, regression analysis, time series analysis, etc.
13.3 MS Excel (Microsoft Excel)

Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program offered by Microsoft as a part of Microsoft

Office. Excel is used by almost all the users of Windows Operating System. The latest
version of Microsoft Office is Office 365. Apart from Statistical Functions, MS Excel also
provides Data Analysis Add-Ins which can be used for statistical analysis such as ANOVAs,
Correlation, Covariance, Descriptive Statistics, Exponential Smoothing, and F-Test Two-

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Sample for Variances, Fourier analysis, Histogram, Moving Average, Random Number
Generation, Rank and Percentile, Regression, Sampling, t-Test, z-Test etc.

13.3.1 Data formatting:

Every MS Excel file is a set of sheets. At least one sheet is required in any MS Excel
File, whereas the maximum number of sheets depends upon the available memory of the
computer system. Each sheet contains 1,048,576 rows and 16,384 columns in case the latest
version of MS Excel is installed. These sheets can be used for data entry and for performing
calculations with an easy to use Graphic User Interface of MS Excel. The intersection of a
row and column is called a Cell. The data needs to be entered or imported in these cells.

Fig 13.1: Format Cells dialog box

MS Excel supports various formats of data such as General, Currency, Accounting,

Date, Time, Percentage, Fraction, Scientific, Text, Special and Custom. The steps to format a
cell or a range of cells is given below:

• Right Click on the cell or range of cells which need to be formatted

• Click on Format Cells option for the shortcut menu.

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• Users may select the required category of the data along with alignment,
font, border and filling.

13.3.2 Importing Data:

MS Excel provides provisions to import the data from various sources such as MS
Access, Web, Text, SQL Server, Analysis Services, Windows Azure Marketplace, OData
Data Feed, XML Data Import, Data Connection Wizard, and Microsoft Query etc. The steps
to import data from Access are given below:

• Click on From Access in the Get External Data section of DATA tab.
• Select Data Source dialog box will appear.
• Select the access file from which data needs to be imported and click OPEN.
• Select the tables for import and press OK.
• In the Import Data dialog box select Table and click OK.
• The data will be imported in new sheets.

Fig 13.2: Import data from MS Access

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Fig 13.3: Select Data Source dialog box

Fig 13.4: Select Table dialog box

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13.3.3 Subtotal Tool:

It is used to find the Sum, Count, Average, Minimum, Maximum, and Count
Numbers etc. of one or more categories of the data. The steps to use the subtotal are given
below:

• Sort the data based on alphabetic order in the category.

• Click any cell of the table and then click on Subtotal in DATA Tab.
• Select the category in the At each change in field.
• Select the desired function in the Use function field.
• Select the columns on which the function need to be apply and press OK
• The subtotal of the desired columns will be inserted automatically as and
when the category changes.
• Click ‘+’ or ‘-‘button at the left side of the row numbers to show all the details
or summary respectively.

Fig 13.5: Subtotal Tool

Fig 13.6: Subtotal Dialog Box

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Fig 13.7: Output after applying Subtotal Tool.

13.3.4 Pivot Table Tool:

The Pivot Table tool of MS Excel enables to create cross tabulations or two-way
frequency tables across categorical variables. It is quite easy to use and provides desired
results with few clicks. The steps to use the Pivot Table Tool are given below:

• Click the INSERT Tab and then click Pivot Table button.
• Pivot Table Dialog Box will appear in which the user has to enter the some
parameters i.e. source data and cell address of the outcome and click OK.
• The work area of Pivot Table along with Pivot Table Field List dialog box
will appear.
• The user will be provided the option to choose fields which will appear in the
report. The fields dragged to the Row Labels will appear as rows whereas the
fields dragged to the Column Labels will appear as columns. The values
section offered Sum, Count, Average, Maximum, Minimum, Count, Standard
Deviation and Variance function on the fields which are dragged to it.
• Users can easily drag the fields among Rows, Columns or Values.

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Fig 13.8: Pivot Table tool

Fig 13.9: Create Pivot Table dialog box

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Fig 13.10: Pivot Table workarea and PivotTable Field List dialog box

13.3.5 Statistical Functions:

MS Excel also has wide variety of commonly used functions including around 180
statistical functions which can be classified in following categories:

• Count and Frequency functions such as Count, Count Blank, Count If etc.
• Permutations functions
• Confidence Intervals functions
• Percentiles, Quartiles & Rank functions
• Deviation & Variance functions such as AveDev, StDev, StDevA, Var etc.
• Trend Line Functions such as Forecast, Intercept, Slope, Trend etc.
• Largest & Smallest Values functions
• Averages functions such as Average, Median, Mode etc.
• Distribution & Tests of Probability functions such as BetaDist, Beta.Inv,
Chisq.Dist.Rt, Correl, F.Test, T.Dist, T.Test, Z.Test etc.
The steps to use Statistical Functions are given below:
• Click any blank cell in the sheet. The result of Statistical Functions will
appear in this cell.
• Click on Insert Function icon i.e. fx just before the Formula bar OR click the
Formulas Tab and then click Insert Function button.

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• Insert Function Dialog Box will appear. Users may search for a function or
may select the Statistical category from the list of categories.
• Click on AVEDEV (Average Deviation) function from the list of Statistical
functions.
• Function Arguments dialog box will appear in which the user has to enter
the parameters so that the function may be executed.
• AVEDEV of excel supports up to 255 arguments and the user may either
enter the cell address/ cell Range or individual numbers as well.
• The outcome of the function will be reflected in the Function Arguments
dialog box itself.
• Press OK to complete the function and view the result in the Cell.

Fig 13.11: Insert Function tool

Fig 13.12: Formulas Tab

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Fig 13.13: Insert Function dialog box

Fig 13.14: Function Arguments dialog box.

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13.3.6 Data Analysis add-ins:

To enable Data Analysis add-ins:

• Click on File Menu (or Office Button) at the top left corner of the Excel
Window)
• Select Excel Options from the left pane of the menu.
• Select Add-Ins from the left pane of the Excel Options dialog box.
• In the Manage drop down menu select Excel Add-Ins and click the Go
Button.
• Select the Analysis ToolPak from the scroll list and click OK
• The Data Analysis Toolpak will be visible under the DATA toolbar.

Fig 13.15: File menu

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Fig 13.16: Excel Options Dialog Box

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Fig 13.17: Add-Ins Dialog Box

13.3.7 Running an Analysis:

The steps to obtain the Descriptive Statistics using the Data Analysis Toolpak add-
ins, are given below:
• Click any blank cell in the sheet.
• Click the Data Tab and then click Data Analysis Tools.
• Data Analysis Dialog Box will appear. Select Descriptive Statistics from the
list of analysis tools and click OK.
• Descriptive Statistics dialog box will appear in which the user has to enter
the parameters so that the function may be executed and click OK.
• The outcome of the Descriptive Statistics will be reflected at the output range
mentioned in the Descriptive Statistics dialog box which shows Count,
Kurtosis, Maximum, Mean, Median, Minimum, Mode, Range, Sample
Variance, Skewness, Standard Deviation, Standard Error, and Sum of the
range mentioned in the Data Analysis Dialog Box.

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Fig 13.18: Add-Ins Dialog Box

Fig 13.19: Add-Ins Dialog Box

13.3.8 Creating Chart:

Excel supports a variety of charts such as Column Chart, Line Chart, Pie Chart, Bar
Chart, Area Chart, X Y (Scatter) Chart, Stock Chart, Surface Chart, Doughnut Chart, Bubble
Chart, Radar Chart etc. These charts are further divided based on the presentation of data in
the charts. The steps to create chats are given below:

• Click a cell of the table on which the Chart needs to be drawn

• Click the INSERT Tab and then click on the required Chart Type from the
chart panel.
• Click on the required sub-category of the chart.
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• The Chart Area will appear on the sheet and Chart Tools tab will open to
enable the necessary changes in the chart.
• Chart Tools tab is divided in two or three subsections i.e. Design, Layout and
Format. The Layout subsection has been merged with the design subsection in
the latest version of MS Excel which is part of MS Office 365.
• Though all the options related to Charts may be accessed through Chart
Tools tab, Chart elements such as axis, chart labels etc. at the Chart Area can
be formatted by right clicking on it as well.

Fig 13.20: Insert Chart tool

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Fig 13.21: Subcategories of the Charts.

Fig 13.22: Chart Tool.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Microsoft Excel is a _______________ program.
2. _______________ Add-Ins of MS Excel can be used for statistical analysis.
3. Every sheet in Microsoft Excel 365 has _______rows ________ columns .
4. The functionality of importing external data is available under:
a) Insert tab b) Data tab
c) Formulas tab d) View tab
5. Pivot Table Tool is available under:
a) Insert tab b) Data tab
c) Formulas tab d) View tab
6. MS Excel also has a wide variety of commonly used functions including
around _________ statistical functions.
7. The Data Analysis Toolpak is available under the __________ tab.

13.4 SPSS (Statistical Product and Service Solutions.)

SPSS is a computer statistical software package. IBM acquired SPSS in 2009 and
beginning with version 19 has officially renamed the software as IBM SPSS. The acronym
SPSS stood for “Statistical Package for the Social Sciences”, later changed to “Statistical
Product and Service Solutions” as the usages of the software spread beyond the Social
Sciences. The latest version of IBM SPSS is 28. SPSS provides various statistical analysis
tools such as Compare Means, Classify, Correlate, Data Reduction, Descriptive Statistics,
General Linear Model, Non-Pavansetric Tests and Multiple Response , Regression, Report,
and Scale etc.

13.4.1 Types of Files:

IBM SPSS uses three types of file. There are three types of files with which we
ordinarily work when using IBM SPSS: data files(.sav) , output file(.spv), and syntax
file(.sps).

• Data file: This is a spreadsheet which contains the data. Its icon shows a grid.
• Output file: This file is produced when IBM SPSS has performed the
requested statistical analysis (or other operations such as saving the data file.).
Its icon shows a window with a banner.
• Syntax file: This file contains the IBM SPSS computer code (syntax) that
drives the analysis. Its icon shows a window with horizontal lines.

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13.4.2 Types of Display:

The default view which shows the spreadsheet is called Data View as it shows the
data which need to be analysed using IBM SPSS. The Variable View allows users to view or
specify the properties of the variables which are being used in the Data View. Users can
obtain the Variable View by clicking at the bottom of the Data View window. The 11
properties which can be specified in Variable View are Name, Type, Width, Decimal, Label,
Values, Missing, Columns, Align, Measure and Role.

13.4.3 Sample Files

IBM SPSS offers lots of sample data tables which may be loaded in the data view so
that the uses can perform various statistical analyses on these data sets. Demo.sav is one such
sample file which represents a fictitious survey of several thousand people along with their
demographic and consumer information. The steps to open the sample files are given below:

• Click on File menu, Open submenu and Data option.

• Open Data dialog box will appear.
• Browse Samples or Samples\English Folder which should be available at
C:\Program Files\IBM\SPSS Statistics\ folder. In earlier versions of IBM
SPSS, This path needs to be suffixed by IBM SPSS version as well.
• IBM SPSS Statistics data files which have the .sav extension are displayed by
default.

Fig 13.23: demo.sav file in Data View (Source: https://www.ibm.com)

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Fig 13.24: Variable View (Source: https://www.ibm.com)

13.4.4 Entering Data

Viewing Sample files in the Variable will help to understand various properties of
variables, which is necessary while entering data in the SPSS directly. The steps to enter data
in IBM SPSS are given below:

• Click on File menu, New submenu and Data option.

• Blank spreadsheet opens in Dataview. Users may directly enter the data in this
view.
• Click on Variable View at the Bottom of the page.
• Type the Name of the Variable in the Name Field.
• Define the format of the variable in the second column i.e. Type
• Define the length of the data which the variable need to hold in the third
column i.e. Width
• If value at Forth Column i.e. Label will display as column name in the Data
view. If it is left blank, the value of Name Field will appear as column name
in the Data View.

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IBM SPSS supports various formats of Variables through the second column (Type
Field) of the Variable View such as Comma, Custom Currency, Date, Dollar, Dot, Numeric,
Restricted Numeric, Scientific Notation, and String. The brief description of these formats is
given below:

• Comma: This format is used for numeric values. The data of this format will
appear with a comma that delimit every three places and use a period to
delimit decimals e.g. 12,050,000.00
• Custom Currency: This format allows data to be represented along with the
Custom Currency Format. The Custom Currency characters are displayed in
the Data Editor but cannot be used during data entry
• Date: This format allows data to represent in calendar date or clock-time
formats e.g. Date of Birth 01/31/2013, 31.01.2013 or Time of the Shift etc.
09:00:00.0.
• Dollar: The data of this format will appear with Dollar Sign (i.e. $). Further,
Comma delimit every three places and a period to delimit decimals e.g. $
50,000.00
• Dot: In this format, the period (dot) delimit every three places and comma is
used to delimit decimals e.g. 12.050.000,00
• Numeric: As the name suggests, this format is used to store the numerical
values. However, it is also used to store the to denote nominal (unordered) or
ordinal categorical variables e.g. “1” and “2” are used instead of the words
"male" and "female". Any blank cell (Missing values) within this field will
automatically appear as a dot (i.e. “.”). Hence, user should not enter the dot
(i.e., “.”) for missing values (i.e. NULL value).
• Restricted Numeric: In this format the numbers are prefixed with the leading
zeros to the maximum width of the variable. This format does not support the
decimal point and negative integers.
• Scientific Notation: In this format the numeric value is represented with an E
and power-of-ten exponent e.g. 3.56E2, 3.56D2, 3.56E+2, 3.56+2. All these
values are treatedas numerical values by IBM SPSS.
• String: In this format the values are represented as Text. This format is also
known as alphanumeric or character variables.

Sometimes users need to add or remove Variables in SPSS data. The steps to insert
Variables are given below:

• Select the column before which the variable needs to be inserted after which
new cases (rows) need to be inserted.
• Click on Edit Menu and Insert Variable option , or
• Right Click on the column and select Insert Variable option from the menu.
• Users may also click directly on the Insert variable icon of the toolbar.
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The steps to delete any Variable are given below:

• Click the Variable which needs to be deleted.

• Right Click on the Variable and select Clear option from the menu.
• Users may also press the Del button of the keyboard after selecting the Case
number (row) which needs to be deleted.

In IBM SPSS rows of data are called as Cases. Sometimes users need to add or
remove rows (Cases) in SPSS data. The steps to insert case are given below:

• Select the cell after which new cases (rows) need to be inserted.
• Click on Edit Menu and Insert Cases option , or
• Right Click on the row and select Insert Cases option from the menu.
• Users may also click directly on the Insert Cases icon of the toolbar.
The steps to delete any Case are given below:

• Click the Case number (row) which needs to be deleted.

• Right Click on the Case number and select Clear option from the menu.
• Users may also press the Del button of the keyboard after selecting the Case
number (row) which needs to be deleted.

13.4.5 Importing Data:

IBM SPSS provides provisions to import the data from other sources such as Excel
File, CSV File, Text file, SAS etc. The steps to import the data from MS Excel are given
below:

• Click on File menu, Import Data submenu and Excel option.

• Open Data dialog box will appear.
• Browse the Excel file which needs to be imported and click Open.
• Read Excel File dialog box will appear which provides many options along
with the preview of the first sheet in the MS Excel file. If the user changes the
Worksheet in this dialog box, the preview also reflects accordingly.
• Click OK to load the Excel file.

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Fig 13.25: Import Excel Sheet in IBM SPSS (Source: https://www.ibm.com)

The steps to import the data using ODBC from dBase, MS Access or MS Excel are
given below:

• Click on File menu, Import Data submenu, Database submenu and New
Query option.
• Select the desired database.
• The list of tables and their fields will be displayed. User has to select the table
and respective fields that need to be imported.
• Click Finish to load the data.

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Fig 13.26: Select Data dialog box (Source: https://www.ibm.com)

13.4.6 Running an Analysis:

The Analyze menu contains a list of reporting and statistical analysis categories. The
steps to create a simple frequency table are given below:

• Click on Analyze menu, Descriptive Statistics submenu and Frequencies

option.
• The Frequencies dialog box will be displayed
• Select the variables for analysis and drag them into the target Variable(s)
• Click OK to generate the Descriptive Statistics
• Results are displayed in the Output window.

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Fig 13.27: Frequencies dialog box (Source: https://www.ibm.com)

Fig 13.28: Frequencies dialog box (Source: https://www.ibm.com)

13.4.7 Creating Chart:

Although some statistical procedures can create charts, users can also use the Graphs
menu to create charts. IBM SPSS supports a variety of charts such as Bar Chart, Line Chart,
Area Chart, Pie Chart, Scatter Chart, Histogram Chart, High Low Chart, Box Plot Chart,
Dual Axis Chart etc. These charts are further divided based on the presentation of data in the
charts. The steps to create charts are given below:

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• Click on Graphs menu and Chart Builder option.

• The Chart Builder dialog box will be displayed
• Select the desired Chart category and Chart from the Gallery tab.
• Some other options have been provided in other tabs e.g. axes and graphic
elements are provided in the Basic Elements tab.
• Drag the desired chart icon onto the canvas, which is the large area next to the
variables in the Chart Builder dialog box itself..
• Select the Variables and drag them at the required position on the Canvas such
as x axis, y axis etc.
• Click OK to create the chart.
• The Chart will appear in the Output Window.
Users can edit charts and tables by double-clicking them in the Output window. These
charts may be copied into other applications as well.

Fig 13.29: Chart Builder dialog box (Source: https://www.ibm.com)

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Fig 13.30: Bar chart displayed in Viewer window (Source: https://www.ibm.com)

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
8. IBM has acquired SPSS in __________.
9. How may tpes of file are used by IBM SPSS?
a) Two b) Three
c) Four d) Five
10. The default view of IBM SPSS is __________.
11. Demo.sav is one of the ___________ file in which represents a fictitious
survey of several thousand people along with their demographic and
consumer information.
12. IBM SPSS shows the preview of the _______ sheet while importing data
from the MS Excel.
13. The ________ menu contains a list of reporting and statistical analysis
categories.
14. Chart Builder option is provided under ________ menu.

13.5 Web-based Statistical Analysis Tools

There are many Web-based Statistical Analysis Tools apart from MS Excel and IBM
SPSS, Some of them are ADaMSoft, ADMB, Arc, BV4.1, Cum Freq, Dap, DataMelt,
Dataplot, Develve, EasyReg, Epi Info, First Bayes, GNU Data Language, GNU Octave,
GNU PSPP, GraphPad Prism, Gretl, IDAMS, IVEware, JAGS, MacAnova, MATLAB (The
Mathworks), MaxStat Lite version, MicrOsiris, Minitab, NCAR Command Language,
NIMBLE, OpenEpi, OpenMx, OpenStat, Past, pbdR, Perl Data Language, Ploticus, R (R
Foundation for Statistical Computing), SageMath, Salstat, SAS (Statistical Analysis
Software), Scilab, SciPy, Shogun, Simfit, SOFA Statistics, Stan, Statcato, StatCVS,
Statistical Lab, Vista, WinBUGS, WINPEPI, Yorick, and Zelig. Some of these tools are
discussed below:

13.5.1 R (R Foundation for Statistical Computing)

R is a language and environment for statistical computing and graphics. It is a GNU
project which means that users may use it free of cost. The source code of R is also available
for modification as well. R provides a wide variety of statistical and graphical techniques
such as classical statistical tests, classification, clustering, linear and nonlinear modelling,
time-series analysis etc. It is highly extensible as well. It is an integrated suite of software
facilities for data manipulation, calculation and graphical display. The latest version of R is
4.2.1 (Funny-Looking Kid) which was released on 23-06-2022. Some of the major features
of R are given below:

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• an effective data handling and storage facility,

• a suite of operators for calculations on arrays, in particular matrices,
• a large, coherent, integrated collection of intermediate tools for data analysis,
• graphical facilities for data analysis and display either on-screen or on
hardcopy, and
• a well-developed, simple and effective programming language which includes
conditionals, loops, user-defined recursive functions and input and output
facilities.
(Source: https://www.r-project.org/about.html accessed on 17-08-2022)

13.5.2 MATLAB (The Mathworks)

MATLAB (MATrix LABoratory) is commercial software used to organize, clean,
and analyze complex data sets from diverse fields such as climatology, predictive
maintenance, medical research, and finance. Some of the major features of MATLAB are
given below:

• Datatypes and preprocessing capabilities designed for engineering and

scientific data
• Interactive and highly customizable data visualizations
• Apps and Live Editor tasks that helps with interactive data cleaning,
preparation, and code generation
• Thousands of prebuilt functions for statistical analysis, machine learning, and
signal processing
• Extensive and professionally written documentation
• Accelerated performance with simple code changes and additional hardware
• Expanded analysis to big data without big code changes
• Automatic packaging of analysis into freely distributable software
components or embeddable source code without manually recoding
algorithms
• Sharable reports automatically generated from your analysis

(Source: https://in.mathworks.com/products/matlab/data-analysis.html accessed on

17-08-2022)

13.5.3 SAS (Statistical Analysis Software)

Statistical Analysis System (SAS) is commercial software provided by SAS Institute
Inc. The following tools are inregrated with SAS:

• SAS/STAT® – State-of-the-art statistical software.

• Base SAS® – Flexible, extensible fourth-generation programming language
for data access, transformation and reporting.
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• SAS/IML® – Interactive matrix programming and exploratory data analysis.

• SAS/OR® – Enhanced operations research methods for optimizing processes
and addressing management science challenges.
• SAS/QC® – Tools for statistical quality improvement.
• SAS/ETS® – Model, forecast and simulate processes with econometric and
time series analysis.

These tools made it possible that SAS software is not only used for statistical
analysis, data mining and forecasting, but can also be used for following purposes as
well.

• Report writing and graphics

• econometrics
• Business planning, forecasting, and decision support
• Operations research and project management
• Quality improvement
• Applications development
• Data warehousing (extract, transform, load)
• Platform independent and remote computing
SAS through its product named “SAS® OnDemand for Academics” provides
free access for the Educators, Students & Independent Learners. This SAS Software
may be used for Educators, Students & Independent Learners.

(Source: https://www.sas.com/en_in/software/on-demand-for-academics/features-
list.html accessed on 17-08-2022)

13.5.4 GraphPad Prism

The authorised distributor of Graphpad Prism is Graphstats. According to its
developer. It is a versatile Statistical Graphing Software that is used by Scientists - Not
Statisticians. Hence, the software is designed to help the researcher to Analyze, Graph and
Present their scientific Work by providing following features:

• Organize Data Effectively: GraphPad Prism is primarily formatted for the

analyses users want to perform, including the study of quantitative and
categorical data. This makes it easy to enter data accurately, select acceptable
analyses, and create amazing graphs.
• Perform The Right Analysis: GraphPad Prism offers a broad variety of
analyses from standard to very specialized – t tests, one-, two- and three-way
ANOVA, linear and nonlinear regression, dose-response curves, binary
logistic regression, survival analysis, principal component analysis, and many

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more. Every study has a checklist to help users understand the necessary
statistical assumptions and ensure that usesr have chosen an acceptable test.
• Actionable Help: GraphPad Prism offers a very good online help. Users can
browse thousands of pages from Prism Guides online or browse the Graph
Portfolio to learn how to create a wide variety of graph types. It also offered
sample data sets to understand certain analyses and how the conclusions can
be viewed.

(Source: https://www.graphpad.com/scientific-software/prism/ accessed on 17-08-

2022)

13.5.5 Minitab
Minitab is statistical Software which has four modules i.e. Health Care, Predictive
Analysis, Supply Chain and Customer Contact Center. It has grouped its functionality into
following categories:

• Assistant
• Graphics
• Basic Statistics
• Regression
• Analysis of Variance
• Measurement Systems Analysis
• Quality Tools
• Design of Experiments
• Reliability/Survival
• Power and Sample Size
• Predictive Analytics
• Multivariate
The list of functions which are available under these groups is available at
https://www.minitab.com/en-us/products/minitab/features/.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
15. The latest version of R is __________.
16. The name MATLAB stands for ____________.
17. SAS provides free access to the for Educators, Students & Independent
Learners through its product named ____________________ .
18. The authorised distributor of Graphpad Prism is______________.

13.6 SUMMARY

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Statistical packages are required to apply statistics on a large amount of quantitative

data. In this chapter, brief description of two Statistical packages i.e. MS Excel and IBM
SPSS have been provided. Some basic functionality of these packages was described in this
lesson. Some other statistical packages are also described very briefly. The chapter is
intended to make the student familiar with these packages so that they may use it for the data
analysis.

13.7 GLOSSARY

Statistics: A branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and
presentation of masses of numerical data OR a collection of quantitative data.

Statistical Package: Software designed for statistical data processing and capability to
produce Graphics of Data.

Microsoft Office: A product of Microsoft Corporation which includes Microsoft Word,

Microsoft Excel, Microsoft PowerPoint, Microsoft OneNote, Microsoft Outlook, Microsoft
Outlook and Microsoft Teams as its core app and services.

13.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Spreadsheet 10. Data View

2. Data Analysis 11. Sample
3. 1,048,576 rows and 16,384 columns 12. First
4. Data tab 13. Analyze
5. Insert tab 14. Graphs
6. 180 15. 4.2.1
7. Data tab 16. MATrix LABoratory
8. 2009 17. SAS OnDemand for Academics
9. Three 18. Graphstats

13.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Downlaod https://www.contextures.com/SampleData.zip and unzip it using any file

extracting software OR copy the sample “Office Supply Sales Table” from
https://www.contextures.com/xlsampledata01.html#data in a Excel Sheet. Apply
Subtotal tool on this data to obtain the Region wise and Representative wise Subtotals
and Grand Total.

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2. Downlaod https://www.contextures.com/pivotsamples/hockeyplayerdata2018.zip and

unzip it using any file extracting software. This file contains the sample data of
Hockey Player along with many Pivot Tables and Pivot Charts. Try to recreate these
tables and charts for better understanding of Pivot Table and Pivot Chart Tool.
3. Downlaod https://www.contextures.com/tablesamples/sampledataworkorders.zip and
unzip it using any file extracting software. This file contains the sample data of Work
Orders. Try to apply various Statistical Functions and Data Analysis tool on it.
4. Downlaod https://www.contextures.com/tablesamples/sampledatasafety.zip and unzip
it using any file extracting software. This file contains the sample data of Workplace
Safety. Try to create various Charts using this data.
5. Import demo.xlsx file from the Samples\English folder to understand the import
function of the IBM SPSS.
6. Open https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/spss-statistics/28.0.0?topic=studies-sample-files
in which the description of all the sample file available with the installation of IBM
SPSS 28 is given. Apply various functions of SPSS on these files for better
understanding.
7. Open demo.sav file from the Samples\English folder of the SPSS installation. Change
the view to Variable view in order to understand the Fields and Data. Apply
Frequencies from Descriptive Statistics in the Analyze menu. Drag gender and inccat
fields to the target list and click OK. Analyse the output of this operation. Similarly
apply other data analysis on Sample files available the Samples\English folder.

13.10 REFERENCES

Argyrous, G. (2011). Statistics for Research: with a guide to SPSS. Sage.

Field, A. (2019). Discovering Statistics using IBM SPSS Statistics. Sage.

Hinton, P. R., & McMurray, I. (2017). Data Presentation with SPSS Explained. Routledge.

IBM. (2021). SPSS Statistics 28 Brief Guide. Retrieved from

https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/SSLVMB_28.0.0/pdf/IBM_SPSS_Statistics_Brief_Guide
.pdf

Indira Gandhi National Open University. (n.d.). Statistical Packages. In Tools for Research
(pp. 148–163). Indira Gandhi National Open University. Retrieved from
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/11209/1/Unit-9.pdf

Leech, N. L., Barrett, K. C., & Morgan, G. A. (2014). IBM SPSS for Intermediate Statistics:
Use and Interpretation (5th ed.). Routledge.

LibGuides: SPSS Tutorials: Home . (n.d.). https://libguides.library.kent.edu/SPSS

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MacInnes, J. (2017). An Introduction to Secondary Data Analysis with IBM SPSS Statistics.
Sage.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary. (n.d.). Statistics. Retrieved August 12, 2022, from

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/statistics

Meyers, L. S., Gamst, G. C., & Guarino, A. J. (2015). Performing Data Analysis using IBM
SPSS. Wiley.

Yo, I. (2021). ANALYSIS OF STATISTICAL PACKAGES USED IN THE STATISTICAL

RESEARCHS. International Scientific Journal: Theoretical & Applied Science, 98(6),
139–143. https://doi.org/10.15863/TAS

13.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Data Analysis – MATLAB & Simulink. (n.d.).

https://in.mathworks.com/products/matlab/data-analysis.html
Excel Tutorial. (n.d.). https://www.w3schools.com/EXCEL/index.php
IBM Docs. (n.d.). https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/spss-statistics/28.0.0?topic=tutorial-
introduction
Prism - GraphPad. (n.d.). https://www.graphpad.com/scientific-software/prism/
R: What is R?. (n.d.). https://www.r-project.org/about.html
SAS OnDemand for Academics | SAS India. (n.d.). https://www.sas.com/en_in/software/on-
demand-for-academics/features-list.html

**************LMS Feedback: [email protected]**************

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LESSON 1

Scientometrics, Infometrics and Webometrics

Dr Shehbaz Husain Naqvi
Associate Professor
Jamia Millia Islamia
Dr Zakir Husain Library
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Scientometrics
1.3.1 Definitions and scope
1.3.2 Application of Infometrics
1.4 Infometrics
1.4.1 Scope of Scientometrics Sub-Section 1
1.4.2 Characteristics of Scientometrics
1.5 Webometrics
1.5.1 Definition of Webometrics
1.5.2 Objectives of Webometrics
1.5.3 Scope of Webometrics
1.5.4 Areas of Webometrics
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings
1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this Unit the students will be made familiar with the topics of Scientometrics,
Infometrics and Webometrics. All these are somehow interrelated but still represent different
concepts. In nutshell it can be called that these topics are used to represent the methods,
techniques of measurement of information services and contents of documents and texts.
Scientometrics is the field of study which concerns itself with measuring and analysing
scholarly literature.

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Infometrics is a subject, which gets a quantitative insight of any informational

process. Scientometrics is a sub-field of infometrics. It includes measurement of the impact
of research output of an institution or person, pattern of citations. Webometrics is used for
the techniques used to analysis the World Wide Web to get knowledge about the number,
types of hyperlinks, structure of the World Wide Web.
1.2 INTRODUCTION

Different metric studies like "Librametry," "Infometrics," "Bibliometrics,"

Scientometrics," "Techometrics," "Webometrics," and "Altmetrics" arose in the information
field sciences during the 20th century and attracted a lot of interest from its experts. One of
Informetric’s most intriguing features is the quantitative norms of the content manufacturing
processes. Informetric is the science of information is available numerical components. This
covers the creation, diffusion, and utilization of all information, irrespective of its structure or
where it originated. It focuses mostly on the creation of models to describe and pinpoint the
many literary traits. It also covers topics like research collaborations and scientific
performance. The quantitative aspects and traits of research and scientific inquiry are the
focus of scientometrics. Today, scientometrics is used in the development of scientific
organizations and is regarded as a component of the sociology of science. Scientometrics and
Informetric are terms for statistical methods used to assess system can be integrated between
people. Many scholars have been drawn to using classic bibliometric and Scientometrics
techniques on the World Wide Web as a new mix of communication since it has become a
significant source of knowledge. Webometrics, which encompasses hyperlink evaluation,
website citation analysis, internet sites, etc. is a quantitative investigation of web occurrences.

Fig.1. The association of the metrics phrases

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1.3 INFORMETRIC
Informetric facilitates the identification of recent developments in the field, advances
in information, forecasting of researcher efficiency, and past, present, and future patterns in
publication. Additionally, informetric is important for evaluating research, measuring
performance, establishing connections between authors and scholarly organization,
determining an impact, and other similar tasks (Zungu, 2020). informetric originally referred
to the use and creation of a wide range of metrics to investigate and evaluate various
characteristics of knowledge in generally and records in specifically. informetric is defined as
"the use of computational models to the analysis of data science entities with the goal of
identifying and evaluating their laws and attributes in order to maximize such items in making
decisions." This covers the creation. distribution, and utilization of all knowledge, irrespective
of its format or place of origin. Informetric therefore covers the domains that investigate the
Jmericai aspects of scientific research (Arora et al., 2019). Most services, encompassing broad
science databases like Web of Science (WoS) or Scopus as well as domain-specific assistance
like fulltext for emergency care, are recognized to be inadequate in Infometrics and
scientometrics (Dorsch, 2017). Informational, materials, and activity have evolved into the
three main pillars of modern society because of the quick advancement of information
technology and the widespread use of the Internet (Siluo & Qingli, 2017).

1.3.1 Definitions and scope:

According to Wikipedia, "lnformetric is the research of the quantitative features of
data in any shape, not only archives or bibliography, and in any social circle, not just
academics". The goal of informetric is to d quantitative explanations for the characteristics of
information (Martin- Martin et at., 2018). Informetric is the analysis of statistical elements of
information, such as the production, diffusion, storage, and evaluation of information,
independent of its form or source (Naseer et al. 2019). Informetric includes epidemiological
findings of literary and documentation, conceptual investigations of various mathematical
principles and attributes, as well as identified groupings (Dutta. 2014).

1.3.2 Application of Infometrics:

In general, lnformetric research are employed to influence decision and policies in the
economical, legal, technical, and social areas that affect sharing of information and usage
patterns.
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• Establishing connections between academic publications and writers (including

authorship patterns),
• Assessing findings for finance of researching or development courses,
• Examining the publishing habits of researchers
• Creating, organizing, and removing policies
• Analyzing the effect of academic contributions
• Analyzing past and present publication trends and predicting those for the future
• Researching obsolescence and disseminating academic literature
• Finding literature in particular fields, among other things

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Librametry was coined by:
(a) Melvil Dewey (b) Derek Austin (c) S R Ranganathan (d) None of these

2. Alan Pitchard Coined the term:

(a) Bibliometrics (b) Scientometrics (c) Altmetrics (d) Infometrics

1.4 SCIENTOMETRICS

"Scientometrics study is focused to quantified investigations of science and

technology". Bibliometrics and Infometrics share connections and areas of interest with
scientometrics. The statistical examination of technological and scientific literature is the
focus of scientometrics. Several academics suggest that Scientometrics can encompass a
portion of the work performed in Sciences Finance by simply defining it as the quantitative
analysis of science (Abramo, 2018). With the development of the internet and social
websites, scientometrics' research focus switched from measuring academic influence in the
scientific field to measuring the impact on all areas of society (Hou & Yang, 20 18).
Scientometrics is based on the quantitative evaluation of scientific discoveries, particularly in
the field of "research findings," for which it attempts to gauge influence in the context of
evaluation. Scientometric s, which used to refer to the scientific effective communication that
included sociological considerations, now seems to be nearly interchangeable with
understanding of science with a stronger emphasis on its quantitative components. Both
quantity of Scientometrics sets they reflect, and the use of standard values can be used to
categorize Scientometrics indications. Generalized indicators are scientometric measures that
refer to the measurement of a particular scientometric component of a scientometric system
are expressed by a. single scientometric set with a specific hierarchy level (Sab et al., 2019).
While the more specific word scientometrics refers to the quantitative analysis of scientific
and technological developments (Mondal & Raychoudhury, 2019).
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1.4.1 Scope of Scientometrics:

Scientometrics' main emphasis is too constrained to cover the entire valuation
process, from research financing through social impact. Scientometrics is a field of study that
examines scientific journals to discover how science is structured and developing (Faizi et
al., 2017). The findings demonstrate that Scientometrics and a number of other subjects and
fields, including the social anthropology of science, scientific process, science and
technological management and policy the economic growth of scientific knowledge, and
fields related to data and information science, have a strong relationship. Information science
is surpassed by scientometrics (Conference & Innovation, 2021). Along with advancements
in data science and technological capabilities, Scientometrics' usage and growth have
expanded (Cogkun et al., 20 19). The most important measurements for gauging scientific
production are scientometrics. Scholars' efficiency and investigation effectiveness are
measured using scientometrics indicators (Zimik. 2021). To examine the development of
diverse branches of research, from biological, chemicals, and nanomaterials informatics and
scientometrics to behavioral sciences, scientometricians have merged numerous
methodologies from scientometrics, data visualization, and text mining (Chandra, 20 18).
1.4.2 Characteristics of Scientometrics:
• Scientometrics enables scholars in other fields to make greater contributions.
• Scientometrics identifies research areas' strengths and weaknesses.
• Facilitates not only the focus on organization level of research but also measures
national participation.
• The means of transmission assist researchers in disseminating their findings, which
are primarily favored by consumers.
• Information's geographic dispersion without consulting a wider variety of sources of
information.
• The subject dispersal analysis assists in locating information sources for scholars as
well as the library's obsolescence research endeavors.
• The publication pattern enables both researchers and scientists to cooperate on their
research regardless of differences in geography and languages (Evidences, 2019).

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

3. Vassily V. Nalimov coined the term in 1960:

(a) Bibliometrics (b) Scientometrics (c) Altmetrics (d) Infometrics

4. The quantified investigations of science and technology is known as:

(a) Webometrics (b) Altmnetrics (c) Scientific Analysis (d) Scientometrics

1.5 WEBOMETRICS

Webometrics has been one of the most significant aspects of information technology
for some times, according to bibliometric research. The field of webometrics is engaged with
quantifying web-based occurrences, including websites, onl ine pages, and components of
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web pages, educational and political internet sites, blogging, social media sites, and terms in
website pages, hyperl ink, and foreign web domain names. The discovery that the web is a
vast document archive with many articles being academic in nature led to the development of
bibliometrics (Box & Delhi-, 1987). Webometrics. also known as cybermetrics, seeks to
quantify the World Wide Web to learn more about its design. user behavior. and the amount
and types of hyperlinks (Chellappandi & V ijayakumar. 2018).

1.5.1 Definition of Webometrics:

The original and dominant definition of webometrics is, "The study of the
quantitative aspects of the construction and use of information resources, structures and
technologies on the Web drawing on bibliometric and informetric approaches."
Webometrics/cybernetics, a recent innovation in Infometrics, has become an accepted part of
library and information sciences studies. Webometrics' integration broadens the scope of
Bibliometrics considering that it will certainly result in new methodological advancements
(Jacobs, 2010).

1.5.2 Objectives of Webometrics:

Webometrics, the statistical analysis of web-related concepts, was born out of the
realization that techniques developed for bibliometric analysis of citation structures in
scientific journal articles could also be used to analyze web data, with advertising search
engines serving as the source of the original data. The goal of webometrics is to measure
users' online information-seeking (or "web search") behavior. Supporting research into web
phenomena is where webometrics is most clearly needed.

1.5.3 Scope of Webometrics:

The field of webometrics is involved in quantifying web-based events, including
website, online pages, and components of web pages, educational and elections webpages,
blogs, social networking sites, and terms in web pages, hyperlinks, and national domains. A
variety of contemporary advancements are included in webometrics, including patent
analysis, national research evaluation activities, visual analytics, online citation indices, the
establishment of library resources. Today, webometrics research includes studies of social
websites like blogs, RSS feeds, and social network 1ike Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter in
addition to general or academic web assessments. Weblin£s, how they create networks, and,
among many other things, whether websites can be evaluated and based entirely on their
connections are all topics of extensive research in the discipline of webometrics (Dudek et
at., 2021).

1.5.4 Areas of Webometrics:

The previous concept of webometrics incorporates quantifiable elements of the web
activity and development, resulting in five key fields of webometrics research today, which
are summarized as follows: (Harinarayana, 2015)

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Web link structure analysis

Web page content analysis

Web usage analysis

Web technology analysis

Areas of Webometrics:

Web Ranking

1. Web page content analysis:

“Web site (Physical Definition): the set of web pages located at one Internet Provider
address.” “Web site (Information Definition): a set of related web pages that, in the
aggregate, form a composite object of international relevance".
The website could have surface-level material or deep web content, like repositories for
public or private information. The "connected" aspect of the web can, in theory, lead to
the claim that it is one massive website all by itself. The web comes in two varieties.
Surface web:
Most of it is unsuitable for educational or intellectual purposes, and some of it might
even be biased or inaccurate. Therefore, Qing too much on the "surface web" could lead to
lazy research practices, jeopardize the value of academic material, and degrade the
standard of academic research and publications.

2. Invisible web:
The amount of information on the internet is still extremely limited. Only small
portion of the content on the online gets indexed by search engines, and the majority of
users do not access the information on the "invisible web." This website has reliable
information.

3. Web link structure analysis:

Web documents are now referred to as hypertext, which contains I inks to further
related publications, like the citations in a science report or the cross-references in
cataloging. These cross-references or networks in digital information can be explored with
a click of mouse. The homepage, which approximately corresponds to the title page in a
printed format. is where users often enter a website. The homepage frequently serves as a
table of contents and gives information about the website. The web page is the second-
most important bibliographic component on the internet afier the homepage (static or
interactive HTML file).

4. Web usage analysis:

The web is typically understood to be a network of HTTP servers running over
TCP/lP connections. Therefore, its more limited interpretation includes all running HTTP
servers that take in, comprehend, and handle client requests. The response code issued to
the client making the connection attempt will reveal its availability.

5. Web technology analysis:

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Searching for information online can often feel like looking for a needle in a
haystack. The fact that the Online world is a continuous network col lecti gives the
"haystack" image a new dimension. Early search engines on the Internet included Archie,
Veronica, Gopher, Wide Area Information System (WAIS), Mosaic, Aita V ista, HotBot,
NorthemLight, Excite, Lycosse, lnforseek, and others in an effort to increase ordered and
retrieval of information. Those earlier services were created before web browsers and are
still available today, but they have typically been overtaken by more widely used web
search engines like Yahoo and Google.

6. Web Ranking:
Webometrics indicator has been introduced to rate global universities and scientific
archives. Repository evaluation indication offers a list of the top research-focused
archives, organised by a composite index based on the web impact (link visibility) of their
articles as well as their web presence, using information from the top commercial search
engines. Webometrics is a field of study that looks at the quantitative elements of the
Internet (Arora et al., 2019).

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5. Which one of the following emerged in the last?
(a) Bibliometrics (b) Informatics (c) Librametry (d) Webometrics

6. The term Webometrics was first coined by:

(a) Almind & Ingwersen (b) S R Ranganathan (c) Vassily V. Nalimov (d) Alan Pitchard

1.6 SUMMARY

Statistical techniques are now days used in scientific output evaluation and
forecasting studies. In recent past, statistics has been applied to a number of areas such as
planning, industrial and agricultural development, etc. Similarly, librarians in recently have
also started using various quantitative techniques for evaluation of scientific output.

1.7 GLOSSARY

Bibliometrics It is the quantitative analysis of intellectual activities in some manner.

Informetrics Quantitative study of all informational process.
Ranking Arrangement of data either in ascending or descending order on the basis of a
chosen criterion.

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1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. S R Ranganathan
2. Bibliometrics
3. Scientometrics
4. Scientometrics
5. Webometrics
6. Almind & Ingwersen
1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain in brief the metric studies in Library & Information Science.

2. Differentiate the terms “Scientometrics, Infometrics and Webometrics.”
3. Enumerate various techniques used in mapping of Knowledge. Define each in brief.

