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Chapter 1: INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY

a school of psychology that is based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore
Behaviourism that psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behaviour itself

Cognitive psychology a field of psychology that studies mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment
Collectivism focus on developing harmonious social relationships with others
Conformity we frequently change our beliefs and behaviours to be similar to those of the people we care about
the common set of social norms, including religious and family values and other moral beliefs, shared by the people
Culture who live in a geographical region
Data any information collected through formal observation or measurement
Depression psychological disorder known to be caused by biological, social, and cultural factors
Dualism that the mind is fundamentally different from the mechanical body
Empirical methods include the processes of collecting and organizing data and drawing conclusions about those data

Evolutionary psychology a branch of psychology that applies the Darwinian theory of natural selection to human and animal behaviour
Facts objective statements determined to be accurate through empirical study.
the extent to which having a given characteristic helps the individual organism survive and reproduce at a higher rate
Fitness than do other members of the species who do not have the characteristic
The proportion of the observed differences of characteristics among people (e.g., in terms of their height,
Heritability of the characteristic intelligence, or optimism) that is due to genetics
The tendency to think that we could have predicted something that has already occurred that we probably would not
Hindsight bias have been able to predict
Individual differences the variations among people on physical or psychological dimensions
Individualism valuing the self and one’s independence from others
Introspection asking research participants to describe exactly what they experience as they work on mental tasks
Levels of explanation the perspectives that are used to understand behaviour
Multiply determined all behaviour is _____, or produced by many factors
Neuroimaging the use of various techniques to provide pictures of the structure and function of the living brain
Psychoanalysis revealed through talk therapy and dream analysis in a process
approach to understanding human behaviour that focuses on the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and
Psychodynamic psychology memories
such as clinical, counselling, industrial-organizational, and school psychologists, use existing research to enhance the
Psychologist-practitioners everyday life of others
Psychology scientific study of mind and behaviour

Repressed psychological disorders were caused by memories that we have _______ and thus remain outside our consciousness
Research psychologists use scientific methods to create new knowledge about the causes of behaviour

School of functionalism understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they currently possess
Scientific method the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures that scientists use to conduct empirical research

Social norms the ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that are shared by group members and perceived by them as appropriate
s the study of how the social situations and the cultures in which people find themselves influence thinking and
Social-cultural psychology behaviour

Structuralism a school of psychology whose goal was to identify the basic elements or structures of psychological experience

Theory of natural selection proposed that the physical characteristics of animals and humans evolved because they were useful, or functional

Chapter 2: INTRODUCTION TO MAJOR

PERSEPECTIVES
Access type of conscoiusness experience; recalls experiences from memory
Activation-synthesis theory dreams don’t actually mean anything
This refers to activating our imaginal processes in waking life in order to tap into the unconscious meanings of our
Active Imagination symbols.
Adaptations products of natural selection
Affect emotion
Anima archetype symbolizing the unconscious female component of the male psyche
Animus archetype symbolizing the unconscious male component of the female psyche
These primordial images reflect basic patterns or universal themes common to us all and that are present in the
Archetypes unconscious.

Associative shifting It is possible to shift any response from occurring with one stimulus to occurring with another stimulus
Attention state of focused awareness on a subset of the available perceptual information
Authoethnography a narrative approach to introspective analysis
Autonomic nervous system regulates automatic processes such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure
Availability The ease of getting a specific response
Avoidance learning involves acquiring the ability to prevent the occurrence of the aversive stimulus altogether
Behaviourism focuses on observable behaviour as a means to studying the human psyche
Biological drive including hunger, thirst, and intimacy
are interested in measuring biological, physiological, or genetic variables in an attempt to relate them to psychological
Biological psychology or behavioural variables
Black box model interaction of stimuli, consumer characteristics, decision processes, and consumer responses
we learn, we alter the way we perceive our environment, the way we interpret the incoming stimuli, and therefore
Classical conditioning the way we interact, or behave
relies on clients’ capacity for self-direction, empathy, and acceptance to promote clients’ development; supportive
Client- or person-centred therapy environment in which clients can re-establish their true identity
Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) helping individuals challenge their patterns and beliefs and replace erroneous thinking

rely on the functionalist insights in discussing how affect and environment or events interact and result in specific
perceptions; the study of mental processes such as attention, memory, perception, language use, problem solving,
Cognitive psychology creativity, and thinking
Collective unconscious This aspect of the unconscious manifests in universal themes that run through all human life

