Sewage treatment

Raw influent (sewage) includes household waste liquid from toilets, baths, showers,
kitchens, sinks, and so forth that is disposed of via sewers. In many areas, sewage also
includes liquid waste from industry and commerce.

Sewage treatment, also called as domestic wastewater treatment, is the process of removing
contaminants from wastewater, both runoff (effluents) and domestic.

includes physical, chemical and biological processes to remove physical, chemical and
biological contaminants.

Its objective is to produce a waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid waste or sludge
suitable for discharge or reuse back into the environment.

This material is often inadvertently contaminated with many toxic organic and inorganic
compounds.

Sewage is created by residences, institutions, hospitals and commercial and industrial

establishments.

It can be treated close to where it is created (in septic tanks, biofilters or aerobic treatment
systems), or collected and transported via a network of pipes and pump stations to a
Industrial sources of wastewater often require specialized treatment processes

Sewage treatment involves three stages

- primary
- secondary
- tertiary treatment

correspondingly
- first, the solids are separated from the wastewater stream
- dissolved biological matter is progressively converted into a solid mass by using
indigenous, water-borne microorganisms
- the biological solids are neutralized then disposed of or re-used, and the treated water may
be disinfected chemically or physically.

The final effluent can be discharged into a stream, river, bay, lagoon or wetland, or it can be
used for the irrigation of a golf course, green way or park.

If it is sufficiently clean, it can also be used for groundwater recharge.

Primary treatment

removes the materials that can be easily collected from the raw wastewater and disposed of

The typical materials that are removed during primary treatment include fats, oils, and
greases (also referred to as FOG), sand, gravels and rocks (also referred to as grit), larger
settleable solids and floating materials (such as rags and flushed feminine hygiene products).

This step is done entirely with machinery.

This is most commonly done with a manual or automated mechanically raked bar screen. The
raking action of a mechanical bar screen is typically paced according to the accumulation on
the bar screens and/or flow rate.

The bar screen is used because large solids can damage or clog the equipment used later in
the sewage treatment plant. The solids are collected in a dumpster and later disposed in a
landfill.

Primary treatment also typically includes a sand or grit channel or chamber where the
velocity of the incoming wastewater is carefully controlled to allow sand grit and stones to
settle, while keeping the majority of the suspended organic material in the water column.
This equipment is called a degritter or sand catcher.

Sand, grit, and stones need to be removed early in the process to avoid damage to pumps and
other equipment in the remaining treatment stages.

Sometimes there is a sand washer (grit classifier) followed by a conveyor that transports the
sand to a container for disposal.

The contents from the sand catcher may be fed into the incinerator in a sludge processing
plant, but in many cases, the sand and grit is sent to a landfill

Sedimentation

Many plants have a sedimentation stage where the sewage is allowed to pass slowly through
large tanks, commonly called "primary clarifiers" or "primary sedimentation tanks".

The tanks are large enough that sludge can settle and floating material such as grease and oils
can rise to the surface and be skimmed off.

The main purpose of the primary clarification stage is to produce both a generally
homogeneous liquid capable of being treated biologically and a sludge that can be separately
treated or processed.
Primary settling tanks are usually equipped with mechanically driven scrapers that
continually drive the collected sludge towards a hopper in the base of the tank from where it
can be pumped to further sludge treatment stages.

Secondary treatment

Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biological content of the sewage
such as are derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent.

The majority of municipal and industrial plants treat the settled sewage liquor using aerobic
biological processes.

For this to be effective, the biota require both oxygen and a substrate on which to live. There
are number of ways in which this is done.

In all these methods, the bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic
contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain carbon molecules, etc.) and bind much of
the less soluble fractions into floc

Secondary treatment systems are classified as fixed film or suspended growth.

Fixed-film treatment process including trickling filter and rotating biological contactors
where the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over its surface.
In suspended growth systems—such as activated sludge—the biomass is well mixed with the
sewage and can be operated in a smaller space than fixed-film systems that treat the same
amount of water.

Activated sludge

In general, activated sludge plants encompass a variety of mechanisms and processes that use
dissolved oxygen to promote the growth of biological floc that substantially removes organic
material.

The process traps particulate material and can, under ideal conditions, convert ammonia to
nitrite and nitrate and ultimately to nitrogen gas
Surface-aerated basins

Most biological oxidation processes for treating industrial wastewaters have in common the
use of oxygen (or air) and microbial action.

Surface-aerated basins achieve 80 to 90% removal of Biochemical Oxygen Demand with

retention times of 1 to 10 days.

In an aerated basin system, the aerators provide two functions:

- they transfer air into the basins required by the biological oxidation reactions
- they provide the mixing required for dispersing the air and for contacting the reactants (that
is, oxygen, wastewater and microbes).

Typically, the floating surface aerators

are rated to deliver the amount of air
equivalent to 1.8 to 2.7 kg

Biological oxidation processes are

sensitive to temperature and, between
0 °C and 40 °C, the rate of biological
reactions increase with temperature.