1.10 REFERENCES

1. Abraino, G. (2018). Revisiting the scientometric conceptualization of impact and its

measurement. Journal of Informetrics. 12 (3), 590-597.
2. Chellappandi, P., & Vijayakumar, C. S. (20 1 8). Biblioinetrics, Scientoinetrics,
Wetx›metrics / C ybermetrics, lnformetrics and Altinetrics - An Emerging Field in
Library and Information Science Research. International Journal of education 7 (1), 5-8.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Bjomeborn, L. & Ingwersen, P. (2004). “Toward a basic framework for

webometrics.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science and
Technology, vol. 55, no. 14, pp. 1216- 1227.
2. Thelwall, M. (2009). “Introduction to webometrics: Quantitative web research for the
social sciences”. New York: Morgan & Claypool.

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LESSON 1

Manual Structure, Style, Contents

Dr Shehbaz Husain Naqvi
Associate Professor
Jamia Millia Islamia
Dr Zakir Husain Library
[email protected]
STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Manual
1.3.1Definition
1.3.2 Structure
1.3.3 Key Factorsto be considered
1.4 Referencing Styles
1.4.1 APA Style of Referencing
1.4.2 MLA Style of Referencing
1.4.3 Chicago Style of Referencing
1.4.4 Harvard Style of Referencing
1.4.5 IEEE Style of Referencing
1.4.6 ACS Style of Referencing
1.4.7 Vancouer Style of Referencing
1.5 Summary
1.6 Glossary
1.7 Answers to In-text Questions
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References
1.10 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, students will be

• able to know the importance of a research report;
• can define various types of research reports; and
• will get acquainted with the style and format of writing a research report.

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1.2 INTRODUCTION

A research report is a valuable document for a researcher. It is an essential part of the

whole research process. These reports are the mode of communication of research output.
The publication of the research findings and results is of great importance in all areas of
research. The purpose of writing a research report is to communicate the ideas and
information with other people.
The unit will give an overview of research methodology, its structure, and different
styles. It will also cover different reference styles used
inresearch.

1.3 MANUAL

Mostly, research work is presented in written form. The practical utility of research
studies depends heavily on the way it is presented to those who are expected to act on the
basis of research findings. A research report or manual is a written document containing key
aspects of a research project. A research report is a medium to communicate research work
with relevant people. It is also a good source of preservation of research work for future
reference. Many times, research findings are not followed because of improper presentation.
Preparation of a research report is not an easy task. It is an art. It requires a good deal of
knowledge, imagination, experience, and expertise. It demands considerable time and
money.
1.3.1Definitions:
1. A research report is the systematic, articulate, and orderly presentation of research work in
a written form.
2. A research report is a research document that contains basic aspects of the research
project.
3. A research report involves relevant information on the research work carried out. It can be
written by hand, typed, or computerized.
1.3.2 Structure:
There is no standard format for all types of reports. The format depends on several relevant
factors. One must employ a suitable format to create a desirable impression with clarity.
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Reports must be attractive. It should be written systematically and bound carefully. A report
must use the format (often called structure) that best fits the needs and wants of its readers.
Typically, the following format is suggested as a basic outline that is flexible enough to meet
the majority of situations.
A research report is divided into three parts as:
I. :(i) Title page (ii) Certificate or statement (iv) Index (brief contents)(v) Contents page
(detailed index)(vi) Acknowledgement (vii) Table and figure list(viii)
Foreword/forward/introduction (ix)Summary report
II. Main Report: (i) Objectives statement (ii) Methodology and research design (iii) Data
types and sources(iv) Sampling choices(v) Methods of data collection (vi) Data collection
tools (vii) Fieldwork (viii) Analysis and interpretation (including tables, charts, figures, and
so on)(ix) Results (x) Limitations (xi) Conclusions and suggestions(xii) Any other pertinent
information
III. Appendix: (i) Form copies (ii) Tables not included in findings (iii) A questionnaire
copy(iv) Detail of sampling and response rate (v) Expense statement (vi) Bibliography - list
of books, magazines, journals, and other reports(vii) Any additional relevant information
1.3.3 Key factors to be considered:
While preparing a research report, the following issues must be considered:
Objectives (ii) Problem or subject type (iii) Nature and type of research (iv) Audience or
users of research work (v) Report size (vi)form of writing—handwritten, typed, or
computerized. (vii) Time and cost (viii) Language (ix) Report Contents (x)Number of copies
(xii) Order of contents (xi)format - paper type and size; length, width, and depth of report;
and writing pattern, including paragraph, indent, numbering, font size and type, coloring, and
so on.(xiii) binding (for soft and, particularly, for hard copy) – type, quality of material,
colour, etc., related issues.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Final stage in the Research Process is
(a) Problem formulation (b) Data collection (c) Data Analysis (d) Report Writing

2. A comprehensive full Report of the research process is called

(a) Thesis (b) Summary Report (c) Abstract (d) Article

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1.4 REFERENCE STYLES

A reference or citation is a method of acknowledging someone whose work you have

used in your own work or publication. It can also be used to find a particular source. A
citation style is the format in which the required information from the source is noted down.
There are various methods of citing sources in your work.
Mostly, the styles depend on the subject area involved. For example,
APA (American Psychological Association) is mostly used by education, psychology, etc.
The Humanities use the MLA (Modern Language Association) style.
The Chicago/Turabian style is generally used by history.
Some of the important referencing styles are discussed in detail in the following paragraphs.
1.4.1 APA Style of Referencing
APA is an acronym for the American Psychological Association. It is mostly used in
the social sciences.
(author surname>, year of publication>, page number/s>)
In in-text citation, only the surname of the author is used; the author's surname and year of
publication are separated by a comma. For instance, (Ranganathan, 1965).If a page number is
also to be included, then it is also separated by a comma. (Ranganathan, 1965, 35, for
example.)
Multiple Authors of a Source:
If there are multiple authors of a source, write their names exactly in the same sequence as
they are in the publication.
In the in-text citation, the surnames of the two authors will be used, separated by '&'.
(Neelameghan and Ranganathan 29)
1.4.2 MLA Style of Referencing
MLA is an abbreviation for Modern Language Association.The MLA style is mostly
used in the humanities fields.
(author's surname> page number/s>
In in-text citation, only the surname of the author is used; the author's surname and page
number are not separated by a comma. For example, (Ranganathan 23, for

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Multiple Authors of a Source:

If there is more than one author of a publication, mention their names exactly in the same
sequence as they are presented in the publication.
In the in-text citation, the surnames of the two authors will be used, separated by 'and'.
(Neelameghan and Ranganathan 29)
1.4.3 Chicago Style of Referencing
This style was originated by the University of Chicago more than a hundred years
ago. It uses the note system for referencing. A reference is first given in the form of footnotes
preceded by a numeric digit, and then it is provided again at the end of the document in the
form of a reference list or bibliography.
In the footnote, various pieces of information such as author name, title, publication
date, etc. are separated from each other by a comma; in the reference list, the pieces of
information are separated by a full stop.
In-text citation
The number for each reference is given in the superscript without any parenthesis.
1.4.4 Harvard Style of Referencing
Harvard Style uses an "author-date" system. This style is most commonly used in the
humanities.
(author name>, year of publication>, page number/s>)
In in-text citation, only the surname of the author is used. The author's name and year
of publication are not separated by a comma. For example (Ranganathan 23, p. 52).
Multiple Authors of a Source:
If there are multiple authors of a source, write their names exactly in the same
sequence as they are in the publication.
In the in-text citation, the surnames of the two authors will be used, separated by '&'.
(Neelameghan and Ranganathan 29)

1.4.5 IEEE Style of Referencing

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Referencing Style is
mostly used by writers in electrical, electronic and computing fields.
In-Text Citations, the cited documents are numbered in the order in which they are first cited
in the text. If the same source is cited again later in the text, the same number is used:

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'The theory was propounded by …. [1].'

1.4.6 ACS Style of Referencing
The ACS style was developed by the American Chemical Society and is used for
academic writing in chemistry.
ACS uses both numbered and author-date systems:
In-text citation:
References in the text should be cited in one of the two ways:
By number: either italic numbers in brackets, or superscript numbers numbered
sequentially
If a reference is cited more than once, it does not receive a new number.
When citing more than one reference at a time, include reference numbers in increasing order
separated by commas.
....(1) or Neville (1) stated that .....
.....1 or Neville1stated that ....
By author-date: surname and year of publication in brackets.
.....(Neville, 2010) or Neville stated that ..... (2010)
The list of references appears at the end of the paper in numerical order if cited by number or
in alphabetical order if cited by author-date.
Use only the initials of the authors' given names. Use full stops and spaces between the
initials. Last name comes first.
1 Neville, C. The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Pagiarism, 2nd ed.; Open
University Press: New York, 2010.
Neville, C. The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Pagiarism, 2nd ed.; Open
University Press: New York, 2010.

1.4.7 Vancouver Style of Referencing

In-text citations
• A number is allocated to a source in the order in which it is cited in the text. If the source is
referred to again, the same number is used.
• Use Arabic numerals (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)
• Either square [ ] or curved brackets ( ) can be used as long as it is consistent.
• Superscripts can also be used rather than brackets eg. ...was discovered. 1,3
• Reference numbers should be inserted to the left or inside of colons and semi-colons.
Multiple works by the same author: Each individual work by the same author, even if it is
published in the same year, has its own reference number
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1.4.5Vancouver Referencing Style

In-text citation:
• A number for each citation in super script.
• Number to each source is given in the sequence as it appears in your document.
• In case the same source is cited again in the document, use the same number that have
been used earlier for the source in the work.
• Name of author may also be used in your text but it must follow a number.
In-text Citation and reference list entry for 2 to 6 authors: Surname of the first author
is be used followed by et al
Surname # et al 6
Sharma (6)

In-text Citation and reference list entry for more than 6 authors: In the in-text citation
only the surname of the first author is written followed by ‘et al’ thus it appears like
this: et al (7)
Example: Alvi (7)

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
3. APA stands for:
(a) American Psychological Association (b) American Psychological Associates
(c) Association of Psychological of Americans (d) American Psychologist
Association

4. Parenthetical Referencing is also known as:

(a) Foot Note Referencing (b) Endnote Referencing (c) In Text Referencing (d)
Title Referencing

1.5 SUMMARY

After going through this unit, the students must have learnt that a research report is a
channel of communicating the research findings to the readers of the report. A good research
report is one that does this task efficiently and effectively.
Referencing styles are a set of rules that tell you how you should acknowledge the
intellectual works of others that you use in your research. Referencing is an important part of
successful academic writing. It helps you avoid plagiarism while doing

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yourassignments.

1.6 GLOSSARY

In-Text Citation An acknowledgement of the sources used in the work given in the text.
Reference List of sources which were used while preparing the work.
Bibliography List of sources consulted while preparing the work.

1.7 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Report Writing
2. Thesis
3. American Psychological Association
4. In-Text Referencing

1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate a bibliography and a reference by giving suitable examples.

2. Discuss the structure of a research report in details.

1.9 REFERENCES

1. American Psychological Association (2001): Publication Manual of the American

Psychological Association (Yh ed.). Washington, DC:American Psychological
Association.
2. Baumgartner, A. Ted., Strong, H. Clinton, and Hensley, D. Lany (2002): Conducting
and Reading Research in Health and Human Performance. Third Edition, San
Francisco: McGraw Hill.
3. Bell, J. (1999): Doing Your Research Project, A guide for first-time researchers in
Education bd Social Science. Third Edition, New Delhi: Viva Books Private Ltd.

1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Best, J.W., and Kahn, J.V. (1995): Research in Education, Seventh Edition, New
Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited
2. Blaxter, L., Hughes, C., and Tight, M. (2002): How to Research. First South Asian
Edition, New Delhi: Viva Books Private Limited.
3. Campbell, W.G (2000): Form and Style: Thesis, Reports, Term Papers. I lth ed.,
Boston: Houghton Mifin.
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 Name of the Course

LESSON 1.1

NEEDS, OBJECTIVES AND PHILOSOPHY

Saloni Priya
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Marketing: Concept
1.4 Marketing Approach
1.5 Marketing Philosophies
1.5.1 Production concept
1.5.2 Product concept
1.5.3 Selling concept
1.5.4 Marketing concept
1.5.5Societal concept

1.6 Need of Marketing of Library & Information services

1.7 Functions of Marketing
1.8Implication of marketing with Library & Information services
1.9Importance of marketing
1.10 Summary
1.11 Glossary
1.12 Answers to In-text Questions
1.13 Self-Assessment Questions
1.14 References
1.15 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

• Explain the meaning of the term marketing and various concepts ofmarketing.
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• Learn different philosophies related to marketing

• Understand the need and importance of marketing
• Familiarize with the implication of marketing in library and information services.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

A marketing information system is a collection of procedures and methods for the regular
and planned collection, analysis, and presentation of data for use in marketing
decisions.Marketing is becoming increasingly important to all organisations, including non-
profits such as libraries, archives, and information/documentation centres. Marketing is
entirely a managerial function.Marketing also includes selling, advertising, physical
distribution, sales promotion etc. Selling, one major aspect of marketing is an exchange of
goods or services.Thus, the essence of marketing is determining what users want and then
setting out to meet those needs. Librarians are involved in this process of assessing and
attempting to meet the needs of their users. As a result, we are already marketing our library
information abilities. However, in order to do so effectively, librarians must embrace the
entire marketing function, which includes market research and analysis, service planning, and
promotion.

Libraries and information centres have begun to recognise that marketing information
products and services is an essential part of administration, particularly as a means of
improving user satisfaction and encouraging current and potential users to use services.
Three major factors are responsible for encouraging the library profession to develop a
marketing approach in its operations and services: the information explosion, the
technological revolution, and rising library costs.

1.3 MARKETING: CONCEPT

Marketing is a system-wide planning and adjustment process that ensures the establishment
and maintenance of mutually beneficial exchange relationships. Marketing, in general, is
concerned with selling, market research, and advertising. Every organisation has two
fundamental operational functions.

• Production of goods, services, or idea

• Marketing of the goods, services, or idea
Utility is created for the consumer through production and marketing. The ability of a good
or service to satisfy a desire is referred to as utility. Production generates utility by
converting raw materials into goods and services. In addition to form utility, marketing
creates time, place, and ownership utility. The availability of goods and services to
consumers at the right time and right place is referred to as time and place utility. The

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transfer of a product or service from the possession of the producer or marketer to the
possession of the consumers is referred to as ownership utility.

There are various perspectives on the concept of marketing. However, the three basic
elements of marketing that can be seen in the definition are selling, market research, and
advertising. In a broader sense, it is a management process that efficiently and profitably
identifies, anticipates, and satisfies customer requirements. It is the process of planning and
carrying out the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services
in order to create exchanges that meet the individual and organisational objectives. During
the exchange process, two or more parties exchange something of value in order to meet their
perceived needs.

The American Marketing Association defined marketing as "tlle performance of business

activities that direct the flow of goods and services from producer to consumer or user ".

According to Philip Kotler, "marketing is a societal process by which individuals andgroups

obtain what they need and want through creating, offering and freelyexchanging products
and services of value with others. Marketing is an ongoingprocess of discovering and
translating consumer needs and desires in to products andservices, creating demands for
these products and services, serving the consumer and its demand through a network of
marketing channels and expanding the market basein the face of competition".

Paul Mazur defined marketing as "the creation and delivery of a standard of living to
society."

According to Buhsing, “Marketing offers both a theory and a process by which libraries can
link products, results, and roles. Marketing can assist libraries in determining their future and
in identifying quality products- services, programs, and materials. A marketing audit and the
resulting plan can contribute to a library's ability to find a niche in the present as well as in
the future and to fill that niche by an optimal allocation of resources. A marketing orientation
can assist libraries in defining their role and in guaranteeing their future. Marketing provides
a theoretical framework within which to address the specific library and information science
questions facing public, school, special, and academic libraries in both the public and private
sectors. What the library will look like and what it will offer as products can be determined
through the use of modern marketing theory and practice”.
The true essence of marketing is that:

• There is demand for information products and services on offer;

• These products and services have ability to satisfy customer needs;
• The exchange of product or service is the primary consideration for payment;
• There is always a need to create an edge over competitors;
• The identification of favourable marketing opportunities;
• The resources are utilised to maximise a business’s market position; and

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• The aim to increase market share in priority target markets.

The marketing concept is based on three pillars, namely :

(i) customer orientation

(ii) integrated marketing, and
(iii) profitable sales volume through customer's satisfaction.
The customer is considered to be the most important object of the organisation. A

analysis of his needs and wants, likes and dislikes and preferences and tastes is the starting
point for all marketing· activities. The company should plan and develop the product after
ascertaining the needs of the customer which the product is going to satisfy. This is an
implementationof the classic concept of the economic theory known as 'consumer
sovereignty’. What is to be manufactured should be decided by the consumer and not by the
company or the Government.

The second pillar of the marketing concept is integrated marketing. All the activitiesof the
marketing department which have any thing to do with the customer and the productshould
be effectively integrated, so as to coordinate and consolidate the efforts in order tosatisfy the
customer's needs. Various departments of the company should recognise that the action of
them all, and not only the action of the sales and marketing people, would have an important
effect on the company's ability to create and retain customers.

The third pillar of the marketing concept is profitable sales volume through customer
satisfiaction. A company seeks to satisfy a customer not merely by reducing the price but
providing other services to him and at the same time th.e company seeks to achieve its
owngoal. What is more important is the long,run welfare of the customer and not his
immediateneeds satisfaction. The product should be so designed, priced, distributed and
promoted as tosatisfy the customer's need and to take care of his long-term welfare.

1.4 MARKETING APPROACH

A marketing approach assists an organisation in better managing its limited resources by

determining what the user wants and needs and then producing a product or service to meet
those needs. A variety of analyses and tools are available to assist an organisation in
implementing a marketing strategy. Market analysis, user analysis, organisational analysis,
competitive analysis, and marketing mix are examples of these.

Market Analysis
Market analysis begins with the identification of all potential markets in which exchanges
could take place. The most obvious market is library patrons, parent institutions of
libraries/information centres, government agencies that provide funds, and other institutions

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with information needs but no libraries. In the market analysis, both funding and user
markets should be identified.

After identifying the markets, it is critical to determine the size of each market as well as the
trends influencing service demand. Market research also entails breaking down the overall
market into smaller units with distinct wants and needs. A market segment's users are similar
to one another but distinct from users in other segments. The library market is segmented
using several criteria.

User Analysis
After identifying the market, the marketer must identify the users within that market. Who is
eligible to be a user? Is it a librarian, a department head, a reference librarian, a professor, the
board of directors, or a student? It could be any of the options listed above. A useful way to
organise these users is to classify them as influencers, decision makers, purchasers, or users
of a service or product.

Customer Satisfaction
Customer satisfaction is reflected in the difference between the actual performances of the
product perceived by a customer vs. the expectation of the customer. Hence it’s the match
between customer expectations of the product and the product’s actual performance.
Customer satisfaction differs from person to person it’s an experience which is different for
different individuals. A proper evaluation of a product or service can only be done by
experiencing it. Therefore customer satisfaction is a post- purchase phenomenon. Satisfaction
can only be measured by comparing pre-purchase expectation and post-purchase experience.
Customer satisfaction is also the measure of success of an organization

Organisational Analysis
When determining which markets to serve and which products and services to provide, an
organization's objectives, strengths, and weaknesses must be carefully considered.
Considerations in the analysis would include the organization's resources, any restrictions,
authority attitudes, special expertise of staff, the organization's structure, and any successes
and failures. Assessing the organization's strengths can assist in turning opportunities into
successes.

Competitive Analysis
To begin a competitive analysis, identify as many potential competitors as possible. In fact,
identifying markets will aid in the identification of competitors, and vice versa. Who is a
library/information organization's competitor? Other library/information organisations,
library associations, for-profit vendors (such as information brokers), and library schools are
competitors. Other organisations vying for funding are also competitors; for example, college
libraries compete with one another for government funding. An organisation competes with

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others seeking foundation funding. As library budgets have shrunk, competition for limited
funds has increased, putting information organisations in a highly competitive environment.
Competitors can be assessed by comparing the attributes and prices of their services and
products to those of others.

Marketing Mix
While marketing is a long-term planning approach, it can also help make short-term plans for
the delivery of specific services to specific markets. The marketing mix, also known as the
four P's of marketing after its four components, namely product, price, place, and promotion,
is a short-term planning tool. This will be covered in greater detail later in this unit.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Marketing is a process which aims at ________ .

2. Marketing is an art of _______________.
3. Marketing involves selling ____________________.
4. What is the basis of marketing?
a) Exchange
b) Net Sales and Net Profit
c) Profit
d) Packaging

1.5 MARKETING PHILOSOPHIES

Marketing can be traced back to the prehistoric period, when people first began to settle and
a division of labour was established for communal living. Mutual cohabitation resulted in this
division of labour in society because it was difficult for everyone to engage in activities that
met all of the needs. The origins of modern-day marketing can be traced back to the birth of a
barter system, in which two parties engage in the physical exchange of goods and services for
mutual benefit, as well as the voluntary agreement of both parties to transfer ownership of the
physical goods exchanged.

The advancement of civilization, rising living standards, changing lifestyles, and

technological advancement have all resulted in new desires. These can only be met by a wide
range of new goods and services, in addition to changes and improvements to existing goods
and services. However, this is the general trend, and there are a few exceptions. To

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experience this evolutionary trend, markets for all products and services must reach a certain
level of maturity. It might not be the case for every product or market.

With changing times businesses have evolved significantly and markets have transformed in
line with businesses all over the world. The firms have also changed the way they deal with
the market, evolving through different phases of progress. The change in the attitude and
perception of people, the rapidly changing tastes and preferences and the way they live and
work. In line with this change, the marketing function has come into being. Therefore the
purpose of a marketing philosophy is to identify needs and fulfill them. Therefore a
marketing philosophy is a fundamental idea that guides a company’s efforts to satisfy
customers and achieve organizational goals. Each of these philosophies considers the
interests of organizations, customers, and society at large.
Businesses conduct their marketing activity on the following five marketing philosophies:

• Production concept
• Product concept
• Selling concept
• Marketing concept
• Societal concept

1.5.1Production Concept
The production orientation gives rise to the Production Concept. Customers will choose
products and services that are widely available and inexpensive, according to the basic
proposition. As a result, managers attempt to increase volume through a low-cost, intensive
distribution strategy. The managers believe that consumers prefer low-cost, widely available
products. This appears to be a viable strategy in a developing market where market
expansion is the business's survival strategy. Companies that want to take advantage of scale
economies pursue this type of orientation. It is natural for businesses to struggle with
delivering quality products and dealing with problems caused by impersonal customer
service.

1.5.2 Product Concept

According to the Product Concept, consumers will prefer products with the most attributes
such as quality, performance, and other innovative features. Over time, the managers
concentrate on developing superior products and improving existing product lines. The
"Technology Push Model" refers to the commercialization of scientific laboratory
innovations and the opportunity for consumers to learn about and use these products. The
problem with this approach is that managers forget to read their customers' minds before
launching products.Many times, innovations are introduced into the market before the market
is ready for them. Innovative products are launched without educating customers about the
innovation and the potential benefits to the customer. The television major Videocon
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introduced the Golden Eye Technology to the Indian market, but the market did not
recognise the benefit of this advantage. Following that, at a later stage in the market, LG
introduced technology and developed its Unique Selling Proposition for marketing success.

1.5.3 Selling Concept

According to the Selling Concept, customers, whether individuals or organisations, will not
purchase enough of the organization's products unless they are persuaded to do so through
selling effort. As a result, organisations must sell and promote their products in order to
achieve marketing success. Consumers are typically inert, and they must be persuaded to buy
by converting their inert need into a buying action through persuasion and selling action.
This method is useful in the case of unsought goods such as life insurance, vacuum cleaners,
and firefighting equipment such as fire extinguishers. These industries are known to have a
strong sales force network.

1.5.4 Marketing Concept

According to the Marketing Concept, the reason for success is the company's ability to
create, deliver, and communicate a better value proposition through its marketing offer than
competitors in its chosen target market. Theodore Levitt claims that "Selling is concerned
with the needs of the seller, whereas marketing is concerned with the needs of the buyer.
Selling is concerned with the seller's need to convert his product into cash, while marketing
is concerned with satisfying the needs of the customer through the product and the entire set
of activities associated with creating, delivering, and finally consuming it ". The marketing
concept is an elaborate attempt to explain a phenomenon that is founded on four key issues:
target market, customer need, integrated marketing, and profitability.Companies want to
improve their return on investment. Instead of investing in a mass market, they have begun to
look for specific markets where their product will best fit and have designed a marketing
programme to suit the tastes of this target market. The next critical step is to understand the
customer's needs in that target market so that a suitable marketing offer can be designed.

1.5.5 Societal Concept

According to the Societal Concept, the enterprise's task is to determine the target market's
needs, wants, and intentions and to deliver the expected satisfaction more effectively and
efficiently than competitors in order to preserve or enhance the consumer's and society's
well-being. It combines the best marketing alternatives to effect social change in an
integrated planning and action framework through the use of communication technology and
marketing techniques. It also expects marketers to incorporate social and ethical
considerations into their marketing practises.With a growing awareness of business's social
relevance, there is an effort to make marketing socially relevant as well. In some ways,
marketing is more than just a business activity; it must also consider social needs. Excessive
resource exploitation, environmental degradation, and customer movements have
necessitated the recognition of marketing's societal relevance. Marketing must then be
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regarded as a socially responsible or accountable activity. According to the societal concept,

a business organisation must consider the needs and desires of its customers and deliver
goods and services efficiently in order to increase consumer satisfaction and the well-being
of society.

1.6 NEED FOR MARKETING

Currently, all types of libraries recognise the importance of marketing information services.
Other information service providers are competing with libraries. They must make daily
decisions about the form and format of information acquisition and archiving. Librarians
work hard to ensure that information is freely available. They are dealing with space
constraints, shrinking budgets, and rising material costs. At the same time, with the advent of
online information access, users' expectations are skyrocketing. In response to these factors,
library management philosophies and administrative operations have evolved. Librarians are
embracing marketing techniques in order to become more effective managers and
information service providers.

• Libraries face the greatest challenge, as financial resources for libraries are
continually reduced and they are under pressure to be self-sufficient. Librarians face
significant financial challenges. This necessitates a greater emphasis on marketing.
Good marketing efforts can take care of all resources and how they can be channelled
as efficiently as possible.
• Library services are valuable, but they are undervalued due to a lack of visibility
among users. Marketing efforts can help improve the image of library and
information (LIS) professionals by establishing friendly relationships with users and
other patrons, providing good facilities, providing a high standard of service,
maintaining good discipline, and having well-behaved staff.
• For a long time, LIS professionals focused on suppliers and thus lost interest in
working with users/customers. However, it should be noted that only satisfied users
return, and dissatisfied users are more likely to seek out other sources of information
to meet their information needs.
• The reasons for using marketing techniques in any organisation, particularly a library
or information centre, are not to make money, but to increase user satisfaction and the
perceived value of their services and products. Increased user satisfaction leads to
increased willingness to use and pay for the services provided. Increased perception
of the organization's value will translate into increased levels of support for the
organisation. As a result, user satisfaction has a direct impact on the library's support.
However, some efforts could be made to obtain such funding by dealing directly with
funding bodies.

To meet users' needs satisfactorily, LIS professionals must first understand who they are
attempting to serve. What are the user's preferences? What services can librarians provide to
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meet these needs? Under what circumstances can librarians provide services and products?
How do librarians interact with their customers? How do users communicate their
requirements to LIS professionals? The librarian is well-versed in the library's resources,
facilities, services, and products, among other things. There is nothing wrong with librarians
informing their clients about how well they can assist them in achieving their goals.
Librarians, on the other hand, must leverage their expertise in meeting users' needs through
the resources available. Marketing puts such a concept to use.

Libraries want visitors to return and use their resources and services.Libraries have
traditionally had very positive and favourable relationships with their users. Members of the
library are formally associated with the library.Librarians have a great opportunity to transfer
this positive, beneficial relationship to attract users on a regular basis. However, users will
return only if their current needs are met, and marketing attitude plays a critical role in
meeting users' information needs.
The world in which libraries exist has dramatically changed. It moves faster, is more reliant
on technology, and competes more fiercely. We must look to marketing to help us manage
better because we are afraid that change will threaten the existence of libraries.Despite
interest in marketing, there has been resistance due to a misunderstanding of the concept and
its application in the library environment; failure to recognise and understand a marketing
orientation and its process even when it is present; and disagreement with the basic tenets of
marketing that place the emphasis on the customer rather than the product, profit, or the
organisation itself. Many myths exist in the minds of library professionals, such as marketing
equates selling; promotion or advertising; marketing focuses on customers; marketing is
about products and information is not a product; marketing necessitates good marketing
people; marketing necessitates extra work; marketing necessitatesmassive budgets; marketing
is all about profit; library services are still free.

1.7 FUNCTIONS OF MARKETING

The various definitions of marketing given earlier refer to the broad scope and
variedfunctions of marketing. Most of the authoriries on marketing agree that the four
majorinstruments or responsibilities of marketing are product planning and development,
pricing,physical distribution, and promotion. These are also termed as the four pillars of
marketingor the elements of marketing-mix. Functions of marketing be classifiied under
three categories :

i. those concerned with the stimulating of demand,

ii. those concerned with the servicing of demand after it is created, and
iii. supporting or facilitating functions

Stimulating the demand : This category includes the major tools of promoting theproduct,
namely, advertising, personal selling, publicity, and sales promotion. Product packaging,
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branding, Iabelling and pricing can also be included under this category of marketing
functions since one of the objectives in those activities is to stimulate the demand of
theproduct.
Servicing the demand : The major functions under this category are:

• Product planning and development: The product required by the prospective

buyershas to be planned and developed so as to satisfy the needs and wants of the
buyer and toprovide him the desired utility. This activity includes the whole gamut of
activities relatingto new product development, packaging, branding, planning and
providing after-sales service,supply of spare parts and comp::inents wherever
applicable.
• Transportation : The products are to be transported from the place of manufacturingto
the place where it is needed by the buyer. This involves physical handling of the
product.
• Warehousing : The goods have to be stored from the time they are manufacturedtill
they are needed by the buyer.
• Inventory management ; An adequate stock has to be maintained in the warehouseto
meet the unexpected demand of the buyers and to provide a buffer to meet excess
damandor short supply of the goods.
• Order processing and handling. The orders for supply of the goods have to
bepromptly and efficiently processed and dispatch of goods made so as to ensure
timely deliveryof goods to the buyer.
Facilitating fucntions: This category includes :

• Marketing research : It is needed for collecting, analysing and interpreting datafor

purposes of solving various marketing problems and in order to improve decisions in
themarketing area.
• Sales forecasting: Future sales have to be estimated before the production
andmarketing of goods take place.

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Preservation & Storage

Buying Decision Making

Production

Sorting & Grading

Selling MARKET

Packing
Financing

Pricing
Marketing Marketing Intelligence
Transportation
Information System

Fig: Marketing functions

1.8 IMPLICATIONOF MARKETING WITH LIBRARY &

INFORMATION SERVICES

Libraries are fundamentally service institutions, but there is no doubt among library and
information professionals that 'information' is at the heart of the business of libraries and
information centres.Peter F. Drucker rightly said ‘Sooner or later all thinking and planning
has todegenerate into work’ and all marketing thinking and planning accordingly hasto be put
into work. Effective implementation of marketing largely relies uponthe following aspects:

• Developing a marketing culture throughout the library; everyone must realise this and
work for the marketing success.
• Promoting service culture.
• Developing growth oriented, services oriented staff, as the staff makesmarketing
success in any service unit.
• Developing a clear statement of the expenditure to achieve the desired levelof
marketing success.
• Developing and implementing the marketing plan and actions associatedwith it.
• Asking for feedback, reviews and insights to help achieve the targets moreefficiently.
• Putting marketing efforts consistently over a period of time.
• Monitoring marketing efforts as to know how the outcome of marketingactivities has
been effective.
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The philosophy of libraries revolves around the Five Laws of Library Science. Many authors
find these laws closer to modern marketing principles.The five laws with their marketing
implication isshsown in the table below:

Table 1.1: Marketing implication on five laws on library science

Five Laws Marketing Implications

Books are for use Acquiring appropriate information material and
ensuring sufficient resources and services are
available for the use of users. Convenient location,
effective signage and longer opening hours,
human resource for using resources and services.
Every reader his/her book Collecting and interpreting information,
understanding the needs of users and matching
them with the organisational resources.
Every book its reader Publicising value and benefits, promotional
campaign, advocacy, public relations, personal
communication, etc
Save the time of the user Repackaging information into appropriate form,
availability of information when they need.
Ensuring quality of services and products.
Library is a growing organism Mobilising resources, dealing with uncertainty
about future user needs, new services, new
customer groups, etc.

1.8 IMPORTANCE OF MARKETING

Marketing is not only important for the producer, but also for the distributors andconsumers.
The importance of marketing are as follows:

i. Marketing helps in distribution of products to the consumers in urban andrural areas.

Proper distribution ensures the food availability to the people. Byensuring smooth
distribution of products, marketing sector serves the dualpurpose of satisfying both
the producers’ and the consumers’ interests.
ii. An efficient marketing system helps in preventing or minimizing the harvestand post-
harvest losses especially in case of perishable products like milk,fish etc. As the time
gap between production and consumption increases, thechances of spoilage also
increase which may result in physical and economiclosses.
iii. The production of commodities tends to increase along with the increasewith demand
in the market. Thus, it supports a large production industry bytapping the
opportunities in the market.
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iv. Effective marketing ensures revenue generation and provides reasonable profitto
producers, distributors, merchants etc. to make their livelihood.
v. Huge infrastructure has been created to meet the rising demand of consumersboth
atdomestic as well as international markets. Competitiveness has ledto modernization
of industries leading to large-scale development ininfrastructure. New facilities
including buildings, machineries, equipments,laboratories etc. were created with huge
capital investment leading to industrialdevelopment.
vi. Growth of production and distribution of goods has resulted in creation oflarge-scale
employment opportunities, which stimulate economic activity.
vii. Marketing helps in creation of high quality products as a result ofcompetitiveness in
both domestic and international markets. In modernmarketing, consumers play a very
dominant role. Many experts haveconcluded that the ultimate objective of marketing
is to attain consumersatisfaction. The producer has to take into account consumer
preference andincorporate suitable modifications in his/her products. The increasing
demandof goods also will be a temptation for producers to enhance
production.Consumer awareness of quality has completely changed the marketing
scenarioand has made products more competitive. The emphasis on quality
andvariety of products by consumers has led to product diversification.Technological
advancements and its application have resulted in introductionof new products,
especially value-added products in agriculture and fisheriessectors.
viii. Marketing has led to substantial growth in exports and foreign exchangerevenue. Due
to development of international marketing, our country wasable to achieve a high rate
of export growth in terms of quantity and value.Due to technology development and
adoption of modern marketing strategies,we are now in a position to compete with
any other country in the internationalmarket. India is now exporting annually around
4 lakh tonnes of marineproducts fetching more than 8000 crores of rupees.
ix. Promotes substantial growth of National income. The creation of hugeemployment
opportunities, higher rate of production, increased revenuegeneration and foreign
exchange earnings etc. have substantially contributedto growth of national income.
The total GDP contribution from the fisheriessector amounts to about 1.5 per cent.
x. Vibrant marketing system enhances demand of goods and services and inturn results
in high rate of production.

1.9 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you have discovered that marketing is a vital activity in libraries.Marketing
assists librarians in proving their worth, mobilising resources, developing a positive image,
and becoming effective managers. Marketing is no longer limited to promotional efforts, but
is based on interaction with users, whether they are current or potential users, and whether
they are in the library or outside. The goal of marketing information services is to make them
more responsive to user needs and to boost user satisfaction. To fully utilise information
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products and services, information managers must employ a well-integrated marketing

approach.

1.10 GLOSSARY

Markets: The processes by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want by
creating and exchanging products and value with others.

Marketing Mix: The set of four co~ltrollable marketing tools viz, product, price, promotion
and place (Physical Distribution) that the marketer blends to achieve the outcome of desired
level of custo~ner satisfaction. Marketing mix is also known as 'Four Ps'.
Demands : Human wants that are backed by buying power or resources.
Needs : Represent a state of felt deprivation; there are two ways of responding to it. One is
by satisfying the need, the other is by reducing the need.
Wants : Human needs that are shaped by experience, culture, peer group, etc.Wants are
satisfied through appropriate products or services
Products : Anything that can be offered to satisfy a need or want. It can be a service.

1.11 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Satisfaction of customer needs

2. Selling more
3. Products
4. Exchange

1.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain marketing. Discuss various philosophies of marketing.

2. What is the need of marketing?

1.13 REFERENCES

Gupta, D.K., and A. Jambhekar, eds. An Integrated Approach to Services Marketing: A Book
of Reading on Marketing of Library and Information Services. Mumbai, India: Allied
Publishers Private Unlimited, 2003.Print
Jain, Abhinandan, et al., eds. Marketing Information Products and Services: A Primer for
Librarians and Information Professionals. New Delhi :TataMcGrawhill, 1999.Print.
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Kapoor, S. K., and Amitabh Chatterjee, eds. Proceedings of the IASLIC 13th National
Seminar on Marketing of Library and Information Services in India. Calcutta:IASLIC,1988.
Print.

1.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

BAKEWELL (K G). 1997. Managing user-centred libraries and information services. Ed.
2. Maxwell, London.
BUTCHER (Helen). 1998. Meeting manager’s information needs.. ASLIB, London.

CARPENTER (J) and DAVIES (R). 1992. Quantification of the overseas consulting
market for professional consultancy services in librarianship and information science and
information management.. Research and Development, British Library, London.

COOTE (Helen) and BATCHELOR (Bridget). 1997. How to market your library services
effectively. Ed. 2..Aslib, London

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LESSON 1.2

MARKETING ENVIRONMENT: PRODUCER,

CONSUMER – BUYER BEHAVIOUR

SaloniPriya
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Marketing environment: Definition & Types
1.3.1 Importance of marketing environment
1.3.2 Types of marketing environment
1.4 Government acts affecting marketing
1.5 Marketing implications of government acts
1.6 Consumer behaviour
1.6.1 Characteristics affecting consumer behaviour
1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Answers to In-text Questions
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions
1.11 References
1.12 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

• Understand the various types of marketing environment.

• Know various government regulations affecting the marketing environment.
• Understand the marketing implications of different government acts.
• Familiarize with the consumer behaviour.

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1.2 INTRODUCTION

Marketing environment is the combination of external and internal factors and forces that
affect the company’s ability to establish a relationship and serve its customers.
The marketing environment of a business consists of an internal and an external environment.

• The internal environment is company-specific and includes owners, workers,

machines, materials etc.
• The external environment is further divided into two components: micro & macro.

 The micro or the task environment is also specific to the business but
is external. It consists of factors engaged in producing, distributing,
and promoting the offering.
 The macro or the broad environment includes larger societal forces
which affect society as a whole. It is made up of six components:
demographic, economic, physical, technological, political-legal, and
social-cultural environment.

“A company’s marketing environment consists of the actors and forces outside of marketing
that affect marketing management ability to build and maintain successful relationships with
target customers”. – Philip Kotler

1.3 MARKETINGENVIRONMENT: DEFINITION, TYPES

Marketing environment is one of the important terms of marketing management. It is
external to marketing management and is uncontrollable and ever changing. Marketing
activities are influenced by several factors inside and outside a business firm. These factors
or forces influencing marketing decision-making are collectively called marketing
environment. It comprises all those forces which have an impact on market and marketing
efforts of the enterprise. According to Philip Kotler, marketing environment refers to
“external factors and forces that affect the company’s ability to develop and maintain
successful transactions and relationships with its target customers”.

As we all know, marketing research and marketing intelligence systems are methods used by
businesses to scan the environment and gather vital information about changes. Customers'
behaviour and competitors' activities are also important environmental factors to monitor.
Environmental analysis attempts to provide a comprehensive understanding of current market
conditions as well as the impact of external factors that marketers cannot control. These
variables are crucial in persuading potential customers about changes in market trends,
market conditions, and so on. Environment analysis is important because:

• It aids in marketing research.

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• It can assess the business impact of opportunities and threats.

• It helps the company raise general awareness of environmental changes.
• On the basis of analysis, effective marketing strategies can be developed.
• It aids in capitalising on opportunities rather than losing them to competitors.
• It makes it easier to comprehend environmental elements.
• It aids in the development of best strategies by analysing "what is going on around the
company."

1.3.1 Importance of marketing environment

• The marketing environmental analysis will help the marketer to:
• Become well acquainted with the changes in the environment.
• Gain qualitative information about the business environment; which will help them
todevelop strategies in order to cope with ever changing environment.
• Conduct marketing analysis in order to understand the markets needs and wants so as
to modify its products to satisfy these market requirements.
• Decide on matters related to Government-legal-regulatory policies in a particular
country to formulate its strategies successfully amidst these policies.
• Allocate its resources effectively and diversify either into a new market segment
ortotally into a new business which is outside the scope of its existing business.
• Identify the threats from the environment in terms of new competitors, price
wars,competitor’s new products or services, etc.; and prepare its strategies on thebasis
of that.
• Identify the opportunities in the environment and exploit these opportunities tofirm’s
advantage. These opportunities can be in terms of emergence of newmarkets;
mergers, joint ventures, or alliances; market vacuum occurred due to exitof a
competitor, etc.
• Identify its weaknesses such as lower quality of goods or services; lack ofmarketing
expertise; or lack of unique products and services; and preparestrategies to convert its
weaknesses into strengths.
• Identify its strengths and fully exploit them in firm’s advantage. These strengthscan
be in terms of marketing expertise, superior product quality or services, orgiving
unique innovative products or services.

Identifying Opportunities
It helps an organization in exploiting the chances or prospects for its own benefit.
Forexample, if an organization finds out that customers appreciate its products ascompared to
competitors’ products then it might encash this opportunity by givingdiscounts on its
products to boost sale.

Identifying Threats

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It gives warning signals to organizations to take the required steps before it is too late. For
example, if an organization comes to know that a foreign multinational is entering into the
industry then it can overcome this threat by adopting strategies, such as reducing the
product’s prices or carrying out aggressive promotional strategies.

Managing Changes
It helps in coping with the dynamic marketing environment. If an organization wishes to
survive in the long run, then it must adapt to the changes occurring in the marketing
environment.

The external marketing environment may be broadly divided into two parts:
1) Micro environment
2) Macro environment

1.3.2 Micro Environment:

The micro environment is the environment that is closely related to the organisation and has
a direct impact on its activities. It is divided into two parts: supply side and demand side.
Suppliers, marketing intermediaries, and competitors who offer raw materials or supply
products are all part of the supply side environment. Customers who consume products, on
the other hand, are part of the demand side environment.
Micro environmental factors which effect the marketing decisions of the company are:

i) organisation's internal environment

ii) suppliers
iii) marketing intermediaries
iv) competitors
v) consumers
We will discuss each of these factors in detail:

Organisation's Internal Environment

Organisation's financial, production and human resource capabilities influence its marketing
decisions to a large extent. For instance, while deciding about the sales targets, it is necessary
to see whether the existing production facilities are enough to produce the additional
quantities or not. If the existing facilities are not enough and expansion to plant and
machinery is required, it is necessary to think about financial capabilities. You may have a
responsive research and development department to develop a new product. So also, the
production department may have its own facilities for producing the new product. It is also
necessary to consider how non-marketing departments in the organisation cooperate with the
marketing department. The top management may not agree with the views of the marketing
department on the marketing strategies or their implementation. Besides, the marketing

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department must work in close cooperation with the other departments, especially the quality
control and production departments. Sometimes it is the sale force that must bear the major
task in the strategy.