Complexes unconscious and repressed emotionally toned symbolic material that is incompatible with consciousness
Conscious all those things we are aware of
Consciousness awareness of the self in space and time
Continual-activation theory dreaming is a result of brain activation and synthesis
Deficiency needs a person does not feel anything if they are met, but becomes anxious if they are not
Divided attention ability to focus on two or more things at one time
specific expressions of the unconscious that have a definite, purposeful structure indicating an underlying idea or
Dreams intention
memory of autobiographical events that can be explicitly stated, contains all memories that are temporal in nature,
Episodic memory such as when you last brushed your teeth

Escape learning occurs when an organism learns to terminate an unpleasant stimulus by engaging in a specific behavior
seeks to develop and understand ways of expanding the emotional connection between individuals and the natural
Evolutionary psychology world
Existential therapy focuses instead on “man in the world.”
posits that dreaming serves to discharge emotional arousals (however minor) that haven’t been expressed during the
Expectation fulfillment theory day
Extinction removing something in order to decrease a behaviour
Extravert Outer-directed; needs sociability; chooses people as a source of energy; often action-oriented.
Feeling function Creative, warm, intimate; has a sense of valuing positively or negatively
Fight-or-flight response a reflex that prepares the body to respond to danger in the environment
also known as the motor cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in motor skills, higher level cognition, and
Frontal lobe expressive language.
Attempts to understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they
Functionalism currently possess
Gamification Applying game incentives such as prompts, competition, badges, and rewards to ordinary activities
Gestalt therapy the skills and techniques that permit an individual to be more aware of their feelings
Growth need enables a person to selfactualize; allows one to reach full potential as a human being
Holist the whole is more than the sum of the parts
Humanistic psychology a hopeful, constructive view of human beings and of their substantial capacity to be selfdetermining
Identical elements theory of transfer The more similar the situations are, the greater the amount of information that will transfer

Identifiability . Identification or placement of a situation is a first response of the nervous system, which can recognize it
 Individuation the process of integrating the conscious with the unconscious, synergizing the many components of the psyche
Information Processor A system for taking information in one form and transforming it into another
Integrative Psychology psychology that combines the nature and actions of mind, body, and spirit
Intrinsic motivation the joy of the task itself
Introspection concentrate and report on their conscious experiences as they react to stimuli
Introvert Inner-directed; needs privacy and space; chooses solitude to recover energy; often reflective
Intuitive Sees many possibilities in situations
Latent content deep unconscious wishes or fantasies
Law of disuse The longer an association is unused, the weaker it becomes.
If an association is followed by satisfaction, it will be strengthened, and if it is followed by annoyance, it will be
Law of effect weakened.
Law of readiness A quality in responses and connections that results in readiness to act
Law of recency The most recent response is most likely to reoccur.
Law of use The more often an association is used, the stronger it becomes.
Mandala symbol of wholeness, completeness, and perfection
Manifest content superficial and meaningless
Methodologies Research study design principles
Metacognition s conscious thought about thought processes
all work consisted largely of simple, uninteresting tasks, and that the only viable method to get people to undertake
Motivation theory these tasks was to provide incentives and monitor them carefully

Multiple response An animal will try multiple responses (trial and error) if the first response does not lead to a specific state of affairs.
psychometric questionnaire designed to measure psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator make decisions

For Jung, life was a great _______, and he believed that humans know and understand very little of it. He never
Mystery hesitated to say, “I don’t know,” and he always admitted when he came to the end of his understanding.
Negative reinforcement taking something negative away in order to increase a response
Neural correlates of consciousness (NCC) link activity within the brain to subjective human experiences in the physical world

Neurogenesis The generation or growth of new brain cells, specifically when neurons are created from neural stem cells
Neurophilosophy focusing on the body rather than the mind

Jung had a hunch that what passed for normality often was the very force that shattered the personality of the
Neurosis patient. He proposed that trying to be “normal” violates a person’s inner nature and is itself a form of pathology.
Non-REM (NREM) sleep processes the conscious-related memory (declarative memory)

Occipital lobe also known as the visual cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in interpreting visual stimuli and information.