Most surface aerated vessels operate

at between 4 °C and 32 °C
Biological aerated filters

Biological Aerated (or Anoxic) Filter (BAF) or Biofilters combine filtration with biological
carbon reduction, nitrification or denitrification.

BAF usually includes a reactor filled with a filter media.

The media is either in suspension or supported by a gravel layer at the foot of the filter.

The dual purpose of this media is to support highly active biomass that is attached to it and to
filter suspended solids.

Carbon reduction and ammonia conversion occurs in aerobic mode and sometime achieved
in a single reactor while nitrate conversion occurs in anoxic mode. BAF is operated either in
upflow or downflow configuration depending on design specified by manufacturer.

Secondary sedimentation

The final step in the secondary treatment stage is to settle out the biological floc or filter
material and produce sewage water containing very low levels of organic material and
suspended matter.
Rotating biological contactors

Rotating biological contactors (RBCs) are mechanical secondary treatment systems, which
are robust and capable of withstanding surges in organic load.

The rotating disks support the growth of bacteria and micro-organisms present in the sewage,
which breakdown and stabilise organic pollutants.

To be successful, micro-organisms need both oxygen to live and food to grow.

Oxygen is obtained from the atmosphere as the disks rotate. As the micro-organisms grow,
they build up on the media until they are sloughed off due to shear forces provided by the
rotating discs in the sewage.

Effluent from the RBC is then passed

through final clarifiers where the
micro-organisms in suspension settle
as a sludge. The sludge is withdrawn
from the clarifier for further treatment.

A functionally similar biological filtering

system has become popular as part of
home aquarium filtration and purification.
Tertiary treatment

Tertiary treatment provides a final stage to raise the effluent quality before it is discharged to
the receiving environment (sea, river, lake, ground, etc.).

More than one tertiary treatment process may be used at any treatment plant. If disinfection
is practiced, it is always the final process. It is also called "effluent polishing".

Filtration

Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter. Filtration over activated
carbon removes residual toxins.

Lagooning

Lagooning provides settlement and further biological improvement through storage in large
man-made ponds or lagoons.

These lagoons are highly aerobic and colonization by native macrophytes, especially reeds, is
often encouraged. Small filter feeding invertebrates such as Daphnia and species of Rotifera
greatly assist in treatment by removing fine particulates.
Constructed wetlands

Constructed wetlands include engineered reedbeds and a range of similar methodologies, all
of which provide a high degree of aerobic biological improvement and can often be used
instead of secondary treatment for small communities.

Nutrient removal

Wastewater may contain high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus.

Excessive release to the environment can lead to a build up of nutrients,(eutrophication)

In addition to causing deoxygenation, some algal species produce toxins that contaminate
drinking water supplies. Different treatment processes are required to remove nitrogen and
phosphorus.

Nitrogen removal

The removal of nitrogen is effected through the biological oxidation of nitrogen from
ammonia (nitrification) to nitrate, followed by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to
nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas is released to the atmosphere and thus removed from the water.
Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process, each step facilitated by a different type of
bacteria.

The oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2−) is most often facilitated by Nitrosomonas
spp. (nitroso referring to the formation of a nitroso functional group).

Nitrite oxidation to nitrate (NO3−), though traditionally believed to be facilitated by

Nitrobacter spp. (nitro referring the formation of a nitro functional group), is now known to
be facilitated in the environment almost exclusively by Nitrospira spp.

Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to encourage the appropriate biological

communities to form.

It is facilitated by a wide diversity of bacteria.

Sand filters, lagooning and reed beds can all be used to reduce nitrogen, but the activated
sludge process (if designed well) can do the job the most easily.

Since denitrification is the reduction of nitrate to dinitrogen gas, an electron donor is needed.

This can be, depending on the wastewater, organic matter (from faeces), sulfide, or an added
donor like methanol.

Sometimes the conversion of toxic ammonia to nitrate alone is referred to as tertiary

treatment.
Nitrogen removal is important for treatment plants such as in NYC where the final effluent
goes into waterways that are abundant in marine life.

Nitrogen aids in the growth of plants which use oxygen thus reducing the nuber of beneficial
marine life from our waterways.

Phosphorus removal

Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced biological phosphorus

removal.

specific bacteria, called polyphosphate accumulating organisms, are selectively enriched and
accumulate large quantities of phosphorus within their cells (up to 20% of their mass).

When the biomass enriched in these bacteria is separated from the treated water, these
biosolids have a high fertilizer value.

Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by chemical precipitation, usually with salts of
iron (e.g. ferric chloride) or aluminum (e.g. alum).

The resulting chemical sludge is difficult to handle and the added chemicals can be
expensive. Despite this, chemical phosphorus removal requires significantly smaller
equipment footprint than biological removal, is easier to operate and can be more reliable in
areas that have wastewater compositions that make biological phosphorus removal difficult.
Disinfection

The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of wastewater is to substantially reduce the

number of microorganisms in the water to be discharged back into the environment.

The effectiveness of disinfection depends on the quality of the water being treated (e.g.,
cloudiness, pH, etc.), the type of disinfection being used, the disinfectant dosage
(concentration and time), and other environmental variables.