Suppliers
For production of goods or services, you require a variety of inputs. The individuals or firms
who supply such inputs are called suppliers. Success of the marketing organisation depends
upon the smooth and continuous supply of inputs in required quantities on reasonable terms.
Hence suppliers assume importance. The timely supplies of specified quality and quantity
makes the producer to keep up the delivery schedule and the quality of the final product. The
dependence on the supplier is naturally more when the number of suppliers is more. During
periods of shortages, sole suppliers may not supply materials on favourable terms. Each
supplier may negotiate his own terms and conditions, depending upon the competitive
position of his firm. Some suppliers, for example, expect payment in advance, and goods are
supplied on the basis of a waiting list, whereas others may be ready to supply on credit basis.

Intermediaries
Normally, it is not possible for all the producers to sell their goods or services directly to the
consumers. Producers use the services of several intermediaries to move their products to the
consumers. The dealers and distributors, in other words the marketing intermediaries, may or
may not be willing to extend their cooperation. These persons normally prefer well-
established brands. Newcomers may find it extremely difficult to find a willing dealer to
stock his goods. From newcomers they may demand favourable terms by way of discount,
credit, etc., and the producer may find it difficult to satisfy them. There are also other
intermediaries like transport organisations, warehousing agencies, etc., who assist in physical
distribution. Their cost of service, accessibility, safe and fast delivery, etc., often influence
the marketing activities.

1.3.3 Macro Environment:

A macroenvironment is a collection of environmental factors that are beyond an
organization's control. These factors have a significant impact on organisational activities.
The macroenvironment is constantly changing. Changes in the macroenvironment create both
opportunities and threats in an organisation.

The macro environmental factors that exert influence on an organisation's marketing system
are:

• physical environment,
• technological environment,
• political and legal environment,
• economic environment,

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• demographic environment, and

• socialcultural environment.
Let us discuss these in detail:

Physical Environment
The earth's natural renewable resources (e.g. forest, food products from agriculture, etc.) and
finite non-renewable resources (e.g, oil, coal, minerals, etc.), weather (climatic) conditions,
landscapes and water resources are components of an environment which quite often change
the level and type of resources available to a marketer for his production. For example, India
does not have enough petroleum resources, and imports petrol and other products. Recently,
the Gulf War drastically affected the supply of petrol and diesel in the country. This had lot
of implications for the companies consuming petro-products.

Technological Environment
Technology is shaping the destiny of the people. The revolution in computers, electronics
and communication in general may make one's production out of tune with the current
products and services. For example, new printing technology like laser printing and desk top
publishing, has already made the labour-intensive type-set printing uneconomical.

Political and Legal Environment

Political changes bring in new policies and laws relevant to industry. Government regulation
continues with different intensities and the law and the rules framed are becoming complex.
Many areas of business are brought under one law Marketing Environment or the other, and
the marketer cannot escape from the influence of these laws. The tax laws for example, the
sales tax. excise duty, income-tax, etc., have direct bearing on the costs and prices of the
products and services marketed. So also, the policies relating to imports and exports. Since
these factors affect all the units, (they do not affect a single marketer alone), these are
considered as the forces in the macro environment.

Economic Environment
Under economic environment, a marketing manager generally studies the following factors
and trends: i) Trends in gross national product and real income growth; ii) Pattern of income
distribution; iii) Variations in geographical income distribution and its trends; iv)
Expenditure pattern and trends. v) Trends of consumer savings and how consumers like to
hold their savings, i.e., either in the form of bank account, investments in bonds arid
securities; purchase of real estate, insurance policies, or any other assets; vi) Borrowing
pattern, trends and governmental and legal restrictions; and vii) Major economic variables,
e.g., cost of living, interest rates, repayment terms, disposable income, etc. These factors
determine the purchasing power, along with savings and credit availability. Study and
knowledge of economic forces is essential for preparing effective marketing plans. No firm is

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immune to economic forces altogether some are less vulnerable than others. Anticipation of
future economic conditions will enable the firm to devise appropriate marketing strategies.
Marketing organisations are susceptible to economic conditions, both directly and through
the medium of marketplace. Economic conditions affect marketing directly because such
organisations are themselves a part of marketplace. For instance, the cost of inputs positively
responds to upward swing of economic condition. This will affect the output price and
consequently affect the sales. The effect on marketplace (consumers) also influences the
marketing through changes in consumer habits. This is an indirect influence. For example, in
the event of spiralling prices, consumers often curtail or postpone their expenditures for
luxury products. Conversely, during times of relative affluence, consumers are much less
conscious of small price differences and would buy luxury products. Demographic
Environment Marketers are keenly interested in the demographic characteristics such as the
size of the population, its geographical distribution, density, mobility trends, age distribution,
birth rate, death rate, the religious composition, etc. The changing lifestyles, habits and tastes
of the population, have potentials for the marketer to explore.

Demographic Environment
Marketers are keenly interested in the demographic characteristics such as the size of the
population, its geographical distribution, density, mobility trends, age distribution, birth rate,
death rate, the religious composition, etc. The changing lifestyles, habits and tastes of the
population, have potentials for the marketer to explore. For example, when both husband and
wife go for jobs, the demand for gadgets that make housekeeping easier and the semi-cooked
food products increase.

Socio-Cultural environment
There are core cultural values which are found stable and deep rooted, and hence change very
little. There are also secondary cultural values which are susceptible to fast changes. Some of
them like hair styles, clothing, etc. just fade. Even in each culture, the entire population may
not adopt the changes. There are different degrees with which people adopt them. Religion is
also an important component of culture which has implications for the marketer.

1.4 GOVERNMENT ACTS AFFECTING MARKETING

Several laws affecting business have become operational over the years. The important ones
affecting marketing are discussed below:

The Indian Contract Act, 1872

Regulates the economic and commercial relations of citizens. The scope of this Act extends
to all such decisions which involve the formation and execution of a contract. The essentials
of a valid contract are specified and examined in detail. A contract is an agreement
enforceable at law between two or more persons by which rights are acquired by one or more
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to act or forbearances on the part of the other or others. The Act also specifies provisions for
the creation of an agency and the rights and duties of a principal and an agent.

Sales of Goods Act, 1930

Governs the transactions of sale and purchase. A contract of sale of goods is defined as a
contract whereby the property in goods is transferred or agreed to be transferred by the seller
to the buyer for a price. The Act also lays down rules about passing of property in goods, the
rights and duties of the buyer and seller, rules regarding the delivery of goods as well as the
rights of the unpaid seller.

The Industries (Development & Regulation) Act, 1951

It is through this Act that the industrial licensing system operates, in effect, it empowers the
government to licence (or permit) new investment, expansion of licensed units, production of
new articles, change of location by the licensed units and to investigate the affairs of licensed
units in certain cases and to take over the management thereof, if conditions so warrant. The
objectives behind these powers are, of course, development and regulation of important
industries involving large investments which have an all-India importance. It is in the actual
implementation of these objectives that the relevant aspects of the industrial policy are
expected to be fulfilled.

Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (1954)

Prohibits the publication or issue of advertisement tending to cause harm to the ignorant
consumer by consuming certain food articles. It also ensures purity in the articles of food.

Drugs and Magic Remedies (Objectionable Advertisement) Act (1954)

This Act prohibits the publication or issue of advertisements tending to cause the ignorant
consumers to resort to self-medication with harmful drugs and appliances. Advertisements
for certain drugs for preventing diseases and disorders like epilepsy, prevention of
conception, sexual impotency, etc., are also prohibited. The Act also prohibits advertisements
making false claims for the drugs.

Essential Commodities Act (1955)

This Act provides for the control of production, supply and distribution in certain
commodities declared as essential under Section 2(a) of the Act, in the public interest. Under
Section 3(a) of this Act, the government can fix the price of such a commodity.

Companies Act (1956)

It is a piece of legislation which has far-reaching effects on business by regulation of the
organisation and functioning of companies. With more than 650 sections, it is one of the
longest legal enactments. It is meant to regulate the growing uses of the company system as
an instrument of business and finance and possibilities of abuse inherent in that system.
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Trade Marks Act (1999)

It deals with the trade and merchandise marks registered under this Act. A mark includes a
device, brand, heading, label, ticket, name, signature, word, letter, numeral, shape of goods,
packaging or combination of colours or any combination thereof. A Trade Mark is a
distinctive symbol, title or design that readily identifies the company or its product. The
owner of the trademark has the right to its exclusive use and the Act provides legal protection
against infringement of this right. A trademark is registered for a maximum period of 10
years and is renewable for a similar number of years, each time the period of 10 years
expires.

Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act (1969) (MRTP Act)

This Act provides for the control of monopolies, for the prohibition of monopolistic,
restrictive and unfair trade practices and for matters connected therewith or incidental
thereto. It may be of interest for you to know that the first country to pass such a legislation
was the United States which has a free enterprise system. There, such an Act was passed as
far back as 1890 and is called the Sherman Antitrust Act,

Patents Act (1970)

Provisions of this Act are attracted especially where the company intends to produce patented
products. A patent is the exclusive right to own, use and dispose of an invention for a
specified period. The patent is granted by the Central Government to the first inventor or his
legal representative.

Standards of Weights and Measures Act (1976)

This Act specifies the quantities in which products can be packed. The products covered
include bread, butter, cheese, biscuits, cereals and pulses, cigarettes. cigar, cleaning and
sanitary fluids, cleaning power, condensed milk, tea. coffee, cooking oils, cosmetics, honey,
ice cream, jams, sauces. milk powder, soaps, spices, toothpaste, etc.

Bureau of Indian Standards Act (1986)

Provides for the establishment of a Bureau for the harmonious development of the activities
of standardisation, marking and quality certification of goods and for matters connected
therewith or incidenta1 thereto. It has been provided that the Bureau of Indian Standards will
be a body corporate and there will be an Executive Committee to carry on its day-to-day
activities. Staff, assets and liabilities of the Indian Standards Institution will perform all
functions of the Indian Standards Institution. It has also been stipulated that access will be
provided for to the Bureau's Standards and Certification Marks to suppliers or like products
originating in General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT) code countries.

Agricultural Produce Grading and Marketing Act (AGMARK) (1937)

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This Act provides for grading and standardization of agricultural commodities. The main
commodities graded are -vegetable oil, ghee, cream, butter; eggs, wheat flour, rice, cotton,
gur, maize, honey and ground spices. The graded goods are stamped with the seal of the
Directorate of Agriculture, Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Rural Areas and
Employment - AGMARK. The seal is an assurance of quality and purity to the buyers of the
agricultural products. In case AGMARK goods are found to be of poor quality or defective,
the consumer can complaint to the Agriculture Marketing Advisor at Directorate of
Marketing and Inspection. Defective goods are replaced free of cost or money refunded.
With amendments of 1986, there is now a provision for penalty for misgrading and
counterfeiting grade, designation mark- imprisonment upto 6 months and fine not exceeding
Rs.5,000. Consumer organisations have been authorized to draw samples for testing.

1.5 MARKETING IMPLICATION OF GOVERNMENT ACTS

Impact on Product
The firm cannot market goods / services which are unsafe for human consumption under
defined situations. Deceptive description of quality, improper disclosures on the packaging,
use of hazardous raw materials, and sub-standard quality of goods and services are
completely prohibited by the Consumer Protection Act. Increasingly, the impact on the
environment during the production, usage or the post usage disposal of a product is coming
under critical scrutiny and more stringent regulatory guidelines to protect environment are
expected in future.

Impact on Pricing
Many products are under the MRP (Maximum Retail Price) regulations. The firm cannot
overcharge the customers in these products. In other products also, the customer’s perception
of the price must match the quality being offered. The firm cannot make deceptive and false
claims about its products to get more money from the customers. Moreover, the anti-
competitive practices such as price-fixing, output restrictions, bid rigging and market
restriction are prohibited by the Competition Act.

Impact on Place
The Restrictive trade practices ensure that a firm does not use its dominant position in the
market to dictate terms to the channel members or in any way restrict the free competition to
other rival firms. For example, a firm cannot force a retailer not to buy or sell the products of
its competitors. The regulations can also prevent the firm to sell to certain class of customers,
for example cigarette marketing firms cannot sell their products to customers below 18 years
of age. Hence, such firms cannot distribute their products through school or college canteens

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Impact on Promotions
The regulations in India talk about prohibiting false claims. This directly impacts the
advertising message used by a firm where no deceptive representation about the quality,
price, after sales service, and the warranty support etc. of the product or service can be made.
Further the regulations prevent any firm to disparage any other firm or any particular class of
customers based on their religion, community, region and language. Thus, a firm cannot use
derogatory references to any of the groups mentioned above or its rivals in its
communication. A firm also cannot give wrong information about its rivals. While running
any sales promotion schemes, the firm cannot manipulate the prices or the stocks during the
scheme period or announce bargain prices for goods, which are either put on sale or are
offered in quantities which are not reasonable with respect to the nature of the trade, offering
gifts, prizes or other items with the intention of not providing them as offered.

1.6 CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

A comprehensive approach to consumer environment should recognise that man is a complex

being, and that any explanation of his economic decisions which does not take note of his
psychological make-up, the society in which he lives, and the cultural background that
flavours his orientation towards life, is likely to result in unsound business decisions by
manufacturers and distributors of a very wide range of goods.

Consumers make many buying decisions every day and the buying decision is the focal point
of marketer’s effort. Most large companies research consumer buying decisions in detail to
answer questions about what consumers buy, where they buy, how they buy, when they buy
and why they buy.

The Environment
Buyer Response
Marketing stimuli
Other Buying attitudes and
Buyer's black box preferences

Product, Economic, Buyer's characteristics Purchase behaviour, what

Price, Technologi the buyer buys, when,
Buyer's decision process where and how much
Place, cal, Social,
Promotio Cultural Brand engagements and
n relationships

Fig: The Model of Buyer Behaviour

People purchase thousands of products and services for their consumption and use. They may
purchase these products and services for different purposes and they may have myriad

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objectives, So the term consumer is often used to describe two different kinds of consuming
entities: (1) personal consumer and (2) organizational consumer.

Personal Consumer: Personal consumer buys goods or services for his 01. her own use (e.g,
shaving cream, shampoo, lipstick) are for use for the household (TV, VCR) or family. In
each of the above, the goods are brought for final use by the individuals who are referred to
as "end users" or "ultimate users".

Organizational Consumer: Organizational consumer can be for profit and not-for-profit

businesses, government agencies, institutions (schools, colleges, Markets hospitals). In each
of the above examples we note that the products/services are being bought in order to run the
organization. For example, a travel agency purchasing a computer and printer to render
services they sell.

1.6.1 Characteristics affecting consumer behaviour

Consumer purchases are influenced strongly by cultural, social, personal and psychological
characteristics. For most part, marketers cannot control such factors, but they must take them
into account.

Personal Psychological
Social
Cultural Age and life-cycle Motivation
Groups and social stage
Culture Perception
networks
Buyer Occupation
Subculture Learning
Family
Social class Economic situation
Roles and status Beliefs and
Lifestyle attitudes

Fig: Factors influencing consumer behaviour

Cultural factors
Cultural factors exert a broad and deep influence on consumer behaviour. Marketers need to
understand the role played by the buyer’s culture, subculture and social class.

Culture: Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals,
customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by humans as a member of society. In
the context of buyer behaviour we may define culture as the Buyer Behaviour sum of learned
beliefs, values, and customs that serve to direct the buyer behaviour of members of a
particular society. It is the most basic cause of a person's wants and behaviour. Human
behaviour is largely learned. Growing up in a society, a child learns basic values,
perceptions, wants and behaviour from the family and other important institutions.

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Sub-culture: In any society as heterogeneous as the one in India, there are bound to be
subcultures. Subcultures are groups in a culture that exhibit characteristic behaviour patterns
sufficient to distinguish them from other groups within the same culture. The behaviour
patterns that distinguish subcultures are based on factors such as race, nationality, religion
and urban-rural identification. A subculture takes on importance in marketing if it constitutes
a significant part of the population and specific purchasing patterns can be traced to it.

Social Class: Social class is a ranking within a society determined by the members of the
society. Social classes are relatively permanent and ordered divisions in a society whose
member share similar values, interests, and behaviours. Social class is not determined by a
single factor such as. income but is measured as a combination of occupation, income,
education, wealth, and other variables. The lilies between social classes are normally not
fixed and rigid; people belonging to one social class call move to a higher class or lower
class

Social factors
A consumer’s behaviour also is influenced by social factors, such as the consumer’s small
groups, social networks, family and social roles and status. In addition to psychological and
personal factors, buyer behaviour is influenced by social factors. These social factors
influence the buyers in different ways. For some products the influence of social factors is
quite pronounced and for others it may not be that pronounced. Important social factors
which have certain bearings on buyer behaviour are: reference groups, family, and social
roles and statuses.

Reference Groups: A reference group is any person or group that serves as a point of
comparison (or reference) for an individual in forming either general or specific values,
attitudes, or behaviour. From the buyer behaviour perspective, reference groups are groups
that serve as frames of reference for individuals in their purchase or consumption decisions.
This may consist of all the groups that have a direct (face-to-face) or indirect influence on the
person's attitudes or behaviour.

Family: A family is a group of two or more people related by blood, marriage, or adoption
living together in a household. Because of strong bond and close continuous interaction
family members may strongly influence buyer behaviour.

Roles and Status: In life a person performs various roles and may belong to many groups
such as family, clubs and work environment. The person's position can be defined in terms of
both role and status. A role is a prescribed pattern-of behaviour expected of a person in a
given situation by virtue of the person's position in that situation. Each role carries a status
reflecting the general esteem given to it by society.

Personal factors

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A buyer's decisions are also influenced by personal characteristics. They include: age and
life-cycle stage, occupation, economic circumstances, lifestyle and personality.

Age & Life-cycle Stage: People change the goods and services they buy over their life time.
For example, we all rely on some sort of baby food during infancy, most other foods during
growing years and may rely on special diets in later years. The clothes that we wear, furniture
we buy, and recreation are all age-related.

Occupation: The importance of occupation as a social class indicator is highlighted by the

fact that we often "size up" people by enquiring about it. A person's occupation affects the
goods and services bought. Marketers frequently think in terms of specific occupations when
defining a target market for their products or broader occupational categories.

Economic Circumstances: A person's economic situation may greatly affect product choice.
People alone do not make a market; they must have money to spend. Consequently incoine
distribution is one of the most used bases for segmenting consumer markets. Marketers
should analyze the spending patterns of people at different income levels.

Life-Style: People belonging to the same subculture, social class, and occupation may exhibit
different lifestyles. Lifestyle is defined simply as how one lives in the world, which is
expressed in his activities, interests and opinions. It influences all aspects of our consumption
behaviour. It is influenced by the factors such as culture, values, demographics, subculture,
social class, reference groups, family, and individual characteristics such as motives,
emotions, and personality. Individuals and households both have lifestyles.

Psychological Factors
Consumers are being influenced by several psychological factors in the purchase of various
products and services. These factors influence consumers in a differential way i.e., some
factors may influence more and some less. The influence of these factors may vary from
product to product and from time to time. There are four psychological factors which may
influence buyer behaviour. They are: motivations, perception, learning, and beliefs and
attitudes.

Motivation: We may define motivation as the driving force within individuals that impels
them to take action. This driving force is produced by a state of tension, which exists as the
result of an unfulfilled need, Individuals strive-both consciously and unconsciously-to reduce
this tension through behaviour they anticipate will fulfill their needs and thus relieve them of
the stress they feel. Two of the most popular motivation theories which are relevant in the
context of buyer behaviour are 1) Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of need theory, and
2)Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytical theory of personality. These two theories have
different meaning and interpretations regarding marketing and consumer analysis:

• Maslow's Hierarchy of Need Theory of Motivation: Abraham Maslow tried to

explain that people have hierarchy of needs at particular time, which they want to
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satisfy. According to him the most pressing human needs are required to be satisfied
first and the least pressing are at the last. In terms of hierarchy they may be arranged
as 1) physiological needs, 2) safety needs, 3) social needs, 4) esteem needs, and 5)
self-actualization needs.
• Freud's Psychoanalytical Theory of Personality: According to this theory, which is
the cornerstone of modern psychology, much of individual's personality stems from a
fundamental conflict between a person's desire to gratify his or her physical needs and
the necessity to function as a responsible member of society. This struggle is carried
out among the three subsystems of a person's personality. These subsystems he called
as is, superego and ego.

Perception: Another important psychological factor, which may influence the consumers, is
perception. How a motivated person acts depends on his or her perception of the prevailing
situation. It has been found quite often that two people with the same level of motivation and
in the same situation act differently because of differing perceptions.
Learning: Learning involves changes in an individual's behaviour arising from observation
and experience. Learning plays an important role at every stage of the buying decision
process. No universally workable and acceptable learning theory has emerged. However,
from marketing perspective consumer learning can be thought of as the process by which
individuals acquire purchase and consumption knowledge and experience that they apply to
future purchase related behaviour.

1.7 SUMMARY

Understanding of marketing environment helps to shape the marketing decisions of

marketers and their delivery methods. The basic marketing concepts like – the marketing
concepts, marketing environment, and understanding of consumer behaviour were discussed
in the lesson. Buyer or consumer behaviour is the behaviour that buyers or consumers display
in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating, and disposing of products and services that
they expect will satisfy their needs. In purchasing various products and services buyers are
influenced by host of factors. These are: psychological factors, personal factors, social
factors, and cultural factors.

1.8 GLOSSARY

Macro Environment: Large societal forces which exert influence on firm's marketing
system. It includes demographic, economic, natural, technological, political and cultural
forces.

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Marketing Environment: The factors and forces outside of marketing that affect marketing
management's ability to develop and. maintam successful transaction with its target
customers.

Marketing Intermediaries: Firms which help the company in promot~ng. selling and ,
distributing its goods to ultimate consumers. They include middlemen, transporten.
marketing service agencies and financial intermediaries.

Micro Environment: The environmental factors that are in the closer circles of the firm. It
includes organisation's internal environment, suppliers, marketing intermediaries, customers
and competitors.
Suppliers: Firms that supply consumables and raw materials to the company.

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is marketing environment? Describe the macro environment and micro

environment of marketing.
2. Explain various regulations affecting marketing decision in India.

1.10 REFERENCES

Cronin, B., ed. The Marketing of Library and Information Services. London: ASLIB,
1981.Print.
The Marketing of Library and Information Services. 2nd ed. London: ASLIB,1992.Print.

DeSaez, E. Marketing Concepts for Library and Information Services. 2nd ed. London: Facet
Publishing, 2002.Print.
Fisher, Patricia H. Blueprint for your Library Marketing Plan. Chicago: American Library
Association, 2006.Print.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

BAKEWELL (K G). 1997. Managing user-centred libraries and information services. Ed.
2. Maxwell, London.
BUTCHER (Helen). 1998. Meeting manager’s information needs.. ASLIB, London.

CARPENTER (J) and DAVIES (R). 1992. Quantification of the overseas consulting
market for professional consultancy services in librarianship and information science and
information management..Research and Development, British Library, London.

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 Name of the Course

COOTE (Helen) and BATCHELOR (Bridget). 1997. How to market your library services
effectively. Ed. 2..Aslib, London

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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 Paper – M-106 - MARKETING OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION PRODUCTS AND SERVICES

LESSON 3

MARKETING INFORMATION SYSTEM

Rekha Devi
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Marketing Information System
1.3.1 Concept and Definition
1.3.2 Characteristics of Marketing Information System
1.3.3 Need of Marketing Information System
1.3.4 Importance of Marketing Information System
1.4 Market Information
1.4.1 Types of Market Information
1.4.2 Agencies Providing Market Information
1.4.3 Criteria for Evaluating Market Information
1.5 Components of Marketing Information System
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The After reading this unit, you will be able to:

• explain concept of market information system;

• describe need and purpose of Marketing information system;
• Define Market information and agencies providing it.
• Discuss various types of market information;
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• describe components of marketing information system.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

All producers, manufacturers, and all other marketing intermediaries, include the
organizations providing marketing facilities, utilise marketing information to run the business
more profitability. However, Market information requirement of various groups of people
engaged in marketing may vary. Farmers, businessmen, administrators, and legislators have
come to rely more and more on statistics to tell them what’s happening, to show where their
economic problems are, and to assist them in finding answers or serving as a guideline both
for current activities and planning ahead.Information for management of commercial farming
is very important from profit point of view. In fact, to manage a business very profitably is to
plan and manage its future, but to plan and manage future is to manage the relevant
information.

1.3 Marketing Information System

1.3.1 Concept and Definition:

The marketing information system is a way of gathering and analysing data on the
promotion of goods and services. For marketing decision-makers to employ, it includes of
people, tools, and processes for gathering, classifying, analysing, evaluating, and
disseminating pertinent information. A marketing information system gathers data on
different linked elements of the marketing environment, including marketing channels,
competitors, prices, new products arriving on the market, grades, and standards, among
others. For international marketing, it gathers data on product prices, quality, standards,
grades, and legal considerations for sales in importing nations.

All information that affects the marketing of goods and services is included, including
facts, projections, views, and other data. Genuine market data is essential to effective
marketing and sales. Market information agencies assess the market's temperature (whether
prices are growing or declining), the market's pulse (whether prices are high and sales are
lively or lethargic), and the market's pressure (whether supplies are sufficient, insufficient, or
in excess). The market's past is documented in statistical data sets, and organisations provide
a forecast or assessment of the market's future condition. Market intelligence is necessary for
a seamless and effective marketing system to operate since market knowledge is a marketing
function that facilitates it.

Marketing information systems are intended to support management decision making.

Management has five distinct functions and each requires support from an MIS. These are:
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planning, organising, coordinating, decisions and controlling(“Chapter 9: Marketing

Information Systems,” n.d.).

Kotler & Keller, (2006) defines Marketing Information System as “Interacting and
continuous structure of people, equipment andprocedures to obtain, classify, analyze, assess
and distributenecessary and accurate information in a timely manner to themarketing
decision makers, whether the information is internal,external or from other markets, which is
made necessary, usefuland sufficient to serve users”(Kotler & Keller, 2006).

The marketing information system refers to the use of technology for the arrangement
of the relevant data related to the market, sales, promotion, price, competition and allocation
of goods and services. This information is acquired after a proper analysis and understanding
of the marketing environment to ensure effective decision-making in the organization(J,
2019).

Fig 1.1: Marketing Information Systems(Source:(Yeung, 2012))

1.3.2 Characteristics of Marketing Information System:

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• Computer Based System

• Quick, Selective and Accurate Information
• Easy accessibility
• Inter-related Components
• Future Oriented
• Supports Decision Making
• Consistent Information
• Applicable at All Levels of Management

1.3.3 Need of Marketing Information System:

During the past century three developments have taken place that necessitated need for more
and better marketing information system.

1. Markets expanded from local to national and international marketing. The fast
infrastructure development has remarkably expanded the market. The producers can
take the advantage of this expanded market. When thecommercial farmers expand
their business or area of operation to meet demand, they need more formal system for
collecting market information and analyzing it. The WTO has opened a new chapter
for developing countries for export of agricultural products in global market provided
developed countries do follow the code of conduct and help in establishing fair
trading system.
2. Change from buyers needs to buyer wants. As the income of the buyers increase
they become more choosy and need variety of goods. In fact, today, consumers need
more diversified food basket. The increase in number of buyer also result in large
opportunities. However, seller find it harder to predict buyers response to different
features. Obviously more detailed information on consumers’ wants can help the
business enterprises.
3. Change from price to non-price competition. As sellers increase the use of
branding, products differentiation, advertising and sales promotion, they require more
information on effectiveness of these marketing tools.

Need for Marketing Information In India

India has varied agro-climatic conditions which enables it to produce all kinds of agricultural
crops in various parts of the country at different period of times in an year. But, the forward
linkage is India is very poor and the farmers sell the produce in nearby/local markets or in the
village itself. Many a times heavy supplies come to the local market which leads to low price
and thus low profit while price in other/distant markets is high. This high price in other

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markets can be a fortune for any farmer. But the farmers not have the information on such
prices. The local market traders also exploit the poor farmers through various mal practices.

1.3.4 Importance of Marketing Information System:

Its importance for various group of people can be judged from the following:

1. Farmer-producers: Market information helps in improving decisionmaking power

of the farmer. A farmer is required to decide when, where and through whom he
should sell his produce and buy inputs. Price information helps him to take these
decisions.
2. Market middlemen: Market middlemen also need market information to plan the
purchase, storage and sale of particular commodity. On the basis of market
information/ data, they project their estimates and take decisions about whether to sell
immediately or to stock goods for some time, whether to sell into the local market or
go in for import or export, whether to sell in their original form or processed form.
The loss/failure of business can partly be attributed to either the non-availability of
market information or its inadequate availability, analysis and interpretation of
market information. Co-operative marketing societies operating as commission agents
make use of market information for advising their members so that they may take
decisions on when to sell their product. Processors make use of market information
and plan their purchases so that they may run their plant continuously and profitably.
They can also work out the inventory of a product that should be maintained for a
particular period of time.
3. General economy: In fact, market information is also beneficial for whole economy.
There is always need for a competitive market process for all commodities. The
competitive process contributes to the operational efficiency of production and
marketing. However, a perfectly competitive system is difficult to obtain; but the
availability of market information contributes towards the competitive situation. In
the absence of this system, different prices will prevail, leading to the profiteering by
specialized agencies. The business of forward trading is based on the availability of
market information.
4. Government: Market information is essential for the government in framing its
agricultural production policies, in the regulation of markets, buffer stocking, import-
export, prices, mechanization and control policies.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. What is other name of Marketing Information System _________.
a)MkIS b) MDD c) Data Analyzer d) Marketing Data Sorter
2. Markets expanded from local to national and international marketing.
True / False
3. The system with special equipment, people and methods to gather and
analyze information for marketers is called:
a) Management Information System
b) Marketing Information System
c) financial Information System
d) corporate Information System

1.4 Market Information

Market information is a facilitating marketing function, and market intelligence is essential to

a smooth and efficiently operating marketing system. Accurate and timely market
information facilitates market decision, regulates the competitive market process and
lubricates the marketing machinery.

1.4.1 Types of Market Information

Market information is of two types:

1. Market intelligence: Marketing intelligence is different from regular

marketing information or marketing research data. It may form part of
marketing information system but it is special in the sense that it gives
strategic information in a flash and is quite often related to competitors'
activities. The nature of the marketing job necessitates a good intelligence
system. Broadly, marketing intelligence furnishes information on changes in
market conditions, changes in customers’ requirement, emerging strategies of
competitors and emerging opportunities in the business Marketing intelligence
may be gathered by marketing executives directly or through field sales
managers. Occasionally, it is also purchased from external agencies which
provide marketing intelligence services. In what so whatever manner it is
collected, it is essential to have a reliable and efficient system for gathering
and using the intelligence. If there is too much delay in the process, the
marketing intelligence loses its significance.
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2. Market news: This term refers to current information about prices, arrivals
and changes in market conditions. This information tips the farmers to take
decisions about when and where to sell his produce. The availability of market
news in time and with speed is of utmost value. Sometimes, a person/trader
who gets the first market news has a substantial advantage over his fellow-
traders who receive it late. Market news quickly becomes obsolete and
requires frequent up dating.

1.4.2 Agencies Providing Market Information

The collected information has no meaning until it reaches the persons who need it.
The agencies/ sources through which market information is disseminated are:

1. Personal contacts: This is the most important source of dissemination of market

information. Information is given orally, i.e., by one businessman to another
businessman, by a businessman to a farmer, or by one farmer to other farmer.
2. Post and telephone: Businessmen get information from other markets on the
telephones. Commission agents convey the information on the prices of different
commodities to their client-farmers on postcards. They fill the rates on these
postcards and post them daily or some time at intervals.
3. Newspapers: The newspapers in English, Hindi and regional languages publish the
wholesale prices of important agricultural commodities in the selected markets of the
country/State. In addition, the Economic Times and the Financial Express contain a
lot of information on the various aspects of marketing including prices.
4. Magazines: Magazines, such as the Eastern Economist, Commerce and Capital, are
important weekly trade journals, which collect information on trade. e)
5. Government agencies’ reports: The regulated markets, the Agriculture Marketing
Department in the States, the Directorates of Economics and Statistics in the States,
the Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Government of India, and the
Directorate of Economics and statistics, Ministry of Food and Agriculture,
Government of India are some of the government agencies which disseminate the
collected market information through their regular publications and broadcasts on All
India Radio.
6. Price bulletins: These are issued daily, weekly, or every month. The important
bulletins through which price information is disseminated are: Bulletin of
Agricultural Prices (Weekly), Agricultural Situation in India (Monthly), Agricultural
Prices in India (Annual), and Bulletin on Food Statistics (Annual). The monthly
situation and outlook ports are published by the Directorate of Marketing and
Inspection, Government of India.
7. Radio and television: The information on the market situation in respect of prices
and arrivals of commodities in major markets are regularly telecasted. Almost all
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channels now have the slot for market information. Several State Governments and
National Information Centres of theGovernment of India have initiated interlinking
the markets with NICNET with view to ensure the quick flow and accessibility of
market information on prices and arrivals. The information on this is also available on
internet.
8. Through internet: Internet has become a main source of market information. All the
world major markets’ grade-wise prices and arrivals of various commodities on
different days are available. Even the origin wise and variety-wise information is also
available through internet. Directorate of Marketing and Information (DMI) has been
pioneering in this aspect.
9. Krishi channel: Recently a new Television Channel dedicated to agriculture has
been proposed. The channel will cover production and marketing including
international trade issues. The farmers have high hopes from it. This will also extend
the marketing information in future.
10. Kisan call centres: Kisan Call Centres will be spread throughout the country in
various states/zones. These will have direct link with experts on various agricultural
aspects including agricultural marketing, in State Agricultural Universities/ Research
Institutes or a panel of experts at these centres only. Any farmer can seek
information/ ask any question related to agriculture at any time by dialling 1551, a
toll free number. The solution to his problem will be suggested on line or with in 24
hrs depending upon question and experts availability.

1.4.3 Criteria for Evaluating Market Information

For maximum benefits, the market information must meet a number of criteria. Some of
those are described below:

1. Comprehensive information: The information must cover all agricultural

commodities and markets including international markets. A reasonable and
comprehensive information includes prices, price trends, production, supply
movements, stocks, and demand conditions at each level of the market for a product.
Providing such a mass of information, especially under the constantly changing
conditions is a formidable and expensive task.
2. Accuracy and trustworthiness: Information must be accurate and trustworthy.
However by nature, market information can never be 100 per cent accurate, but it
must be an honest market appraisal in order to earn the trust of information users.
Constant efforts are made to improve the accuracy of market information and news
services.
3. Usability: Information also must be relevant and in usable form. It is not enough to
simply collect a number of reports. Information must be collected, packaged, and
disseminated with the user’s interests in mind.Much market information goes unused
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because it is not in usable form. In such case the efforts made in collecting the
information go waste.
4. Confidentiality: The information should be confidential to whom it is collected. The
information revealed under this situation of confidentiality will be more correct and
may assist in drawing policy implications. The names of firms, to whom the market
information is collected, should not be leaked out.
5. Timeliness: Market information must be timely, in the sense of being relevant to
current decisions, and must be speedily transmitted to users. Much market
information is unusable. Futures market traders require minute-to-minute market
information.
6. Accessibility: Each interested party like farmers, consumers, government officials
and marketing agencies should have equal access to all the information relevant to the
bargaining and marketing processes.
7. Relevance and clarity: Market information must be relevant and clear.
8. Objectivity: It should convey objective message.
9. Strategic value: It should be conceived and used as a marketing decision support
system.
10. Economic: It must be economical. In other words it should be cost effective.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

4. Krishi Channel is the source to market information. True / False

5. Market information is a facilitating marketing function. Ture/ False
6. Criteria for evaluating Marketing Information System are:
a) Economics b) Timeliness
c) Objectivity d) All of these.

1.5 Components of Marketing Information System

A marketing information system has four components:

 The Internal Reporting System

 Internal reports include orders received, inventory records and sales invoices.
 The Marketing Research Systems
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Marketing research takes the form of purposeful studies either ad hoc or

continuous.
 The Marketing Intelligence System
 By contrast, marketing intelligence is less specific in its purposes, is chiefly
carried out in an informal manner
 Marketing Models
 and by managers themselves rather than by professional marketing researchers.

For Instead of a plethora of unrelated data on market information one needs pin pointed
information which farmers/traders/firms combines various inputs with internal information
and presents integrated report for him. Thus every farmer or trader must organize a rich flow
of information or they must search for relevant information. Conceptually in a competitive
world they must study the information need and design marketing information system to
meet its demand.
The various components of marketing environment are:

• Target market
• Marketing channels
• Competitors
• Publics
• Microenvironment forces and
• Macro environment forces.
They must collect and monitor marketing environment and market trend information and
analyze through four subsystems making up the Marketing Information System. These
subsystems are presented in the following diagram.

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Fig 1.2: Marketing Information System Model By Kotler(Source: (Kotler, 1998))

Let us take a closer look at above four subsystems:

1. Internal report sub-system: Every farm/firm manager produce internal report
showing their current production, sales, cost, inventory, profit and capabilities. They
plan the information need and design to collect it.
2. Market intelligence sub-system: This system provides the farm/firm/coy with
happenings data in the commercial environment. The farm manager get the
information through reading newspaper, reports, internet, telephone/ mobiles,
telegraph, suppliers, distributors, specialist, panel of experts, even purchase the
intelligent from outside, or keep their own staff to get information. Farmers normally
need the information of standard/grades, prices, transport, channels, strategies, legal
system, institutions and competitiveness.
3. Marketing research sub-system: It is the systematic design, collection, analysis and
reporting of data and finding relevant information specific to situation facing the firm.
The managers either get the data analyzed or study the specific situation himself.
They measure market potential based on various marketing components and analyze
it to take decision.
4. Marketing Analytical sub-system: It consists of advanced techniques for analyzing
marketing data and problems. The data is available in the farm records/firms data
bank. Farm/firm manager try to find out major variables (and their significance)
which affect the sales potential. They thus find the potential markets and the segment
of the markets through analytical system. Then they plan for marketing of produce.
They choose the mode of transport, distributor and channels. Based on analysis of
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market information they can plan and execute the plan, monitor and keep control over
the business.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
7. The components of Marketing Environment
a) Target Market
b) Marketing Channels
c) Publics
d) All of these.
8. The Marketing intelligence helps to gather___.
a) data based on real happenings
b) data based on results
c) data based on raw materials
d) data based on sales
9. Marketing research is the sub-system of Marketing Information System.
True / False
10. Marketing analytical is the sub-system of Marketing Information System.
True / False

1.6 SUMMARY

The importance of marketing data in commercial agriculture cannot be overstated.

By carefully arranging their domestic marketing, Indian farmers and traders enhance
employment and income. Their income will rise thanks to international trade, particularly in
the commodities where they have a competitive advantage. Through cooperatives or group
actions, small farmers might engage in a collaborative effort for their mutual gain. To
increase the revenue of producers, processors, traders, or any other company, marketing
information is a potent weapon.

1.7 GLOSSARY

Market Information: It is the information/data on various marketing aspects that is

necessary for taking decision for profitable selling of the products.

Marketing Information System:Marketing information system is system of collecting and

analysing information related to marketing of goods and services.

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1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. (a) 6.(d)
2. True 7. (d)
3. (b) 8.(a)
4. True 9. True
5. True 10. True

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define a market information system.

2. Explain various agencies/sources through which the market information in India is
available.
3. Why marketing information system is needed?
4. Define the concept ‘Marketing Information System’. Discuss its need, use and steps
to be involved in designing and developing a MIS for a university library.

1.10 REFERENCES

Chapter 9: Marketing Information Systems. (n.d.). Retrieved November 8, 2022, from

https://www.fao.org/3/w3241e/w3241e0a.htm

J, A. (2019, July 2). What is Marketing Information System? Definition, Characteristics,

Components, Decisions, Process, Importance. Retrieved November 8, 2022, from The

Investors Book website: https://theinvestorsbook.com/marketing-information-

system.html

Kotler, P. (1998). Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation, and Control

E-Book. Prentice Hall PTR.

Kotler, P., & Keller, K. L. (2006). Marketing Management. Pearson Prentice Hall.

Yeung, J. (2012). English: The marketing information systems. Own work. Retrieved from

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MARKIS.png

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1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Chaudhary, M (2012). Tourism Marketing. Oxford Higher Education.

Kotler, Bowen, Makens &Baloglu (2016). Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism, 7th
Edition, Pearson

Kotler, Keller, Koshy & Jha (2015). Marketing Management – A South Asian
Perspective, 14th Edition, Pearson

BAKEWELL (K G). Managing user-centred libraries and information services. Ed. 2.

1997. Maxwell, London.
BUTCHER (Helen).Meeting manager’s information needs.1998. ASLIB, London.

CARPENTER (J) and DAVIES (R). Quantification of the overseas consulting market for
professional consultancy services in librarianship and information science and
information management. 1992. Research and Development, British Library, London.

COOTE (Helen) and BATCHELOR (Bridget). How to market your library services
effectively. Ed. 2. 1997. Aslib, London.

GUPTA (D K), et al. Marketing library and information services: international

perspectives. 2006. K.G. Saur, Munich.

HELINSKY (Z). A short-cut to marketing the library. 2008. Chandos Publishing, Oxford.
JAIN (Abhinandan K), et al. Marketing information products and services: a primer for
libraries and information professionals. 1999. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
KOTLER (Philip). Marketing management. Ed.12. 2002. Prentice Hall, Delhi.
KOTLER (Philip) and ARMSTRONG (Gary). Principle of marketing. Ed. 7. 1996.
Prentice- Hall of India, New Delhi.
ROWLEY (Jenifer). Information marketing. 2001. Ashgate, London.

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LESSON 4

MARKET SEGMENTATION

Rekha Devi
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Market Segmentation: Concept and Meaning
1.4 Benefits of Market Segmentation
1.5 Market Segmentation Variables
1.5.1 Geographic Segmentation
1.5.2 Demographic Segmentation
1.5.3 Psychographic Segmentation
1.5.4 Behavioural Segmentation
1.6 Market Criteria for Effective Segmentation
1.7 Performing Market Segmentation
1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Answers to In-text Questions
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing the lesson, you will be able to:

• Understand the concept and meaning of Market Segmentation

• List and elaborate on major variables of Market Segmentation

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1.2 INTRODUCTION

Businesses that use segmentation strategies perceive the market as being divided into
smaller parts, each of which has more consistent key qualities than the whole. The division of
the diverse market into segments is known as market segmentation. Facilitating the creation
of distinctive marketing strategies that will work best for these niche markets is the aim.
Numerous options exist for market segmentation. A business may opt for concentrated
marketing, in which case it would target just one or a small number of market sectors.
However, the majority of businesses who divide their markets choose a number of market
groups to target with a variety of products, pricing strategies, and marketing initiatives. They
may even sell through a variety of distribution channels(Loudon &Bitta, 1984).

