Secondary 3 IP Chemistry

Topic 4: Acids, Bases and Salts

Handout 1

Name: Class:

Learning outcomes

4.1 The characteristic properties of acids and bases

Candidates should be able to:
(a) describe acid as a substance that produces hydrogen ions as the only positive ions in water
(b) describe an alkali as a basic oxide or hydroxide which is soluble in water to produce hydroxide
ions
(c) describe importance of water for acidity, i.e., water causes acid molecules to ionise and form
hydrogen ions
(d) describe the reaction between hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions to produce water, H + + OH- 
H2O as neutralisation
(e) describe neutrality and relative acidity and alkalinity (of an aqueous solution) in terms of the
relative H+ and OH- ion concentrations
(f) describe how to test hydrogen ion concentration and hence, relative acidity using Universal
indicator and the pH scale
(g) explain basicity of common acids and relate to concentration of hydrogen ions
(h) describe qualitatively the difference between strong and weak acids in terms of extent of
ionisation of acid in water
(i) identify aqueous sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide as strong alkalis and describe
aqueous ammonia as a weak alkali
(j) state the properties of acids in reactions with metals (the ability of metals to react with acids
should be linked to their position in the reactivity series), bases and carbonates
(k) state the uses of sulfuric acid as in the manufacture of detergents and fertilisers, and as a
battery acid
(l) describe the characteristic properties of bases in reactions with acids and with ammonium salts
(m) describe the importance of controlling pH in soil and how excess acidity can be treated using
calcium hydroxide
(n) classify oxides as either acidic, basic, amphoteric or neutral based on metallic / non-metallic
character
(o) classify sulfur dioxide as an acidic oxide and state its uses as a bleach, in the manufacture of
wood pulp for paper and as a food preservative (by killing bacteria)

References
Chang, M., Chew, A., Sadler, J., Tan, Y. T., Wong, H.-V., & Woo, C. H. (2023). Chemistry matters: GCE “O” level,
textbook. Marshall Cavendish Education.
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1 Introduction

Chemical reactions involving acids and bases play an important role in our lives. They occur in the kitchen, in
the laundry, in the garden, in swimming pools and even inside the body.

Most people think of acids as being corrosive and dangerous. This is true for some acids we use in the
laboratory, such as sulfuric acid. But some acids are not harmful and are commonly found in our food. For
example, vinegar is a dilute solution of ethanoic acid. Citrus fruit, such as oranges and lemons, contain citric
acid. The acids are responsible for the sour taste in these fruits. In fact, the word 'acid' comes from the Latin
word acidus meaning sour. All acids have a sour taste.

On the other hand, bases feel slippery and soapy, and are used in many cleaning products. They must be
handled with care to prevent the solution from reacting with the skin, with some strong bases being
corrosive to the skin.

Understanding the properties and reactions of acids and bases is fundamental to appreciating the various
practical applications in everyday life, from cooking to cleaning and to maintaining the pH balance in soil and
the human body.

2 Acids

Table. 1 shows some common acids, their formulae and the ions they produce in aqueous solutions, that is,
when the acids are dissolved in water.

Table. 1 Formulae of common acids and the ions they produce in aqueous solutions
Acid Formula Ions produced in aqueous solution
Hydrochloric acid HCl H+ (aq) Cl− (aq)
Nitric acid HNO3 H+ (aq) NO−3 (aq)
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 H+ (aq) SO2−4 (aq)
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH +
H (aq) CH3COO− (aq)

2.1 Definition of acid (Arrhenius definition)

An acid is a substance in which its molecules dissociates in water to produce H+ (aq) ions (or H3O+ (aq)
ions) as the only positive ions.

E.g. HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)

or HCl (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)

In aqueous solution, H+ ions bond to water molecules to form H3O+ ions, called hydronium or hydroxonium
ions. Chemists often use H+ (aq) and H3O+ (aq) interchangeably to refer to the solvated H+ ion.

• It is the presence of hydrogen ions that are responsible for the properties of acids.
• Note: All acids contain hydrogen but not all hydrogen-containing compounds are acids.
For example, ammonia, NH3, and ethanol, CH3CH2OH, are not acids because they do not produce
hydrogen ions when dissolved in water.

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2.2 Role of water in acidity

Acids only show the properties of acids when they are dissolved in water. This is because when acids are
dissolved in water, the acid molecules dissociate, to produce H+ ions, which are responsible for the acidic
properties.

