Learners, Approaches and Methods

The teaching and learning environment

The contributions of the learner and the teacher to learning and teaching processes as well as
the status of approaches and methods in the curriculum development process

We will examine the roles of the learner and how these roles intersect with approaches and
methods.

We look at learner autonomy, learner strategies, learning styles, and the role of technology

«learning is not the mirror image of teaching» a perspective of learner-centeredness

The learner-autonomy movement as well as research on learning strategies and learning styles
emphasize that learners can be actively involved in managing and directing their own learning
and that one of the goals of teaching is to enable learners to take more responsibility for their
own learning.

Technology can play an important role in facilitating self-directed learning on the part of
learners, allowing them to personalize their learning further; it can also increase motivation.

«Successful learners create their own learning paths and effective teachers seek to recognize
learners’ approaches to learning, to help them acquire effective learning strategies and to
build a focus on the learner into their lessons»

Learner Autonomy

Concerned with the role learners can play in their own learning

Emphasis is placed on the fact that «successful learners often learn in ways that may be
independent of the methods that are used to teach them or that may be important for the
success of these methods» p. 332

Learners – more active role in managing their own learning and the means to connect the in-
class and out-of-class learning» p. 332

Two views:
Traditional view -------------- A learner-autonomous perspective

A top-down teacher-managed view of learning – involving learners in decisions

No choice in what to learn - making learning more personal

e.g. Silent Way, TPR, ALM - learning is based needs/preferences

Five principles of achieving autonomous learning (Benson, 2001)

Active involvement in student learning

Providing options and resources

Offering choices and decision-making opportunities

Supporting learners

Encouraging reflection

In such classes,

T becomes more of a facilitator

Ss are discouraged from relying on the teacher as the main source of knowledge, their
capacity to learn is encouraged, they are encouraged to make decisions about what they learn,
their awareness of their own learning styles is encouraged, they are encouraged to develop
their own strategies.

Other applications of learner autonomy includes (Reinders, 2009)

Needs analysis

Learner training

Self-monitoring

Learning councilling

Learning resourses

Self-Access centers

Follow-up and support

Self-study

«The concept of a learner autonomy suggests that teachers using a particular approach or
method should review their use of method to determine if it can be used in conjunction with
activities that develop autonomous learning or whether it limits the learner’s capacity to
manage their own learning» p. 334 (e.g. CLIL and CLT)

Learner Strategies

Some methods prescribe the kinds of strategies learners should use. E.g. CLT and CoP –
interactive strategies; SW– cognitive strategies

What is meant by learning strategies?

«Language learning strategies can be defined as thoughts and actions, consciously selected by
learners, to assist them in learning and using language in general, and in the completion of
specific language tasks» p. 334

Sometimes also viewed as an aspect of learner autonomy.

These strategies are also linked to the characteristics of good learners:

Willing and accurate guessers

Strong drive to communicate

Not inhibited

Prepared to attend to form and meaning

Practice, monitor their and others’ speech

For example, Cohen and Dornyei (2002) give the following examples of reading strategies:

a) With regard to reading habits in the target language:

• Making a real effort to find reading material that is at or near one’s level.

b) As basic reading strategies:

• Planning how to read a text, monitor to see how the reading is going, and then check to see
how much of it was understood

• Making ongoing summaries either in one’s mind or in the margins of the text.

c) When encountering unknown words and structures:

• Guessing the appropriate meaning by using clues from the surrounding context

• Using a dictionary to get a detailed sense of what individual words mean.

The relevance of strategy theory to teaching is that some strategies are likely to be more
effective than others, and by recognizing the differences between the strategies used by expert
and novice language learners or between successful and less successful learners, the
effectiveness of teaching and learning can be improved.
Methods and approaches implicitly or explicitly require the use of specific learning strategies;
however, the focus of much strategy research is on self-managed strategies that may be
independent of those favored by a particular method.

A well-known classification of strategies distinguishes four different kinds of strategics

according to their function (Chamot 1987, 2001; Oxford 1990): cognitive strategies,
metacognitive strategies, social strategies, and affective strategies

• Cognitive strategies. These refer to the processes learners make use of in order to better
understand or remember learning materials or input and in retrieving it, such as by making
mental associations, underlining key phrases in a text, making word lists to review following
a lesson, and so on.