1.3 Market Segmentation: Concept and Meaning

According to Victor T C Middleton "Market segmentation is the process whereby

producers organise their knowledge of customer groups and select for particular attention,
those whose needs and wants they are best able to supply with their products".
In marketing, market segmentation is the process of dividing a broad consumer or
business market, normally consisting of existing and potential customers, into sub-groups
of consumers (known as segments) based on some type of shared characteristics.In dividing
or segmenting markets, researchers typically look for common characteristics such as shared
needs, common interests, similar lifestyles, or even similar demographic profiles. The overall
aim of segmentation is to identify high yield segments – that is, those segments that are likely
to be the most profitable or that have growth potential – so that these can be selected for
special attention (i.e. become target markets). Many different ways to segment a market have
been identified. Business-to-business (B2B) sellers might segment the market into different
types of businesses or countries, while business-to-consumer (B2C) sellers might segment
the market into demographic segments, such as lifestyle, behavior, or socioeconomic
status(“Market Segmentation,” 2022).
In order to segment a market, it must be divided into distinct groups. It can be summed up as
the separation of a market into groupings of segments with comparable needs. This notion
contests the idea that reaching a broad market will dilute your efforts. It is founded on the
understanding that marketing efforts should be focused on the groups with the most potential
in order to sell a product more successfully. According to Philip Kotter, various "competitors
will be in the best position to go after particular sectors of the market" and every
"organisation, instead of trying to reach everyone, should find the most attractive areas of the
market that it could effectively service."

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1.4 Benefits of Market Segmentation

Fig: 1.1: Benefits of Market Segmentation: (Sources:(“Benefits of Market Segmentation |

Top 10 Benefits of Market Segmentation,” 2019)

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Daily newspapers have to follow …………………… segmentation.
(a) Lifestyle (b) Geographic (c) Income (d) Benefit
2. Cosmetics companies segment the market on the basis of …………………….
(a) Geography (b) Demography (c) Income (d) Social class
3. When individuals are guided in their choices by their beliefs and principles and not
by feelings, desires and events, they are said to be motivated by …………………….
(a) Ideals (b) Achievements (c) Self-expression (d) Action
4. …………………… try to emulate those with higher incomes and possessions,
generally beyond their reach.
(a) Believers (b) Achievers (c) Strivers (d) Survivors
5. Segmentation on the basis of which of the following variables is not a part of
behaviouristic segmentation?
(a) Usage rate (b) User status (c) Loyalty status (d) User opinions.

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1.5 Market Segmentation Variables

The According to Kotler, there is "no single way to segment a market. A marketer has to try
different segmentation variables, singly and in combination, hoping to find an insightful way
to view the market structure".

The major variables used for segmenting the market are:

Fig: 1.2: Market Segmentation Variables: (Sources: (“Market Segmentation Variables Ppt
Templates,” n.d.)

1.5.1 Geographic Segmentation

A company can decide to operate in one or a few geographic areas or operate in all
but pay attention to local variations in geographic needs and preferences. The market is
segmented in various geographic entities lie country, state, region or city etc. This
segmentation is based on the idea that customer needs differ according to geographic regions.

1.5.2 Demographic Segmentation

In this case the tourism market is divided into various groups keeping in view the
demographic variables. These variables include age, sex, family size, family life cycle,
income, occupation, education, religion, race, and nationality. The demographic
segmentation is probably the one most frequently used method of market segmentation.

1.5.3 Psychographic Segmentation

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Psychographic segmentation is the research methodology used for studying

consumers and dividing them into groups using psychological characteristics including
personality, lifestyle, social status, activities, interests, opinions, and attitudes.Psychographic
segmentation’s emphasis on characteristics like personality and values differs from
demographic segmentation, which uses a specific trait (like gender, age, income, etc.) to
categorize potential audiences.

1.5.4 Behavioural Segmentation

In this type of segmentation, prospective buyers of tourism products are segmented
on the basis of their knowledge, attitude, use, or response to the tourism product.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

6. Psychographic segmentation is based on________.

7. Geographic Segmentation is based on _______________.
8. Demographic Segmentation is based on
9. Behavioural Segmentation is based on ___________.
10. Price Segmentation is based on___________________.

1.6 Market Criteria for Effective Segmentation

A decision to use a market segmentation strategy should rest on consideration of four

important criteria that affect its profitability. In order for segmentation to be viable, the
market must be:

1. Identifiable and Measurable: Segments must be identifiable so that the marketer

can determine which consumers belong to a segment and which do not. However,
there may be a problem with the segment’s measureability (that is, the amount of
information available on specific buyer characteristics) because numerous variables
are difficult, if not impossible, to measure at the present time.
2. Accessible: This criteria refers to the ease of effectively and economically reaching
chosen segments with marketing efforts. Some desired segments may be inaccessible
because of legal reasons.
3. Substantial: This criteria refers to the degree to which a chosen segment is large
enough to support profitably a separate marketing program. As strategy of market

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segmentation is costly. Thus, one must carefully consider not only the number of
customers available in a segment but also the amount of their purchasing power.
4. Responsive: There is little to justify the development of a separate and unique
marketing program for a target segment unless it responds uniquely to these efforts.
Therefore, the problem is to meaningfully define market segments so that they
favorably respond to marketing programs designed specifically for them. It is possible
for the marketer, using readily available data, to measure differences among market
segments in terms of their responsiveness to the marketing decision variables, and
these measurements may successfully be used in developing a marketing strategy.

1.7 Performing Market Segmentation

This Section reviews the steps involved in a typical market-segmentation study in order to
illustrate a successful approach that may often be taken(Loudon &Bitta, 1984).
The eight Steps involved in the process are as follows:

1. Define the problem or determine the usage to be made of the research.

2. Select segmentation basis.
3. Choose a set of descriptors that defines, characterizes, or relates to the segmentation
basis.
4. Select a sample of consumers.
5. Collect data on segment descriptors from the sample of consumers.
6. Form segments based on chosen consumer descriptors.
7. Establish profiles of segments.
8. Translate the results into marketing strategy.

1.8 SUMMARY

This Unit gave you an idea about the general market segmentation theory and its
correlation with tourism marketing. Market segmentation helps in identifying and
understanding the needs of the consumer and also helps in profiling the tourists. Market
segmentation is an essential activity to be undertaken for planning, designing and delivering
a marketing mix. You have seen that there are different approaches to segment tourism
markets alongwith various variables. However, at times these variables are interdependent or
simul~aneously applicable. Market segmentation is not only relevant for international
tourism markets but also for domestic tourism markets.

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1.9 GLOSSARY

Market:Market stood for the place where buyers and sellers gathered to exchange their
goods, such as a village bazaar.
Market Segmentation:The process of dividing market into distinct segments.

1.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. (b) 6. social status, life styles, andlor

2. (b) personality characteristics
3. (a) 7. the idea that customer needs differ
4. (c) according to geographic regions.
5. (d) 8. demographic variables
9.their knowledge, attitude, use, or response
to the tourism product
10. Price variable

1.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Write an essay on the application of market segmentation concept in library services

and products.
2. Discuss major variables of market segmentation.
3. Describe in detail the concept of market segmentation.

1.12 REFERENCES

Benefits of Market Segmentation | Top 10 Benefits of Market Segmentation. (2019, October

26). Retrieved November 8, 2022, from EDUCBA website:

https://www.educba.com/benefits-of-market-segmentation/

Loudon, D., &Bitta, A. J. D. (1984). Consumer Behavior: Concepts and Applications (2nd

ed. edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.,US.

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Market segmentation. (2022). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Market_segmentation&oldid=1103882764

Market segmentation variables ppt templates. (n.d.). Retrieved November 8, 2022, from

https://www.slideteam.net/market-segmentation-variables-ppt-templates.html

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Chaudhary, M (2012). Tourism Marketing. Oxford Higher Education.

Kotler, Bowen, Makens &Baloglu (2016). Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism, 7th
Edition, Pearson

Kotler, Keller, Koshy & Jha (2015). Marketing Management – A South Asian
Perspective, 14th Edition, Pearson

BAKEWELL (K G). Managing user-centred libraries and information services. Ed. 2.

1997. Maxwell, London.
BUTCHER (Helen).Meeting manager’s information needs.1998. ASLIB, London.

CARPENTER (J) and DAVIES (R). Quantification of the overseas consulting market for
professional consultancy services in librarianship and information science and
information management. 1992. Research and Development, British Library, London.

COOTE (Helen) and BATCHELOR (Bridget). How to market your library services
effectively. Ed. 2. 1997. Aslib, London.

GUPTA (D K), et al. Marketing library and information services: international

perspectives. 2006. K.G. Saur, Munich.

HELINSKY (Z). A short-cut to marketing the library. 2008. Chandos Publishing, Oxford.
JAIN (Abhinandan K), et al. Marketing information products and services: a primer for
libraries and information professionals. 1999. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
KOTLER (Philip). Marketing management. Ed.12. 2002. Prentice Hall, Delhi.

KOTLER (Philip) and ARMSTRONG (Gary). Principle of marketing. Ed. 7. 1996.

Prentice- Hall of India, New Delhi.
ROWLEY (Jenifer). Information marketing. 2001. Ashgate, London.

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**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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LESSON 5

MARKETING MIX

Rekha Devi
Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Marketing Mix : Concept and Definition
1.4 Elements of Marketing Mix
1.4.1 Product
1.4.2 Price
1.4.3 Place
1.4.4 Promotion
1.4.5 Additional P’s inContext of Services
1.4.6 The 8th P of Marketing Mix
1.5 Summary
1.6 Glossary
1.7 Answers to In-text Questions
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References
1.10 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing the lesson, you will be able to:

• Understand the concept of Marketing Mix

• Recognise the important elements of Marketing Mix
• List, explain and interpret each element of Marketing Mix

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1.2 INTRODUCTION

Marketing is a planned approach to identify and gain the support of users and develop
appropriate services in a manner which benefits the users and further the aims and objectives
of information centers. Marketing includes selling, advertising, physical distribution, sales
promotion, etc. Marketing Mix refers to the collection of controllable elements which an
organization uses to influence and focus on the target market. It is a mixture of several ideas
and plans followed by a marketing person to promote a particular product or brand. Several
concepts and ideas combined together to formulate final strategies helpful in making a brand
popular amongst the masses form marketing mix. Historically, there were said to be four Ps
of marketing elements, namely: Product/Service, Price, Promotion andPlace. Recently,
another three elements (People, Process and Physical evidence) have been added particularly
in the context of services marketing(Booms & Bitner, 1981).

1.3 Marketing Mix: Concept and Definition

Numerous activities are involved in marketing. An organisation may choose its target
consumer segment as a starting point. Once the target market has been selected, the product
must be introduced to the market using the proper distribution, pricing, and marketing
strategies. To reach the marketing objective, these must be merged or mixed in the proper
ratio. The term "marketing mix" refers to this combination of goods, pricing, distribution,
and promotional activities.
Product, pricing, place, and promotion have historically been the four main components of
the "marketing mix," which is a foundational business strategy (also known as the "4 Ps").
The "collection of marketing tools that the company use to pursue its marketing objectives in
the target market" is known as the marketing mix. The early twenty-first century saw the
emergence of marketing theory. First published in 1984, the modern marketing mix has now
evolved into the preeminent framework for marketing management decisions. In the
marketing of services, an extended marketing mix is often employed, consisting of 7 Ps
(product, pricing, promotion, location, packaging, positioning, and people), which are the
basic 4 Ps extended by process, people, and physical proof.The 8 Ps, which include these 7
Ps plus performance, are occasionally used by service marketers. They are: product, pricing,
place, promotion, people, positioning, package, and performance(“Marketing Mix,” 2022).
A product or service is sold by using the marketing mix, which is a collection of marketing
tools or approaches. It involves selecting how to position a product so that consumers will
buy it at the ideal location, price, and moment. In accordance with the marketing and
promotion strategy, the product will thereafter be sold. The four Ps—Product, Price, Place,
and Promotion—make up the marketing mix's constituent parts. Marketing managers create
marketing strategies for the commercial sector while taking into account the four Ps. Today,
however, the marketing mix is rapidly including a number of other Ps for critical
advancement(“Marketing Mix - Definition, 4 P, 7 P of Marketing, Example, Elements,” n.d.).

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According to Philip Kotler, marketing mix is “set of marketing tools that the firm uses to
pursue its marketing objectives in the target market”.

Fig 1.1: 7P’s of Marketing Mix(Source:(Henripontes, 2013))

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Marketing Mix is a set of _______________.
2. The term “marketing mix” was first coined by Prof Neil H Borden. True /
False
3. Which among the following is not included in seven Ps of marketing mix
given by Booms and Bitner?
a) Process b) People
c) Physical Evidence d) Politics
4. Marketing Mix for products consists of______.
a) 4Ps b) 7Ps
c) 8Ps d) 5Ps

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1.4 Elements of Marketing Mix

The classical framework of marketing mix includes 4P’s of marketing which are:

1. Product – It includes all the decisions and activities related to product or service
which offers benefits to enable the total spectrum of the tourist experience.
2. Price – It includes all the decisions and activities related to the price to be charged for
the product or service.
3. Place – It includes all the decisions and activities related to the distribution of the
product or service.
4. Promotion – It includes all the decisions and activities related to promotion of the
product or service.

Fig 1.2: Marketing Mix Elements (4Ps)

(Source:(“Online Study Material Commerce Courses - LPU Distance Education,” n.d.))

1.4.1 Product
The organization's goods and services are referred to as its "products." A lipstick, a
plate of dahi-vada, and a pair of shoes are all examples of merchandise. All of these were
bought in order to meet one or more of our needs. Instead of purchasing a physical item, we
are paying for the benefit it will bring. In other terms, a product can be thought of as a
collection of advantages that a marketer provides to a customer in exchange for a fee. While
purchasing a pair of shoes, we are truly purchasing comfort for our feet, and while
purchasing lipstick, we are likely purchasing beauty due to the likelihood that it will enhance

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our appearance. The term "product" can also refer to a service, such as air travel,
telecommunications, etc.

1.4.2 Price
Price is the cost associated with a good or service. It ranks as the second most crucial
component of the marketing mix. Fixing the product's price is a difficult task. While
determining the price, a number of elements need to be taken into consideration, including
the amount of demand for the product, the cost involved, the consumer's ability to pay, the
prices paid by competitors for comparable items, governmental restrictions, etc. Pricing
actually plays a key role in making decisions because it affects both the profitability of the
company and the demand for the goods.

1.4.3 Place
Products are made to be sold to consumers. They must be made accessible to
customers at a location where they may easily make a purchase. Woollens are produced in
great quantities in Ludhiana, and you may get them at a shop from the neighbourhood market
in your town. The goods must therefore be offered in stores in your town. This involves a
network made up of a number of organisations and people, including distributors,
wholesalers, and retailers (also called a channel of distribution). Whether to sell to retailers
directly or through distributors, wholesalers, etc., is a decision that the organisation must
make. Even planning a direct sale to customers is possible.

1.4.4 Promotion
The marketing effort for a product may not be successful if the consumer is not made
aware of its pricing, features, availability, etc. despite the fact that it is manufactured with the
needs of the consumer in mind, is fairly priced, and is made available at outlets that are
convenient to them. Therefore, promotion is a crucial component of the marketing mix since
it describes the process of educating, persuading, and influencing a consumer to choose the
product to be purchased. Advertising, publicity, personal selling, and sales promotion are all
methods of promotion. In order to tell potential customers about a product's availability,
qualities, and uses, this is mostly done. It piques a potential customer's interest in the product,
enables him to contrast it with similar products, and helps him make a decision.The spread of
print and electronic media has greatly facilitated the promotion process.

1.4.5 Additional P’s in Context of Services

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In context of services (including tourism), three additional P’s have been added,
which are as follows:

1. People – It includes all the decisions and activities related to human factors who
participate in the service delivery process and the interactions between the customers
and service providers.
2. Process – It includes all the decisions and activities related to the procedures and
mechanisms adopted by the service provider by which the service is delivered.
3. Physical Evidence – It includes all the decisions and activities related to the
environment and space where the service occurs.

1.4.6 The 8th P of Marketing Mix

In addition to these 7 P’s, as discussed above, Kotler and Keller added the following
P’s which form part of the modern marketing realities:
1. Programmes – It includes all the decisions related to consumer directed activities
which are not encompassed into the traditional marketing mix. Keeping in view the
digitalisation of the marketing processes, it includes all the online and offline
activities which are directed towards consumers.
2. Performance – This P captures the range of all the possible outcomes of marketing
activities. This includes both financial and non-financial implications of marketing
programmes and decisions.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

6. List the four components of marketing mix.

7. _________classified "marketing mix variables" in terms of 4Ps:
(a) Prof. E. Jerome McCarthy (b) Albert Frey
(c) William lazer(d) Bernard Booms
8. _________is the only marketing mix variable can be altered quickly:
a) Product b) Price
c) Place d) Promotion
9. 4Ps includes which one of the following?
a) Process b) Prize
c) Place d) Packing

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1.5 SUMMARY

Any business or organisation uses a combination of marketing strategies and tactics

known as the marketing mix to achieve its marketing goals. The 4Ps of marketing—Product,
Price, Promotion, and Place—are included in the traditional framework for the marketing
mix. The conventional marketing mix was augmented with three new Ps for services
marketing. The three categories are People, Process, and Physical Evidence. The eighth P of
the marketing mix is also a topic of discussion among practitioners in contemporary
marketing, as technology has completely altered the marketing landscape. Performance
marketing is the subject of this article's discussion of P-8. To accomplish the organization's
marketing goals, a marketer must decide on marketing strategies for each of these marketing
mix components individually..

1.6 GLOSSARY

Marketing:Marketing is a societal process by which individuals and groups obtain what they
need and want through creating, offering, and freely exchanging products and services of
value with others
Marketing Mix:Marketing mix is a model of crafting and implementing marketing strategy.

1.7 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Marketing Tools 5. Product, Price, Place, Promotion

2. True 6. (a)
3. (d) 7. (b)
4. (a) 8. (c)

1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by the concept of Marketing Mix.

2. Discuss the role of Marketing Mix in the marketing of LIS products and services.
3. List the elements of Marketing Mix and elaborate it.

1.9 REFERENCES

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Booms, B. H., & Bitner, M. J. (1981). Marketing strategies and organizational structures for

service firms – ScienceOpen. Retrieved August 18, 2022, from

https://www.scienceopen.com/document?vid=295b9a87-6296-4ab0-897e-

b3a419b33747

Commerce (319): The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). (n.d.). Retrieved August

18, 2022, from https://nios.ac.in/online-course-material/sr-secondary-

courses/commerce-(319).aspx

Henripontes. (2013). English: The 7ps for digital mkt. Own work. Retrieved from

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:7ps-marketing-ps.jpg

Marketing mix. (2022). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marketing_mix&oldid=1107180526

Marketing Mix—Definition, 4 P, 7 P of Marketing, Example, Elements. (n.d.). Retrieved

November 8, 2022, from BYJUS website: https://byjus.com/commerce/marketing-

mix/

Online Study Material Commerce courses—LPU Distance Education. (n.d.). Retrieved

August 18, 2022, from https://www.lpude.in/academics/online-study-

material/commerce/mcom/

1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Chaudhary, M (2012). Tourism Marketing. Oxford Higher Education.

Kotler, Bowen, Makens &Baloglu (2016). Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism, 7th
Edition, Pearson

Kotler, Keller, Koshy & Jha (2015). Marketing Management – A South Asian
Perspective, 14th Edition, Pearson

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 Paper – M-106 - MARKETING OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION PRODUCTS AND SERVICES

BAKEWELL (K G). Managing user-centred libraries and information services. Ed. 2.

1997. Maxwell, London.
BUTCHER (Helen).Meeting manager’s information needs.1998. ASLIB, London.

CARPENTER (J) and DAVIES (R). Quantification of the overseas consulting market for
professional consultancy services in librarianship and information science and
information management. 1992. Research and Development, British Library, London.
COOTE (Helen) and BATCHELOR (Bridget). How to market your library services
effectively. Ed. 2. 1997. Aslib, London.

GUPTA (D K), et al. Marketing library and information services: international

perspectives. 2006. K.G. Saur, Munich.

HELINSKY (Z). A short-cut to marketing the library. 2008.Chandos Publishing, Oxford.

JAIN (Abhinandan K), et al. Marketing information products and services: a primer for
libraries and information professionals. 1999. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
KOTLER (Philip). Marketing management. Ed.12. 2002. Prentice Hall, Delhi.

KOTLER (Philip) and ARMSTRONG (Gary). Principle of marketing. Ed. 7. 1996.

Prentice- Hall of India, New Delhi.
ROWLEY (Jenifer). Information marketing. 2001. Ashgate, London.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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 M-106- MARKETING OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES

UNIT II: Strategies and Techniques

LESSON 2
Marketing Research
Dr. Gareema Sharma
Assistant Librarian
National Institute of Technology Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 What is Marketing Research?
1.3.1 Concept and Definitions
1.3.2 Why Marketing Research?
1.3.3 Components of Marketing Research
1.4 Steps in Conducting Marketing Research
1.5 Types of Marketing Research
1.6 Role of Librarian and Research Agency
1.7 Market Research Problems and Limitations
1.8 Summary
1.9 Glossary
1.10 Answers to In-text Questions
1.11 Self-Assessment Questions
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this lesson, the students will study the concept of Marketing Research which is the
crucial element in understanding markets. After reading this lesson, the students will be able
to define and explain What marketing research is? The students will also study the various
steps involved in conducting Marketing Research along with the advantages and
disadvantages of Marketing Research. This lesson will also highlight the components of
Marketing Research and the role of librarians and research agencies in Marketing Research.
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1.2 INTRODUCTION

Marketing research and market segmentation are the critical elements in understanding the
markets. Marketing Research is the process that links marketers to the market by providing
information and insights to assist in marketing decision-making. Marketing research both
drives the market segmentation process and is influenced by it. Marketing Research is crucial
to understanding the processes of relationship marketing and customer relationship
management. Marketing Research is concerned with the whole marketing process. Marketing
Research is market research (McDonald and Christopher, 2005). Thus, in this lesson, we will
study the concept of ' Marketing Research.

1.3 WHAT IS MARKETING RESEARCH?

1.3.1 Concept and Definitions

Research
Research is a Systematic exhaustive, and intensive investigation of new knowledge
Investigation of logical basis is called research. According to ALA glossary, 'Research is the
systematic exhaustive and intensive investigation and study usually through hypothesis and
laws'. It is a studious inuring or examination especially critical or especially critical or
exhaustive investigation or experimentation having for its aim the also convey of new facts
and their correct interpretation the revision of accepted conclusions theories of laws in the
light of newly discovered facts of practical applications of new of revised conclusion there
and laws. Through research, knowledge grows and develops, leading to the extension of the
boundaries of knowledge and scholarship. Research is a rational process aiming at
discovering the relationship among the phenomena.

Marketing Research
'Marketing Research' is a function that links the consumer, customer and public to the
marketer through information. Information is used to identify defined marketing
opportunities and problems to generate, refine and evaluate marketing actions, to monitor
marketing performance, and to improve understanding of the marketing process. Marketing
Research engages in various activities, ranging from market potential and market share
studies assuments of customer satisfaction and purchase behavior to studies of pricing,
product distribution, and promotion activities.

Philip Kotler says- "It is a systematic, problem analysis, model building and fact-finding for
important decision making and control in the marketing of goods and services."

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According to American Management Association, "It is the systematic gathering,

recording and analyzing of data about problems related to the marketing of goods and
services."

Marketing research is the systematic and objective search for analysis of information
relevant to the identification and solution of any problem in the field of marketing.

Marketing research is sometimes defined as applying the scientific method to marketing

problems. Particular emphasis must be given to maintaining objectivity on the part of the
investigator, emphasizing accuracy in measurement and making exhaustive investigations.

So, marketing research is a method to find a solution to a problem, and it has become very
essential in today's competitive environment. Therefore, it should be done carefully so that
the result will be reliable.

These definitions emphasize on systematic approach in the search and analysis of

information when research can be conducting, gathering record and analysis, then research
could be get fruitful results, but if decisions are wrong then industry will collapse.

The purpose of marketing research is a reality to get an objective assessment for improved
marketing decisions rather than to prove or disprove as the systematic design, collection
analysis and for understanding the marketing phenomenon in any marketing situation and is
useful for the marketing of any organization's information products and services. Additional
information is needed to improve decision-making in the various areas of products and
services.

The decision to be made an identification and selection of marketing strategy for tapping the
selected opportunity, design of marketing mix element i.e. products, price, promotion and
distribution, designing and introducing new products and feedback and control of the market
effort.

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Marketing
Research

Reactive Non-Reactive
Methods Methods

Existing
Ask Questions Experiment Observation
Information

Fig. 1. A Framework for Marketing Research

1.3.2 Why Marketing Research?

In decision-making process related to the marketing mix, product design and
distribution, advertising and promotion, pricing etc. the specialized skills and research
techniques are required (Rao & Rao, 1999). Thus, in this reference, Marketing research is
useful for improving marketing decisions and for understanding the marketing phenomenon
in any marketing situation. It is very useful for the marketing of library and information
products and services. The importance of marketing research for librarians is enhanced
because of their current background and working. Firstly, librarians or information managers
rarely venture out to assess the requirements of their clients as they are used to clients
coming to them. Secondly, they are usually managers of a storehouse of information sources
and thus have only occasionally been proactive in understanding the requirements of even
those coming to the library. Thirdly, the librarians are not able to process the available
information as per the client's requirement due to a lack of sufficient resources. Finally, if the
librarians wish to acquire those resources to provide the services to the clients, then they face
budget constraints. Thus, the important areas of research for marketing of information
products and services are the areas of strategy and plan formulation and control.

1.3.3 Components of Marketing Research

1. The Classification of marketing tasks to be performed for the scope of the research
has to be analyzed then the routines problems must be analyzed. There are two types
of problems.
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a) Short Term Research Problem.

b) Long-term research problem.
2. The classification based on subject should be done for their distribution sales
methods, Price, competition, and Production.

3. Then, the research on the market is to be done potential sites should be analyzed for
consumption and observed.
4. Product: The idea that consumers will favor products that offer the quality
performance and futures and that the organization should two devote its every to
making continuous product improvements A detailed version of new product idea
stated in consumer elements as packaging coverage, currency, format, frequency of
issue, graphic, indexing systems and products and services required by the target
group for the supply-driven appeared research should gather user feedback on
products and research.

5. Place: the right product and service are available to target Customers In the right
place and right time. Place element has a major impact on the levels of customer
satisfaction. The place should be designed to provide preplanned levels of customer
service at the minimum cost for each level of service. Place utility of the product
should examine the distribution method and the cost of distribution of the product
place or distribution channels and service the specific objectives is to discover the
case and difficulty of obeying the products and services and the timeliness of the
information supplied.

6. Promotional Opportunities: under this, research should aim to discover the media
and other communication channels powered by users and buyers to acquire information.

1.4 STEPS IN CONDUCTING MARKETING RESEARCH

The Steps in Conducting Marketing Research are:

1. To define the purpose of research and social problems with it.

2. The needs should be broken down into information needs and specific variables
collected from different sources.

3. The value of such additional information needs is to be assessed to decide how much
to spend on conducting the research.

4. Then, the research plan is prepared, consisting of a research design to achieve the
objectives and methods of data collection so that the needed information is obtained
and a method of analyzing the collected data to achieve the research objectives and
resolve the decision problem.

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5. Then there is the research plan implementation for collecting the required data.

6. The last step is interpreting the results and preparing a research plan to use the results,
followed by preparing the research report.

1.5 TYPES OF MARKETING RESEARCH

Marketing Research can be 'ad hoc' or 'ongoing'. The 'Ad hoc' marketing research refers to
situations where the identification of a research problem leads to a specific information
requirement. For example, When a French manufacturer of pharmaceutical company found
that the sales of its long-established cough remedy were declining, it decided to survey
consumer attitudes and beliefs about cough remedies and used the information gathered by
consumers to relaunch the brand.

The 'Ongoing' marketing research provides more of a monitoring function which results in a
flow of information about the market place and the company's performance. For example,
The Confederation of British Industry (CBI) maintains regular monitor based on surveys of
business confidence and investment intentions in the UK.

There are many forms of marketing research but the four basic types of marketing
research are as follows:
i. Internal marketing research: This is based on an analysis of company data gained
from information such as sales trends, and changes in the elements of marketing. For
e.g., price and advertising levels.
ii. External marketing research: This is conducted within the market and the broader
competitive environment in which the company operates. It generally accounts for the
majority of total market expenditure. External information gathering should always
complement internal information as it cannot be an alternative to information
gathered through internal market research.
iii. Reactive marketing research: This constitutes information about the marketplace
and the customers who inhabit it. It involves asking questions during surveys or an
interview, or it can involve experiments.
iv. Non-Reactive marketing research: It involves the interpretation of observed
phenomena, for example, filming customers in a shopping complex or store and
listening to customer panels etc.

There are pros and cons for each type. Thus a combination or mix of one or more types can
be useful. For example, sales records can provide valuable insights but are not good
predictors of future performance as they are restricted to historic performance. Telephone
interviews are quick and inexpensive, but a minimal amount of technical information can be
obtained.

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1.6 ROLE OF LIBRARIAN AND RESEARCH AGENCY

The role of the research agency becomes quite significant in preparing a research plan which
is the first step. The role of librarian and information manager is to primarily see that the
information intended to be collected through the prepared methods would actually help him
to resolve his decision objectives. Thus, the librarian and information manager is supposed:

• To understand the research designs sampling method.

• Methods of data analysis.
• To be Expert in handling the task,
• Task relating to brief description of deciding the research and decide the maximum
budget
• Decide the information agency. Agency is hired, then seek their proposals evaluates
them and divide in the intended of library Basic objective of the library help
constituents unit of a institution.

There may be a need to undertake the marketing research through research agencies who
have proficiency in undertaking marketing research. While a research agency might conduct
the research by using the most appropriate methods but it is the responsibility of the library
or information centre or librarian to take specific decisions based on the research results. The
step of problem definition is the primary responsibility of the library or information centre.
Then the role of the research agency is to prepare the research plan, which is the second
significant step. It is the responsibility of the librarian or information manager to see whether
the information intended to be collected through proposed methods would be useful for him
to resolve his decision problem or objective. The research agency almost entirely conducts
the next third step of collecting and analyzing the data. Lastly, the interpretation of results
may only be proposed by the research agency. However, the major responsibility for the
interpretation of research results and preparing an action plan lies on the decision maker
(Yoon & Jain, 1999).

1.7 MARKET RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND LIMITATIONS

The classification of Marketing research problems can be done considering the

characteristics like routine and non-routine problems, short-term and long-term problems
based on the subject etc.

Advantages of Marketing Research

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(i) Marketing research facilitates paused production as it enables firms to forecast the
demand for its product.
(ii) It helps judge the acceptance of new products.

(iii) It provides valuable information about the marketplace, which helps to remove
wasteful expenditures and reduce costs.

(iv) It helps to understand consumer behavior and discover new markets and lines of
production.
(v) It helps in improving relations with dealers/consumers.
(vi) It helps to overcome various problems and helps to explore an effective solutions.

Disadvantages of Marketing Research

(i) It involves a considerable expenditure of time, money, and effort on the collection
and analysis of data. Small business firms may not be able to effort Marketing
Research.
(ii) Marketing research studies human behavior, so it cannot be 100% accurate.

(iii) Marketing research results depend upon the quality of research staff; it is not always
possible to recruit and train the required staff.
(iv) The results of a Marketing research study may not be accurate due to the bios or
closeness of the research staff. Investigators may be unable to collect, analyze and
interpret the data accurately.
(v) There is usually a time lag between a marketing research study and the
implementation of the findings.
(vi) It is tough to measure the effectiveness of marketing research.

Limitations of Marketing Research

(i) Marketing research does not provide solutions to problems; it only provides
indicators.
(ii) Marketing research and even the results are disproportionate to the benefits of
research results.
(iii) There is sometimes the influence of government controls and various external factors.

1.8 SUMMARY

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Marketing research should not be viewed simply as an input into better decision making
rather, when it is used correctly, it becomes a significant marketing asset, conferring
competitive advantage. Many companies have demonstrated an awareness of the value of
marketing research by extending the remit of their market research teams to cover marketing
information systems or even knowledge management (McDonald & Christopher, 2005).
Marketing research can be defined as applying the scientific method to marketing problems.
In general, this means the application of valid and reliable research methods. Particular
emphasis must be given to maintaining objectivity on the part of the investigator,
emphasizing accuracy in measurement and making exhaustive investigations.

The ever-increasing complexity of marketing business activity made marketing

research more complex. Marketing research techniques have proven very useful in
understanding the various problems of the information market. Marketing research provides
pertinently accurate information; thus, it should be systematically carried out to facilitate the
process of decision-making. Marketing research reports facilitate the introduction of new and
innovative products and services.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. ______________is function that links the consumer customer and public
to the marketer through information.
2. Marketing Research is the systematic gathering, recording and analyzing
of data about problems related to the marketing of goods and services.
True/False
3. The __________marketing research refers to situations where the
identification of a research problem leads to a specific information
requirement.
4. The_________marketing research provides more of a monitoring function
which results in a flow of information about the marketplace and the
company's performance in it.
5. _______________is based on an analysis of company data gained from
information such as sales trends, and changes in the elements of
marketing.
6. ____________is conducted within the market and the wider competitive
environment in which the compny operates

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1.9 GLOSSARY

Advertising: the activity or profession of producing advertisements for commercial products

or services.
Consumer: a person who purchases goods and services for personal use.

Marketing: the action or business of promoting and selling products or services, including
market research and advertising.

Marketing Research: It is the process of determining the viability of a new service or

product through research conducted directly with potential customers.
Product: an article or substance that is manufactured or refined for sale.

Production: the action of making or manufacturing from components or raw materials or the
process of being so manufactured.

Promotion: the publicizing of a product, organization, or venture so as to increase sales or

public awareness.
Sales: the exchange of a commodity for money; the action of selling something.

1.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Marketing Research 4. Ongoing

2. True 5. Internal marketing research
3. Ad hoc 6. External marketing research

1.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is Marketing Research? Explain in detail with definitions.

2. What are the significant steps involved in Marketing Research? Give a detailed
description.
3. What is the role of librarian and research agency in Marketing Research?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Marketing Research?
5. Write a short note on the need and types of Marketing Research.

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1.12 REFERENCES

McDonald, M. and Christopher, M. (2005). Marketing: A Complete Guide. USA: Palgrave

MacMillan.

Yoon, C.S. and Jain, A.K. (1999). How to conduct Marketing Research for Marketing of
Information Products and Services. Marketing Information Products and Services: A primer
for Librarians and Information Professionals (Ed. Jain et al.). New Delhi: TMH Publishing
Company Limited.

Rao, K.S. and Rao, G.A.P. (1999). Economic Analysis of Information- Marketing Research
Factors. Delhi: Indian Library Association: 464-470.

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Agarwal, S. (1996). Marketing Research, 3rd Ed. New Delhi: Global Business Press.

Donald, S.T. and Hawkins, D.I. (1996). Marketing Research Measurement and Method, 6th
Ed. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
Hall, J.A. (1991). Bringing new products to markets. New York: AMACOM.

Kotler, P. (1988). Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning and Control, 6th Ed.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

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UNIT II: Strategies and Techniques

LESSON 3
Marketing Process
Dr. Gareema Sharma
Assistant Librarian
National Institute of Technology Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 What is Marketing Process?
1.3.1 Concept of Marketing Process
1.4 Steps involved in Marketing Process
1.5 Summary
1.6 Glossary
1.7 Answers to In-text Questions
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References
1.10 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this lesson, the students will study about the concept of the Marketing Process
which includes the key steps in understanding the Marketing Strategy. After reading this
lesson, the students will be able to explain the Marketing process. The students will also
study the various important steps involved in the Marketing process and their importance in
the context of Library and Information Science.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

The marketing process means a series of action or steps involved in the marketing. The
marketing process typically involves identifying the viable and potential marketing
opportunities in the environment, developing strategies to effectively utilize these
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opportunities, evolving suitable marketing strategies and supervising the implementation of

these marketing efforts.

1.3 WHAT IS MARKETING PROCESS?

1.3.1 Concept of Marketing Process

Whenever managers feel uneasy or uncertain about making a decision, they may decide
together additional information that will reduce certainty. The procedure used to collect the
information should be one that will result in information that is both valid and reliable. To
help acquire valid and reliable information, they will likely use a series of steps defined as
the marketing research process.

In brief, the process of Marketing Research involves the following steps:

(i) Problem Formulation: This is the first step in the research process. Research
must first define the problem in a precise manner. Because comprehensive
research depends on this step and specifies the purpose of the study and objectives
of the research.

(ii) Preparing a list of Needed Information: After defining the problem and stating
the objective, it is necessary to prepare a list of the information needed to attain
the objective and evaluate the usefulness of the needed information.
(iii) Developing a Research Design: After preparing information requirement, the
researcher should plan to carry out the task or study. It should be prepared by
considering many efforts like time, money etc.

(iv) Selecting a Sample Type: After designing the research design, the researcher
should select a sample or the population from which it wants to collect data. As it
is impractical to collect data from all members of such large populations so the
sample should be selected from the whole population. The sample is also called
the representative population of the study.

(v) Determining Sample Size: The researcher should also determine/decide how
large a sample to select means the size or nor. of people included for the sample.
Marketing research samples vary from fewer than 10 to several thousand. The
researcher must consider the problem at hand, the budget, and the accuracy
needed in the data before the question of sample size can be answered.

(vi) Collection of Data: Collection of data involves field work, survey. This is the
method of obtaining information from a sample of respondents. The method used
in the field are very important, for they usually involve a subsistent part of the
research budget and are a potential source of error through lack of both validity
and reliability.
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(vii) Analysing and Interpreting the Data: After all interviews and observations
have been made, the completed data collection forms must be processed to lead
the information the project was designed to obtain. This stage is critical as the
correct interpretation of data makes the research meaningful and purposeful. If
that wrong or improper interpretation of facts is done. All study would become
useless.

(viii) Report Preparation: The final step in marketing research is summarizing the
result and making a report.The findings and recommendations are put in such a
manner that the recipient of the report can understand them enough to use them
effectively. The reporting of research findings represents the end product of the
research process. The variation in the type of report greatly depends on the nature
of the project and the audience for which it is prepared.
So, in brief, the above steps constitute the marketing research process.

1.4 STEPS INVOLVED IN MARKETING PROCESS

THE MARKETING PROCESS CAN BE BROADLY CATEGORIZED INTO FOUR

STEPS:
I. ANALYZING THE MARKETING OPPORTUNITIES
The marketer must try to understand the target market's needs, wants, and demands. Needs
are the basic human requirements. People need food, air, water, clothing, and shelter to
survive. People also have strong needs for recreation, education, and entertainment. These
needs become wants when they are directed to specific objects that might satisfy the need.
E.g., An American needs food but wants a hamburger, French fries, and a soft drink. A
person in Mauritius needs food but wants a mango, rice, lentils, and beans. Wants are shaped
by one's society. Demands are wants for specific products backed by an ability to pay such as
many people want a Mercedes but only a few are able and willing to buy one. Companies
must measure not only how many people want their product but also how many would
actually be willing and able to buy it. Thus, sound marketing requires a careful analysis of
consumers. Every company has to analyze its marketing opportunities based on its area of
significance, position, and sales in the market.

Organizations need to map customer needs and wants with their products. If the products do
not fulfill customer's needs and wants, organizations need to take the initiative to improve
their products. Customers should be an integral part of the product development and
improvement process. As customers needs and wants do not remain constant, organizations
also need to monitor the trends in the changes in customers needs and wants continuously so
that they can modify their products and services continuously to satisfy their customers in the
long run.

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IN CONTEXT OF LIS:
The Library and Information Centers must try to analyze the needs, wants and demands of
their users or its clientele, which includes students, faculty, staff, other users and non-users.
The basic need of the user is to get the required information, which is relevant to him,
through books, periodicals and some other documents etc. The students must be provided
information according to their level of understanding and not of high level otherwise it will
mislead them "and they will not be satisfied whereas satisfaction is the ultimate aim of the
Library and Information Centers.

The wants of the user includes the exact and pinpointed piece of information without any
unnecessary details.

The demands of the user include the information required by him in his desired format or
manner on paid basis. He owns the information based on power, i.e., money or anything
else.Here the information is provided to the user in the desired format exhaustively. The user
seems more satisfied in this stage because he enjoys the authority here.

II. SELECTING TARGET MARKETS AND MARKET SEGMENTATION

Market segmentation is a process of dividing the total market for goods and services into
several groups such as that the members of each group are similar with respect to the factors
that influence demand. It is a marketing effort that identifies and analysis differential
characteristics of various segments and helps in defining and determining the market
potential for a service or product offered by the organization.

But According to E.E. De Saez "market segmentation is the division of individual market
into smaller, more manageable groups which have clear, like characteristics." Each of these
segments, which are accorded priority in marketing jargon, may be termed as Target Groups.
A market segment consists of consumers who respond in a similar way to a given set of
marketing efforts. For e.g. In a car market, consumers who choose the biggest, most
comfortable car regardless of price make up one market segment—another market segment
would-be customers who care mainly about price and operating economy. Every market has
market segments, but not always of segmenting a market is equally useful.
Also, market segments should have following 3 characteristics:
1. They should be measurable: Measurability is essential if marketing objectives of a
quantifiable nature are to be monitored and controlled.

2. They should be accessible: Accessibility means that each segment should be capable
of being reached in a cost-effective way.

3. They should be viable: Viability means that the segment should be big enough to
warrant attack in line with the corporate objectives set.

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After a company has defined market segments, it can enter one or many segments of a given
market. Market targeting involves evaluating each market segment's attractiveness and
selecting one or more segments to enter. A company should target segments in which it can
generate the greatest customer value and sustain it over time.

BASIS FOR MARKET SEGMENTATION:

Markets can be segmented on the basis of demographics, geography, psychographics, and
behavior analyses of customers at large.

1. Demographic Segmentation: In this type of segmentation, the market is divided into

groups based on demographic attributes such as age, gender, income, occupation,
religion, race, nationality, social class, family size, family life cycle, etc. For e.g.
AGE: Marketers believe that people of the same age group behave in a similar
manner and this belief has led them to segment the market according to the age and
market their products or services accordingly. E.g. A "12 year old child might like
chocolates very much but may slowly start disliking it after he attains the age of 30.

2. Geographic Segmentation: In geographic segmentation, the market is divided

according to geographical areas such as localities, regions, cities, states, countries etc.
For e.g. The Times of India publishes local editions for different regions, such as The
Hyderabad Times for Hyderabad edition. Further, markets can be segmented on the
basis of density of population or the climatic conditions across regions.

3. Psychographic Segmentation: Through psychographic or lifestyle segmentation,

marketers aim - to find out the basic characteristics of a consumer that could
influence his purchase decisions. In this type of segmentation, marketers divide the
market based on the lifestyle and personality of their customers. For e.g. Life Style:
Different people lead different lifestyles depending on their income, social groups,
etc. People usually buy products which suit their lifestyle such as sportspersons
always like to buy trendy products while top managers usually buy formal wear.

4. Behavioral Segmentation: Organizations can divide markets on the basis of

behavior that customers show towards the usage of the products. This type of
segmentation shows what customers have purchased in the past. It covers areas like
the benefits sought by customers, purchase occasion, user status, degree of usage,
customer loyalty, readiness stage and marketing factor sensitivity. For e.g. Purchase
Occasion: Markets can be classified on the basis of various occasions that customers
encounter because people need different products for different occasions such as
Archies came outwithspecialcardsforFriendshipday,Mother'sday,Teacher's day,
Diwali greetings etc.