Operant conditioning how an organism operates on the environment or how it responds to what is presented to it in the environment
Paradigm prevailing model
Parasympathetic nervous system works to bring the body back to its normal state after a fightor-flight response.
Peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord
Persona mask or image a person presents to the world
This aspect of the psyche does not usually enter an individual’s awareness, but, instead, appears in overt behaviour or
Personal unconscious in dreams.
Phenomenal type of conscoiusness experience; in the moment
Positive psychology combines emotion and intuition with reason and research
Positive reinforcement adding something in order to increase a response

Preconscious things we could pay conscious attention to if we so desired, and where many memories are stored for easy retrieval

Prepotency of elements A subject can filter out irrelevant aspects of a problem and focus on and respond to significant elements of a problem.
When problem solvers let go of the initial problem, they are then freed to restructure or reorganize their
Problem restructuring representation of the problem and thereby capitalize on relevant information not previously noticed
Procedural memory memory for the performance of particular types of action
a type of analysis that involves attempting to affect behavioural change through having patients talk about their
Psychoanalysis difficulties
 Focuses on the role of our unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories and our early childhood experiences in
Psychodynamic psychology determining behaviour
Punishment adding something aversive in order to decrease a behaviour
Radical behaviourism philosophy of the science of behaviour
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep processes the unconscious-related memory (procedural memory)
Reductionist the simple is the source of the complex
Reinforcement refer to any stimulus which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response
Response by analogy Responses from a related or similar context may be used in a new context.
born of the industrial revolution and focused on scientific study of productivity in the workplace, fostered the
Scientific management development of motivation theory
solvers are freer to let go of certain ideas or concepts that may be inhibiting the problem-solving process, allowing a
Selective forgetting cleaner, fresher view of the problem and revealing clearer pathways to solution
Self archetype symbolizing the totality of the personality
Self-actualize reach his or her fullest potential as a human being
the encyclopedic knowledge that a person possesses, such as what the Eiffel Tower looks like, or the name of a friend
Semantic memory from Grade 6.
Sensing function Sensory; oriented toward the body and senses; detailed, concrete, and present
Set or attitude Animals are predisposed to act in a specific way.
Shadow side of a personality that a person does not consciously display in public
Skinner box used to measure responses of organisms and their orderly interactions with the environment

Jung concluded that every person has a ________, and when derangement occurs, it is because the personal story
has been denied or rejected. Healing and integration come when the person discovers or rediscovers his or her own
Story personal story.

Structuralism Uses the method of introspection to identify the basic elements or “structures” of psychological experience
Somatic nervous system controls the actions of skeletal muscles
When problem solvers disengage from the problem-solving task, they naturally expose themselves to more
Spreading activation information that can serve to inform the problem-solving process.
Symbol implied something vague and partially unknown or hidden, and was never precisely defined
Sympathetic nervous system controls the fight-or-flight response
also known as the auditory cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in the interpretation of the sounds and
Temporal lobe language we hear.
Thinking function Logical; sees cause and effect relations; cool, distant, frank, and questioning.

Third force Humanistic psychology emerged as the ______ in psychology after psychodynamic and behaviourist psychologies.
Threat-simulation theory suggests that dreaming should be seen as an ancient biological defence mechanism
those things that are outside of conscious awareness, including many memories, thoughts, and urges of which we are
Unconscious not aware
Visual attention the brain’s ability to selectively filter unattended or unwanted information from reaching awareness
Word association test research technique that Jung used to explore the complexes in the personal unconscious.