To illustrate this, we look at two cases.

Case #1
Vitamin C is known to be ascorbic acid. Vitamin C tablet displays no acidic properties (does not conduct
electricity, has no effect on blue litmus) when it is a dry solid. However, when dissolved in water, it conducts
electricity and turns blue litmus red.

Deduction: The ascorbic acid display acidic properties only when it is dissolved in water.

Case #2
Hydrogen chloride exists as simple covalent molecules at room temperature and pressure. In the absence of
water, for example in organic solvents, they do not behave as acids.

Fig. 1 HCl in organic solvent and HCl in water

Expected Observation:
a) when tested with litmus paper.

Blue litmus turns red when dipped into Solution B. Solution A has no effect on litmus paper..

b) when terminal ends/electrodes of electrical conductivity tester is inserted.

Light bulb does not light up when Solution A is tested but lights up when Solution B is tested.

2.3 Basicity of acid

Although acids lose hydrogen when dissolved in water, not all hydrogen atoms will be lost. The number of
hydrogen atoms that will ionize is determined by the basicity of the acid. The basicity of an acid is the
number of ionizable hydrogen ions that can be produced by a molecule of the acid.

For monobasic acids, 1 molecule of the acid yields 1 H+ ion when dissociated.
For dibasic acids, 1 molecule of the acid yields 2 H+ ions when dissociated.
For tribasic acids, 1 molecule of the acid yields 3 H+ ions when dissociated.

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For example:

Monobasic Acid: HNO3 (aq) → H+ (aq) + NO3− (aq)

Dibasic Acid: H2SO4 (aq) → 2H+ (aq) + SO42− (aq)

Tribasic Acid: H3PO4 (aq) ⇌ 3H+ (aq) + PO43− (aq)

2.4 Strength of Acid

The strength of an acid depends on the extent of its dissociation in water.

Definition: A strong acid is one in which its molecules dissociate completely in water to give a high
concentration of hydrogen ions (H+).
i.e. complete dissociation, eg. HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl─ (aq)
Definition: A weak acid is one in which its molecules dissociate partially in water to give a low
concentration of hydrogen ions (H+).
i.e. partial dissociation eg. CH3CO2H (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + CH3CO2─ (aq)

Illustrate the particles present in the strong and weak acid solution Legend:
H+ CH3CO2H H+ : hydrogen ion
Cl ─
H+ Cl─ : chloride ion
Cl─ HCl : hydrogen
H+ CH3CO2H chloride molecule
CH3CO2H: ethanoic
H+ CH3CO2H acid molecule
Cl ─
H+
CH3CO2- CH3CO2─ : ethanoate
─ ─
Cl Cl ion
+
H CH3CO2H
Strong acid solution Weak acid

Strength and Uses of some common acids

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Strength vs. Concentration of H + ions

• A strong acid is one that dissociates completely in water to produce high concentration of H + ions.
• A weak acid is one that dissociates partially in water to produce low concentration of H+ ions.
• An acid solution that contains a large amount of the dissolved acid is said to be concentrated.
• An acid solution that contains a small amount of the dissolved acid is said to be dilute.
• Most acids used in the laboratory are dilute, eg. dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute nitric acid, etc.
• The concentration of H+ ions in an aqueous solution of an acid is measured by its pH.

pH = – log10[H+]

[H+] refers to the concentration of H+ ions in water.

Additional Note:

Strength of acid depends solely on whether acid dissociate completely (strong acid) or partially (weak acid).

Concentration of acid refers to amount of acid dissolved per unit volume of water.

Dilute acid: small amount of acid dissolved per unit volume of water.

Concentrated acid: large amount of acid dissolved per unit volume of water.

We can make a very concentrated weak acid by dissolving large amount of acid in small volumes of water
(imagine a 100 cm3 beaker). It is still a weak acid solution, because only partial ionization of acid molecules
occur.

We can make a very diluted strong acid by dissolving a small amount of acid in large volumes of water
(imagine a 100-litre fish tank, 1000 times larger than 100ml). It is still a strong acid solution because
complete dissociation of acid molecules occur.

As pH measures concentration of H+ ions, it is thus possible for a very concentrated weak acid to have a
lower pH than a very diluted strong acid.

Diluted strong acid Concentrated weak acid

Pictures extracted from PhET simulation Acid-Base Solutions: https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/acid-
base-solutions

**Hence, to use pH to compare the strength of two acids, the concentration of both acids must first be the
same. (i.e. same amount of acid molecules dissolved per unit volume of solvent).