IN CONTEXT OF LIS: MARKET SEGMENTATION

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The market segmentation process in LIS focuses on the library's present or prospective user,
rather than the customer and library's well-balanced collection, rather than the product. A
market segment may be defined here as a group of customers with similar or related
characteristics, who have common needs and wants, who will respond to like motivations,
and who can be expected to use a service that fulfills these needs. Library market
segmentation takes into account the fact that library user who request a product or a service
are all individuals who are unique in some way. No library or any other agency can reach all
members of the community. Therefore it is essential that libraries, like other non-profit and
for-profit organizations, identify those parts of the mass market, which they can most
effectively serve.

III. DEVELOPING THE MARKETING MIX

Kotler (1997) defines Marketing Mix as a set of controlled, tactical marketing tools that the
firm blends to produce the response it wants in the target market. Marketing mix consists of 4
variables known as the "four Ps" i.e. Product, Price, Place and Promotion.

1- PRODUCT: A Product is a physical good or service offering that is of value to the

customer. Kotler and Armstrong define the product as anything offered to a market for
attention, acquisition, use, or consumption that might satisfy a want or need; it includes
physical objects, services, person, place, organization, and ideas. In simple words.
Product means the "goods and service" combination that company offers to the target
market.

IN CONTEXT OF LIS:
Product in LIS context might include physical goods, such as books, catalogues, compact
disks, microforms, audio/videocassettes, periodicals etc. Services can include provision
of a photocopy of a document, information searching, indexing, reference service,
document issue and return, etc. A product can be a person, like Kishore Kumar or
Michael Jackson as their concerts or records can be marketed. We can look at places as
products in the tourism business. Hence, product in a broad term refers to anything that
can be marketed, like physical goods, services, persons, places, organizations, or ideas
etc.

In a Library, the core product is the information content of the books. The range of
products that a library provides needs to be revised regularly. Every year one must check
if these products are being used or not, whether the benefits are reaching the users or not,
and what does the users think of it. Thus it is always better to ask the users directly rather
than making guess work. Products, which have no demand at all among users, should, be
eliminated.

2- PRICE: Price is the amount customers pay to obtain the product. Price has various
names in the society; fare for taxi, train travel; tuition fee for education, honorarium for a

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lecture, rent for a house, and wage for a worker. From the customer's point of view, it is
cost, and it is important to note that price is the only element in the marketing mix that
generates revenue, and all other elements contribute towards cost for the organization.
The common basis for pricing is primarily based on the pricing objectives set by the
manager. One of the problems associated with pricing a service is the difficulty in
defining the service purchased. To overcome this difficulty, most of the services are
priced based on the quantity of inputs rather than the service output. For e.g. Professional
services, such as management consulting, architecture and tutoring are priced on hourly
basis, consulting doctor's charge based on number of visits.

IN CONTEXT OF LIS:
Price is the charges imposed on the library products on the basis of usage or use of
documents. This is a source of revenue to the library. This tool of marketing mix is
always subject to polemics in a non-profit environment.Charging fees, in libraries and
information centers is seen as being incompatible with the ethics of the profession. But
libraries, which want to move towards self-sufficiency, should consider that the pricing of
information services and products is the sole source of financial support. But KOTLER
contends that price always does not imply cash value, it could be in terms of time,
energy, opportunity or any other activity foregone.

There are 2 compulsions, which really force the library manager to consider pricing as a
strategic element:
1. Consumers would not realize and recognize the value of the product/service unless
they pay for the service.

2. Moreover most of the organizations are asked by the government to become

financially self-supporting. Hence, pricing has a crucial role to play in the context of
libraries and information products and services in the future.

3. PLACE: Place is where products/ services are exchanged with the customer for the price.
In marketing mix elements, place refers to the creation of special utility to the consumers.
It comprises of management of distribution channel, physical distribution of products and
logistics.

IN CONTEXT OF LIS:
Place is where a product or service is made available to the users or potential users. Place
usually implies physical location. But in marketing it refers to all the channels of
distribution- direct mail to e-mail and fax etc. It is the way you get the information one
wants. It is the channel that links product and consumer. Traditionally, the library
building was the sole outlet and the users were expected to seek services by personally
visiting it. But the computer and communication technological marvel has opened the
doors for multiple accesses making the concept of place more complex.
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For e.g. An electronic database can be accessed and used anywhere throughout the world,
provided there is a network connectivity.

4. PROMOTION: Promotion involves communicating with the target market to provide

information about the product/service and persuade target customers to buy it. Managers
use a variety of promotion mix, which is categorized into 4 main tasks, namely:

1. Advertising: it includes Print advertisements, radio jingles, house magazines,

booklets, logos, trademarks, etc.

2. Sales promotion: it includes sampling; discount coupons, gifts, rebates, and

demonstrations.

3. Publicity: it includes press releases, seminars, and annual reports, community

relations.

4. Personal selling: it includes sales presentations, sales representatives, and

presentations in fairs.
The purpose of promotion is to communicate, to convince, and to compete.

IN CONTEXT OF LIS:
Promotion involves the mechanism by which the target groups are informed about the
resources available, services and products offered by library arid information center. The
LIS professionals widely practice this concept. Promotion not only helps in
communicating the users about the products offered by the organization but also it can
build up a strong image of the library. A well-planned promotional effort can stimulate
potential users to use its products.

MAIN PURPOSES OF PROMOTION IN LIS:

• To create and maintain awareness among users about the library services.

• To launch a new service- Internet or CD-ROM.

• To reach new groups of users.

• To convert awareness into active use of the library.

• To improve future Campaigns.

• To sell benefits rather than selling features.

MEANS OF PROMOTION IN LIS:
Promotion in LIS can be taken care of in the following ways:

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1. Impersonal contact: it is like personal selling. We must talk to people and also listen to
them. People need encouragement. Tell them that you are there to solve their problems
and what you can do for them.
2. Public relations: it is an interaction between the library and its actual and potential users.

3. Advertisement: it is the most expensive promotional effort of all as it is paid publicity. It

attracts consumer's attention. It can reach users through newsletters, brochures,
catalogues, displays posted in important areas etc.

IV. MANAGING THE MARKETING EFFORT OR MARKETING MANAGEMENT

The company first develops company-wide strategic plans, and then translates them into
marketing and other plans for each division, product, and brand. Through implementation,
the company turns the plans into actions. Control consists of measuring and evaluating the
results of marketing activities and taking corrective action where needed. Finally, marketing
analysis provides information and evaluations needed for all the other marketing activities.

The marketing management process consists of four steps:

1. Marketing Analysis: Management of marketing function begins with a complete
analysis of the company's situation. The company must analyze its markets and
marketing environment to find attractive opportunities and avoid environmental
threats. It must analyze the company's strengths and weaknesses and current and
possible-marketing actions to determine which opportunities it can best pursue. The
market analysis enables decisions on product design and strategies, including whether
to introduce a new product, promotional methods, and the priorities that need to be
assigned to market segments, products, and the marketing mix components.
2. Marketing Planning: Through Strategic Planning the company decides what it wants
to do with each business unit. Marketing planning involves deciding on marketing
strategies that will help the company to attain its overall strategic objectives. A
detailed marketing plan is needed for each business, product or brand. Marketing
strategy means selecting various techniques in proper portions and balance to fulfill
the customer needs of that very market.

Benefits of Planning:
The benefits of planning have received widespread attention in the literature on
management and decision-making. The planning allows a manager to:

a) Minimize risk
b) Reduce uncertainty
c) Avoid surprises
d) Superimpose order
e) Facilitate control

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3. Marketing Implementation: Marketing implementation is the process that turns

marketing plans into marketing actions in order to accomplish strategic marketing
objectives. Implementation involves day-to-day, month-to-month activities that
effectively put the marketing plan to work. Successful marketing implementation
depends on how well the company blends its people, organizational structure, decision
and reward systems, and company culture into a cohesive action program that supports its
strategies. At all levels, people who have the needed skills, motivation, and personal
characteristics must staff the company.

Finally to be successfully implemented, the firms marketing strategies must fit with
its company culture, the system of values and beliefs shared by people in the
organization.

4. Marketing Control/Audit: Marketing control involves evaluating the results of

marketing strategies and plans and taking corrective action to ensure that objectives
are attained.

In Control Process, management first sets specific marketing goals. Then it measures
its performance in the marketplace and evaluates the causes of any differences
between expected and actual performance. Finally, management takes corrective
action to close the gaps between its goals and its performance. This may require
changing the action programs or even changing the goals. Hence, marketing audit can
be defined as the process of reviewing and evaluating the/marketing operations of an
organization. Organizations face many problems like reduction in market share,
underutilized capacity and decline in profitability, which lead to be tackled by the
management immediately. The management, therefore, attempts to resolve these
problems by cutting down prices, restructuring departments, and laying off
employees. Marketing audit helps the management to identify the root of rises of
existing problems.

IN CONTEXT OF LIS:

• MARKET ANALYSIS: Market analysis is an intensive investigation of identifying

the market of actual and potential users. It also includes an evaluation of existing
products and services. Each one of the large numbers of services offered by a library
should have a separate market evaluation. The user surveys and studies should be
conducted with a marketing perspective; as it is always the 'need satisfaction of users
which determines the marketing program's success. The needs and wants of users are
never static. Hence market analysis should not be a one-time affair; rather it should be
carried out regularly to monitor the market for each and every product offered by the
library and to examine the needs, which influence the market.

Market Analysis also includes a study of the extent of awareness, knowledge, and
desire in each segment of the market for different products, alternative products being
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used, and the degree of satisfaction in using present products or services and the
channels used to learn of products and services.

Analysis of competitor's products also plays an important part. For libraries, this
refers to analyzing the services of other libraries and information centers and that of
database vendors and commercial companies. The more active and demanding users
get more priority and attention therefore it is required to identify the real users and to
study their demand characteristics. It is alsoimportant to identify potential users
whose utilization patterns are underdeveloped. The non-users & their characteristics
may also provide interesting insights into their expectations and the kinds of services
that would make them users.

• MARKETING PLANNING: New product planning and development usually

begins after market analysis, consumer research, needs assessment and competitor
and resource analysis. It is not necessary that new products are continually being put
out. Very often analysis may point to a repackaged product, or an old product to be
promoted in a different place, or for a new segment or consumers, or the design of a
new promotion strategy. In LIS, Standardizing library services and repackaging them
is a good idea. Most of the requests of the users should be met with standard products.
How to best provide a service with spending the minimum time and cost involvement
is a skill to be mastered by the librarians. The distribution of products/services should
be kept in mind. How to get the product into circulation and make the product
accessible to the target market, i.e., if users are located far from the library, postal or
mobile, or telecommunication channels may have to be explored.

• MARKETING IMPLEMENTATION: While implementing a marketing program

in a library, the first step should be to formulate a Marketing Division in the library.
The marketing division should also appoint a 'Marketing consultant' to advise the
division on different marketing strategies. The marketing consultant should be
responsible for carrying out a 'Marketing Audit'. To implement a marketing
programme, it is necessary to evaluate how far the programme has been able to
achieve the set objectives.

• MARKETING CONTROL/AUDIT: It is an evaluative step which studies the

results of the marketing program by using different measures. It appraises the
organization of its marketing performance closely to enable it to take a corrective
action. An audit usually explores external factors like users' needs, community
patterns, and internal factors within the organization; it maps the organization's
current position.

It allows the management to signify and evaluate decisions relevant to the

organization- it is something to build on (strength), something to eliminate
(weakness), something to anticipate (opportunity), or something to outmaneuver

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(threat), i.e., SWOT analysis. Hence, it identifies the external threats & opportunities
and internal strengths and weaknesses to develop their strategies. Thus marketing
audit sets the stage for the next cycle of planning, implementing, and reviewing the
marketing programme. Therefore, marketing is not a one-time activity. It is a
continuous process and it has a relationship with all other activities.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. __________________is the first step in the research process.
2. The final step in _____________is summarizing the result and
making a report.
3. Management of marketing function begins with a complete analysis
of the company's situation. True/False
4. _________________is an intensive investigation of identifying the
market of actual and potential users.
5. _______________is an evaluative step which studies the results of the
marketing program by using different measures.
6. Kotler (1997) defines_____________as a set of controlled, tactical
marketing tools that the firm blends to produce the response it wants
in the target market.

1.5 SUMMARY

The marketing managers engage in many diverse activities, which range from creating new
strategies to evaluating whether existing strategies are effective and efficient. The term
strategic marketing process thus refers to the entire sequence of managerial operational
activities required to create and sustain effective and efficient marketing strategies.
Therefore, we can conclude that Marketing is not a one-time activity rather it is a continuous
process which is related with several activities to be performed actively.

1.6 GLOSSARY

Market Analysis: the activity of gathering information about conditions that affect a
marketplace.

Marketing Control: Marketing controls are a set of procedures used to monitor the success
of marketing activities set forth in a company's marketing plan.

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Marketing Management: Marketing management is the process of planning and executing

the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create
exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational goals.

Marketing Mix: a combination of factors that can be controlled by a company to influence

consumers to purchase its products.

Market Segmentation: It is a marketing strategy in which select groups of consumers are

identified so that certain products or product lines can be presented to them in a way that
appeals to their interests.

Marketing Opportunities: Marketing opportunities are openings for a company to sell

something to a certain type of customer.

1.7 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Problem Formulation 4. Market Analysis

2. Marketing Research 5. Marketing Control/Audit
3. True 6. Marketing Mix

1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is Marketing Process? Explain in detail.

2. What are the major steps involved in Marketing Process? Give a detailed description.
3. What is Marketing Mix and Market Segmentation? Explain in detail.
4. What is Marketing Management?
5. What are the basic steps involved in Marketing Management?

1.9 REFERENCES

Kotler, P. (1988). Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning and Control, 6th Ed.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
McDonald, M. and Christopher, M. (2005). Marketing: A Complete Guide. USA: Palgrave
MacMillan.

Yoon, C.S. and Jain, A.K. (1999). How to conduct Marketing Research for Marketing
Information Products and Services. Marketing Information Products and Services: A primer
for Librarians and Information Professionals (Ed. Jain et al.). New Delhi: TMH Publishing
Company Limited.
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1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Donald, S.T. and Hawkins, D.I. (1996). Marketing Research Measurement and Method, 6th
Ed. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
Hall, J.A. (1991). Bringing new products to markets. New York: AMACOM.

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LESSON 1

LIS Products and Services as a Marketable Commodity

Dr NEETIKA SHARMA
Librarian
Swami Shraddhanand College
University of Delhi
[email protected]
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 LIS Products and Services: A Marketable Commodity
1.3.1 LIS Products and Services
1.3.2 How is Marketable Commodity?
1.3.3 Who to serve: Users or Customers?
1.4 Concept of Marketing in the LIS Field
1.4.1 What is Marketing?
1.4.2 Information Marketing and LIS Field

1.5 Promotion of Library Sources and Services: Need of the Hour

1.5.1 How academic organisations like NISCAIR (now NIScPAR) promote their
Sources and Services
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

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The concept of promotion is widely acceptable and applicable in the LIS field. This concept
has a different meaning in different environments even in library and information science. In
recent time library and information centres are facing unprecedented changes and challenges
and trying to create new forms and platforms of information. In this technological era, there
has been a lot of pressure to mobilize sources and services to become self-reliant. The present
lesson will indicate how the library and information products and services are marketable
commodities in the present environment. After reading this lesson, you will be able to
understand :

• the meaning of the promotion of LIS products and services;

• how LIS professionals mobilize resources;
• how are promotional activities applicable to LIS;
• how to focus on users' issues and resolve them via the promotion of LIS
products and services.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Now the day's library users are transforming into customers with rising expectations, diverse
needs, wants and choices. Now the real challenge for library and information professionals is
not only to manage the collection, staff and technology but to turn these resources into
services. The notion of services has also changed from basic to value-added, from staff
assisted to self-service, from-in house to out-reach, from free to priced, from reactive to
proactive, and from mass-customization to individualized service. They, as the information
service providers are under pressure due to various reasons such as they have to mobilise
resources, compete with the Internet and Internet support services and meet the rising user’s
expectations, improvise their professional image and so on. Therefore, libraries and
information centres need to evaluate their activities concerning the external environment, get
in touch with the users’ needs and integrate them into the day-to-day working of the library
as well as offer / adapt services as per users’ needs to integrate the concept of marketing in
libraries. "The first requirement for effective and successful implementation of the promotion
of library and information sources and services is that the librarian should have a clear

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appreciation for what marketing is all about and how it can enhance the value of library and
information services. People usually relate marketing to an increase in sales, profit, market
share, etc"(Carpenter,1999,p.258).

As you know that libraries and information services are non-profit services, therefore, "there
is a general perception that libraries do not need marketing. But the fact is that marketing is
all around us and it is essential for all kinds of organisations and individuals. Professionals
like lawyers, accountants and doctors also need to use marketing skills to create and manage
the demand for their services"(Dongardive,2013,p.238). Therefore, the libraries and
information service providers should make efforts to:

• inform users about their role as an information service provider;

• attract users, understand users and their needs;
• motivate users to use the resources and services in different formats; and
• educate users with the help of the latest tools and techniques in managing information
in libraries and information centres.

If a librarian is performing all the above-stated functions, one can say without any doubt that
s/he is thoroughly involved in the marketing of information services.

1.3 LIS PRODUCTS AND SERVICES : A MARKETABLE COMMODITY

These days World Wide Web (WWW ) is the biggest challenge for all library professionals.
Libraries are facing competition not only from other information service providers but also
from Google. Users get information which they required get with a simple click on the
mouse. So, library professionals need to make daily decisions on the form and formats for
acquiring and archiving information. Library professionals are struggling with the increasing
expectations of the users. They are implementing promotional techniques to be more efficient
managers and effective information service providers.

Library sources and services are valuable in themselves but are underestimated because of
their lack of visibility among users. "LIS products and services are marketable commodities
these days because only promotion can help in improving the image of libraries and

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information centres. For a long time, LIS professionals had engaged primarily with suppliers
and thus lost interest in working for the users/customers. But it must be kept in mind that
only satisfied users come back and there are greater chances that dissatisfied users will find
some other suppliers of information to meet their information needs"(Arumuru,2015).

1.3.1 LIS Products and Services

The products are a cluster of both documentary and non-documentary sources of information
traditionally the service such as information service resources sharing service, current
awareness service, learners' advisor service, circulation services, and online catalogue
services. The LIS products are issued and distributed by Libraries, Information Centres,
Information Analysis Centres, Referral Centres, Documentation Centres or similar
organisations, as promotional materials for their user groups. These products are newsletters,
house journals, reports, magazines, bulletins, prospectus, manuals and so on. These sources
and services are demanded by users like other commodities. The demand for products and
services is affected by factors like preferences, price, income, expectations, population,
seasons, technology, and the price of other goods. The information sources and services are
demanded only when there is a value or utility to the user (Coote,1994).

Some important LIS products are as under:

• Books (Print and Electronic)

• Journals (Print and Electronic)
• Directories (Print and Electronic)
• Dictionaries (Print and Electronic)
• Encyclopedia (Print and Electronic)
• Yearbooks (Print and Electronic)
• Newspapers (Print and Electronic)
• Magazines (Print and Electronic)
• Monographs (Print and Electronic)
• Reports (Print and Electronic)
• Manuals (Print and Electronic)
• Online Database

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• Offline Database

ACTIVITY
Visit University/College library of your area and list the sources and services
provided by them.

1.3.2 How is Marketable Commodity?

Commodity means a product or material that can be bought and sold. Library functions as a
knowledge organisation, for example, purchasing/acquiring knowledge resources after theses
are suitably identified and located, organised and disseminated, analysed, interpreted and
granted the outcomes to its users in the way they like other than exhibiting the units of the
knowledge/resource as they may need, demand and require. The tusk of "Putting knowledge
to work" deals with the task of marketing/promoting a service.

In the LIS field, the role of marketing manager/information provider can be linked with the
job of library professionals like buying vs acquisition of library documents, selling vs
dissemination or circulation of products and services, marketing vs promotion, transporting
vs access to knowledge resources, storing vs preservation and conservation of documents,
market information function vs. statistics and reports and so on.

Table 1.1: Marketing Functions of the Library

Marketing Functions Library Functions
Buying Acquisition
Selling Circulation/Dissemination
Transporting Access to knowledge resources
Storing Preservation and Conservation of information
sources
Standardisation and grading Organising
Financing Financing
Risk-taking To meet the future demands of the users
Market information function Statistics
(source: Halder & Saha, 2017)

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1.3.3 Who to serve: Users or Customers?

To meet users' needs satisfactorily, the first thing the LIS professionals need to understand
that, Whom are they trying to serve? What are the user’s interests? What can the librarians
provide to serve these interests? Under what conditions can the librarians offer services and
products? How do the librarians communicate with the users? How do users communicate
their needs to the LIS professionals? Librarian knows well about the library in terms of its
resources, facilities, services, products, and so on.

In the marketing concept, the libraries and librarians want the user to come again and fully
utilize their resources and services. But here marketing attitude plays a vital role as library
professionals, we need to understand that the users will come again only if their present
needs or requirements are well met.

Every day the information world is changing dramatically and moves faster, relies on
technology and competes more intensely. In this connection, there is no harm if library
professionals ask every user of the library how may I help you in achieving your desired
information. However, librarians must capitalise on their expertise in meeting users' needs
through the available resources. It is to remember that no library “owns” its users to the
extent that it determines their likes and dislikes.

Self Check Exercise

1. What do you understand by the term 'Promotion'?

2. What do you understand by the term 'Commodity'?

Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below:

ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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1.4 CONCEPT OF MARKETING IN LIS FIELD

1.4.1 What is Marketing?

Library professionals are using different techniques and strategies of marketing for the
promotion of LIS products and services over the globe.

Philip Kotler opines that "marketing is an act of planning, analysis, implementation and
control of carefully formulated programmes designed to bring about voluntary exchanges of
values with target markets to achieve organizational objectives" (Kotler & Armstrong,1996).

14.2 Information Marketing and LIS Field

Traditionally libraries and information centres disseminate a variety of services, for example,
information service, resource sharing service, current awareness service, circulation service,
online catalogue service, CD-ROM database service, reprographic service and many more.
Now with changing world the expectations of the users are diverse they expect a wide range
of choices, easy access, and speedy delivery of information in the desired format. They want
to access ample services, such as Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC), Web OPAC,
electronic information systems like bibliographic as well as full-text online databases, current
awareness in dept enquiry and research services, user education programs, and information
skill enhancement programs.

Marc Porat defines that "Information is a collection of many heterogeneous goods and
services that together comprise an activity in the economy". Information as a commodity is
thus, represented by the products, services, and channels that carry information. Like other
goods in the market, LIS products and services are also based on demand and supply rules.

Philip Kotler presented the five types of demands which can also apply to the LIS field :

i. Functional requirement: Basically, this type of need is generated by task-related

activities like a researcher needs information for research activities.
ii. Emotional requirement: Emotional requirements may arise when a person has
strong attachments to a particular discipline, author or publisher.

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iii. Problematic need: Problematic need is not absolute but conditional upon a set of
situational contingencies or antecedents, for example, textbooks are relevant
primarily for a particular text or subject.
iv. Social requirement: Social requirement is created not because of its intrinsic value,
but because of its association with certain social roles and stereotypes.
v. Epistemic requirement: This type of requirement arises when a user requires
information to further his knowledge base.

Self Check Exercise

3. Write down the names of prominent sources and services of an academic library.

4. What is marketing? Elaborate with some examples.

Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below:

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

1.5 PROMOTION OF LIBRARY SOURCES AND SERVICES : NEED OF

THE HOUR

As we all know that there have been many developments at the national and international
levels, which have directly or indirectly added marketing to the LIS field. It is not a new
concept it is as old as modern librarianship. Even Ranganathan's Five Laws of Library and
Information Science have been seen in the light of today's marketing concept. Some
important reasons for promoting/marketing library sources and services identified are as
under:

i. founding missions are increasingly ill-suited for the demands of the marketplace;
ii. budgets are becoming tight;
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iii. the recruiting and fund-raising arenas having become extremely competitive;
iv. the rising competition among similar information service providers;
v. an introduction and availability of freely and openly sources and services.

So, we can say that there is always a need for library professionals to develop a more
responsible attitude towards their users because it helps in managing libraries in a better way,
also brings a commitment to the users, and publicize the utilities of library sources and
services." It brings the users close to the library and feels better that they use the library on
regular mode, at last, it improves the image of the library because it ensures credibility and a
positive attitude to face increasing challenges as well as opportunities.

1.5.1 How academic organisations like NISCAIR (now NIScPAR) promote their
Sources and Services

Not only in India but over the globe, libraries and information centres are realising the need
for marketing their information products and services. They are paying more attention to the
identification of user needs and the promotion of information products and services.
NISCAIR (now NIScPAR) for example, has taken significant steps in this direction.

Some important products in form of their publications are as follows:

• Annals of Library Science and Documentation ( ALSD)

• Directory of Scientific Periodicals
• Directory of Science and Technology Awards in India
• Directory of Scientific Research in India
• Indian Science Abstracts (ISA)
• National Union Catalogue of Scientific Serials in India (1998) (CD-ROM version
available with latest data)
• Union Catalogue of Scientific and Technical Conference Proceedings: Banglore
1977-90)

Some important services are as follows:

• Chemical Abstract keyword Index service ( CAKIS)

• Competitor Watch Service (CWS)

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• Global Tender Watch service (GLOBTEND)

• Literature Search
• Translation Services
• Reprographic Services
• Full-Text Journal Service (FTJS)
• Standing Order Abstract Services (SOAS)

Organisations like NIScPAR use different promotional activities, for example, training and
education, direct marketing, personal sales, advertising and participation in exhibitions/book
fairs for creating awareness among users regarding their products and services".

1.6 SUMMARY

In the present unit, we have seen that :

• the meaning of promotion/marketing;

• how LIS products and services are a marketable commodity;
• how LIS professionals mobilize sources and services;
• how are promotional activities applicable to LIS;
• how to focus on users' issues and resolve them via the promotion of LIS
products and services;
• how academic organizations promote their sources and services.

1.7 GLOSSARY

Commodity : A product or material that can be bought and sold

Consumer : A person who buys things or uses services

Marketable : A thing that can be sold easily because people want it

Marketing : Marketing refers to all activities a company does to promote

and sell products or services to consumers

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 Name of the Course

Product : Something that is made in a factory or that is formed

naturally

Promotion : Things that you do to advertise a product and

increase its sales

1.7 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Things that you do to advertise a product increase its sales.

2. A product or material that can be bought and sold.

1.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Self Check Exercise

5. How promotion is helpful in LIS Field?

6. How do academic organisations promote their sources and services?

Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below:

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

1.9 REFERENCES

Arumuru, L. (2015). Marketing of academic library services for effective service delivery
in Delta State University library. Developing Country Studies Vol, 5.

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School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Name of the Course

Carpenter, B. (1999). How to Market Your Library Service Effectively. Archives and
Records, 20(2), 258.

Coote, H. (1994). How to market your library service effectively: and enjoy it in the process.
Aslib.

Dongardive, P. (2013). Marketing library and information services. International Journal of

Science and Research, 2(11), 227-234.
Halder, S. N., & Saha, T. (2017). Where Information is a Marketable Commodity and
Librarians are Marketing Managers. In Exertion to Establish Knowledge Society:
Responsibility of Academic Libraries (pp. 250-256). Shimurali Sachinandan College
of Education.

Koontz, C. M., Gupta, D. K., & Webber, S. (2006). Key publications in library marketing: a
review. IFLA journal, 32(3), 224-231.

Norman, O. G. (1989). Marketing library and information services: an annotated guide to

recent trends and developments. Reference Services Review.

Tanui, T. A. (2006). Marketing Library and Information Services in Kenya. Marketing

Library and Information Services: International Perspectives, 103-10.
Tenney, H. B. (1993). Marketing & Libraries Do Mix: A Handbook for Libraries and
Information Centers.

Weingand, D. E. (1999). Marketing/planning library and information services. Libraries

Unlimited.

1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

AlAwadhi, S., & Al-Daihani, S. M. (2018). Marketing academic library information services
using social media. Library Management.

Anwar, M., & Zhiwei, T. (2020). What is the relationship between marketing of library
sources and services and social media? A literature review paper. Library Hi Tech
News.

Carpenter, B. (1999). How to Market Your Library Service Effectively. Archives and
Records, 20(2), 258.

Cheng, W. W. H., Lam, E. T. H., & Chiu, D. K. (2020). Social media as a platform in
academic library marketing: A comparative study. The Journal of Academic
Librarianship, 46(5), 102188.

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School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Name of the Course

Fisk, J., & Summey, T. P. (2005). Got distance services? Marketing remote library services
to distance learners. Internet reference services quarterly, 9(1-2), 77-91.

Mandrekar, B., & e Rodrigues, M. C. (2020). Marketing of Library and Information Products
and Services During Covid-19 Pandemic: A Study. Marketing.

Mi, J., & Nesta, F. (2006). Marketing library services to the Net Generation. Library
management.
Raja, M. U. (1998). Marketing of library & information products & services: A select
bibliography. DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology, 18(3).
Smith, M. (1991). Global marketing of managed information access. The Electronic Library.
Stover, J. S. (2007). Making marketing work for your library blog. Internet reference
services quarterly, 11(4), 155-167.

Wood, M. S. (2013). Cost Accounting, Marketing, and Fee-Based Services: An Annotated

Bibliography. Cost Analysis, Cost Recovery, Marketing and Fee-Based Services: A
Guide for the Health Sciences Librarian, 4, 223.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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© Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 LESSON 2
Pricing, Distribution, Channels and Communication Strategies

Dr NEETIKA SHARMA
Librarian
Swami Shraddhanand College
University of Delhi
[email protected]
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 What is Pricing?
1.4 Pricing and LIS Products and Services
1.4.1 Income Generating Activities in Libraries
1.4.2 How to Market Library Products and Services?
1.4.3 Key Approaches to Pricing in LIS Field

1.5 Distribution Channels in Libraries

1.6 Communication Strategies in Libraries
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References
1.10 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

 1.2 INTRODUCTION

The concept of marketing, promotional activities, distribution channels, and so on are not new
but LIS professionals have only recently become aware of the need to market their products and
services. The products and services of the library are now being recognised as commodities that
can be purchased, sold, exchanged, borrowed and passed on. Today, the " survival of a library
depends among other things on its image in the minds of the users and fund
allocators"(Narayana, 1991, p.187). Libraries must also communicate with existing and potential
users to make them aware of better and more competitive products and services offered, and also
to build and maintain the best relationship. However, to communicate effectively library
professionals must understand the user's field of knowledge because users' needs are varied
subject to subject. Distribution channels and communications strategies play an important role in
identifying the prominent users, and their needs and developing effective relationships.

The use of distribution channels and communication strategies is very much applicable to
libraries and information centres as they are service providers. But it is also important to select
an effective means of communication. So that libraries adopted several methods of
communication to promote their sources and services. Apart from traditional methodologies,
library services can be channelised with the help of smartphones, mobile apps, e-mails, blogs,
social platforms, websites, and many more. Librarians should make a habit of writing a daily
column in the newspaper to give information about new sources and services and update users as
well.

1.3 WHAT IS PRICING ?

In general, the cost is a fact and the price is a policy. "Price is the amount of money charged for a
product or service"(Kotler, et.al.2010,p.247). Price is important in every sphere of life because
you need money/price to promote your products and services, and to establish the channels of
distribution and survival.
Price is the most flexible marketing mix element in the marketplace. "Price can be expressed in
currency; however, it can use goods or services. In the library, the price can be used to express
the value of information sources and services, for example, online databases, e-journals, e-books,
e-magazines and so on, other online services like digital reference services, ask a librarian
service, web forms, online document delivery, interlibrary loan, online help, online information
skills tutorials, online current awareness bulletins, email-based services, online scholarly journals
and other sources, physical products like a CD-ROM and many more (Brindley,1993).

Survival
(Existence of
Libraries)

Maximum
Current Profit
(Maximum User
Satisfaction)

Maximum Market Share

(Maximum Sharing of
Services)
e.g.Consortiums
Market Skimming
(Appreciation)

Figure 1: Pricing Objectives in Market and Libraries

1.4 PRICING AND LIS PRODUCTS AND SERVICES

Libraries are known as service-oriented organisations, not profit-making organizations, but these
days the increasing cost of sources like online databases, scholarly journals and others forces
libraries to sell their products and services. "Marketing is only an instrument through which the
objectives of the library can be achieved"(Brindley,1993,p.298).

1.4.1 Income-Generating Activities in Libraries

On average about 10-20% of funding for academic libraries comes from income generation
activities. Libraries can charge for the below-given services:

• Reprography/photocopy
• Inter Library Loan like DELNET
• Online database service
• Training courses
• Indexing service
• Publications charges like NISCAIR and other organizations

Some organizations like INFLIBNET, DELNET and many more are charging money for their
sources and services, such as organizational publications including newsletters, magazines, and
so on. A wide range of factors should be taken into account when determining price and moving
towards pricing such as:
 Delermine pricing objectives to cover costs or to make a profit
and reflect on the level of risk that is acceptable 10 respect of
any losses.

Calculate the cost of production, including any physical

production costs and if deemed appropriate, staff time devoted
to the project.

Estimate sales. based on the sale of previous publications. or the

size of the potential users. Size may depend on the potential
outlets. such as whether sale will be through a special event or
library bookstand.

Estimate sales revenue at different levels of sales such as

25%, 50 %,75 % and 100%.

Calculate unit cost and unit sales revenue and taking into
account the pricing objectives.

Fig 2: How to price a library publication

1.4.2 How to Market Library Products and Services?

Typically, the organization will use some of these in complex pricing models designed to
achieve the pricing objectives of the organization. For "some products, such as books or the user
market for CD-ROMs, there will be a list price for the item, which is set after consideration of
the pricing objectives, including financial and marketplace performance objectives. Pricing
strategies for e-resources are particularly more complex, and several approaches to pricing and
payment for access to databases and electronic document delivery have been tried. The early
online search services based pricing on combinations of connect time charges, display/print
charges, telecommunication charges and charges for special services"(Brindley,1993,p.302).
This model has to some extent been outmoded by approaches based upon subscriptions, contracts
with consortia, and pay-as-you-go. Another very significant difference between print-based
information products and electronic information products, where payment is based on access
(rather than subscription), is that the customer pays for the print product in advance; online
information on a pay-as-you-go basis is paid for when it is retrieved, or after.

1.4.3 Key Approaches to Pricing in the LIS Field

i. Item-Based Pricing

It is very common in the information market that the price of any document or service can be
varied based on different prices in different countries, and different versions (for example a
large-print version or a talking-book version). It is very evident in the market for e-resources
that, different publishers/suppliers may set their prices differently and based on different
negotiations. So, even though the price level may vary, and different prices are set for different
versions and different market segments, the /library consumer pays an agreed price for the item.

ii. Pay-For-Use

Pay-For-Use is basically set up for electronic resources in libraries. "A variation on item-based
pricing that is used for e-resource is where the user pays for the information when it is accessed.
Open access or google, for example, may provide access to some information free, but should an
individual wish to download a list of several thousand addresses for marketing purposes, the user
will be charged for this based on the information that has been downloaded" (Synder &
Davenport,1997). Similarly, document delivery services allow consumers to order journal
articles through their Web-based services. The end-user or library will be charged for the item
ordered/accessed, for example,

a) Dialog Alert Service

Charges for Dialog Alert profiles vary, depending on the source database, frequency of Alert run
(e.g., daily, weekly), and delivery method. Up to 20 prints per profile per update are included.
except as noted in the Database Rates section of the Price List (https://dialog.com/commercial-
databases/).

b) Dialog Interactive Alerts

"Dialog provides an interactive alerting service with subscriptions to predefined strategies
covering top publications and newsletters. "The pricing for this service has two components: the
'Flat Delivery Fee for distributing Interactive Titles Lists' and articles to recipients' e-mail boxes
and the 'Article Fees for the specific articles ordered'. Dialog Interactive Alerts charges are part
of your total Dialog usage and are billed on the monthly Dialog invoice. See our Web site for
more information" (https://dialog.com/commercial-databases/).

iii. Contracts with Publishers

Access to e-resources, such as bibliographic databases, e-journals collections and other

databases, is increasingly provided to the end-user through libraries or consortia which are
increasingly functioning as powerful mediators in negotiation with publishers. "Contracts, which
hold price and licensing arrangements, and specify how the information that has been acquired
may be used, are agreed upon and reviewed, typically on an annual basis. Individual libraries
then have contracts with the consortia for access to all the negotiated products, or an agreed
subset. The advantages of such contracts to the publishers are guaranteed visibility in the
marketplace through association with significant academic and public libraries. In addition,
licensing arrangements include controls on the use of the information, which ensures the
protection of intellectual property"( Mu & Benedetto, 2011). For libraries and their users, the
advantages of the consortium arrangement are wider access to electronic information and support
in its acquisition and use from the consortium and other members of the consortium.

iv. Open Access/Free Information

Academic libraries may offer basic access free to registered users but charge for other more
personalized services." Many publishers have commercial reasons for providing free information
resources/open access. Increasingly information is provided to consumers as part of the
augmented product, or to lubricate the wheels of the relationship between the consumer and the
retailer or producer" (Weingand,1999). The use of information in building communities and
attracting attention is most evident in the Web portals that are being established by increasing
numbers of organizations. Such portals are interested in increasing traffic to their site and use
information among other features to entice consumers to make repeat visits.

v. Promotional Pricing
Special pricing tactics may be adopted in association with a promotion that is designed to draw
attention to a product. From the customer relationship point of view, promotional pricing is
designed to encourage switching from a competitor's products. Major current awareness services
based on the contents pages of journals are offered free to encourage the purchase or acquisition
of journal articles or books from the document suppliers.

ACTIVITY
Visit libraries of your area or campus and make a list of sources and services
which have cost/price in market.

1.5 DISTRIBUTION CHANNELS IN LIBRARIES

Distribution is a type of marketing activity concerned with distributing the products from the
manufacturer to the customer, making the product available and easy to buy. So, distribution
channels are the methods or intermediaries by which companies deliver products and services to
end users. Some companies directly reach their end users, while others might use a retailer or
wholesaler to serve as an intermediary. Companies may also use agents or brokers to facilitate
the movement of products to distributors that sell those wares to the customer. Past time
remembered when promotion was done through government-claimed 'Radio Stations' where a
little bit of sound used to be played about the item.

There are some prominent channels and distribution are as follows:

• Interpersonal delivery
• Direct selling/Inhouse dissemination
• Selling through intermediaries
• Dual distribution and reverse logic
• Local depositories
 • Mass media
• Mail

In libraries, the marketing and promotion of the library services have a huge impact on the users
and that is going to remain for many years. The information provided to the user within the time
using different modes of communication defines the way we do the marketing of the LIS
products and library services. This process involves technology, machinery and manpower. The
technology does not dictate everything to the librarians to serve the users because it is merely a
medium which supports the LIS products and services.

Usually, the librarians use the following distribution channels :

• Annual Reports

The annual report of the library is a written document submitted by the librarian to inform the
users keep informed on the aspects of the library's services, achievements or regress along with
possible reasons for shortcomings.

• Handbook

Small handbooks are a valuable device to instruct and assist users. It contains factual
information, a diagrammatical representation of the main services, the locations of main
collections and service points, the location and arrangement of books, the method of issuing
returning documents, the rules and regulations of the library and so on.

Printed Catalogue/OPAC

A printed catalogue/OPAC is an important means of publicising library content. It may include

total holdings of the central as well as branch libraries or may be restricted to special collections
of the library.

• Websites

Those librarians who cannot even afford the promotional expenses may promote their sources
and services through websites. They can highlight news regularly related to the latest 'additions',
statistics of readers and issues, changes in the issue methods, changes in the working hours,
special and collections, improvement in the facilities to the public, arrangement of exhibitions
and occurrence of events about which special bibliographies may be prepared.

• Posters and Bulletin Boards

A striking poster may have an appeal comparable to that of a beautiful piece of sculpture or a
nicely printed book. Posters, pictures, book jackets, maps, slogans, and notes on special days,
authors, and events, constitute the display material for the bulletin board. An effort should be
made to connect national, educational, scientific, and local campus events with the use of library
materials. To command attention, and to be more effective, displays should be neat, simple and
visible.

• Personal Talk

Direct personal talk is the simple and the least expensive method of publicity. It can convert non-
users into regular users of the library. Oral publicity is in effect PR tool for acquainting the
people with the contents and services of their libraries, and also the informational and
bibliographical works undertaken by their staff. The university and college librarians are
expected to talk about libraries to new entrants, students' organizations, faculty members, and
often to outside bodies as well.

With the traditional methods of promotion, libraries these days are using social media for the
marketing of their products and services. Today, social media (below given) alone can handle
promotional activities to advertise products and services. Some prominent examples are as
below:

i. Facebook
ii. Twitter
iii. Blog
iv. LinkedIn
v. YouTube
vi. Instagram
 Fig 2: Social Networking Sites

1.5 COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN LIBRARIES

Libraries must inform their users about the latest and existing sources and services and try to
maintain a holistic approach between the library and the user. First of all, it is important to know
the need, desires and requirements of library users because they are too varied which affect their
needs.

In libraries, modern marketing calls for more than just developing good sources and services.
Also, library professionals must communicate with current and potential users, and what they
communicate should be well arranged. Communication works as a central element of the way
users relate to and cooperate because it is concerned with sending and receiving knowledge,
ideas, facts, figures, goals, emotions and values. In libraries, communication is more than a
marketing tool because it's not just sending and receiving information to cooperate but equivalent
to that they are constantly communicating their self-images to all around them. A marketing
communication strategy helps to create clearer, sharper messages appropriately directed to users
in the libraries. Different stages in the design of communication strategies :
 Identify the prominent /target users

Determine communication objectives

Message designing

Selection of communication channels

Establish promotional budget

Design on promotional mix

Evaluation

Figure 3: Stages in Designing Communication Strategies

Stage 1 Identify the target/prominent users:

The first stage in communication is to identify prominent/target users. Library professionals must
find the prominent categories of users, the sources and services they want and the benefits they
are looking for. However, users always require an easy, comfortable, and convenient way to get
what they want. The libraries also recognize the user's needs for a place where they can meet
other users with the same interest or people from different backgrounds and skills.

Stage 2 Determine Communication Objectives:

Once the target user has been defined, the library professionals must decide what response is
sought. They need to know the level of user's awareness, knowledge, liking, preference,
conviction, and so on. The user may be unaware of the availability and how to access the sources
and services in the library. Ideally, they should get attention, hold interest, and obtain action. In
addition, library professionals have to figure out the product and service that will produce the
desired responses.

Stage 3 Message Designing:

Each communication strategy should have a message that is consistent with its communication
objectives. The essentials of the message that need to be considered are:

 Content of the message: It should be clear what message to communicate, for example,
the Library is going to organise a book fair;
 Structure of the message: How to express the message, for example, want to learn how to
browse the web for free?;
 Format of the Message: How to represent the message in symbols for example, whether
to include pictures, more complete text details, embedding the message in catalogues,
posters, or presentations);
 Source of the message source: Who should communicate the message, or act as the
spokesperson, either in person or by signature; the options are another user, significant
public figures, or the service agent, for example, would you like to try our new Web
service?.