Cloudy water will be treated less successfully since solid matter can shield organisms,
especially from ultraviolet light or if contact times are low.

Generally, short contact times, low doses and high flows all militate against effective
disinfection.

Common methods of disinfection include ozone, chlorine, or ultraviolet light.

Chlorination remains the most common form of wastewater disinfection in North America
due to its low cost and long-term history of effectiveness.

One disadvantage is that chlorination of residual organic material can generate chlorinated-
organic compounds that may be carcinogenic or harmful to the environment. Residual
chlorine or chloramines may also be capable of chlorinating organic material in the natural
aquatic environment. Further, because residual chlorine is toxic to aquatic species, the treated
effluent must also be chemically dechlorinated, adding to the complexity and cost of
Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of chlorine, iodine, or other chemicals.

Because no chemicals are used, the treated water has no adverse effect on organisms that
later consume it, as may be the case with other methods.

UV radiation causes damage to the genetic structure of bacteria, viruses, and other
pathogens, making them incapable of reproduction.

The key disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for frequent lamp maintenance and
replacement and the need for a highly treated effluent to ensure that the target
microorganisms are not shielded from the UV radiation

(i.e., any solids present in the treated effluent may protect microorganisms from the UV
light).

In the United Kingdom, light is becoming the most common means of disinfection because
of the concerns about the impacts of chlorine in chlorinating residual organics in the
wastewater and in chlorinating organics in the receiving water.
.
Ozone is generated by passing oxygen O2 through a high voltage potential resulting in a
third oxygen atom becoming attached and forming O3.

Ozone is very unstable and reactive and oxidizes most organic material it comes in contact
with, thereby destroying many pathogenic microorganisms.

Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because, unlike chlorine which has to be stored
on site (highly poisonous in the event of an accidental release), ozone is generated onsite as
needed.

Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-products than chlorination.

A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone generation equipment and
the requirements for special operators.
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal of waste
materials.

The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and is generally undertaken
to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics.

Waste management is also carried out to recover resources from it. Waste management can
involve solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive substances, with different methods and fields of
expertise for each.

Waste management practices differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural
areas, and for residential and industrial, producers.

Management for non-hazardous residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is

usually the responsibility of local government authorities, while management for non-
hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the generator.
Disposal methods

landfill

Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying waste to dispose of it, and this remains a
common practice in most countries.

Landfills were often established in disused quarries, mining voids or borrow pits.

A properly-designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive

method of disposing of waste materials.

Older, poorly-designed or poorly-managed landfills can create a number of adverse

environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation of
liquid leachate.

Another common byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon
dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down anaerobically.
Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as clay
or plastic lining material.

Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered to
prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats).

Many landfills also have landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas.

Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas
engine to generate electricity.

Incineration

Incineration is a disposal method that involves combustion of waste material.

Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as
"thermal treatment".

Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam, and ash.

Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by
industry.
It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste.

It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such

as biological medical waste).

Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of

gaseous pollutants.

Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is more scarce, as these
facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills.

waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn
waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam and/or electricity.

Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about
micro-pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks.

Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organics such as dioxins which may
be created within the incinerator and which may have serious environmental consequences in
the area immediately around the incinerator.
Recycling methods

The process of extracting resources or value from waste is generally referred to as recycling,
meaning to recover or reuse the material.

There are a number of different methods by which waste material is recycled:

the raw materials may be extracted and reprocessed, or the calorific content of the waste may
be converted to electricity.

New methods of recycling are being developed continuously

The popular meaning of ‘recycling’ in most developed countries refers to the widespread
collection and reuse of everyday waste materials such as empty beverage containers.

These are collected and sorted into common types so that the raw materials from which the
items are made can be reprocessed into new products.

Material for recycling may be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins
and collection vehicles, or sorted directly from mixed waste streams.
The most common consumer products recycled include aluminum beverage cans, steel food
and aerosol cans, HDPE and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons,
newspapers, magazines, and cardboard.

Other types of plastic (PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS: see resin identification code) are also
recyclable, although these are not as commonly collected.

These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy
to recycle into new products.

The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more
difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.
Biological reprocessing

Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper
products, can be recycled using biological composting and digestion processes to decompose
the organic matter.

The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or
landscaping purposes.

In addition, waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for
generating electricity.

The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the
natural process of decomposition of organic matter.

Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as being aerobic or anaerobic

methods, though hybrids of the two methods also exist.

An example of waste management through composting is the Green Bin Program in Toronto,
Canada, where household organic waste (such as kitchen scraps and plant cuttings) are
collected in a dedicated container and then composted.
Energy recovery

The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as a direct
combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel.

Recycling through thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or
heating, to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine.

Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste materials
are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability.

The process typically occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure.

Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid and gas products.

The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other products.

The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon.

Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are used to convert organic materials
directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam.

Avoidance and reduction methods

An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being

created, also known as waste reduction.

Methods of avoidance include

- reuse of second-hand products
- repairing broken items instead of buying new
- designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping
bags)
- encouraging consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery
- designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for example,
lightweighting of beverage cans).