• Metacognitive strategies. These are ways in which learners “control their language learning
by planning what they will do, checking on progress, and then evaluating their performance
on a given task” (Cohen 2011: 682). For example, a student might focus on the following
kinds of questions in relation to a listening text that a teacher uses during a lesson:

“ I low should I approach this listening text?” (planning)

“ What parts of the text should I pay more attention to?” (planning)

• Social strategies: These are ‘’ the means emploed by learners for interacting with other
learners and native speakers, such as through asking questions to clarify social roles and
relationships, asking for exokanation or verification and cooperating with others in order to
complete tasks» (Cohen, 2011, p. 682)

• Affective strategies: These are actions the learner takes to manage the emotions they
experience when learning a new language or when they try out what they have learned in
communication.

To help students develop effective strategy use, four issues need to be addressed:

Raising awareness of the strategies learners are already using

Presenting and modelling strategies so that learners become increasingly aware of their own
thinking and learning processes

Providing multiple practice opportunities to help learners move toward autonomous use of the
strategies through gradual withdrawal of teacher scaffolding and
Getting students to evaluate the effectiveness of strategies used and any efforts that they have
made to transfer these strategies to new tasks.

Learning styles

Strategies refer to specific actions learners take to address particular learning tasks or
language use situations, learning styles refer to a general predisposition or preference to
approach learning in particular ways.

«An individual's natural, habitual, preferred way(s) of absorbing processing and retaining new
information and skills» p. 337

Different lists and taxonomies of learning

styles

Visual learners

Auditory learners

Kinesthetic learners

Tactile learners

Group learners

Individual learners.

Authority-oriented learners

Learning style preferences also reflect the learner’s cultural background since conceptions of
both teaching and learning differ from culture to culture (Tsui 2009).

In some cultures a good teacher is one who controls and directs learners and who maintains a
respectful distance between the teacher and the learners.
Learners arc the more or less passive recipients of the teacher’s expertise. Teaching is viewed
as a teacher-controlled and directed process.

In other cultures the teacher may be viewed more as a facilitator. The ability to form close
interpersonal relations with students is highly valued and there is a strong emphasis on
individual learner creativity and independent learning. Students may even be encouraged to
question and challenge what the teacher says.

« no particular style can be isolated as being important for success in language learning.
Instead success rather depends on learners choosing a style which suits their own individual
and contextual needs.” (Griffiths, 2012, p. 162)

In terms of how learning styles combine with approaches and methods, the important
consideration is the following: students who come from educational backgrounds where the
teacher plays a more dominant role and where the individual is not encouraged to stand out in
a group, as in the example cited above from China, may prefer more conventional teaching
methods, including Audiolingualism (Chapter 4), Situational Language Teaching (Chapter 3),
or even Grammar-Translation (Chapter 1).

It is very important for the teacher to be sensitive to the cultural environment when choosing
an approach or method

The impact of Technology

The movement toward a learner-centered approach to teaching in recent years reflects a

philosophical reorientation and change in thinking about the roles of learners as well as a
response to changed opportunities for learner-initiated learning through the use of the Internet
and other forms of technology.

The use of the interactive whiteboard

The increasing ubiquity of web-based teaching and learning resources

Many course books are nowadays already accompanied by an ever-widening range of linked
e-resources

Technology thus provides opportunities for learners to be less dependent on classroom

learning and

the teacher’s approach or method. It does this by:

providing a wider exposure to English

increasing opportunities for interaction

supporting different learning styles

providing learners with opportunities to focus on particular skills

providing support that is suitable for learners of different proficiency levels

encouraging more active learning

encouraging learner autonomy through giving learners a greater level of choice over what

they learn and how they learn it

providing a stress-reduced environment

providing a social context for learning

increasing motivation

providing access to more engaging material

supporting learning outside of the classroom

offering opportunities for more and alternative types of feedback

Technology can also support many of the approaches and methods discussed in this book.
For example, it can be used as a component of Communicative Language Teaching, Task-
Based Language Teaching, Text-Based Instruction, as well as Cooperative Language
Learning, by providing opportunities for authentic interactions during which learners have to
employ and expand their communicative resources, supported by the ability to link sound,
word, texts, and images in the process. There are many possibilities, such as through chat
rooms and discussion hoards

LEARNER CENTERED PERSPECTIVE

One of the assumptions underlying a learner-centered perspective is that learning is not

necessarily a mirror image of teaching.

Successful learners create their own learning pathways, and effective teachers seek to
recognize learners' approaches to learning, to help them acquire effective learning strategies
and to build a focus on the learner into their lessons.

LEARNER AUTONOMY

Learner autonomy refers to the ability of learners to take charge of their own learning process,
make decisions regarding what and how they learn, and take responsibility for their
educational journey.

It involves learners becoming more self-directed and independent in their learning, with the
capacity to set goals, plan their learning activities, monitor their progress, and reflect on their
learning experiences.