Stage 4 Selecting of Communication Channel:

There are two types of communication channels: (a) personal communication channels, and (b)
non-personal communication channels. In personal communication channels, two or more people
communicate directly with each other. They might communicate face to face, over the telephone,
through the mail, or even through the internet “chat”. "Non-personal message channels are media
that carry messages without personal contact. They include major media (newspapers,
magazines, direct mail, radio, television, billboards, signs, posters, online services, websites),
atmosphere (designed environments that create the client’s leanings toward buying a product),
and events are staged occurrences that communicate messages to prominent users"
(Rowley,1998,p.3384). Libraries can design media prints, such as booklets, leaflets, notices and
posters. They can propose a nice and comfortable atmosphere to satisfy their users. Some special
events like user orientation, short-term courses, books exhibition, discussions on specific topics,
and so on programs should be organised regularly to make their users aware of the library.

Stage 5 Establish a promotional budget

The available budget has a noteworthy effect on the range of communication activities that can
be pursued. For many libraries marketing budgets are extremely limited, but commercial
organizations in the information marketplace have marketing budgets that are consistent with (if
not sufficient for) the market segments with which they need to establish and maintain
communications. Managers must be aware of the costs of communication activities, even when
they do not generate a separate invoice, and should continually monitor the value and impact
associated with marketing communications activities.

Stage 6 Decide on promotional mix

The promotional mix will normally include a selection of strategies from more than one of the
following: advertising; direct marketing; sales promotion; public relations and publicity; personal
selling; and sponsorship. The factors that should be considered in establishing an appropriate
promotional mix include:

• The available budget

• The marketing message
• The complexity of the product or service
• Market size and location
• Distribution of the product
• The stage in the product lifecycle
• Competition
So, libraries will use a combination of these strategies, indeed, one promotional strategy may
be used to support another promotional activity or event.

1.7 SUMMARY

Libraries are being forced to promote and market their sources and services and to explore the
possibilities of cost recovery and profit potential for their survival. Libraries need to develop
inspiring ways of communication and a feedback mechanism to improve service. Even though
the concept of marketing of information as a marketing item particularly in India, is a difficult
task, libraries must consider what, how and where funds can be generated this way. It must be
carefully considered which services can have only a minimum price, which one covers a
reasonable share of the cost, and which generates revenues. The impact of the information
technology and the adoption of the marketing approach will help improve services for users and
enhance the reputation of the library and information services and professionals.

1.8 GLOSSARY

Advertising : Advertising is a marketing communication that employs an openly

sponsored non-personal message to promote or sell a product service or
idea.

Approach : To begin to deal with a problem, a situation and so on.

Channels : To make something move along a particular path or route.

Communication : The act of sharing or exchanging information, ideas or feelings.

Market : A place where people go to buy and sell things

1.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is Pricing? How libraries can generate income?

2. Define Key Approaches of Pricing in the LIS field.

3. What do you understand by Distribution Channels in Libraries. Elaborate with suitable

examples.

4. How do you define Communication Strategies? How it can be applicable in LIS Field?

1.10 REFERENCES

Anderson, C. (2020). Library marketing and communications: strategies to increase relevance

and results. American Library Association.
Arnold, S. E. (1990). Marketing electronic information in the 1990s. The Electronic Library.

https://doi.org/10.1108/eb045003

Barker, F. (1984), Pricing of information products', Aslib Proceedings, 36 (7/8), July-August,

289-97. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb050934

Boulding, K. (1968). Knowledge as a commodity. Beyond Economics: Essays on Society.

Brindley, L. J. (1993, November). Information service and information product pricing. In Aslib
proceedings. MCB UP Ltd. doi.org/10.1108/eb051336

Eaton, J. J., & Bawden, D. (1991). What kind of resource is information? International journal
of information management, 11(2), 156-165. doi.org/10.1016/0268-4012(91)90006-X

Hauge, A. O. (1986). A strategic appraisal of electronic information marketing, based on

experiences from Scandinavia. In International online information meeting. 10 (pp. 283-
289). https://pascalfrancis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?actio=8179180

Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Agnihotri, P., & Haque, E. (2010). Principles of marketing: A South
Asian perspective. Noida.

Millson-Martula, C., & Menon, V. (1995). Customer expectations: concepts and reality for
academic library services. College & Research Libraries, 56(1), 33-47.
http://crl.acrl.org/index.php/crl/article/download/14942/16388

Mu, J., & Di Benedetto, C. A. (2011). Strategic orientations and new product commercialization:
mediator, moderator, and interplay. R&D Management, 41(4), 337-359.

Norton, B. (1988). Charging for library and information services (Vol. 1). London: Library
Association.

Narayan, B. (2011). University Libraries and Digital Learning Environments. Library

Management. https://doi.org/10.1108/01435121111188274

Rosenberg, L. J., & Stern, L. W. (1970). Toward the analysis of conflict in distribution channels:
a descriptive model. Journal of Marketing, 34(4), 40-46.

Rowley, J. (2016). Information marketing. Routledge.

Snyder, H., & Davenport, E. (1997). Costing and pricing in the digital age: a practical guide for
information services. http://researchrepository.napier.ac.uk/id/eprint/3108

Weingand, D. E. (1999). Marketing/planning library and information services. Libraries

Unlimited.

1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ashley, C., & Tuten, T. (2015). Creative strategies in social media marketing: An exploratory
study of branded social content and consumer engagement. Psychology &
Marketing, 32(1), 15-27.

Boyle, B., Dwyer, F. R., Robicheaux, R. A., & Simpson, J. T. (1992). Influence strategies in
marketing channels: Measures and use in different relationship structures. Journal of
Marketing Research, 29(4), 462-473.

Cravens, D. W., & Piercy, N. (2006). Strategic marketing (Vol. 6). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Doyle, P., & Stern, P. (2006). Marketing management and strategy. Pearson Education.

Frazier, G. L., & Summers, J. O. (1984). Interfirm influence strategies and their application
within distribution channels. Journal of Marketing, 48(3), 43-55.

Horsfall, M. N. (2020). Marketing of library and information services in the digital age:
challenges, strategies and implications. Information Impact: Journal of Information and
Knowledge Management, 11(2), 13-20.

Madhusudhan, M. (2008). Marketing of library and information services and products in

university libraries: a case study of Goa university library. Library Philosophy and
Practice, 11. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/17209356.pdf

Mohr, J., & Nevin, J. R. (1990). Communication strategies in marketing channels: A theoretical
perspective. Journal of Marketing, 54(4), 36-51.

Neves, M. F., Zuurbier, P., & Campomar, M. C. (2001). A model for the distribution channels
planning process. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing.
Strauss, J., & Frost, R. (2011). E-marketing. Prentice hall press.
Weitz, B. A., & Jap, S. D. (1995). Relationship marketing and distribution channels. Journal of
the academy of Marketing Science, 23(4), 305-320.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************
 Name of the Course

LESSON 3
Advertising, Sales Promotion

Dr NEETIKA SHARMA
Librarian
Swami Shraddhanand College
University of Delhi
[email protected]
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Advertising and Publicity in Libraries

1.4 Use of various means of Advertising in Libraries

1.5 Sales promotion in Libraries

1.5.1 Meaning and Definition of Sales Promotion

1.5.2 Prominent Media for Sales Promotion
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1.9 References
1.10 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

Advertising in very common definitional term is "any paid form of non-personal

communication of information about products or ideas by an identified sponsor through the
media to persuade or influence behaviour of the people in such a manner as to induce them to
buy". You will be able to understand:

• principles and practice of advertising;

• understand the advantages;

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• objectives and limitations of advertising;

• help facilitate the use of different media and techniques of advertising;

• analyse the various appeals used in advertising;

• apply various advertising concepts and models, and

• plan and evaluate advertising effectiveness.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Advertising is considered a creative marketable message aimed at selling products and

services. It can also be used to increase sales or publicise social messages. It is the means
of support of media for their continued existence. At the same time, some people think that
advertising is just a waste of money and manpower. The very common terminology of
advertising is "any paid form of non-personal communication of information about products or
ideas by an identified sponsor through the media to persuade or influence behaviour of the
people in such a manner as to induce them to buy".

A question is arrive to mind despite so many other forms of promotion, why do we need
advertising of products and services in libraries? The answer is that production is
incomplete without consumption and in libraries, there is no value in products and services if users
don't utilize them. Library professionals need to make aware of the availability of the sources and
services. Through advertisements,library professionals draw user attention to the product.

1.3 ADVERTISING AND PUBLICITY IN LIBRARIES

Communication is an important aspect of marketing especially in libraries because it is a

two-way process between the user and the library. It assists to develop a better understanding
of users, their needs, and requirements. Interactive sessions with users consist of important

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dialogues and allow one-to-one contact with the user. AIDA model for advertising includes
the following four elements in the context of the library:

Attention/
Awareness

AIDA
Action Interest
Model

Demand

Fig 1.2: AIDA Model

AIDA Model was developed by Elias St. Elmo Levis in 1898 and defines as "an advertising
effect model that identifies the stages that an individual goes through during the process of
purchasing a product or service".

• Awareness: When users are aware of all sources and services of the library.
• Interest: When the users are interested in the products and services of the library.
• Demand: When the customer develops an insist on/want for the service.
• Use: When users use the sources and services.

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ACTIVITY
Visit any public library in your locality and college/university library in your
campus and collect the information regarding that how these libraries use
AIDA model for advertising their products and services? How they attract
users to use the library?

1.4 USE OF VARIOUS MEANS OF ADVERTISING IN LIBRARIES

In libraries, advertisements work for publicity and create awareness among the users and also
use for image building of the library. Advertising can be defined "as any paid form of non-
personal promotion "(Kotler, 2000). There are several ways for advertising, for example,
printed and non-printed flyers, instruction manuals, broachers and booklets, posters and
leaflets, directories, reprints of ads, billboards, display signs/signboards, audio-visual
material, PowerPoint presentations, symbols, logos and so on.

In libraries, most advertisements are placed in magazines and newspapers, on notice boards,
websites and bulletin boards. With the help of such media, users can select what are their
requirements, what is available in the respective library and how to use them. Libraries can
develop simple advertisements with short messages, using bold headlines and captions.

Table 1: List of Tools for Sales Promotion in Libraries

Advertising Sales Promotion Publicity
Print advertisements Sampling Press release
Radio jingles Discounts on books Seminars
Inserts/pamphlets Increase timings of the Workshop
library
Movies Rebates Online meet
Magazines Demonstrations Alumni meets
Manuals Videoconferencing
Booklets Community relation
Logos
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Brochures
Prospectus
Annual Reports
Source: Kotler, P., & Armstrong, G. (1994). Marketing management, analysis,
planning, implementation, and control, Philip Kotler. London: Prentice-Hall
International.

1.5 SALES PROMOTION IN LIBRARIES

1.5.1 Meaning and definition of Sales Promotion

"Sales promotions are those incentive schemes which aim at encouraging

product/service usage at the consumer level"(Chopra,1998,p.476). "A sales
promotion is a marketing strategy in which a business uses a temporary campaign
or offer to interest or demand its product or service"(p.477). In the marketing
environment, the most frequently used tools in this category are "contests, games,
exhibitions, sweepstakes, lotteries, demonstrations, premiums, gifts, sampling, fair
and trade shows, rebates, low-interest financing, entertainment, trade-in allowances
and trading stamps etc".
In libraries, an exhibition of rare books, and manuscripts of historical importance can
enhance the use of such collections. Display of online services, bibliographical
services, abstracting services and the use of online gadgets can be helpful in sales
promotion.

1.5.2 Prominent Media for Sales Promotion

• Atmospherics: Kotler and Andersen define it as "the conscious design of
space to create or reinforce specific effects on buyers such as a feeling of
well-being, safety, intimacy or awareness" (Kotler & Armstrong,1994). The
library building should be well maintained with a service orientation
atmosphere, comfortable furniture, research cabins, user-friendly lights,

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decorative inners, and so on. This type of atmosphere provides a positive and
satisfying environment. The inner ambience should have basic facilities,
adequate signage (signs) system which promotes the utility of a library.

• Brochures, Flyers, and Posters: In libraries, professionals can use

brochures, flyers, catalogues, posters, manuals and so on. These are effective
communication, and media with user groups. It is observed that we get
various brochures inserted in newspapers. Often we find them quite attractive
and attention-grabbing, and directly or indirectly motivating one to see and
read them. "The language and message wording, used for a brochure, should
be so absorbing that it motivates the reader to read till it ends"
(Rowley,1998,p.3385). Posters should be displayed prominently throughout
the organization.

• Newsletters: Libraries can bring out periodical newsletters to inform their

users regarding forthcoming activities or information. "The newsletter must
contain information about the latest books/information, any new services
added, any library event organized, workshops/seminars/ conferences held or
planned, computerization of services, and so on. "Newsletters should
represent their professional style and may also cover professional
information"(Rowley,1998,p.3385), for example, new appointments,
promotions, and award presentations.

• Extension Activities: All libraries especially academic libraries should act as

active centres for various academic and cultural activities to promote their
membership. They can organise different programmes like user orientation,
information literacy, lectures, workshops, seminars, debates, quiz
competitions, book exhibitions, etc on a regular mode. "Regularly hosted
activities can quickly catch the users' attention and improve the image of the
library. Exhibitions of products and services during conferences/seminars, etc.
are helpful to publicize the initiatives taken by the library for their

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users"(Rowley,1998,p.3387).

• Mail Shots: Mail shots are "a dispatch of mail, especially promotional
material, to a large number of people/user. It is a personal approach to
reaching prominent users of the library" (Rowley,1998,p.338). It can be a
piece of information, announcement/reminder, alert and so on. Publishers
usually send mail shots to users about their new sources.

• Personal Selling: Personal selling is a type of face-to-face interaction with

users to maximize the usage rate of sources and services. This type of
interaction is best for products and services which are worthy, for example,
sales promotion, sales meetings, incentive programmes, samples, fairs and
trade shows, free browsing hours for online searching, and samples of CD-
ROM searches may help in attracting more subscribers.

• Personal Talks: It is the best technique to develop good personal relations

with users in the library. This two-way beneficial approach will not only help
the libraries and the library professionals to improve their image but also
create a place among the users for wider acceptance.

• Sponsorship: Although libraries happen to be social institutions, it is very

important for getting sponsorships that the library creates awareness among
the users about the need and importance of various sources and services they
have for them to use, especially due to dynamic changes taking place in the
world of information and knowledge to keep aware of the users with the help
of organizing several activities. " As the library deals with numerous books,
periodicals, electronic resources, suppliers, booksellers, vendors, and
publishers, and they are being the beneficiary of library purchases come
forward willingly to financially support the libraries to give momentum to the
use of information resources" (Gedenk, Neslin, & Ailawadi, 2010,p.293).

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• Press Conferences and press releases: "A press conference is nothing but a
meeting in which representatives of the media participate in learning and
publicizing the event or new item they are representing and a press release is
a written communication sent to a selected set of press and broadcasting
media" (Blattberg & Neslin,1993,p.553). So, a library and when organising a
press conference should provide media written/printed support material,
photographs etc. to attract the attention of the larger people. Therefore, a
well-presented press release which is timely, interesting and accurate has a
wider impact on promoting the image of the library among the ample of users.

1.6 SUMMARY

Users are an important part and parcel of any library and the ultimate satisfaction is
important for library professionals. Advertising may play a significant role in its performance
and user satisfaction. This may possible when the libraries have a positive sales promotion
attitude based on the user's requirements and deliver value to their information needs and
expectations. Thus, we can conclude that advertising and sales promotional activities can
improve the image of libraries and also help to increase the use of library sources and
services in a very effective way.

1.7 GLOSSARY

Advertising : It is a means of communication with users of a product or service.

Brochures : A small book with pictures/illustrations and information about something.
Promotion : Things or activities you do to advertise a product and increase its sales.

Sales : The action of selling or being sold or the occasion when something is
sold.

Sponsorship : This is a form of advertising where a company will sponsor some event
or organization.

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1.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the concept of Advertising. Discuss the factors that influence advertising in
libraries, with suitable examples.

2. Define the term Sales Promotion. Discuss some effective means of sales promotion in
libraries with relevant examples.

3. Discuss the extension activities that libraries used to promote users.

1.9 REFERENCES

Boadi, B. Y. (2006). Income‐generating activities: a viable financial source for African

academic libraries?. The Bottom Line. doi.org/10.1108/08880450610663609

Kotler, P., & Armstrong, G. (1994). Marketing management, analysis, planning,

implementation, and control, Philip Kotler. London: Prentice-Hall International.

Rowley, J. (1998). Promotion and marketing communications in the information

marketplace. Library Review.Vol.47, No.8, pp,3383-3387.
doi.org/10.1108/00242539810239543

1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Best, J. (1998). How to Market Your Library Service Effectively. Asian Libraries.

Blattberg, R. C., & Neslin, S. A. (1993). Sales promotion models. Handbooks in operations
research and management science, 5, 553-609.

Chakrabarti, B. (1985). Marketing and the library: odd couple or meaningful

relationship. ILA Bulletin, 21(1/2), 59-70.

Chopra, H. S. (1998). Marketing of Salable Services in Indian University

Libraries. Marketing Strategies for Library and Information Services, 475-86.

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Coote, H. (1994). How to market your library service effectively: and enjoy it in the
process. Aslib.

Garoufallou, E., Siatri, R., Zafeiriou, G., & Balampanidou, E. (2013). The use of
marketing concepts in library services: a literature review. Library
Review, 62(4/5), 312-334.

Gaur, R. C. (2002). New avenues for marketing of library and information services and
products: a study of management libraries of NCR. SRELS Journal of
Information Management, 39(3), 283-300.

Gedenk, K., Neslin, S. A., & Ailawadi, K. L. (2010). Sales promotion. In Retailing in the
21st Century (pp. 393-407). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Koustas, N., Koulouris, A., Kyprianos, K., & Vraimaki, E. (2019). Commercial advertising
in Greek libraries. Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Libraries, 8(4), 447-
456.

Lohia, J. S. (1999). Relevance of Marketing of LIS in Electronic Information Era.

In Libraries and Information Services in the Electronic Information Era. 44th
ILA Conference (pp. 131-37).

Massey, M. E. (1976). Market analysis and audience research for libraries.” Library
Trends 24.3 (1976): 473-81.
Ratzek, W. (2011). The mutations of marketing and libraries. IFLA Journal, 37(2), 139-
151.

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LESSON 4
PUBLIC RELATIONS

Dr NEETIKA SHARMA
Librarian
Swami Shraddhanand College
University of Delhi
[email protected]
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Public Relations in LIS Field
1.3.1 Public Relations in Libraries
1.3.2 Objectives of Public Relation in Libraries
1.3.3 Prominent Forms of the Common Core of Information

1.4 Public Relations on National and International Level

1.4.1 Public Relations on National Level
1.4.2 Public Relations on International Level

1.5 Public Relations on University Level

1.5.1 Vice Chancellor
1.5.2 Library Committee
1.5.3 Faculty Members

1.6 Get Others (Off-campus groups) involved in PR

1.6.1 Alumni
1.6.2 Professional Friends
1.6.3 Professional Associations and Organizations

1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

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1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

This lesson aims to make understand the role of public relations in the promotion of LIS
products and services. After reading this lesson you will be able to understand :

• How PR works in LIS education;

• role of national and international organizations to project the image of libraries;
• role of media in PR work, and
• sources used for PR

1.2 INTRODUCTION

The aim of public relations in libraries and information centres is to build up a strong
connection with users, make users active, forward-looking, quickly responsive to public
demands, interested in progressive methods and economy, operated by devoted and highly
skilled staff and busy in helping more citizens in every category. Public relations helps to
discuss your success/achievement, distinguish you from the competition from the other
information providers, and also provide a stream of ideas for the audience/users. It also
explains the objectives and vision of the library, problems, plans, projects, personnel,
standards and accomplishments.

1.3 PUBLIC RELATIONS IN LIS FIELD

1.3.1 Public Relations in Libraries

The Public Relations Society of America defines public relations as "a strategic
communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations
and their publics".

In LIS education public relations means the act or process of putting the library into a
friendly and understanding relationship with users of all categories, for example, faculty
members, research scholars, students and other staff of the organization. It helps to
understand every citizen about the functions, policies and procedures, the extent and warmth

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of the community's goodwill toward the library, and its appreciation for the quality and
morale of the library's staff and services.

1.3.2 Objectives of Public Relations in Libraries

So, the main objectives of the library PR programme are:

• to create library consciousness among the people of the community;
• to spotlight the existence of libraries, where they are located what they contain, and
• to identify the services they provide to help people in their learning and teaching;
• to make constructive use of their leisure hours,
• to help people remain well-informed;
• to increase their theoretical knowledge of their resources.

1.3.3 Prominent Forms of the Common Core Information

The common core information is often publicized in the form of :

• Press release;
• all types of information flyers;
• advertisements for open positions;
• announcements of new appointments and retirements;
• media advertisements;
• articles;
• manuals;
• programme announcements

ACTIVITY
Make a list of activities that an academic library might carry out locally in users
interest to obtain goodwill. Look around your campus and in the newsletters of
colleges/universitiesfor ideas.

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1.4 PUBLIC RELATIONS ON NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

1.4.1 Public Relations on National Level

Looking at the national level, one finds that the governments own national, parliament, state
assemblies and departmental libraries. They also give financial aid directly or indirectly for
the maintenance and development of public libraries. They also provide financial aid to
academic libraries. "Therefore, becomes obligatory that the members of national, parliament
and state assemblies and the bureaucrats be kept informed on the vital role of the libraries.
Financial stringencies must be opposed.

At their national level library association like ALA and Library Association (London) have
magnified library images at the international level" (Russo,2001,p.3). They have promoted
participation in international conferences, the establishment of fellowships for librarians of
developing countries, making arrangements for visiting librarians, and publications of
international value.

1.4.2 Public Relations on International Level

International bodies like UNESCO, FID, and IFLA have played a vital role in projecting
library image on the international scene. UNESCO has been playing a vital role in the
development of libraries in many parts of the world. Even though, Unesco is concerned with
all kinds of libraries it has paid special attention to the development of public libraries in
those countries which have been fortunate enough to have them. "The initiation of the pilot
public library projects at Delhi, Enugu (Nigeria), Medellin (Columbia), and Latin America
demonstrate Unesco's faith in public libraries as institutions where everyone can obtain
knowledge in the way one ikes best. Unesco has generated the idea that public libraries can
bring about an intellectual, social and economic revolution through the dissemination of
knowledge and information"(Russo,2001,p.2). As a result of this transformation of the
human mind, librarians, particularly in the less privileged countries, have gained a better idea
of the great potentialities of the public 'library'; while the government authorities and the
decision-makers are convinced of the utility of these institutions in life-long education and as
effective information centres for the whole community; hence their greater support for these
institutions of public mental health.

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IFLA operates sections for national and university libraries, public libraries, special libraries,
parliamentary libraries and administrative libraries. "There are also subsections working for
libraries in hospitals, children, astronomical and geographical libraries. IFLA Committees
perform work relating to library education, rare books, periodicals, statistics and library
buildings. LIBRIS is a powerful journal. Similarly, FID has made great contributions to
spreading the latest developments in documentation, information science and UDC
throughout the world"(Baldock,1993,p.7).

1.5 PUBLIC RELATIONS AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL

The support of the Directors and other library administrators can be powerful advocates for a
library's resources, programmes and services. Everyone on the university campus must be
kept informed about the library's sources and services.

1.5.1 Vice-Chancellor/President

The librarian has to inform the Vice-Chancellor of the university about the library's progress
and problems. If the library is poorly or brilliantly organized, the Vice-Chancellor will come
to know about it from the faculty, students or even the alumni. But if the librarian requires
new types of equipment for initiating new services, he/she must keep the Vice-Chancellor
informed. The Vice-Chancellor is also kept informed about:

• book funds;
• means employed in integrating the library with instruction, teaching and extension
programmes;
• the library costs involved in starting new courses;
• building's expansion for accommodating new acquisitions, and new types of
equipment;
• new activities like the computer application to libraries which call for modifications
or extension of buildings or unusual expenditure of funds;
• the advantages and disadvantages of decentralising collections and services;
• the wisdom of separate undergraduate libraries:
• the money earmarked for the purchase of special and rare collections;

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• the quality of staff and costs involved to operate a first-rate library; and
• the aspirations of staff for recognition and appropriate faculty status, etc.

To get wholehearted support from the Vice Chancellor of the University the librarian should
be careful to present all sides of his recommendations and problems.

1.5.2 Library Advisory Committee

Library Advisory Committee is another possible way for the librarian to interpret his sources
and services. Advisory committees should be advisory, and consultative for the library and
can be greatly helpful in promoting the source of the library. The library advisory committee
can be representative and can collect the requirements of the students and faculties.

1.5.3 Faculty

In addition to library committees, the librarian must work in close cooperation with the
faculty for projecting the library image in the university and among students. Since faculty
and students are the primary users of a university library, their needs must be extremely
important to the library in setting goals. Faculty dependence on recorded knowledge in their
teaching and research is the foundation of university librarianship. This dependence can be
translated into appreciation or criticism. A wise and visionary librarian would make an effort
to turn constructive criticism of collections or services towards greater library support. As a
participant in the university educative programme, the librarian operates the library on the
teaching and research level.

For faculty, the common denominator of the library lies in getting the books they want and
getting them as fast as possible. The daily association of library staff with faculty and
students is more important than any other type of library interpretation. Courtesy,
conscientiousness, understanding, sympathy and adaptability at reference and loan desks are
the pre-requisites for selling the library idea.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. UNESCO playing vital role in the development of libraries. True/False
2. UNESCO has generated the idea of Public Libraries. True / False
3. FID has made great contribution to the spreading the latest development in
documentation,information science and UDC throughout the world. True /

1.6 GET OTHERS (OFF-CAMPUS GROUPS) INVOVED IN PR

The off-campus groups, for example, alumni, professional friends, and professional forums,
associations and organizations can be a powerful source for set public relations

1.6.1 Alumni

The Alumnus is given a special status; he/she should always be welcome for brief periods.
Alumni who live near the university may make use of its library directly; others may seek by
mail; they may also ask for reference and bibliographical services. "The PR with the alumni
assumes greater importance when the librarian is interested in build-up a library through their
help. The alumni can be of vital help to the library by forming a 'Friends' Group, making
donations, and listing the support of persons in a position to be of genuine assistance to the
librarian. To cultivate friendly relations with the alumni, the librarian may organize exhibits
for Alumni Day and try to meet as many alumni as possible and keep them informed about
library services and needs, outstanding acquisitions, memorial book gifts, special services,
and news likely to be of interest to the alumni"(Baldock,1993,p.6).

The alumni groups, to a large extent, represent their college and university libraries; public
library groups contain a cross-section of members of the community. The former generally
carry on efforts to aid the growth of the library collections using gifts or contributions, the
later is more concerned in:

• stimulating increased awareness and resulting use of the library;

• stimulating increased financial support-public and private;
• coordinating the effort of all groups and individuals interested in the library;

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• promoting the greatest possible use of the library; sponsoring cultural and related
programmes for the community: and
• sponsoring and stimulating voluntary service for the library.

1.6.2 Professional Friends

Friends look upon the library as an informational and cultural force in the community, as a
source of inspiration and as a tool to promote individual, civil, and national development.
Friends organizations are established for promoting understanding of the library-its
limitations, its services, its physical facilities, and its resources. More specifically, they may
and frequently do promote and encourage gifts to the library either in kind or cash.

1.6.3 Participation of Librarians in Professional Associations/ Organizations

Wilson and Tauber enumerate five groups of organizations, with which the university
librarian has at one time or another, worked. These are:

• Library association-local, state, regional, national, and international;

• Educational associations;
• Government offices and departments;
• Educational foundations; and
• Learned societies.

The type of activities of these organizations which appeal most to the librarians include the
following:

• the development of international cultural relations;

• the compilation and publication of major catalogues and union lists;
• the establishment of regional union catalogues and bibliographical centres;
• the description of the holdings of individual libraries and groups of libraries;
• the improvement of college and university book collection;
• the improvement and support of education for librarianship,
• the development of physical facilities for the photographic reproduction of materials;
• the reduction of costs of library technical operations;

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• the accomplishment of other undertakings-all of which are intended to contribute to

the promotion of research and the advancement of scholarship and librarianship.

So, the participation in professional meetings of the state or the national associations or the
learned bodies may encourage and refresh the participants and they may return home with
new experiences, new vision, new ideas and new methods to try, which ultimately improve
services having their impact on the educational role of the library. Confident and enthusiastic
staff members, receptive to hopeful professional thought and the latest techniques of
operating libraries and disseminating information, gain the confidence and respect of their
teaching colleagues.

1.7 SUMMARY

The public relation and extension programme aims at converting the library into a dynamic
part of community life. The librarian discloses the sources, analyses the contents of
documents for the uninitiated and leads them to use the documents for themselves. Having
done this the librarian enters the fields of PR and extension services to spread the news of his
service to make his library a living force in lifelong education and the intelligent use of
leisure. All the way through public relations the librarian wants to announce the purpose of
the library.

1.8 ANSWERS IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. True

2. True

3. True

1.9 1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain with examples, how Public Relations works on a National and International
Level.

2. How do Public Libraries Work at University Level?

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3. How others (off-campus groups) can be helpful to set up Public Relations in libraries?

1.10 REFERENCES

Baldock, C. (1993). Marketing libraries: a survival course? Library management.Vol.14(1).

pp.4-8 https://doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000000843

Hitchens, H. B. (1977). Technology, Libraries and Public Relations. Audiovisual

Instruction, 22(2), 9-11. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ160698

Israel, O. (2012). Public Relations Practices in Academic Libraries. International Research:

Journal of Library and Information Science, 2(2).pp.300-319
http://irjlis.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/13-IR069.pdf

Ogunrombi, S. A. (1997). Exhibitions in university libraries. Library Review. Vol.46(6).pp.

422-433. doi.org/10.1108/00242539710178434

Russo, M. C. (2001). @ Your Library: Public Relations and More at Indiana

Libraries. Indiana Libraries, 20(2), 1-3. https://INlibV20N2-02-AtYourLibrary.pdf

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Aitufe, T. A. (1993). Public relations in academic libraries. Library Review.

Deale, H. V. (1958). Public relations of academic libraries.

Ford, V. (1985). PR: the state of public relations in academic libraries. College & research
libraries, 46(5), 395- 401.

Haeuser, M., & Olivier, E. R. (1989). Effective public relations programs benefit academic
libraries. College & Research Libraries News, 50(6), 490-495.

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Karp, R. S. (2002). Powerful public relations: A how-to guide for libraries. American
Library Association.

Kies, C. N. (2003). Marketing and public relations for libraries (Vol. 10). Scarecrow Press.

Marshall, N. J. (2001). Public relations in academic libraries: a descriptive analysis. The

Journal of Academic Librarianship, 27(2), 116-121.

Pastine, M. (1990). Justifying your public relations program. College & research libraries
news, 51(9), 864-868.

Peacemaker, B., Robinson, S., & Hurst, E. J. (2016). Connecting best practices in public
relations to social media strategies for academic libraries. College &
undergraduate libraries, 23(1), 101-108.

Rogers, C. R. (2009). Social media, libraries, and Web 2.0: how American libraries are using
new tools for public relations and to attract new users. South Carolina State
Documents Depository.

Soehner, C., Godfrey, I., & Bigler, G. S. (2017). Crisis communication in libraries:
Opportunity for new roles in public relations. The Journal of Academic
Librarianship, 43(3), 268-273.

So, H., & Cha, M. (2021). A Study on the Public Relations of University Libraries using
Instagram. Journal of the Korean BIBLIA Society for library and Information
Science, 32(3), 67-91.

Strife, M. L. (1995). Special libraries and instruction: One-on-one public relations. The
Reference Librarian, 24(51-52), 415-419.

Von Seggern, M., & Roberts, E. P. (2020). Academic library public relations: A week of
celebration. College & research libraries news, 49(4), 202-204.

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LESSON 5

E-MARKETING

Dr NEETIKA SHARMA
Librarian
Swami Shraddhanand College
University of Delhi
[email protected]
[email protected]

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 E-marketing in Libraries
1.3.1 Sub-Section 1
1.3.2 Sub-Section 2
1.3.3 Sub-Section 3
1.4 Process of E-marketing in Libraries
1.4.1 Planning of E-marketing
1.4.2 Requirements for E-marketing
1.5 Sources of E-marketing in Libraries
1.6 Functions of E-marketing in Libraries
1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Answers to In-text Questions
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions
1.11 References
1.12 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The present lesson defines the concept of e-marketing in the field of LIS. The power of "E"
has profoundly affected the way of marketing. The entry of "E" helps marketing by anyone,
from anywhere and anytime with just a click of the mouse. Basically, "E" refers to the

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paperless exchange of business information using electronic gadgets. Generally, libraries

are service-oriented not profit-making organizations but special products and services need
to be promoted through an exchange of price for a fund which helps towards the growth and
development of document collection in libraries. Still, in the 21st century, the concept of e-
marketing is not fully understood by many library professionals. Each library and library
professional needs to identify the primary target markets and the composition of needs that
it would like to serve as its key constituency. After reading this lesson you will be able to
understand:

• to establish the need and significance of e-marketing for information products and
services; demonstrate your understanding of the related terms in e-marketing;

• to describe the benefits of e-marketing both for the users and the providers of
information products and services;

• to explain the classification of e-marketing activities and how these are different from
other types of e-marketing;

• to address the key issues in the development of e-marketing strategies in the LIS
field.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Like all other spheres of life, the electronic has profoundly affected the way marketing is
adept today. In the earlier lessons, you have learned the promotional activities,
communication channels, and promotional strategies to promote LIS products and services. It
is proven that marketing in libraries is primarily concerned with the objective of creating user
value. The users, towards whom the products and services of the modern-day libraries and
information service providers are directed, change their lifestyles and methods of utilising,
storing and retrieving information. "Use of the World Wide Web and rapid developments in
broadband connectivity, supporting back room technologies, and constant endeavours to aide
programme integration of communication and information technology have broadened the
perspective of access to information and the possibilities of the search for it to undreamt of
levels". Providers of information products, therefore, need to think in terms of a new

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paradigm, that of an empowered and informed consumer, with several choices, and an ever-
widening reach of enabling tools, like the internet and web browsers. Research suggests that
the application of the massive powers of the internet and supporting technologies to the
practice of marketing is referred to as electronic marketing or e-marketing.

In this lesson, we would see how the electronic age has influenced the planning, designing
and implementation of strategies for promoting LIS products and services.

1.3 E-MARKETING IN LIBRARIES

The idea of marketing library services is not new. At ALA Conference in 1896, Lutie Stearns
talked about advertising the library. Thereby the word advertising was added to the librarians'
vocabulary. Fialkoff (2006) focused on the problems by which libraries are failures in
marketing. "Library authorities to some extent neglect the things and fail to communicate
with their users and their requirements, especially now that their audience is being attracted
or to expect a wide range of sources and services. By keeping these things in mind, libraries
can utilize computer technology to improve marketing efforts or to promote their sources and
services. But first, a library must need to get a better understanding of the requirements of the
users with the help of market research. In the process of market research, they can use
transaction log analysis, circulation records, user surveys, focus group interviews, and
informational interviews"(Krishnamurthy, 2005). This research process will be helpful to get
an insight that what your users expect from your library. In several environments, e-business
has increased, and the value of digital information in the process of e-marketing has
increased. One of the features of information is that when it is demanded as a product it
creates a new marketing approach and that is information e-marketing.

"E-marketing refers to the application of marketing principles and techniques via electronic
media and more specifically the Internet. E-marketing allows librarians to help patrons
(users) access information in a virtual environment, using various methods such as e-mail,
chat, website, and so on. Three main factors, namely the information explosion, the
technology revolution, and growing library costs are responsible for encouraging the library
profession to develop an e-marketing approach in its operations and services. One essential
role of e-marketing is to create a series of exchanges.

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"The prefix `e-`, is generally attached to any application that is associated with the
revolutionary tool of the internet. "In the context of e-marketing of information products and
services for a modern-day library let us first try to understand the various related terms and
concepts".

E-marketing is a process of planning, executing, and promoting products and services by

using Information Communication Technologies (ICT) to meet the users’ needs. "The
concept, E-marketing of information and services of libraries is quite innovative because the
traditional concept has been changed from marketing to ‘E’, for example, E-marketing".
Now, today’s "world is preferring to have a digital environment, and libraries are also no
exception and trying to achieve their goals"(Marcial,2013, p.336). This lesson focuses on
how libraries can adopt and implement e-marketing aspects to utilize and improve
information products and services more effectively by applying different information
communication technologies.

ACTIVITY
Visit your local public libraries, campus college and university libraries to collect
the information how these libraries promote their sources and services using e-
marketing strategies ?

1.4 PROCESS OF E-MARKETING IN LIBRARIES

1.4.1 Planning of E-marketing

In the LIS field before preparing an e-marketing plan libraries should research their user
groups' needs and demands. Then they can use this information to develop a plan for the
targeted group of users. In an electronic era of information, libraries can’t stand and work
alone. They work closely with consortia, vendors, suppliers, other libraries, and their users to
meet their responsibilities not only in the library but also out of fancies. Regularly library

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professionals are researching that in a world where the majority of our users are not coming
into physical libraries, how do we build strategies to meet the users where they are and get
them to good resources? Where are users on the web and how can we get to them?

1.4.2 Requirements for E-marketing

The first requirement for successful e-marketing in library and information services is a clear
appreciation for what marketing is and what it can do. Satisfying the users is the primary
concern in the marketing/e-marketing process. "Users will only come back for more service
if they are satisfied; if they are not, they will find a different resource. Thus, the philosophy
of the library should value user satisfaction, and everyone should have a role to play in
reproducing maximum satisfaction"(Haruna, Madu & Adamu, 2017). A library has to have a
sufficient understanding of existing and potential users to create superior value for them. This
value comes through increasing the benefits to the users. "One way to do this is at a user
orientation, which requires that the library understands the value to the user as it is today and
as it will evolve. This makes e-marketing more than just finding users for the available
information sources, services, and technologies. It makes marketing a partnership with the
user, who becomes a central part of the total service efforts.

The Ohio Library Council defines the e-marketing process:

• Begin the marketing process by examining your library's mission or purpose;

• Assess library capabilities with a marketing audit and an internal assessment.
• Find out what products (services) your users want, and how they perceive the library,
through market research.
• Develop goals and objectives based on your mission and the results of your internal
audit and external research into what customers want.
• To meet goals, select strategies to promote your products that will work best, be
affordable, and reach your customers.
• Create a plan of action that describes all the steps needed to carry out the strategies
for meeting goals.
• Evaluate how well you have done, for example, in a digital public library, the first
part of your plan is to arrange a statement of your library's mission or purpose.

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To fulfil this purpose you need to:

• select one service or one user group for this sample plan, for example, an
annual event,
• pre-schoolers, non-English speaking users, and retirees;
• describe how the marketing of this service or to this group will contribute to
the library's mission". For example, if part of your mission is to serve the
community, you could say that marketing will let the community know how
you can serve them.

1.5 SOURCES OF E-MARKETING IN LIBRARIES

There are several sources of e-marketing :

i. E-mail: Using this tool library can provide virtual reference services, selective
dissemination of information (SDI) and so forth.

ii. Users' opinion: Through such services, users' opinions, as well as feedback, can be
easily and speedily determined.

iii. Newsletter: Providing general information about activities and news of the library.
Also, this plays a current awareness service (CAS).

iv. Websites: Websites can be the best source to attract users to the sources and services.

v. Library Blog/Social sites: These are useful to inform and entertain readers.

vi. Viral marketing: To do this, visitors are asked to introduce the library site to others.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Libraries can utilize computer technology to improve marketing efforts or to
promote their sources and services. True / False

2. E-marketing more than just finding users for the available information sources,
services, and technologies. True / False

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1.6 FUNCTIONS OF E-MARKETING IN LIBRARIES

At the functional level electronic media, websites, e-mails, and social media/blogs cover the
whole process of marketing.

• remind/alert
users • inform and
• inform entertain

Social Sites
about the readers
• inform about
sources and • explain the
Websites

E-mails

new sources
services need for
and service
sources and
• Incourage services
• keep users • share
users to use
update information
sourco and
services on bigger
platform
• Engage
users with
user
orientation
prgrammese
s/workshops

1.7 SUMMARY

So with the help of recent advancements, libraries have a provisioned to move information
products and services out of the restrictions of physical barriers. Now sources and services
are fully utilized by users with electronic gadgets. Libraries can offer more services
effectively. However, e-marketing requires a fresh look or widening the vision of the

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components of the marketing mix and the implementation of the marketing effort. E-
marketing in libraries for the promotion and utilization of sources and services is an essential
component of value-added services.

Young library professionals find innovative methods of promotion through ‘engaging’ library
users using online social media such as blogs and webinars. Marketing is more than library
displays and designing library websites for new professionals; "it involves all characteristics
from book selection, professional “stock arrangement” and social media in addition to new
add-on services like refreshments and entertainment facilities". Librarians need to consider
many aspects of marketing including library branding, providing quality service,
sustainability issues and e-marketing.

Libraries and other organisations that are dealing with information society must be trained
and learn new skills to promote their library sources and services similar to the other product
marketed. "Traditional methods in libraries, for example, newsletters, display boards,
announcements and others can go together with social marketing using Facebook, Twitter,
RSS Feeds, blogs and YouTube to engage with the target group of users in the library"e
Bonde & Khande, 2015,p.3). "Social media provides a collaborative virtual community, a
two-way dialogue that is facilitated by “Virtual Community Managers”, elevating the
services and activities of the library to “design robust, enjoyable and memorable experiences
for their community” (Neville, 2014,p. 366).

It is recommended for any academic library desiring to improve the promotional activities of
their library. "The discussion of e-marketing using blogs, online advertising, viral marketing,
webinars and other types of social media is especially useful for the library professionals
hoping to engage younger library patrons using innovative, low-cost methods". E-marketing
can be relatively cost-effective and as simple as the use of online promotional calendars that
highlight new resources, services, news items and activities that complement the core
services.

1.8 GLOSSARY

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E-business : Electronic business is any kind of business or commercial

transaction that includes sharing information across the internet.

E-marketing : E-Marketing (a.k.a. electronic marketing) refers to the marketing

conduct over the internet.

E-gadget : An electronic device has transistors or silicon chips which control and
change the electric current passing through the device.

Physical Barrier : Physical barriers are structural obstacles in natural or manmade

environments that prevent or block mobility (moving around in the
environment) or access.

1.9 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. True
2. True

1.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define E-marketing in libraries. Elaborate with suitable examples.

2. What is the process of e-marketing in libraries?
3. What are the sources of e-marketing in libraries? How do sources of e-marketing
function in libraries?

1.11 REFERENCES

Bonde, S. B., & Khande, G. K. (2015). Best Practice in Libraries & E-Marketing of Library
Services. In National Conference on Emerging Trends in Libraries & Librarianship-
2015 (pp. 1-5).

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Haruna, B., Madu, A. U., & Adamu, D. B. (2017). An exploration of the relationship
between service quality, users’ satisfaction, and loyalty in the academic
libraries. International Journal of Library Science, 15(1), 23-36.

Krishnamurthy, S. (Ed.). (2005). Contemporary Research in E-marketing (Vol. 1). IGI

Global.

Neville, K. (2014). Marketing Library and Information Services II: A Global

Outlook. Library Review. Vol.63. 1/2.pp.165-166. doi.org/10.1108/LR-10-2013-0122

Marcial, V. F. (2013). E-marketing for Libraries. In Marketing Library and Information

Services II (pp. 335-344). De Gruyter Saur.

