Atomic Operations

Atomic operations or instructions, are fundamental operations in concurrent programming that are
designed to be executed as a single, indivisble unit of work.

But what does indivisible mean? An indivisible operation is one that any thread or process, will either see
the state of the program before the operation started, or after it was fully executed. In other words, no
other thread can intercept in between the operation's execution. This property of atomic operations
makes them essential in preventing data corruption or undefined behavior in multithreaded programs.

Let's see an example of what can go wrong with a non-atomic operation in a multithreaded program:

#include <thread>
#include <iostream>

int counter = 0;

void incrementCounter() {
for (int i = 0; i < 100000; ++i) {
counter++;
}
}

int main() {
std::thread t1(incrementCounter);
std::thread t2(incrementCounter);

t1.join();
t2.join();

std::cout << counter << std::endl;

return 0;
}

A very simple program; two threads each incrementing a counter 100,000 times. We would expect the
program to print 200,000 at the end, rigth? Well here are the results of my first four runs of this program:
113437, 117676, 130968, 116575. Totally random, undefined behavior.

The reason for this is that counter++ is a non-atomic operation. Let's say the value of counter is 10 at a
point in time. If both threads execute counter++ at the exact same time, they will both increment it from
10 to 11 and will attempt to write the value 11 in memory. So even though both threads incremented
counter by one, counter got incremented only once.

We can fix this with a very small tweak. If we define counter as an atomic integer instead of a regular
integer, it is guaranteed that the ++ operation will run atomically every time, therefore the program is
going to print 200,000 in every single run.

#include <atomic>

std::atomic<int> counter = 0;

Atomic Methods Supported by std::atomic<T>

is_lock_free()

Checks if the atomic object is lock free. This will return false for most atomic types since in most cases
an internal lock is required to ensure the atomicity of the operations performed on the atomic object. The
only atomic object that is always guaranteed to be lock free is atomic_flag, which is a very rudimentary
atomic boolean. I'll talk more about atomic_flag soon. C++20 also introduced two more lock free
atomic objects; atomic_signed_lock_free and atomic_unsigned_lock_free.

I'll discuss locks and mutexes in depth in a future post.

void store(T desired)

Atomically replaces the value of the atomic object with a non-atomic argument.

std::atomic<int> num = 0;
num.store(20); // num now holds 20

T load()

Atomically returns the value of the atomic object.

std::atomic<int> num = 20;

int val = num.load(); // val now holds 20

T exchange(T desired)

Atomically replaces the value of the atomic object and returns the value held previously.
 std::atomic<int> num = 20;
int val = num.exchange(30); // val = 20, num = 30

bool compare_exchange_weak(T& expected, T desired)

This is one of the most interesting and useful atomic operations available. According to Anthony Williams,
the author of C++ Concurrency in Action, it is the cornerstone of programming with atomic types.

compare_exchange_weak compares the value of the atomic type with the value of the expected and
one of the two cases will happen:

They are equal in which case the value of the atomic type is replaced with desired and the
function returns true.
They are not equal in which case the value of the expected is replaced with the actual value of the
atomic type and the function returns false.

The incrementCounter example in the beginning of this article can be written using
compare_exchange_weak to ensure thread safety as well:

std::atomic<int> counter = 0;

void incrementCounter() {
for (int i = 0; i < 100000; ++i) {
int expected = counter.load(); // Load the current value
int new_value = expected + 1;

// Attempt to update the counter. If the value of the counter

// hasn't changed since we loaded it, then it will succeed in
// the first try. if another thread modified counter in the
// meantime, the value of expected will be updated with the
// new value of counter.
while (!counter.compare_exchange_weak(expected, new_value)) {
// We will retry the operation with the new expected value
new_value = expected + 1;
}
}
}

the main difference between compare_exchange_weak and compare_exchange_strong is that

compare_exchange_weak can fail spuriosly, even if the value of the atomic type is equal to expected.
This happens if the processor can't guarantee that the operation has been done atomically. This is why
compare_exchange_weak is almost always used in while loops, to keep retrying until the operation is
carried out successfully.

compare_exchanges_strong on the other hand is guaranteed to return false only when the value of
the atomic type is not equal to expected.

Atomic Arithmetic Operations

std::atomic<> has a pointer specialization that supports the following additional operations which are
self explanatory:

std::atomic<int*> ptr;
ptr.fetch_add(2); // Adds 2 to the pointer and returns the previous value
ptr.fetch_sub(2);
ptr += 2;
ptr -= 2;
ptr++;
ptr--;

std::atomic<> also has an arithmetic type specialization that supports the following operations on top
of all the ones mentioned above:

std::atomic<int> num = 10;

num.fetch_or(4);
num.fetch_and(4);
num.fetch_xor(4);
num |= 4;
num &= 4;
num ^= 4;

std::atomic_flag
std::atomic_flag is the only atomic type that's always guaranteed to be lock free. It holds a boolean
value internally but it has less capabilites than std::atomic<bool>. std::atomic_flag is the most
basic atomic type that prior to C++20, only supported two operations:

bool test_and_set()

Atomically sets the flag to true and returns its previous value.

std::atomic_flag flag = ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT; // Always initializes to false

if (!flag.test_and_set()) {
 std::cout << "The flag has been set"
}

Note that an atomic_flag has to be initiated with ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT which is the false value.

void clear()

Atomically sets the flag to false. These are the only two operations supported by atomic_flag. With
only these two operations, we can implement a spinlock mutex, which is not a useful one in practice, but
it demonstrates the concept.

class spinlock {
std::atomic_flag flag;
public:
spinlock(): flag(ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT) {}

void lock() {
while (flag.test_and_set());
}

void unlock() {
flag.clear();
}
}

In the spinlock class above, the value of the flag is initialized to false. The first thread that calls the
lock() function, will atomically set the value of the flag to true but won't get stuck in the while loop,
because test_and_set() returns the previous value held by the flag, which was false. When other
threads try to call the lock() function, they will get stuck in the while loop until the first thread clears
the flag by calling unlock().

C++20 also introduced a new member function to atomic_flag, bool test() which atomically returns
the value held by the flag without setting it.

Atomic with User Defined Types

In order to use a User Defined Type (UDT) with std::atomic template, the type has to have certain
characteristics. The type must have a trivial copy-assignment operator and have no virtual functions or
virtual base classes. In other words, they must be copyable with memcpy() and they must be comparable
with memcmp(). An easy way to check this, is that all the following values must be true for the UDT to
work with std::atomic:
 std::is_trivially_copyable<T>::value
std::is_copy_constructible<T>::value
std::is_move_constructible<T>::value
std::is_copy_assignable<T>::value
std::is_move_assignable<T>::value

Memory Order
All of the atomic operations mentioned above take additional arguments of the type
std::memory_order. These arguments specify how memory accesses are to be ordered around an
atomic operation, when multiple threads simultaneously read and write to several variables. This is an
advanced topic that warrants its own separate article. Memory order is going to the main topic of
discussion in my next article.