Five principles of achieving autonomous learning

Active involvement in student learning

Providing options and resources

Offering choices and decision-making opportunities

Supporting learners

Encouraging reflection

IN SUCH CLASSES,
Students are discouraged from relying on the teacher as the main source of knowledge.

Students' capacity to learn for themselves is encouraged.

Students are encouraged to make decisions about what they learn.

Students' awareness of their own learning styles is encouraged.

WHAT ARE THE OBLIGATORY COMPONENTS OF EUROPE LANGUAGE

PORTFOLIO?

The European Language Portfolio (ELP) is a tool developed by the Council of Europe to
promote language learning and intercultural understanding.

Language Passport: The Language Passport which provides the means for the learner to
summarize his or her linguistic identity.

Language Biography: The Language Biography is a self-assessment tool that allows learners
to reflect on their language learning experiences, motivations, and goals.

Dossier: The Dossier helps learners showcase their language skills and experiences in a
tangible way, making it a valuable resource for academic or professional purposes.

OTHER APPLICATIONS OF LEARNER AUTONOMY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

(REINDERS 2009) INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:

Needs analysis: After consultation and assessment, the teacher may help the learner develop a
profile of his or her strengths and weaknesses and suggest independent learning approaches to
address the weaknesses identified.

Learner training: This can involve short courses or training activities that seek to introduce
strategies for independent learning.

Self-monitoring: Another aspect of autonomous learning is for learners to develop skills

needed to monitor their own learning.

Learning-counseling: This refers to regular meetings between teachers and learners to help
learners plan for their own learning.

Learning resources: The institution may provide links to online or print resources such as the
ELP referred to above or other resources that foster autonomous learning.
Self-access centers: Many institutions have a facility available online or in a dedicated center
where a variety of self-directed learning resources are available, both to complement
classroom instruction and for independent self-directed learning.

Follow-up and support: Successful implementation of the development of learner autonomy

involves provision of ongoing support and encouragement.

Self-study: There are a number of commercial language-learning packages presently intended

entirely for self-study

Langauge learning strategies can be defined as thoughts and actions, consciously selected by
learners, to assist them in learning and using language in general, and in the completion of
specific language tasks.

Language Learning Strategies:

They are like tecniques and the learners choose them consciously to enhance their learning.

These strategies enable learners to control their own learning. (They suggest an active role for

learners.)

These strategies improve independent and autonomous learning.

They are also connected to the features of good learners.

Seven characteristics of ‘Good Learners’:

1) They are willing and accurate guessers. (They are comfortable with uncertainty.)

2) They have a strong desire to communicate and they learn from communication.

(They do many things to convey their message.)

3) If there is an effective communication, they do not mind looking like a foolish.

(They don’t care about making mistakes.)

4) They always look for patterns in the language.

5) They practice whenever it is possible to do so.

6) They not only monitor their own speech but also the speech of others. (They always
analyze them.)

7) They focus on ‘meaning’. They know that grammar is NOT just enough to understand the
message.
Examples of Reading Strategies:

For reading habits: A reading material should be at or near one’s level.

Basic reading strategies: We plan how to read a text.

We monitor how the reading is going.

We check how much we understand it.

We always make summaries in our minds or in the margin of the text.

When encountering unknown words and structures:

We try to guess the meaning from the context.

We use a dictionary to understand the meaning of each word.

Note:

Some strategies can be more effective than others.

Different strategies may appeal to different learners

(To know them improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning.)

Cognitive Strategies:

They are mental processes which learners use to increase their language learning.

They help learners to understand and remember the language input.

They include summarizing, note-taking, highlighting and so forth.

Metacognitive Strategies:

They are about planning and thinking.

In order to be succesful: We plan what we will do.

We check on progress.

We evaluate our performance

Self questioning is crucial.

Am I approaching this task correctly? How can I do better next time?

Social Strategies:

Learners interact with other learners and native speakers.

They ask questions to each other.

They cooperate with others in order to complete the tasks.

Affective Strategies:

They focus on emotions, behaviours and motivation.

All these have an important impact on learners and learning process.

Using relaxation techniques to diminish anxiety is an example of an effective strategy.

Four Key Issues for an Effective Strategy:

Teachers should help learners to understand their own learning strategies. (Raising awareness)

Teachers should present and model strategies so that learners will be aware of their thinking
and learning process.

Teachers should provide multiple practice opportunities so that learners use them
autonomously.

They enable students to see the effectiveness of the strategies. This enables students to
transfer these strategies to new tasks.

Learning Styles:

An individual’s natural, habitual and preferred ways of absorbing processing and retaining
new information and skills.