Shiratuddin, N. (2005). E-Books in higher education: Technology, e-marketing prospects,

and pricing strategy. Journal of Electronic Commerce in Organizations (JECO), 3(2),
1-16.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bonde, S. B., & Khande, G. K. (2015). Best Practice in Libraries & E-Marketing of
Library Services. In National Conference on Emerging Trends in Libraries &
Librarianship-2015 (pp. 1-5).

Brener, F., & Estrada, C. R. (2012). The use of e-marketing tools in academic libraries–a
survival matter. In EDULEARN12 Proceedings (pp. 390-403). IATED.

Chunzhi, X. (2002). The Application of E-Marketing to Digital Libraries. Library and

Information Service, 46(9), 97.

Dann, S., & Dann, S. (2017). E-marketing: theory and application. Bloomsbury
Publishing.

Fialkoff, F.2006.What's so bad about books?. Library Journal, Vol. 131, No.1, p.8
Introduction to Marketing the Library, 2006. Available on line at:
http://www.olc.org/marketing/1intro.htm

Kotler, P.2000. Marketing Management. The millennium edition 10 Prentice Hall; New
Jersey.
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Marcial, V. F. (2013). E-marketing for Libraries. In Marketing Library and Information

Services II (pp. 335-344). De Gruyter Saur.

Mi, J. and Nesta, F ,2006. Marketing library services to the Net Generation. Library
Management, Vol. 27, No. 6/7, pp. 411-422.

Maideen, S. (2017). Mobile Technologies for Academic Libraries: An

Overview. Emerging Trends in Library and Information Science, 124-129.

Mazumder, S., Sahu, L., & Deb, S. (2018). E-marketing of Information and Services in
Libraries: Tools and Applications. International Journal for Research in Engineering
Application & Management (IJREAM, 27-30.

Spalter,M,(1995). Maintaining a customer focus in an interactive age: the seven I’s to

success".Interactive Marketing: The future present. NTC Publishing Group,
Lincolnwood.IL.

Strauss, J., & Frost, R. (2011). E-marketing. Prentice hall press.

Ubogu, J. O. (2021). E-Marketing of Library Resources and Services. Library of

Progress-Library Science, Information Technology & Computer, 41(1).

Ziaei, S. (2007). E-Marketing in Digital Libraries. In Proceedings of the IADIS

International Conference on e-Society, Lisbon, Portugal, 3− 6 July 2007 (pp. 479-
482).

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UNIT IV: Management Consultancy

LESSON 1
Evolution, Need and Objectives
Dr. Gareema Sharma
Assistant Librarian
National Institute of Technology Delhi
[email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 What is Management Consultancy?
1.3.1 Concept and Definitions
1.3.2 Qualities of Good Consultant
1.4 Evolution of Management Consultancy
1.5 Need and Purpose of Management Consultancy
1.6 Objectives of Management Consultancy
1.6.1 Management Consultancy and Library Science
1.6.2 Application of Professional Library Consultant
1.6.3 Futuristic Approach
1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Answers to In-text Questions
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions
1.11 References
1.12 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this lesson, the students will study the concept of Management Consultancy and its
evolution. After reading this lesson, the students will be able to define Management
Consultancy and its application in Libraries. The students will also study the primary
objectives, needs and purpose of Management Consultancy along with the futuristic
approach.
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1.2 INTRODUCTION

Management consultancy has long been recognized as a valuable professional service that
helps managers to analyze and solve practice problems faced by their organization, improve
organizational performance, learn from the experience of other managers and organizations
and seize new business opportunities.

In the general sense, 'management consultancy' is treated as a method for improving

management and business practice first of all. Even a manager can act as a consultant if he or
she provides advice to peers and subordinates.

1.3 WHAT IS MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY?

1.3.1 Concept and Definitions

The concept of consultancy is a common phenomenon for many professions and institutions.
The help of an expert- consultants are often sought in many institutions to make
improvements in existing systems and advise desirable changes in case of grave difficulties
and problems. Over the last two decades, the management consulting industry has grown
considerably and developed into big business. The consultancy firms now offer all kinds of
different services. The more traditionally services like corporate strategy, operation
management and human resource management are included. During the last decade, ICT
services have become an essential new product, and in the last three years, consultancy firms
have not only offered advice. However, they have also advertised themselves as venture
capitalists. It has become more and more obvious that the growth of management consulting
as a industry is far outrunning the developing perception of management consultancy as a
profession.

The definition of consultancy can be distinguished by two different approaches. The first
approach considers consultancy as an activity in which a person attempts to change or
improve a situation, although this person does not have any direct control over this activity.
In this definition of consultancy, everything is in fact 'consultancy' as long as there are no
direct competencies involved. According to this view, any person can be a kind of advisor in
a particular position or role. For instance, a manager coaches his staff, and this could then be
called consulting(a method of practical advice and help). In the second approach consulting
is directed specifically at organization and management.

Peter Block suggests that "you are consulting any time you are trying to change or improve a
situation but have no direct control over the implementation ....... Most people in staff role in
organization are consultants even if they don't officially call themselves consultants".

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A second approach can be distinguished if consulting is directed specifically at organizations

and management. Consulting is seen as special professional service with specific
requirements that this service must meet.

According to Larry Greiner and Robert Metzger, 'Management consultancy is an

advisory service contracted for and provided to an organization by specifically trained and
qualified persons who in an objective and independent manner, assist the client organization
in identifying management problems. Analyze such problems, recommend solutions to these
problems and help when requested in the implementation of solutions.

According to the International Council of Management Consulting Institute (ICMCI),

"Management consulting is the provision of independent advice and assistance about the
process of management to client with management responsibilities."

According To Kubr, 'Management consulting is an independent professional advisory

service assisting managers and organization in achieving organizations purposes and
objectives by solving and business problems, identifying and seizing new opportunities,
enhancing, learning and implementing charges'.

1.3.2 Qualities of a Good Consultant

The personality of the professional consultant can make or break a relationship with the
client. The kind of attributes/qualities which a good consultant must possess includes the
following:

i. Warmth and Friendliness

ii. Pleasantness
iii. Enthusiasm
iv. Optimism
v. Tactfulness
vi. Willing to help and to meet people and situations more than halfway
vii. perception about the situation in feelings
viii. Sincerity
ix. Self Confidence
x. Patience and Tolerance
xi. Honesty and Integrity
xii. Courage and Convictions
xiii. Ability to win people
xiv. Ability to make people feel at ease
xv. Sensitive to the feeling of others and their needs for acceptance etc.

1.4 EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY

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The consultant, throughout history, has been used as a source of advice and guidance, usually
based on some actual perceived or claimed specialist knowledge, skills or expertise. The
essential nature of the consultancy process and the role of the consultant remains unchanged
even today.

The use of consultants and consultancy in many areas of our lives and activities has
increased. There are many reasons for this; the main reason is that in today's society, life is
increasingly complex. We are beset by a potentially wilding series of problems and issues
that we must deal with and manage to survive. This increasingly complex world entails that
no one can be an expert in every area and have all the skills and information to hand needed
to complete every task which we have to perform during our lives; because of this, we all
have to call in the expert from time to time for help and advice. Such help and advice may
involve many different types of experts or consultants being used, and indeed the type of
consultants and the areas they consult in are diverse and wide-ranging.

1.4.1 Developments In Management Consultancy: Approaches and Techniques

The main development and trends are as follows:

i. More Powerful Tools And Techniques: Today's management consultant has access
to many more powerful tools and techniques. In particular, improvements in data
collection, storage, and analytical techniques. Developments in management info
systems and in particular, data manipulation techniques such as data mining offer
powerful analytical tools to the contemporary management consultant,
ii. Less Prescriptive/Softer Methodologies: As we have seen, the traditional model of
consultancy roles and styles has in the past tended to be of the prescriptive type, and
although this traditional model is still appropriate for many client situations, there has
been a gradual movement towards the less perspective styles of consultancy with an
emphasis more on process interventions which are very client focused. This, in turn,
often involves softer methodologies and approaches being adopted by modem day
management consultants.
iii. More Professional/ Ethical Approaches And Practices: Today's management
consultant is more professional than ever and is increasingly aware of some ethical
issues surrounding the management consultancy process. Many consultants are
increasingly required to belong to a professional body or association encompassing
and often prescribing their consultancy activities. There is also increased legislation
that can be used to seek legal redress against incompetent or unprofessional
consultants.

CONCEPT OF CONSULTANCY INCLUDES

• Certification- certification is an instrument that attests that a person is qualified and

eligible to become a member of a profession. The purpose of certification of librarians is
to assure the consumer of the services that a standard for the protection of the user of the
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libraries is being preserved. Such certification of librarians is being granted in India by

universities and some recognized institutions. The holders of such certifications are
working as librarians.

• Licensing- the instrument of occupational or professional licensing permits only licensed

persons to practice under the law. A degree in the discipline of library and information
science or documentation gives the necessary proficiency to work in .a library, but to
practice as an authorized library consultant, instrument of licenses may function
independently as consulting library professionals.

1.5 NEED AND PURPOSE OF MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY

Need

• Due to a lack of time and personnel, a management consultant is required as a problem-

solving service.

• Due to lack of expertise or technical assistance and this is required to have effective
performance.

Purpose
A manager may turn to a consultant if he or she perceives a need for help and he feels that
the consultant will be the right source of this help. The purpose of using a consultant in an
organization can be categorized broadly into five major areas:
1. Achieving organizational purpose and objectives.
2. Solving Management and business-related problem.
3. Identifying and seizing new opportunities.
4. Enhancing Learning.
5. Implementing Change.

1.6 OBJECTIVES OF MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY

The consultancy field is pervasive, covering a broad range of activities. Turner suggests that
the purpose of consultancy should be focused on and discusses consulting eight fundamental
objectives arranged hierarchically.
1. Providing information to the client.

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2. Solving a client's problems

3. Making a diagnosis, which may necessitate a redefinition of the problem.
4. Making recommendations based on the diagnosis,
5. Assisting with the implementation of recommended solutions,
6. Building a consensus and commitment around corrective action.

7. Facilitating client learning is teaching clients how to resolve similar problems in the
future.
8. Permanently improving organizational effectiveness.

1.6.1 Management Consultancy and Library Science

A consultant can perform various functions to help resolve problems, improve performance,
or secure action. The services of library consultants may be utilized for achieving desirable
results in library management, administration, maintenance and others. Such professionals
and their expertise constitute the concept of consultancy services for libraries and persons
authorized to practice such consultancy may be called library consultants.
The role of a library consultant can be explained with the following points.

i. Objective assessment of the situation

ii. Technical advisor: Here the consultant is a technical expert who may be engaged to
determine technological needs, design a system, device currently existing system or
implements a new system.

iii. Organizational problem solver: Here, a specialist is called to assist, resolving a

particular problem. For example, In the performance area, the library's collection or
services may be found lacking, a unit's productivity may be declining, the libraries
coverall capacities may be severely limited by a stable budget., or the users may be
demanding new services, better accommodations or improved collection.

iv. Training and Educating Function: In this capacity, external resources are employed to
plan or operate various training activities. Some consultants specialize in helping clients
assess the training needs of their organization.

v. Process Councilor: In this capacity, consultants advise and assist the client in defining
and implementing developmental processes. These processes may be planning, problem-
solving, training, or conflict-negotiating activities.

1.6.2 Application of Professional Library Consultant

• stock verification/audit of library resources/weeding

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• standardization/certification

• library management

• interior space management

• designing library furniture

• library equipment and accessories

• preservation and conservation

• collection organization and shifting of libraries

• wedding program and computerization

• total quality management and ISO

• staff development

• union-management relations and many others

1.6.3 Futuristic Approach

It has been observed that in the past two decades, the profession, instead of improving, had
come down from its earlier position in spite of recommendations made by various
commissions and committees that a high position be granted to this profession. Such a
situation seems to have arisen because self-consciousness of the profession could not show
this profession a way to come- up with the expectations of the society. There is every
possibility that other sections of society concerned with the use, development, and growth of
libraries and members of the library profession may accept the purposefulness. Here is every
possibility that other sections of society who are concerned with the use, development, and
growth of libraries and members of the library profession may accept the purposefulness and
need of the concept of consultancy for libraries. Earlier, the concepts of documentation
officer and information scientists did develop in this country with the progress of library
movement. When developed, a new concept of library consultant can play the role of an
advisor, pleader, auditor for many libraries. It may put the library movement in the right
direction.

Until now the concept of consultancy appears to be something applicable to organizations

except libraries, yet it is made clear that concepts like professional. Library consultancy is to
be framed by the Indian Institute of chartered librarians or some competent bodies. So there
is a great need for various institutions like UGC or Ministry of education, culture and/or
finance etc or association. Like ILA, IATIS or various schools and departments to come
forward and lend a supporting hand so that the prepared institution of certified and licensed
professional library consultant are made available to and given a welcoming acceptation by
the library management.
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1.8 SUMMARY

Management consultancy to the management of libraries intends to serve the purpose of

making library more effective to the growing need of the society today. Library activities
have to develop due to level of advancement, in education technology business
establishments etc . it also observed that despite of recommendations made by various
commissions and committee to grant higher status to the profession, this profession seems to
have come down to its lowest position therefore the acceptance of consultancy should come
from both studies i.e. The people from the field of library science and other section of the
society who are aware of the use, development and growth of libraries.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Management consulting is the provision of independent advice and
assistance about the process of _____________to client with management
responsibilities.
2. The consultant throughout history has been used as a source of_______and
_____________, usually based on some actual perceived or claimed
specialist knowledge, skills or expertise.
3. Many consultants are increasingly required to belong to a professional body
or association encompassing and often prescribing
their_________________.
4. _____________provide advice and the assistance to the client in defining
and implementing developmental processes.
5. ____________is a technical expert who may be engaged to determine
technological needs, design a system, device currently existing system or
implement a new system.
6. A consultant can perform a variety of functions to help and resolve
problems, improve performance, or secure action. True/False

1.9 GLOSSARY

Certification: the action or process of providing someone or something with an official

document attesting to a status or level of achievement.
Consultant: a person who provides expert advice professionally.
Consultancy: a professional practice that gives expert advice within a particular field.
Licensing: relating to the granting of an official licence.
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Management Consultancy: a professional practice that gives advice about how to run a
company or organization more effectively.

Process Counsellor: It is a process where an individual, couple or family meet with a trained
professional counsellor to talk about issues and problems that they are facing in their lives.

Technical Advisor: A technical advisor works with a business when a project falls outside
of their area of expertise.

1.10 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Management 4. Process Councilor

2. Advice and Guidance 5. Technical Advisor
3. Consultancy activities 6. True

1.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is Management Consultancy? Explain by giving various definitions.

2. What are the qualities of a Management Consultant? Explain Briefly.
3. Write a short note on the Evolution of Management Consultancy.
4. What are the needs and purposes for having a Consultants?
5. Write a short note on Management Consultancy and Library Science?

1.12 REFERENCES
Ashford, J. (1985). Application in practice of Library and Information Retrieval Research
Experience in Consultancy. Journal of Information Science. 10(1): 11-16.

Dyer, E. R. (1981). The Consultant's Role in Library Development. IFLA JOURNAL.7(4):

352-357.

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Gilman, P. I. (1985). Consultancy and Library Automation. The Electronic Library. 3(2):
120-124.

Library Association (1983). Guidelines for Consultants: Working in Librarianship and

Information Science. London: Library Association.

**************LMS Feedback:[email protected]**************

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LESSON 15

VOLUNTARY VERSUS AUTHENTICATED

CONSULTANCY

Soumitra Bhattacharyya
Library and Information Assistant
Archaeological Survey of India
Ministry of Culture, Govt. of India
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

15.1 Learning Objectives

15.2 Introduction
15.3 Concept of Consultancy
15.3.1 Library Consultancy
15.3.1.1 Need of Library Consultancy
15.4 Voluntary versus Authenticated Consultancy
15.4.1 Objectives of Authenticated Consultancy
15.4.2 Characteristics of Authenticated Consultancy
15.4.3 Areas of Authenticated Consultancy
15.4.4 Library Consulting Process
15.5 Information Consultancy
15.5.1 Need for Information Consultant
15.6 Summary
15.7 Glossary
15.8 Answers to In-text Questions
15.9 Self-Assessment Questions
15.10 References
15.11 Suggested Readings

15.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the lesson are to learn Library Consultancy as a profession. The
origin of library consultancy, their objectives, characteristics and different prospective areas
are discussed in detail. After completion of this unit, readers will be able to learn the
following things.
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• Consultancy works
• Professional Library Consultancy
• Process of Library Consultancy
• Key areas of Professional Library Consultancy
• Voluntary versus Authenticated Consultancy
• Information Consultancy

15.2 INTRODUCTION

Management consultancy is an advisory service delivered by trained and qualified

professionals to the client organisations which are in need of solutions. Professional
consultancy means expert and reliable advice, but the work of consultant has no formal
authority. Librarians must play a pivotal role in making library profession as an authenticated
consultancy service to become sustainable and to arrest alienation from change management.

Voluntary and authenticated library management play two different roles in library
consulting process. Some librarians do not have specialised training in consultancy but they
perform consultancy services voluntarily. In the field of S&T, consultancy is very much
popular than in the field of Library and Information Science. There are three core areas in
consultancy services- client, consultant and problem. To become authenticated library
consultant, many good qualities have to be adopted to become successful. Authenticated
consultancy services are asked when voluntary consultancy services fail to deliver desired
result.
Certification and licensing are two areas where voluntary and authenticated
consultancy can be segregated. A law graduate and a library and information science
graduate have certificates in their own field as professionals. In a law library, a librarian can
work but cannot practice law as he/she does not have valid license. But a law graduate with
certificate in law and license from bar council can practice in court. This is the basic
difference between voluntary and authenticated consultancy.

15.3 CONSULTANCY

According to the Cambridge Online Dictionary “consultancy” refers to “the activity

of giving expert advice on a particular subject”. Every organization is susceptible to
problems and pressures and library also faces the same thing. The role of librarian in dotcom
world is very challenging and methodical. The demand of information and method of
document delivery system have changed very abruptly. The fundamental characteristics of
libraries have to be redesigned, policies have to be remodelled and operations have to be
redirected according to the need of the hour to become sustainable. The executive judgement
is the key in decision making process and solving complex problems which occur in
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managerial level within an information centre or more precisely in a library and

documentation centre. “Consultancy” is the term which is becoming louder and the services
of a consultant is becoming more demanding and daunting in crisis management of libraries.
15.3.1 Library Consultancy:
Authenticated as well as voluntary consultancy take the centre platform today in
solving problems, implementing afresh setting, refurbishing old structure and redirecting
advanced methodology to solve latest problems. Librarians’ job is also consultative in nature
like the jobs of lawyers, social workers and any other service providers in a society.
Librarians are sometimes termed as non-professionals because librarians fail to
project their consultancy skills outside their domain and organisations. Some librarians do
not have training or specialization in consultancy. Therefore, they lack proper understanding
of the consultancy work which is required in today’s library environment. The job of a
consultant is very sensitive. A consultant has to comprehend the need of the society, client
and present scenario in which he is dealing in. In the field of science and technology,
consultancy is very much popular term because maximum number of people does not have
basic understanding about the procedure and problem solving mechanisms of S&T. The job
requires a sophisticated consultant to implement. But in the field of Library and Information
Science, Library Consultant is a new term.
In every consultancy process, a trinity can be seen – one is client who is in need of
solution, a consultant who is a problem solver and a guide and the last one is the problem
itself.

Fig. 15.1: Trinity of consultancy process

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ACTIVITY
Explore some areas of library activities where consultancy services can be
practised except the following areas.

• Human Resource Management

• Collection development Management
• Information Technology Management.

15.3.1.1 Need for Library Consultancy

The need of consultancy services in Library and Information Science domain are
discussed below.
• As library is still considered a place to store books and lending service is the only
service a librarian can give, ergo, consultancy services have to be adopted by the
Library professionals in authenticated way to change the notion.
• Marketing techniques have to be refurbished.
• Users’ satisfaction and perception levels have to be changed.
• Monetary hindrances have to overcome by pursuing higher management.
• Library Professionals have to train themselves as professional consultant to solve
their own problem.
• Marketing consultancy has to be adopted to showcase the library products and
services to a larger community. This will bring laurels to the profession.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Certification is essential in authenticated consultancy. True/False.
2. Librarians are termed non-professionals by Business Management people.
True/False.
3. Library products and services have not showcased properly to larger
community. True/False.

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15.4 VOLUNTARY VERSUS AUTHENTICATED CONSULTANCY

Voluntary consultancy is frequently seen in most of the library and information

centres where library professional himself/herself solves their problem every day to run
organisations smoothly. The consultancy may be of good quality or average but for time
being monetary involvement of the organization is very less as outside professional
consultancy services are not sought.
Voluntary consultancy is provided when someone wants to provide the consultancy
service in the specific area without any obligation. Voluntary consultancy may come from an
expert or a professional with a little knowledge on particular field. Non-profit organisations
generally provide voluntary consultancy for the benefit of the society at large. Many
voluntary consultancies bring out satisfactory result. But voluntary consultant has less
obligation to solve problem, therefore, liability lacks.
A Library and Information Science graduate with formal training in library and
information services can do a job in law library but he/she lacks knowledge about law, the
procedure to defend client in a court of law; whereas a law graduate having certificate in law
and license from bar council can practise. Here two points are oozing out. One is certification
and another is licensing. The law graduate gets a license from bar council to practice law in a
court but the Library and Information Science graduate working in the law library has not
been permitted to practice as he has no license. This is the basic difference between voluntary
consultancy (Library Science graduate working in a law library) and authenticated
consultancy (law graduate practicing in a court of law). Certification makes a person eligible
to become something, whereas licensing is given after certification to a person who has
proficiency in the particular disciple.

Table 15.1: Voluntary and Authenticated Consultancy

Voluntary Consultancy Authenticated Consultancy

Certification Yes Yes

License No Yes
Experience Very less Experienced
Monetary Involvement Less High
Liability Less High
Training Professional training Skilled and trained
Examples Librarians are installing and IT company has been hired
using LMS without much for automation and
knowledge digitization works in a library

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15.4.1 Objectives of Authenticated Consultancy:

A client seeks the advice of a consultant to achieve his goal within least time. If the client
goes to a wrong consultant, the result will be different. So, the role of a client is also very
important in choosing the right consultant to get right result at the right time. The role of
consultant has to be determined first prior to initiating consultancy process. The
authenticated consultancy brings fruitful result when chosen prudently. The objectives of
authenticated consultancy are-
• Satisfy the client with required information.
• Provide successful result to the client.
• Understand the core problem and alter the questionnaire according to the need.
• Give solution as per diagnosis.
• Help clients to get solution as prescribed.

15.4.2 Characteristics of Authenticated Consultancy:

Library consultancy requires a specialized knowledge along with professional education.
Raymond M. Holt (1984) identifies some basic qualities an authenticated consultant should
possess. They are-
• Discretion to decide.
• Integrity and trustworthiness towards profession.
• Patience and perception for clients.
• Will power to achieve goal.
• Innovativeness in problem solving.
• Instinctual towards customers’ problems.
• Compassion towards customers.
• Tenacity for work.
15.4.3 Areas of Authenticated Consultancy:
Consultancy is a survival method in changing scenario of library marketing and
management. It is a specialized field of study and altogether a different profession coming
from Management study. Library consultancy is not known term still to the Management and
Marketing people. Though, the field has not flourished like other profession, it is the need of
the hour that authenticated library consultancy is required to sustain in prospect market of
change management. There are some areas which are important for authenticated consultancy
services and they can be termed as ABCDPM2.

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Fig 15.2: Areas of Authenticated Library Consultancy

• Automation
In the age of dotcom bubble, technological knowhow of library professional is
not sufficient to automate a library. Authenticated Library Consultant should be hired
for automation works. Library professionals cooperate with the outsourcing agency in
implementing automation project.

• Building
Though IS 1553:1989 (Revised in 1992) has specified the design of library
building, experience is the pivotal factor to become building consultant. Architectural
and interior knowledge must be correlated with professional knowledge of library and
information science. Library is a growing organism. Therefore, designing of a library
building is very complex work which needs a great vision to see future to
accommodate new arrivals on interval. Budget is also a major constraint, so designing
must be at par budget. Building consultant has to convince higher authority to inflow
funds, approving design, etc. Time and again library building consultant has to review
building plan, change location, improve space utilization and expand horizon of
library.

Interior designing, lighting, ventilation, air condition, etc. are all important
aspects that should be taken care of while designing library building. As a qualified
librarian, library building consultant knows which materials are required inside a

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library for modern day requirement of users. A library building consultant guides
properly in making custom made furniture aligning need of customer of library.

• Collection Development
Collection Development is one of the planned aspects in terms of library
consultancy. Library consultant’s role is to assist librarian in selecting required
documents for collection development. A policy has to be enforced with the help of
library consultant in selecting documents. Subscription of journals is a very complex
process which needs negotiation with publishers. Collection Development Consultant
comes to rescue in this situation. Professional advice in weeding out documents is
very much essential. A good library professional always plans according to need of
users in collection development process.

• Digitisation
With the advent of digitization initiative by Government of India, digitization
becomes an essential task in every sphere of documentation. Government has
launched National Digital Library of India in collaboration with IIT Kharagpur and
Ministry of Education (formerly Ministry of Human Resource Development). The
sophisticated technology that has been used in digitization process makes librarians
puzzled as everyday new technologies are emerging and disappearing. Library
consultants who are well versed in digitization or digital technology can easily
perform digitization works in libraries. Cloud computing, big data analysis, internet
of things, etc are very sophisticated and hot topics for library consultancy.
• Personnel
Human Resource Management is already a key position in government and
business organizations. Library personnel management is a crucial area where
technical and technological expertises are required. Therefore, library personnel
consultant has to formulate very challenging management system in elaborating job
description of each professional engaged in specialized library. After all it is the
trained librarian who will do the job in a library. So, library personnel consultant must
be hired in such a way that information centre can run very efficiently and hassle free
with the advice and guidance of authenticated consultant

• Management
Management of a library is very weak as most the people in management
come from other background, not from library and information science. They fail to
understand basic nature and functioning of library and library professional. Budget is
also a constraint in managing library. Library has to run with very least budget.
Library consultant’s job is to streamline workflow by reducing cost and increasing
productivity. Library management consultant uses retrospective databases to
understand past scenario to prosper in future. Library management consultancy is a
lucrative job but the tragedy is that upper management is hijacked by bureaucrats and
other officials. Therefore, library has to run according to instruction already

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prescribed by higher authority. The scope in library management consultancy is very

less in comparison to other library consultancy jobs.

• Marketing
Last but not the least; library marketing is an aspiring sector for library
consultant. The products and services of library have to be showcased; so that
everybody gets its benefits. Many a time library products are not marketed well and
client do not get proper information about the products and services they are
searching for. Clients do not know what they can get from library. Maximum use of
resources is needed to get optimum result. The library consultant has to study market
and should have a good public relationship to become a successful library marketing
consultant. A good marketing strategy is needed to maximize use of library products
and services.
Every reader his book and every book its reader sound library marketing
strategy. A good library marketing consultant connects readers/users with his
preferred products and services in a right way. The consultant acts as a mediator and
become reliable.
Other consultancy services where Library Professional can flourish are-
i. Financial Resource Management
ii. Services Management
iii. Maintenance Management
iv. Outsourcing Management
v. Total Quality Management
vi. Preservation and Conservation Management
vii. Intellectual Property Right Management
15.4.4 Library Consulting Process:
Any consultancy process starts with a problems and ends with a solution. If voluntary
consultancy process can handle the situation, then authenticated consultancy services are not
sought. The work process is shown with flowchart where it is shown that when a problem is
arises it first goes to voluntary consultant for resolving. If voluntary consultant fails to
address the issue, the matter is transferred to authenticated consultant and after that various
process has been followed. The help of a consultant has been sought at the stage of query
formulation too. Investigation of different alternatives has been asked prior to finalization of
exact consultant. Preferences of earlier works, suitability for the job and availability have
been taken into consideration for assigning job to professional consult. The firm and
consultant get in touch till the buyer or information seeker is satisfied. A congenial
relationship has built up between buyer of information and seller of information, i.e., client
and consultant respectively for future assignment and engagement.

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Fig. 15.3: Library consulting process

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CASE STUDY

TERI Library has been providing many consultancy services in the field of
Library and Information Science.

• Setting up specialised information centres.

• Developing and maintaining databases.
• Handling information by electronic means.
• Library automation.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

4. A library science graduate working in a law library can practice in a court of

law. True / False
5. Trinity of consultancy process have three areas. They are------------------
6. Compassion is necessary to become a successful consultant. Who said this?
7. What does “D” denotes in ABCDPM2 model?
8. If problem is solved by voluntary consultant, need of authenticated consultant
still arises. True/False.
9. Name the IS standard for designing a Library Building.

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15.5 INFORMATION CONSULTANCY

Information Consultancy plays a very important role in the age of information

explosion where quantity of published data is growing exponentially. The way traditional
librarians work has to be changed to adopt new technologies and to change the image in
society and management field. Information consultancy is seen mostly in academic libraries
and special libraries. It is a very potential and interactive field. A value added information
when supplied, the role becomes shifted from librarian to information consultant. To be
effective as consultant, librarians must be very efficient and relevant. In an academic
institution, librarians have to actively participate with students, scholars, teachers and other
academicians in scholarly communication process to become an indispensible organ of the
institution.
Information consultancy increases active participation of information seeker and
simultaneously librarians come in the “information loop”. Though the reliance on librarians
becomes less due to greater access of information online, it is the duty of information
consultant to make scholarly community aware that value added services and reliable
information can only be provided by authenticated information consultant only. As the
environment of information seeking behaviour changes, information consultant shifts their
strategy accordingly. Information consultant has to perform the routine traditional work as
they are librarians in addition to new assigned jobs of consultant.
15.5.1 Need for Information Consultant:
Technology has changed the way we think, we ask and we act. Information consult
has to act in the same way an academic community thinks and asks. A lot of factors are
responsible for emergence of information consult. They are discussed below.
i. Emergence of interdisciplinary subjects.
ii. Pattern of information seeking behaviour.
iii. Omnipresence of information.
iv. Changing nature of scholarly communication.
v. Low usage of traditional library.
vi. Librarians are not considered indispensible in information seeking process.

Therefore, the need for library information consultant arises to increase footfall in the
library where academic community will get world enriched knowledge and augmented
information with personalised assistance. Lastly, information consultant must possess the
three qualities to become successful in the above path.
i. Analysis- to provide solution and productive ideas.
ii. Management – to place solutions into implementation.
iii. Relationship – to listen and communicate to build public relation.

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
10. Information consultant provides value added services. True/False
11. Information explosion is related with growth of data exponentially.
True/False.
12. Name some terminologies which are related to information consultant.

15.6 SUMMARY

The role of librarians in change management is very challenging and methodical.

Demand of information and method of document delivery system have changed. Consultancy
becomes louder and services of consultant become more daunting and demanding. Librarians
are termed as non-professionals in the field of management consultancy. Library
professionals must be trained in consultancy services. Voluntary consultancy services cannot
solve every problem; therefore, authenticated library consultancy is required in the field of
library and information science. Role of a client is also very important in choosing right
consultant to get right result at the right time. Govt. of India’s Digital India initiatives
expands new horizon in information consultancy. Library consultancy has to be strengthened
in the line of management consultancy to become a world class profession.

15.7 GLOSSARY

Certification: Earning an official document to become eligible for something.

Consultancy: To provide expert advice on a specific subject.
Digitisation: To convert text, pictures, etc. into digital form.

Information Explosion: Abundance of data due to rapid growth of published

Information.

Information loop: a chain of events which are repeating continuously until certain
condition is reached.

IS 1553:1989: Indian Standard/ Bureau of Indian Standard code for designing Library
Building.
License: To give permission officially to do something.
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15.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. True 7. Digitisation
2. True 8. False
3. True 9. IS 1553: 1989 (rev. 1992)
4. False 10. True
5. Client, Consultant and Problem 11. True
6. Raymond M. Holt 12. Information specialist, Information
counsellor

15.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the concept Library Consultancy.

2. Differentiate between voluntary and authenticated consultancy.
3. Discuss Library consulting process.
4. Discuss on the areas on Library Consultancy.
5. Write a brief note on Information Consultancy.

15.10 REFERENCES

Bhatt, R.K. (2022). The survival kit for libraries: a marketing approach: Delhi: K.K.
Publication.
Consultancy. (2022). In Cambridge Dictionary. Retrieved from
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/consultancy
Donham, J. & Green, C.W. (2004). Developing a culture of collaboration: librarian as
consultant. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 30(4), 314-321.
Frank, D.G. & Raschke, G. (2001). Information consulting: the key to success in academic
libraries. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 27(2), 90-96. doi: 10.1016/S0099-
1333(00)00180-4

Holt, R.M. (1984). Library consultant: career or dead- end job? Library Trends, 32(3), 261-
277.
Webster, D.E. & Lorenz, J.G. (1980). Effective use of library consultants. Library Trends,
28(3), 345-362.

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Wormell, I., Olesen, A.J. & Mikulas, G. (2014). Information consulting: guide to good
practice. [ScienceDirect version]. Retrieved from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781843346623500013?via%3Dihub

15.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Carpenter, J. & Davies, R (1992). Quantification of the overseas consulting market for
professional consultancy services in librarianship and information science and
information management. London: British Library Research & Development Department.
Kotler, P. (Ed.). (2002). Marketing management. Delhi: Prentice Hall.
Library Association. (1983). Guidelines for consultants: working in librarianship and
information science. London:Author
Rowley, J. (2001). Information marketing. London: Ashgate.

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 UNIT – IV: Management Consultancy

LESSON 3

IMPACT OF MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY ON

LIBRARIANSHIP

Dr. Premananda Mukherjee

Assistant Librarian
The West Bengal National University of
Juridical Sciences
[email protected]
STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Consulting Defined
1.3.1 Types of Consultancy
1.3.1.1 Functional Consultancy
1.3.1.2 Spatial consultancy
1.4 Types of Library Management Consultancy
1.4.1 Competencies of Successful Management Consultants
1.4.2 Library and Information Management Consultant in the Age of Google
1.4.3 Principles and Practices of Library Management
1.5 Role of Librarians in the Management Consultancy Service
1.5.1 Basic Skills needed in Managing a Library
1.5.1.1 Change Management
1.5.1.2 Entrepreneurship
1.5.1.3 Strategic Planning
1.5.1.4 User Centered Management
1.5.1.5 Management of Technology
1.5.1.6 Project Management
1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Insight about Spatial and functional Consultancy

• Understanding on the types of Library Management Consultancy
• Foundational idea about Competencies of Successful Management Consultants
• Role of Librarians in the Management Consultancy Service

1.2 INTRODUCTION

The management consultancy on librarianship is usually supposed to deal with a

definition of consulting and explain the way of profiting through marketing one’s skill and
advice to others. But in case of librarianship, consulting as a profession is ill-defined. A
physician must graduates from medical institution, spends years in internships and
residencies, and maintain duty to practice, consultants have no such requirements. Till many
farms for-profit and not-for-profit firms hire consultants to facilitate change, acquire
knowledge, or influence others. “Consultants” value is admitted by businesses as they
consistently deliver results by communicating their value to the constituents they serve. This
discipline is imperative for consultants’ survival, and librarians can learn from their example.
This chapter focuses on defining consulting and identifying the similarities and parallels that
currently exist between successful consultants and successful reference librarians. It argues
that reference librarians in essence are already functioning as consultants, sharing their
expertise surrounding the structure and function of information and the library organization
itself. It presents the reasons why a consumer may be interested in using a library and
information management consultant’s services while discussing her value in the Age of
Google. It follows by identifying the talents and characteristics of successful consultants,
which also apply to a successful library and information management consultant. It
concludes with a discussion of the myths and realities surrounding the adoption of business
practices in libraries and other nonprofit organizations to show that repositioning librarians as
library and information management consultants will not detract from the library profession
itself.

Chapter of this book introduces many tools and concepts covered during the course of
a traditional MBA program to reposition librarians as library and information management
consultants. This Chapter highlights the act of defining management consulting and its
importance for libraries and Librarian in particular. It addresses some myths and concerns
librarians have for adopting business practices and frames the potential utility for library and
information management consultants in the Google Age. It also states the skills and
characteristics of successful management consultants that can be applied to library practice,
‘Having armed with an understanding at the tools and concepts driving consultants’ model of

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practice, reference librarians may better engage library consumers performing their role as
library and information management consultants.

1.3 CONSULTING DEFINED

The library profession truly understand that the librarian’s skills or appreciate the
years of education and work experience required to become an effective, proficient purveyor
of information. While one Oxford English Dictionary definition for a consultant begins with
“a person qualified to give professional advice or services,” it ends with “a private detective.”
Another definition in the same dictionary entry refers to a consultant as “(an oracle).” Any
reference librarian, whether in a public or academic library setting, functions both as a
private detective and an oracle, yet these terms are not used to describe her work or
profession. Consultants focus on results, helping clients to define their needs, acquire the
competencies and skills to address these needs, and take action. In the process, the consultant
leads the client from a state of unconscious incompetency to unconscious competency. As
advisors, consultants rely on the information and knowledge they’ve acquired over their
careers to identify solutions and guide their employers in implementing them. They have
many roles. Some are hired for their knowledge of and experience with a particular product
or process, such as retail design consultants, who focus on helping stores maximize aesthetics
and layout to stimulate sales. Others are hired for their ability to affect change, helping an
organization to realize its strategic plan, or successfully redesign services following the
implementation of new technology.

1.3.1 Types of Consultancy:

Consultancy may be classified by two angles – Spatial and functional Consultancy:

1.3.1.1 Functional Consultancy:

It may be divided into function areas like management consultancy, financial consultancy,
marketing consultancy, etc.

• Economic Consultancy Services: These services include region/area development

studies, market surveys, determination of economically viable plants, inter-
relationship among real resources etc.
• Management Consultancy Services: These services include manpower planning,
material management, computerization, operation research, work study and
modernization studies.

1.3.1.2 Spatial consultancy:

It may take such shapes as consultancy for launching a new product, consultancy for sick
units, consultancy for exports etc.

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• Consultancy for Launching a New Product: Identification of project ides is the most
critical step in the process of entrepreneurial counseling for industries. Small
entrepreneurs, especially those coming from backward areas, face three types of risks:
personal, financial and know-how.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Consultancy may be classified by _______________.
2. Management Consultancy Services include manpower planning. True / False
3. Management Consultancy Services is include:
a) Work study and modernization studies b) Market surveys
c) Region/Area development studies d) Launching a New Product
4. _____________ consultancy for launching a new product.

1.4 TYPES OF LIBRARY MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY

The legal framework for engaging in private practice requires registration with the
consultancy company is that the consultant is taken more seriously as a business concern, and
government and international agencies are likely to deal more with such companies. Library
and Information Science professionals can engage in different types of consultancy services.
Some of the most common tasks that library management consultants are:

• Establishment of a library/resource centre from the scratch (e-library or hybrid or

manual)
• Re-engineering existing aspects of library services such as automating circulation
services
• Implementing new technologies such as a new library management software
• Training/Continuing Professional Development programmes such as “Use of Internet
Resources in LIS Services”
• Evaluation of existing services such as reference services, analysis of the collection
• Acquisition of books, equipment and furniture
• Cataloguing, classification and indexing of materials
• Creation of library database, portal, gateway or federated search facility
• Design of Website and creation of Listserv, social networks and other discussion
groups
• Development of Institutional Repositories, Electronic Thesis and Dissertations
(ETDs), Open Source Systems
• Editorial work & Report Writing
• Publishing and Book sales
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• Consolidation of materials especially local publications

• Book indexing, including surveys of users, community, etc
• Knowledge Management
• Solicit donation/low cost books, computers, etc
• Proposal writing, Grant seeking & Fundraising – Private, Public Partnership eg to
record local history
• Project Management
• Conflict Resolution e.g. between management & staff, communication improved
• Recruitment.

1.4.1 Competencies of Successful Management Consultants

• Listening: Actively hears and clarifies client’s needs, as stated in client’s own words
• Investigative: Systematically seeks data or information
• Analytical: Examines the data collected to identify sources of variation, solutions,
and/or opportunities for improvement
• Action: Implements solutions manages change

1.4.2 Library and Information Management Consultant in the Age of Google

Why should a librarian function as a library and information management consultant?
Consumers have a financial incentive to act on a management consultant’s advice. In
purchasing a consultant’s services, they have invested a considerable amount of time, staff
resources, and money. They expect the advice they receive will be of value and result in a
measurable return on their investment. Consumers also invest in library services when
seeking an answer to a question. Although their incentives for seeking advice may differ,
their motivations usually involve saving time, minimizing frustration, and maximizing
understanding. This is especially true in the Age of Google, where tidbits of information can
be retrieved at any time, in any location. It is of interest to examine librarians’ value to
consumers by evaluating the strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities of the profession, and
the library as a cultural entity itself. This is especially true as libraries struggle to adapt in an
era of rapid, transformative change.
As Google, eBay, Craigslist, and other services have revealed the Internet’s remarkable
potential for serving the diverse interests of the general public, such an evaluation may
enlighten, inform, and provide the impetus for librarians to perceive themselves differently.
Demand for library materials in this environment, for example, has transformed, as services
such as Google Books have demonstrated their utility by serving both broad and niche
interest groups. Web 2.0 technologies have also demonstrated their utility, enabling
individuals to Google cannot and will not replace library services. Yes, consumers can obtain
some factual information on their own, without library mediation. The sheer amount of
information retrieved via Internet searches, however, often intimidates, rather than empowers
the consumer. The librarian who both functions as and promotes himself as a library and
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information management consultant is better positioned to communicate her skills as an

experienced expert who can seamlessly navigate both the Internet and the library, saving the
consumer time and energy by matching him with the desired information regardless of
format. Funding instead may be the library’s greatest threat for future survival, as funding
enables libraries to sustain the innovative services and programs, collections, and facilities
that consumer’s value. In such an environment, libraries must become more consumer-
focused, defining customer needs in customer terms to develop and customize services and
market new and existing products. An additional challenge is overcoming our preference for
forcing consumers to seek our assistance only after exhausting Internet search options. As
noted by Michael Baldwin, “We must stop being enablers for garbage information and
become tough-love interveners with real information.” In this role, “We need to see our jobs
as actually informing people rather than as simply making information available.”

1.4.3 Principles and Practices of Library Management

The following skills are required by the library staff:

• Library and information handling skills

• Service orientation
• ICT knowledge skills
• Communication and training skills
• Marketing and presentation skills
• Understanding of cultural diversity
• Knowledge mapping skills

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
5. Re-engineering existing aspects of library services such as _______________
circulation services.
6. Library and Information Science professionals can engage in different types of
consultancy services. True / False
7. ICT knowledge skills is not required by the library staff: True / False

1.5 ROLE OF LIBRARIANS IN THE MANAGEMENT

CONSULTANCY SERVICES

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Libraries have traditionally focused on acquiring externally produced work to make

available to the local communities. Libraries perform as the connector between information
producers and information seekers. This function is performed in two distinct ways:

From information producers, the library takes out the institutional subscription from which
materials are distributed to end users. In many cases administrative intermediaries such as
booksellers and subscription agents handle the distribution of publications. Through the
system the publisher only has to deal with a limited number of purchasers, whereas libraries
can handle their acquisitions through a limited number of supplies.