A learning style can be defined as a method of processing information.

Everybody learns differently. That’s why everybody has their own learning style preferences.

Learning Styles:

Visual Learners:

They learn through seeing.

They use charts, maps, graphs, etc.

They can learn on their own with a book ( by seeing the words and taking notes.)
Auditory Learners:

They learn through listening and talking.

Discussion groups, debates, listening podcasts are significant for this type of learners.

Kinesthetic Learners:

These learners learn the things by ‘doing’.

Activities such as role plays and field trips are important.

Tactile Learners:

They learn by ‘touching’ and ‘doing’.

Hands-on activities are important.

They like building, fixing, or putting things together.

Group Learners:

They learn best when they work with others.

‘Interaction’ is important for these learners.

Individual Learners:

These learners prefer working on their own.

They learn and remember the things when they learn it alone.

Authority-oriented Learners:

These learners prefer a teacher as an authority figure.

Note:

Cultural background has a great impact on learning styles preferences.

For example, in some cultures the teacher may be more dominant and authoritative while in
other cultures they may be seen as a facilitator.

That’s why teachers should be careful when they choose a method (in terms of cultural
environment.)

There is no only one important style.

Students can be successful by choosing styles that suit them.

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY

The movement toward a learner-centered approach to teaching in recent years reflects a

philosophical reorientation and change in thinking about the roles of learners as well as a
response to changed opportunities for learner-initiated learning through the use of the Internet
and other forms of technology. Technology thus provides opportunities for learners to be less
dependent on classroom learning and the teacher's approach or method. It does this by:

providing a wider exposure to English, including authentic example of language use;

increasing opportunities for interaction both with other learners and with native-speakers and
second language users of English worldwide;

supporting different learning styles, allowing students to find learning resources that match
their preferred way of learning (e.g., visual or auditory styles);

providing learners with opportunities to focus on particular skills, such as reading or

speaking:

providing support that is suitable for learners of different proficiency levels, enabling learners
to choose activities that range in difficulty from beginner to advanced;

encouraging more active learning through changes in the roles of students that technology
makes possible: students are no longer the passive recipients of instruction but are actively
engaged in furthering their own knowledge and skills and are more in control of the process
and the learning outcomes;

encouraging learner autonomy through giving learners a greater level of choice over what
they learn and how they learn it, thus developing a greater sense of learner autonomy;

- providing a stress-reduced environment, since for some learners technology-based learning

is a less stressful way to practice using English than classroom-based activities where they
feel they are being compared with their peers;

- providing a social context for learning by allowing learners to join a learning community in
which they interact socially with other learners; in this way technology encourages
collaborative learning
- provide peer-tutoring, helping each other accomplish tasks

- increasing motivation, since motivation often increases and discipline problems decrease
when students are engaged in technology-based learning;

providing access to more engaging material, since through the Internet learners can access
content that is often very engaging for them, such as digital games, YouTube content, and so
on

supporting learning outside of the classroom, such as through the use of mobile technologies
that can be helpful in supporting learners to use English at the point of need, for example
when traveling;

offering opportunities for more and alternative types of feedback as with programs that
include

immediate or relayed feedback to learners, and collaborative tools such as email and chat that
allow

learners to work with other learners to get peer-feedback, or to get help from a (remote)
teacher.

Technology can also support many of the approaches and methods

-For example, it can be used as a component of Communicative Language Teaching, Task-

Based Language Teaching, Text-Based Instruction, as well as Cooperative Language
Learning, by providing opportunities for authentic interactions during which learners have to
employ their communicative resources, supported by the ability to link sound, word, texts,
and images in the process. There are many possibilities, such as through chat rooms and
discussion board.

Technology also provides easy access to a rich range of authentic materials, and it enables
learners in different locations to work together on collaborative tasks and to make use of a
variety of different modes of communication - including print,,visual. The classroom textbook
can be enriched by making links to topics, functions, and activities that appear in the book.

Students can also explore websites, watch online videos and news clips, and share their
reactions to these with other learners.

Conclusion

While approaches and methods generally contain defined roles for learners and reflect
specific assumptions about the strategies and processes learners should make use of in
language learning, learners' contributions to language learning should not be constrained by
the practices of a particular teaching approach or method. A focus on learner autonomy.
learning strategies, learning styles, and the opportunities for learner-focused learning provided
by technology expands our understanding of the role of learners in language learning. It
reminds that language teaching is not simply about teaching language. A learner-centered
approach to teaching has as its goal to provide learners with learning resources that they can
use both in and outside the classroom and ways in which learners can focus and manage their
own learning