For the end user, librarian is an efficient person to supply relevant publications out of the
enormous publications. The librarian acts as a filter to the user to give him/her the
information which has the quality and may fruitful to the particular user. The information
seekers have no need to keep themselves updated about the information markets and they
also need not acquire materials from publishers and producers. This is another facility that
users generally get the information in free of cost, whereas library acquires it through library
funds.

With the advancement of technology, the academic librarians also will play a major role to
provide all types of related information in meeting the user expectations. The roles may be as
follows

Librarian will continue to refine their client-centered function as intermediaries and

facilitators.

• Librarians can help in the design of technology based information services and share
their intimate knowledge of what users want and need. As an example, the users
could benefit greatly from database help screens that have been designed with input
from library professionals.
• They must collaborate more with personnel from other departments of the institution.
There must be a strong communication and an effective partnership between the
institution's library and its computing service. Librarians need “technologists” system,
computing, network, and other technical expertise, while information technologists
can learn much from the library's knowledge of users' needs.
• Librarians need to be polite, friendly and always able to behave in a courteous, patient
and tactful manner. They need to give the user their complete attention.
• The main goal of librarians should be to ensure all members of the institution know
what information resources are available to them and how the library staff can
facilitate access of them, within the physical walls of the library or elsewhere. As
users are accessing more and more bibliographic and full-text databases as well as
utilizing the vast resources of the Internet from outside the library, librarians will
need to reach out to them to offer the help they need.

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• Librarians can request a publisher to test out the produce on a trial basis to make
decisions about the appropriateness of an electronic resource for his library. Trails
periods help eliminate the guesswork in selection of electronic resources. The other
option is to visit or talk to other librarians about how a particular electronic resource
performs in their library.
• Librarians must select material according to their users' requirement. Librarians must
possess reasonable knowledge of electronic resources and adequate grind¬ing in the
techniques of their evaluation and selection.

1.5.1 Basic Skills needed in Managing a Library

Earlier librarians are just considered as the custodian of books and it is said that for
managing a library, no professional competencies are required. It is an old concept that
libraries have fixed and hierarchical organisational structure, bureaucratic leadership,
controlled and centralised decision making, command and control by the administration,
guarded and infrequent communication, etc. Modern libraries require librarians to act like
managers with appropriate management techniques and principles. A librarian manages a
library like any other manager managing his organisation. Thus the role remains the
same. Managing a library also requires basic skills as needed in case of any other
commercial or industrial organisation. The necessity of general and managerial skills as
core competencies of staff for effective management of libraries, flexible and
decentralized organisation, with empowered staff having the spirit of team work,
interpersonal communication, shared vision, lifelong learning, etc. are obvious. Keeping
these changes in mind it becomes essential for the librarian to have expertise and focus
on the following areas of management:

1.5.1.1 Change Management

Change Management is a systematic approach to dealing with the transition or
transformation of an organization's goals, processes or technologies.

1.5.1.2 Entrepreneurship
An entrepreneurship is an individual who creates a new business, bearing most of the
risks and enjoying most of the rewards.

1.5.1.3 Strategic Planning

Strategic planning is a process in which an organization's leaders define their vision for
the future and identify their organization's goals and objectives.

1.5.1.4 User Centered Management

User Centered Management is a collection of processes that focus on putting users at the
center of product Management and development

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1.5.1.5 Management of Technology

Management of Technology (MOT) is a field links “engineering, science, and
management disciplines to plan, develop, implement technological capabilities to shape
and accomplish the strategic and operational objectives of an organisation.”

1.5.1.6 Project Management

This project management system helps your engineering team track every initiative. A
single system can manage every aspect of every project your engineering team is
executing.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

8. Libraries perform as the connector between information producers and

information seekers. True / False
9. MOT stands for:
a) Management of Technology b) Library of Technology
c) Project Management d) User Centered Management
10. Change Management is a _______________approach to dealing with the
transition.

1.6 SUMMARY

Librarians already share a number of competencies and talents as a successful

management consultant. Librarian may strengthen his ability to communicate their value by
repositioning themselves as library and information management consultants. By
approaching reference work from the perspective of a management consultant, Librarian can
better help users to recognize the value of the librarian brings to their quest for information.
The librarian’s role has transformed in the Age of Google. The Internet cannot and will not
replace human interaction. Consumers will continue to seek libraries and the individuals who
work within them for reasoned advice on locating quality information both efficiently and
effectively. The library and information management consultant must proactively seek
clients, rather than focusing almost exclusively on making information available in case it is
needed in the future. Because great libraries have much in common with great businesses,
there should be no apprehension with repositioning reference librarians as library and
information consultants. With strategic competitive planning, along with the disciplined
allocation of financial, human, and capital resources, a great library will deliver superior

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performance that is reflected by measured outcomes, year after year. By thinking and acting
as library and information management consultants, librarians will be better positioned to
deliver superior results to the communities they serve.

1.7 GLOSSARY

Change Management: It is a systematic approach to dealing with the transition or

transformation of an organization's goals, processes or technologies.
Entrepreneurship: An entrepreneurship is an individual who creates a new business,
bearing most of the risks and enjoying most of the rewards.

1.8 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. Two angles 6. a)
2. True 7. False
3. a) 8. True
4. Spatial 9. a)
5. Automating 10. Systematic
1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the Some of the most common tasks for library management consultants
2. Discuss the Role of Librarian in the Management Consultancy.
3. Write a brief nate on basic skill needed in managing a library.

1.10 REFERENCES

Debora Cheney, “Problem-Based Learning: Librarians as Collaborators and Consultants,”

portal: Libraries and the Academy 4, no. 4 (October 2004): 495–508.

Hassan, M. I, “Consultancy Projects and Entrepreneurs: A Study of working of

BITCO”(New Delhi: Mittal Publication, 1993)

Iris Jastram and Ann Zawistoski, “Personalizing the Library via Research Consultations,”
in The Desk and Beyond: Next Generation Reference Services, ed. Sarah K. Steiner and
M. Leslie Madden (Chicago: Association of College and Research Libraries, 2008), 14–
24.
Leslie Madden (Chicago: Association of College and Research Libraries, 2008), 38–52.

Murphy, Sarah Anne, “The Librarian as Information Consultant” (Chicago:American

library Association, 2011)

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Ross T. LaBaugh, “Solution Focused Reference: Counselor Librarianship Revisited,” in

The Desk and Beyond: Next Generation Reference Services, ed. Sarah K. Steiner and M.

Webster, D. E. and Lorenz, J. G. (1980). Effective Use of Library Consultants. London:

MacMillan.

Wikipedia. (2011). Consultancy Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/consultancy.

Accessed on June -september, 2022.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Albitz, Rebecca S., “Licensing and Management Electronic Resources: A Librarian’s

Guide” (Chandos, 2008)
Lenore, Maximizing Electronic Resources Management in Libraries” (Chandos, 2016)

Murphy, Sarah Anne, “The Librarian as Information Consultant” (Chicago: American

Library Association, 2011)

Vanduinkerken, Wyoma, “Challenge of Library Management” (American Library

Association, 2011)

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LESSON 4
ROLE OF LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND LIS SCHOOLS

Dr NEETIKA SHARMA
Librarian
Swami Shraddhanand College
University of Delhi
[email protected]
[email protected]

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Library Associations and LIS School
1.3.1 Library and Information Science (LIS) School
1.3.2 National and International Professional Associations
1.3.3 Sub-Section 3
1.4 National and International Associations
1.4.1 National Associations
• Indian Library Association (ILA)
• Indian Association of Special Libraries and Information Centres
(IASLIC)
1.4.2 The USA and UK Library Associations
• American Library Association (ALA)
• Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals(CILIP)
1.4.3 International Associations
• Association of Information Management (ASLIB)
• International Federation of Library Association and Institution (IFLA)

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1.5 Roles and Responsibilities of Library Associations

1.5.1 Role of Library Associations
1.5.2 Responsibilities of Library Associations

1.6 Summary
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to In-text Questions
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Library associations in the foundation on which the structure of the library movement can be
erected Information explosion, development and applications of ICTs, changing dynamics of
information users, and evolving trends in library and information services have promoted the
discussion of continuing education in library and information science. ICTs are increasingly
changing the landscape of libraries and challenging the traditional prevailing roles of LIS
professionals.

After reading this Unit, you will be able to :

• understand the definitions, aims, and objectives of professional associations and

schools of Library and Information Sciences.
• discuss the important role of LIS professional bodies/associations and schools.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

In modern society, library associations are the foundation on which the structure of the
library movement can be raised. These play an important role in the promotion of
librarianship as a profession vital to an informed and knowledgeable society. Associations
and professional bodies are powerful forces representing the tone of voice of the professional
community to solve the problems related to welfare, status, working conditions, physical
facilities, education and training including research and development activities. The basic

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assignment of a library association is to improve, expand and professional knowledge in the

library professions, promote and improvement of library services, to promote educational
programs and other innovative programs and publications. Although the central purpose of
the associations has always been to serve the needs and protect the interests of the
community, they struggle to widen the purpose and serve the overall needs of the nation.
Library and Information Science (LIS) education in India goes through a turning point and
has become a fast-growing subject with a multifaceted strategy.

1.3 LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND LIS SCHOOLS

Today it is very important to produce professional, para-professional, skilled library

professionals with not only complicated management library policy and planning skills but
also proficiency in information and communication technology. LIS education in India rise
with a multidisciplinary approach and proved that it is a fast-growing and fast-developing
subject and always comes with new and different approaches. It is not only limited to core
subjects of library sciences but extended to different other mainstreams, for example,
information science, computer science and computer application, research methodology,
statistics, management studies, and many more. Professional Associations and LIS Schools
are established by and for professionals. Their membership is open to all librarians, library
staff members, library and information science teachers, library associations, and even users
of libraries (Rai,2017).

1.3.1 Library and Information Science (LIS) Schools

Presently libraries play an important role as a social agency for the growth of modern society.
Library and information science is the combination of two terms or subjects a) library science
and b) information science. This combination of two subjects was firstly used at the
University of Pittsburg in 1964. Then, in 1990 American Library Schools added Information
science. After the 1990s library science and information science were developed by many
other countries around the globe.

“In India, the Central Library of Banaras Hindu University (BHU) at Varanasi was
established in 1917. Before Independence, there were only five universities, such as Andhra,
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Banaras, Calcutta and Madras offering diploma courses in library science. After
independence, some universities, educational institutions and learned societies started their
libraries. As a result, the number of LIS schools started to increase.

The University of Delhi was the first university to establish a full-fledged Department of
Library Science and started admitting students to the PG Diploma in 1947. In 1995, the
diploma was changed to Master in Library Science ( M.Lib.Sc). Later between 1956 to 1959,
six new LIS departments were established at Aligarh Muslim University, M.S. University of
Baroda, Nagpur University, Osmania University, Pune University, and Vikram University.
Since the 1960s, the number of LIS departments established has continued to increase”
(Rai,2017, Satpthi & Satpathi,2009, pp.68-71).

1.3.2 National and International Professional Associations

Library development is dependent upon professional planning, farsightedness, understanding

and involvement. These issues can be managed more effectively by library associations than
by individual institutions. Hence, the solidarity of the profession is a prerequisite for working
for a common cause and achieving the desired results. “Library associations, if they play
their part well, can help in spreading the public library movement in a country and ensure
better library service and build up a good image of the profession. They, indeed, assist in the
development of libraries and library and information services and also present appropriate
proposals to the right quarters. Associations and professional societies are also powerful
forces representing the voice of the professional community to solve the problems related to
welfare, status, working conditions, physical facilities, education and training including
research and development activities. Although the central purpose of the associations has
always been to serve the needs and protect the interests of the community, they strive to
broaden the purpose and serve the overall needs of the nation”(Goldman,2014,p.ii).

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Indian Library
Associations
(ILA) Indian
International (India) Associations of
Federation of Special
Library Libraries and
Associations Information
and Institutions Centres
(IFLA) (IASLIC)
Professional (India)
Associations

Association for American

Information Library
Management Association
(ASLIB) Chartered Institute of (ALA)
International Library and
Information USA & UK
Professionals (CILIP)
USA & UK

Fig 1.1: National and International Professional Associations

1.4 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

1.4.1 National Associations

We have historical records of early library associations in India such as the Baroda Library
Association (1910), Andhra Desai Library Association (1914), Bengal Library Association
(1927) and Madras Library Association (1927). The Indian Library Association was founded
in 1933. The post-independence period witnessed an increase in the number of library
associations in the country. “At present, many national and state-level library associations.
At the national level, we have Indian Library Association. There are also associations
devoted to special categories of libraries, subjects, fields and other special interests. For
example, the Government of India Library Association, (GILA), Indian Association of
Teachers of Library and Information Science (IATLIS), Society for informational Science
(SIS), Indian Academic Library Association (IALA), Medical Library Association (MLA),
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Society for Advancement of Library and Information Science (SALIS) and Indian
Association of Special Libraries and Informational Centres (IASLIC)” (Ranjan & Singh).
Some of the state/regional level regional library associations include:

Sl. No Library Associations Year Place

1. Andhra Desai Library Association (ADLA) 1914 Andhra Pradesh

2. Maharashtra Library Association ((MLA) 1921 Maharashtra

3. Bengal Library Association (BLA) 1925 West Bengal

4. Baroda State Library Association (BSLA) 1926 Gujrat

5. Madras Library Association(MLA) 1928 Madras

6. Karnataka Library Association (KLA) 1929 Karnataka

7. Punjab Library Association(PLA) 1929 Punjab

8. Indian Library Associations(ILA) 1933 New Delhi

9. Government of India Library Association (GILA) 1933 Delhi

10 Bombay State Library Association 1935 Bombay

11 Bihar Library Association 1936 Bihar

12 Malabar Library Association 1937 Kerala

13 Assam Library Association 1938 Assam

14 Utkal Library Association 1944 Orissa

15 Travancore Library Association 1945 Travancore

16 Kerala Library Association 1945 Kerala

There are some library associations in India whose contributions to the development of
national consciousness are immense and deserve to be remembered by future generations of
library professionals. Two associations at the national level are described in the following
sections, namely, the Indian Library Association (ILA) and the Indian Association of Special
Libraries and Informational Centres (IASLIC).

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I. Indian Library Association (ILA)

The Indian Library Association (ILA) was founded on September 13, 1933, in Calcutta (now
Kolkata). “The first All India Library Conference was attended by intellectuals,
educationists, librarians, and eminent citizens of Calcutta. It is the largest professional body
in the field of Library and Information Science in the country and also made steady efforts to
provide an opportunity for the development of library and information professionals at all
levels and all over the country. The headquarters of ILA was shifted to Delhi in August 1964
(https://ilaindia.co.in).

a) Objectives of ILA

The main objectives of the ILA are as follows:

i. “Promotion of library movement and improvement in library services in all its

aspectsin India;
ii. Promotion of library science education and the improvement in the training of
libraries in India;
iii. Promotion of bibliographical study and research in library science;
iv. Improvement in the status and conditions of services of librarians;
v. Affiliation of the state and other library associations with t h e Indian Library
Association and cooperation with an international organisation with the same
objectives;
vi. Publication of bulletins, periodicals, books, and so on which will tend to the
realization ofthe objectives of the association;
vii. Establishment of libraries, documentation and information centres and assistance
intheir establishment and working;
viii. Promotion of appropriate library legislation in India;
ix. Providing a common forum to all persons engaged or interested in library and
information work by holding conferences and meetings for discussion of
professional,technical and organizational issues (Bhatti and Chohan,2012,p.3).
b) Major responsibilities are done by ILA

“ILA organised the All India Library Conference every year at different places in the

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country. It also takes some other responsibilities, for example, organization of workshops,
seminars, conventions and other activities, which can promote libraries and librarianship in
India.
Some of the topics in such activities include:
o Library Legislation;
o School Children Libraries;
o Library cooperation/ Resource Sharing;
o Library Personnel; Reading Materials/ Collection Development;
o Bibliography and Documentation; University Libraries

The Indian Library Association is a member of the International Federation of Library

Associations (IFLA) and the Commonwealth Library Association (COMLA). The
association hosted the IFLA Conference of 1992 in New Delhi. The Association also drafted
Model Public Library Bill and arranged advanced training and internship for Indian librarians
with the British Library Association in London”( (https://ilaindia.co.in).

c) Publication of ILA

The Association published several publications:

o ILA Newsletter every month to disseminate current information about the latest
trends in the field of Library and Information Science
o Journal of Indian Library Association (JILA)
o Proceedings of the All India Library Conferences since 1978
o Indian Library Directory
o A Survey of Public Library Services in India
o Year’s Work on Indian Librarianship
o 50 Years of Indian Library Association; 1933-1983 and others.

ILA has also introduced many awards for encouraging excellence in professional practices
such as:

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o ILA-Kaula Best Librarian Award

o ILA- Vendanaikee Fellowship
o ILA-C D Sharma Award
o ILA- AG Verghese Award
o ILA-Dr. K Padma Umapathy and Dr S K Umapathy Fellowship in Library and
Information Science.
o ILA-Dr. L M Padhya Best University Library Award
o ILA-S M Ganguly Award

II. Indian Association of Special Libraries and Information Centres (IASLIC)

“The IASLIC was founded on 3rd September 1955 at the lecture hall of the Indian Museum,
Calcutta on initiatives and inspirations of librarians, documentalists, information scientists,
scientists and technologists. It is much recognized by professionals in the field. Keeping in
view the importance of inter-communication of facts and ideas among scientists,
technologists and research workers, and of the collection of specialized information among
them” (http://www.iaslic1955.org.in).

a) Main objectives of the Indian Association of Special Libraries and Information

Centres (IASLIC)

IASLIC formulated the following objectives:

i. To undertake, support and coordinate research and studies.

ii. Organize general and special meetings, seminars, workshops and conferences at the
regional and national levels.
iii. Publish journals, monographs, manuals, newsletters, papers, proceedings and reports.
iv. Conduct short-term training courses.
v. Work together with other fraternal bodies in promoting the interests of the library and
information profession.
vi. Carry out such other activities which are incidental and conducive to the attainment
of its objects.

b) Major works are done by IASLIC:

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“IASLIC has been organizing seminars and conferences in different parts of the country,
which are usually, hosted by university libraries, the department of library and information
science, institutions, associations, and other information centres”(Parent,1988 & Pors,2006,
pp.344) ). “Discussions in the seminars and conferences included different areas of current
issues on Mechanization of Library Services, Training of Special Librarianship in India,
Rendering of Indic Names, Bibliographical Control of Special Libraries, Methods of
Scientific Communication, Decentralization of Library and Information Services, Users and
Library and Information Services, Education for Librarianship in India, General versus
Special Classification Scheme, Bibliometric Studies, Marketing of Library and Information
Services in India, Document and Data Processing, Problems and Prospects of Library
Associations in India, Indexing and Abstracting Services in India, Translation Services, and
others”. The Association also provided a program titled, “Training in Special Librarianship
and Documentation” from 1964 to 1970. The Association also conducted language courses in
German, French, and Russian from 1958 to 1963 for translators for special libraries. “The
Association is affiliated with the International Federation of Library Associations and
Institutions (IFLA) and the International Federation for Information and Documentation
(FID) and plays an important role in the international cooperation of the two
federations”(Gosh,2004). The IASLIC Bulletin, its official organ, has been published
quarterly since 1956 and is devoted to the advancement and dissemination of the
fundamental and applied knowledge of library and information science in an accessible form
to professional colleagues who have a common interest in the field in this country and
abroad” (http://www.iaslic1955.org.in).

“The IASLIC Newsletter has been a bimonthly publication of the association since 1966
carrying important information and news about the activities of libraries and information
services”(Lamptey and Cortetey,2011,p.15). Other important publications include, Directory
of Special and Research Libraries in India, Glossary of Cataloguing Terms in (Indian)
regional Languages, Education for Librarianship in India; A Survey, Draft General Code for
Interlibrary Loan, Methods of Scientific Communication, IASLIC; Perspective, Performance,
and Promise-A Silver Jubilee Commemorative Volume, Indexing Systems, and Library
Architecture.

c) Publications of IASLIC
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o The IASLIC Bulletin (started in 1956) Quarterly

o IASLIC Newsletter
o Indian Library Science Abstracts (annual)
o Apart from IASLIC Bulletin and Newsletter, it also publishes books, monographs,
directories, conference and seminar proceedings, annual reports, etc.

1.4.2 USA AND UK LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS

Two library associations, one each in the United States of America and the United Kingdom
are described in this section. These associations have a long and distinguished record of
activities and service and have been pattern setters for the creation of national associations in
many countries. The associations described in this section are the American Library
Association and the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP,
U.K.)

I. American Library Association (ALA)

The American Library Association (ALA) has the uniqueness of being the oldest and largest
library association in the world. It was founded in 1876 with its headquarters in Chicago. “A
group of 103 library activists, at a meeting held in Philadelphia in the fall of 1876 to coincide
with the nation’s centennial celebrations, resolved on a motion moved by Melvil Dewey, the
father of librarianship, to form the American Library Association. ALA, thus born, has been
a success story of the dedicated efforts of eminent librarians who steered the association in its
formative periods, the ALA grew in strength steadily and became even in the early part of
this century the national voice for library interests. Today, with a solid foundation, a wide
base of expanding programmes and activities and social impact, ALA plays a dynamic role to
foster American library interests with great success” ( https://www.ala.org).

a) Objectives

ALA is an organisation of librarians and libraries having the following objectives:

i. “Increase awareness and support for libraries by increasing their visibility in a

positive context and by communicating why libraries are both unique and valuable;
ii. Update the image of libraries, librarians and all library staff for the 21st century,
sustaining and strengthening their relevance;
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iii. Bring renewed energy to the promotion of libraries and librarians; and
iv. Bring library messages to a more diverse audience

It also has the following internal objectives:

i. “Develop a campaign that represents and is useful to all types of libraries;

ii. Create turnkey tools, resources and materials that could be utilised by all types of
libraries;
iii. Provide an opportunity to share public relations/marketing/advocacy best practices
within the library community;
iv. Tie together ALA promotions into one unified brand, reinforcing key messages;
v. Quickly respond to emerging issues such as library funding cuts;
vi. Develop more cross-collaboration across the association to ensure that new Campaign
projects and initiatives are inclusive and effective; work more closely with ALA
chapters and affiliates to help them achieve their public awareness objectives
vii. Promote the contribution of all library staff, including both librarians and support
staff;
viii. Seek increased foundation and sponsor funding to expand Campaign activities;
ix. Conduct public opinion research to refine and expand Campaign messages on an
ongoing basis; and
x. Increase coordination with other public relations and marketing efforts, such as
READ posters, National Library Week, Library Card Sign-up Month, etc”
(https://www.ala.org).

c) Publications of ALA

The American Library Association develops many resources for the library and information
services communities.

o American Libraries, Book List, Book Links

o ALA Tech Source
o Library Technology Reports,
o Guide to Reference
o various newsletters, magazines, and journals.

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II. Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP)

CILIP (The Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals) is the leading
professional body of library and information professionals in the U.K. “It came into existence
in 2002 with the merger of the erstwhile Library Association(U.K.) and the Institute of
Information Science. CILIP provides practical support for members throughout their entire
careers, helping them with their academic education, professional qualifications, job hunting
and continuing professional development.

a) Objectives
The CILIP aims at: activism and enterprise to build its community, a strong voice to advance
the profession and modern professionalism to develop the workforce.

Its objectives are to:

i. set, maintain, monitor and promote standards of excellence in the creation,

management, exploitation and sharing of information and knowledge resources;
ii. support the principle of equality of access to information, ideas and works of the
imagination which it affirms is fundamental to a thriving economy, democracy,
culture and civilisation; and
iii. enable its members to achieve and maintain the highest professional standards in all
aspects of delivering an information service, both for the professional and the public
good.
iv. Anyone working with knowledge, information or library services can join CILIP. It
has different categories of membership for people of different experience levels from
students to fellows. The Council, set up under the Royal Charter, governs the work of
CILIP. Its President and Councillors are elected by the membership in an annual
election” (https://www.cilip.org.uk). Council is comprised of 12 Trustees elected
directly by the Membership. There is a provision for co-opting up to three members.

b) CILIP has special interest groups, namely:

o Academic and Research Libraries Group;

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o Aerospace and Defence Librarians Group;

o Affiliated Members of CILIP;
o Branch and Mobile Libraries;
o Career Development Group;
o Cataloguing and Indexing;
o Colleges of Further and Higher Education;
o Commercial, Legal and Scientific Information Group;
o Community, Diversity and Equality Group;
o Education Librarians Group; and
o Government Information Group.

c) Core activities of CILIP

“CILIP organises one-day conferences with expert speakers, demonstrations from suppliers
of associated technology and unrivalled networking opportunities. It also organises managed
events two and three-day conferences, often with associated exhibitions, organised on behalf
of CILIP’s Special Interest Groups including the biennial umbrella event. Apart from
conferences, CILIP In forums are a series of discussion workshops where one can network
with like-minded library and information professionals” (https://www.cilip.org.uk). In forum
allows face-to-face sharing and collaboration, complementing the online platform of the
CILIP Communities.

d) Publications of CILIP

• CILIP Update monthly magazine (Print and Digital)

1.4.3 INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

I. Association of Information Management (ASLIB)

The ASLIB (Association of Special Libraries and Information Bureaux) was founded in1924
to coordinate the activities of specialist information services in the UK. “It is presently
known as Association for Information Management. “Its members are private and public
sector companies and organisations throughout the world, concerned with managing
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information resources efficiently. Aslib had Special Interest Groups to cater to the needs of
particular subjects/ areas”(Moore,2006). These have evolved into communities of practice.
“The expertise helping and advising organisations, from small and medium enterprises to
large corporations and governments, on any of their issues and problems, information
management great and small”( https://www.aslib.co.uk).

a) Objectives of ASLIB
The main objectives of ASLIB are to:
i. stimulate awareness of the benefits of good management of information resources and
their value;
ii. represent and lobby for the interests of the information sector on matters which are of
national and international importance varying from copyright and data protection to
the role of scientific journals; and
iii. provide a range of information-related products and services to meet the needs of the
information society

b) Core activities of ASLIB

To fulfil these roles Aslib has developed four main functions within the association. They are
a consultancy, publications, training and recruitment. Consultancy activities drawn
principally from the network of leading information professionals range from giving answers
to specific questions for individuals or small companies, to “major studies for the British
Government, and recommending policies and strategies to the People’s Republic of China.
Managing Information, the association’s colour magazine, is the magazine for everyone who
uses information. It combines a successful print magazine with a web-based news service,
doubling the impact of the publication. The magazine continues to develop its winning
combination of high-calibre features, top-level interviews, analysis and practical solutions all
packaged in a readable and attractive style” ( https://www.aslib.co.uk).

c) Publications of ASLIB

• Aslib titles are produced by Emerald and Europa Publications.

• ASLIB Proceedings: New Information Perspectives.
• Journal of Documentation.

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• Library Hi Tech News : incorporating Online and CD Notes.

• Performance Measurement and Metrics.
• Program: electronic library & information systems.
• Records Management Journal

II.International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA)

The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) is the global
voice of the library and information profession and also the leading international body
representing the interests of library and information services and their users. “It was founded
in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1927 at an international conference, IFLA celebrated its 75th
birthday at its conference in Glasgow, Scotland in 2002. IFLA now has more than 1600
Members in approximately 150 countries around the world. IFLA was registered in the
Netherlands in 1971. The Royal Library, the National Library of the Netherlands, in The
Hague, generously provides the facilities for the headquarters. IFLA has two main categories
of voting members: Association Members and Institutional Members. Associations of library
and information professionals, library and information services and of educational and
research institutes, within the broad field of library and information science, are all welcome
as Association Members. Institutional Membership is designed for individual library and
information services, and all kinds of organisations in the library and information sector”
(https://www.ifla.org/).

a) Objectives of IFLA

IFLA is an independent, international, non-governmental, not-for-profit organisation. Its

aims are:

"To promote the international support, cooperation, exchange of information, education,

research, and development within the scope of the library and information services sector in
general. In addition, the Foundation seeks to protect, preserve, and document written and
printed cultural heritage and all that is in connection with these purposes"(Lamptey &
Cortetey,2011,p.17).

In practising these aims IFLA holds close to the following core values:

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i. “the endorsement of the principles of freedom of access to information. ideas and

works of imagination and freedom of expression embodied in Article 19 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
ii. the belief that people, communities and organisations need universal and equitable
access to information, ideas and works of imagination for their social, educational,
cultural, democratic and economic well-being
iii. the conviction that delivery of high-quality library and information services helps
guarantee that access
iv. and the commitment to enable all members of the Federation to engage in and benefit
from, its activities without regard to citizenship, disability, ethnic origin, gender,
geographical location, language, political philosophy, race or religion”
(https://www.ifla.org/).

b) Core Activities of IFLA

IFLA General Conference and Council has held in August or early September in a different
city each year. “More than three thousand delegates meet to exchange experience, debate
professional issues, see the latest products of the information industry, conduct the business
of IFLA and experience something of the culture of the host country. Issues common to
library and information services around the world are the concern of the IFLA Core
Activities. Directed by the Professional Committee, the objectives and projects of the Core
Activities relate to the Federation’s Programme and the priorities of the Divisions and
Sections. One, ALP (Action for Development through Libraries Programme) has a very wide
scope, concentrating on a broad range of concerns specific to the developing world. The
others cover current, internationally important issues: Preservation and Conservation (PAC),
IFLA- CDNL Alliance for Bibliographic Standards (ICABS) and IFLA UNIMARC. The
Core Activities are each managed by a Director, who reports to the Executive and
Professional Committees. Profession and Related Agencies with generous initial funding
from the Danish government, the City of Copenhagen, and the Danish library community,
IFLA’s office for Free Access to Information and Freedom of Expression (FAIFE) were
established in Copenhagen in 1998. It has a steering committee made up of professionals
from around the globe. FAIFE reports to the Executive Committee. Also reporting to the
Executive Committee is the Committee on Copyright and other Legal Matters (CLM). A
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range of professional meetings, seminars and workshops are held around the world by
professional groups and core Activities” (https://www.ifla.org/).

c) Publications of IFLA

The results of the programmes developed by IFLA’s professional groups are recorded and
disseminated in the publications.

o IFLA Journal (Quarterly)

o IFLA Metadata Newsletter
o The biennial Council Report (records IFLA’s achievements)
o The IFLA Professional Reports series
o Proceedings of the IFLA/UNESCO pre-conference seminar on public libraries and
Guidelines for easy-to-read materials.

d) Awards for Excellence

IFLA offers the following awards and fellowships/ prizes:

o Dr Shawky Salem Conference Grant

o The MargreetWijnstroom Fund for Regional Library Development
o Jay Jordon IFLA/OCLC Early Career Development Fellowship
o IFLA International Marketing Award
o Guest van Wesemael Literary Prize.

e) IFLANET

The website IFLANET has rapidly become a prime source of information not only about
IFLA but also on a broad spectrum of library and information issues. It is hosted by the
Institut de l’Information Scientifiqueet Technique (INIST), France.

1.5 ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS

1.5.1 Role of Library Associations

Professional issues that have far and wide-reaching concerns cannot be handled by an
individual or a single institution. Collective action by an interested group is necessary.
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Professional associations serve as a forum for collaborative and coordinated efforts of

individuals and groups. Library development is dependent upon professional planning,
farsightedness, understanding and involvement. These issues can be managed more
effectively by library associations than by individual institutions. Hence, the solidarity of the
profession is a prerequisite for working for a common cause and achieving the desired
results. The strength and effectiveness of professional associations reflect this solidarity.
Library associations, if they play their part well, can help in spreading the public library
movement in a country and ensure better library service and build up a good image of the
profession. They, indeed, assist in the development of libraries and library and information
services and also present appropriate proposals to the right quarters. “Associations and
professional societies are also powerful forces representing the voice of the professional
community to solve the problems related to welfare, status, working conditions, physical
facilities, education and training including research and development activities” (Dasgupta &
Sapathi,2006, Biswas & Dutta,2017, Gosh,2004, Sapathi & Satpathi,2009). Although the
central purpose of the associations has always been to serve the needs and protect the
interests of the community, they strive to broaden the purpose and serve the overall needs of
the nation. “Associations gain significance as society advances in science and technology,
complexity and scale and hence their study is becoming part of a study of social change. In
the contemporary situation, due to rapid social change, associations are important as a means
of organising people to achieve new ends. They are also of great significance to the
professionals in that they reveal cultural values and goals that the members themselves alone
are unable to formulate. Another important aspect of rapid social change is the way new
forms of organisations create new roles and relationships”(Sapathi & Sapathi,2009,p.272).

Library associations are established with the following aims and objectives:

i. To herald the library movement in a country to spread knowledge and information

and ultimately contribute to human resource development;
ii. To work for the enactment of public library legislation, drafting of the bills along
progressive lines and based on sound principles; to make the people library conscious
so that they demand the right of access to public library services
iii. To mobilise social pressure for the healthy development of library services;

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iv. To strive for the evolution of an integrated national library and information system
based on a national policy, and bring to the attention of the authorities the
deficiencies, defects, and so on in the existing library infrastructure;
v. To provide a common forum for library professionals to exchange information, ideas,
experience and expertise, and work for the betterment of salaries, grades, service
conditions, status, and so on of library professionals;
vi. To hold the image of the library profession high in society, and promote cooperation
among libraries and library professionals;
vii. “To share resources and avoid duplication of efforts; and
viii. To contribute towards manpower development for library and information work by
organising education and training programmes, and promoting research, incentives,
awards and rewards, and so on.

1.5.2 Responsibilities of Library Associations

Library associations undertake many important programmes and activities which vary from
association to association. These associations interact with concerned governments from time
to time, using every conceivable opportunity for the sound development of a library system
in the country. These tasks are done by advising, representing and helping in drafting
legislation, formulation of policy statements, guidelines, and so on. Library associations
undertake various activities and programmes, such as:

I. Conferences

Organising conferences, seminars, lectures, and so on to offer opportunities for library

professionals to meet, discuss, and exchange information, ideas, experiences and expertise.
Association also helps in providing an opportunity to establish a network of fellow librarians.

II. Library Publicity and Advocacy

Organising library week, exhibitions, book fairs, competitions, etc. for promoting library
consciousness and reading and learning habits among citizens. Library associations also play
a vital role in the greater visibility of libraries and librarians.

III. Service Conditions

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Taking up with the management at all levels, through appropriate means, the issues relating
to improvement of salary grades, service conditions and status of library professionals and
also help in the recruitment of library personnel.

IV. Education

LIS associations conduct training courses that are necessary to supplement university
education in library and information science as well as continuing education programmes for
working professionals. Associations also function as accrediting bodies to maintain standards
in library and information science education. They also institute awards and rewards to
recognise the outstanding performance of the professionals and library systems.

V. Publications

Library associations publish professional literature like professional journals and newsletters
as well as ad-hoc publications such as proceedings, directories, catalogues, bibliographies,
course manuals, textbooks, reference books and others.

VI. Standards, Services and Research

Library associations are involved in:

o Formulating standards, guidelines, codes and manuals concerning practices,

procedures, techniques, tools and equipment, is a step towards fostering cooperation
among libraries.
o Undertaking bibliographical projects on their own and through outside contracts.
o Contribution of advisory and consultancy services.
o Undertaking research surveys of library facilities and services, user demands, learning
and reading habits, book production etc. to identify strengths and weaknesses to take
necessary steps to improve the system.

VII. Ethics

Library associations formulate codes of ethics for library professionals to set high values in
conduct and service.

VIII. Cooperation

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They establish cooperation with international and national associations of other countries
having similar objectives”(Biswas & Datta,p.7). They maintain a connection with the book
and publishing trade for attending to mutual problems in library acquisitions.

1.7 ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF LIS SCHOOLS

Libraries are an essential social organization for the development of academic society; the
importance of their role is being increasingly realized. To fulfil the expectations, libraries
must be developed along proper lines. “The essential role of the library is to encourage
students, teachers, researchers and faculty members for reading and create an educational
environment. The library invites all who enter its house for reading and it is the best path for
changing our blind beliefs” (Rai,2017,p.69, Lacy & Copeland,2013p.136).

LIS in the Indian educational system, creating new interdisciplinary courses and teaching
new methods of providing information services. At present, the following LIS courses are
available in India and all over the globe:

o Certificate course in Library and Information Sciences

o Diploma in Library and Information Sciences
o Diploma Courses in Health Sciences Librarianship
o Diploma in Digital Library and Data Management
o Diploma in Information Technology
o Diploma Archives and Documentation Management
o Bachelor of Library and Information Science
o Masters of Library and Information Science
o Post Graduate Diploma in Library Automation and Networking
o Doctor of Philosophy in Library and Information Sciences
o D.Lit.in Library and Information Sciences

In this modern era of information LIS, professionals think globally and act locally and
admire other opinions and suggestions. provide easy access to information to users available
in various electronic forms and formats.

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1.8 SUMMARY

Library Associations are learned bodies which foster a spirit of public service among their
members, promote library services, protect the interests of their members and build up the
image of the library profession.

ILA, The main aim of IASLIC, ASLIB and other library associations is to conduct
conferences, seminars and short-term training courses almost every year and try to cover
the new trends in their conferences. These associations do not just give their comment on
problems, but also try to take proper action to solve the problem. As such, the development
of the nation through library services is neglected in some states, and its services are
beyond the reach of the rural poor. Library associations encourage library professionals for
joining associations and build relationships with other professional bodies. They also
establish proper communication and understanding among all library associations and
work for a common objective for the betterment of libraries and librarianship. Library
associations must be serious to save the honour of professionals. They should solve the
job-related problems of library professionals.

1.8 GLOSSARY

Collaboration: It is a working practice whereby individuals work together for a common

purpose to achieve benefit.
Consultancy: Expert advice that somebody is paid to provide on a particular subject.

Objectives: Some specific, goals, and aims to be achieved for a purpose.

Official Organ: A journal, newsletter or other publication representing a special group.

Profession: The body of a person engaged in an occupation, requiring extensive education

in a branch of science, arts and so on.
Programme: A coordinated group of think to be done or performed.
Standard: It is a type of Model, Guide or pattern for guidance.

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1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Mention the core aims and objectives of the Library Associations and LIS Schools.
2. State the core activities of Library Associations and LIS Schools on the National And
International Levels.
3. Write down the main objectives, and core activities of the Indian Library Association
(ILA). Name the publications of ILA.
4. State the main objectives and core activities of IASLIC.
5. List the main objectives and core activities of the Indian Library Association (ALA).
Name the main publications of ALA.
6. State the main objectives and core activities of CILIP. List the educational activities
of CILIP.
7. List the main objectives and areas of training offered by ASLIB.
8. Write down some specific activities and publications of IFLA.
9. State the role of LIS Schools and courses offered in LIS.

1.10 REFERENCES

Bhatti, R., & Chohan, T. M. (2012). Assessing the role of library associations in promoting
research culture in LIS. Library philosophy and practice, 839, 1-11.
https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/74602961/viewcontent-libre.pdf?

Biswas, B., & Datta, S. (2017). Library associations in India: role in LIS
education. International Journal of Next Generation Library and Technologies, 3(1),
1-8. https://web.archive.org/web/20180421102517

Dasgupta, A., & Satpathi, J. N. (2006). Continuing education programmes of Library &
Information Science (LIS) professionals in the Universities of West Bengal (India)
with special reference to the University of Calcutta.

Goldman, C. (2014). The benefits of local involvement: Professional development through

state and regional library associations. Practical Academic Librarianship: The

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School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Name of the Course

International Journal of the SLA Academic Division, 4(2), i-xi.

https://pal-ojs- tamu.tdl.org/pal/index.php/pal/article/view/6311

Ghosh, M. (2004). Ever changing information scenario and emerging role of national and
regional associations in Indian library development. http://eprints.rclis.org/8267/

Lacy, M., & Copeland, A. J. (2013). The role of mentorship programs in LIS education and

in professional development.Journal of Education for Library and Information

Science, 135-146.

Lamptey, R. B., & Corletey, A. (2011, August). Building strong libraries and library
associations through continuing professional development: the case of Ghana Library
Association. In Proceedings of the World Library and Information Congress and 77th
IFLA General Conference and Assembly (pp. 13-18).

Moore, N. (2001). Library Associations—Their Role in Supporting the Creation of

Information Societies. IFLA journal, 27(3), 171-175.

Oppenheim, C., & Pollecutt, N. (2000). Professional associations and ethical issues in
LIS. Journal of librarianship and information science, 32(4), 187-203.

Pors, N. O. (2006). The role of the library associations and organisations in the changing
library landscape: A study of corporatism in Denmark. Library management.
https://doi.org/10.1108/01435120610647956

Parent, R. H. (1988). Strategic planning for library associations. IFLA journal, 14(4), 343-
353. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/034003528801400407?

Ranjan, P., & Singh, B. K. (2021). Role of library associations towards professional identity
in India. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/034003528801400407?

Rai, A. K. (2017). Role of Library Associations in the Betterment of Librarianship in

India. Library Waves, 3(1), 68-73.
http://www.librarywaves.com/index.php/lw/article/view/51

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 Name of the Course

Thomas, V. K., Satpathi, C., & Satpathi, J. N. (2010). Emerging challenges in academic
librarianship and role of library associations in professional updating. Library
management. https://doi.org/10.1108/01435121011093379

Swain, N. K., & Kumar, S. (2009). Indian Library Association International Conference

2008: a report. IFLA, 272.

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Al-Qallaf, C. L., & Mika, J. J. (2013). The role of multiculturalism and diversity in library
and information science: LIS education and the job market. Libri, 63(1), 1-20.
https://doi.org/10.1515/libri-2013-0001
American Library Association. ALA World Encyclopedia of Library and Information
Services. 2nd ed. American Library Association: Chicago, 1986. 43- 49, 462-67.

Chow, A. S., Shaw, T. L., Gwynn, D., Martensen, D., & Howard, M. (2011). Changing
Times and Requirements: Implications for LIS Education. LIBRES: Library &
Information Science Research Electronic Journal, 21(1).
https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/a_chow_changing_2011.pdf

Greenwood, R., Suddaby, R., & Hinings, C. R. (2002). Theorizing change: The role of
professional associations in the transformation of institutionalized fields. Academy of
management journal, 45(1), 58-80. https://doi.org/10.5465/3069285

Halsam, D.D. “The Library Association”. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science.
Vol. 14. New York: Marcell Dekker, 1975. 312-337. Print.
Harrod’s Librarian‘s Glossary and Reference Book. Comp. Ray Prytherch. 6th ed. England:
Gower Publishing Company, 1987.
Karisidsappa, C.R. “Role and Importance of National and State Level Library Associations

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 Name of the Course

in Library Development in India”. 68th IFLA Council and General

Conference, 2002. Web. 21 September 2012. < http://archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla68/ papers/020-
148e.pdf>.
Stern, J. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Vol. 1. New York: Marcell
Dekker, 1968. 666.
Stevenson, Grace T. “American Library Association”. Encyclopedia of Library and
Information Science. Vol. 1. New York: Marcel Decker, 1968. 267-302.
Wood, J. Aileen. Raising Professional Standards: The Role of Professional Institute, EAHIL
2007. <http://www.eahil.net/
Winston, M. (2005). Ethical leadership: Professional challenges and the role of LIS
education. New Library World. https://doi.org/10.1108/03074800510595841

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