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2.5 Properties of acid

Q: Why are acid solutions able to
1. Acids have a sour taste conduct electricity?
2. Acids dissolve in water to form solutions which conduct electricity. (Why?) Presence of mobile ions
3. Acids turn blue litmus paper red. Eg. In dilute HCl, HCl dissociate
4. Acids react with reactive metals to form hydrogen gas and a salt. completely in water to form
The general equation for acid-metal reaction is shown below: mobile H+ ions and Cl- ions, which
act as charge carriers to conduct
electricity.
Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen

• Only metals that are above hydrogen in the reactivity series of metals react with acids to give salt
and hydrogen gas.

• Reactivity series of metals is shown below.

Note:

Hydrogen and Carbon are not metals. They are included

here for comparison so we can deduce

1) which metals react with acid.

- Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series (NOT “more
reactive than hydrogen”) react with acids to form hydrogen
and salt.

2) which metal can be displaced from their oxide by carbon

and hydrogen (Extended)

- Metals below carbon can be extracted from their oxide

using carbon.
Eg. 2ZnO + C → 2Zn + CO2

- Metals below hydrogen can be extracted from their oxide

using hydrogen gas.

Eg. 2CuO + H2 → 2Cu + 2H2O

These reactions will be revisited in Redox reactions in Sec 4.

Example 1

When magnesium ribbon is added to hydrochloric acid, brisk effervescence of colourless, odourless gas that
extinguished a lighted splint is observed.

Magnesium + dilute hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + hydrogen

Chemical equation:

Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Ionic equation:

Mg (s) + 2H+ (aq) → Mg2+ (aq)+ H2 (g)

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Salts are called chlorides when they are formed from hydrochloric acid;

nitrates when formed from nitric acid;

and sulfates when formed from sulfuric acid.

Definition of salt

A salt is the ionic compound formed when hydrogen ions from an acid are displaced by metal or ammonium
ions. The anion of salt comes from an acid.

Test for hydrogen gas

Place a lighted splint at the mouth of the reaction test tube. If the lighted splint extinguishes with a ‘pop’
sound, hydrogen gas is produced.

Fig. 2 Testing for hydrogen gas

5. Acids react with all carbonates to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water. The general equation for the
reaction is shown below:

carbonate + acid → salt + water + carbon dioxide

Example 2

When calcium carbonate is added to hydrochloric acid, calcium chloride, water and carbon dioxide is
produced. Brisk effervescence of colourless odourless gas that produced a white precipitate when bubbled
into limewater is observed.

Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid → calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

Chemical equation:

CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

Ionic equation:

CaCO3 (s) + 2H+ (aq) → Ca2+ (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

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Test for carbon dioxide

Bubble the gas through a test tube of limewater using a delivery tube. If a white precipitate is formed with
limewater, carbon dioxide gas is produced.

Fig. 3 Testing for carbon dioxide gas

Chemical equation:

CO2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)

white ppt

6. Acids react with metal oxides and hydroxides to form a salt and water only.

The general equation for

(a) the reaction of an acid and metal oxide and
(b) the reaction of an acid and metal hydroxide is as shown:

(a) metal oxide + acid → salt + water

(b) metal hydroxide + acid → salt + water

Example 3

Zinc oxide reacts with dilute sulfuric acid to form zinc sulfate and water.

Zinc oxide + dilute sulfuric acid → zinc sulfate + water

Chemical equation:

ZnO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

Ionic equation:

ZnO (s) + 2H+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + H2O (l)

Example 4

When aqueous sodium hydroxide is added to dilute hydrochloric acid, the reaction gives sodium chloride and
water as the products.

Sodium hydroxide + dilute hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water

Chemical equation:

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Ionic equation:

OH─ (aq) + H+ (aq) → H2O (l)

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Neutralisation reaction

Neutralisation is the combination of hydrogen ions from an acid with the hydroxide ions from an alkali or
base to form water molecules and salt as the only products. Thus the metal oxide / metal hydroxide reaction
with acid is also known as neutralisation reaction.

Ionic Equation for Neutralisation involving acids and alkali:

H+ (aq) + OH─ (aq) → H2O (l)

2.6 Uses of acids

• Sulfuric acid is used : 1) In making detergents

2) In making fertilizers
3) In car batteries

• Hydrochloric acid is used : 1) In leather processing

2) For cleaning metals

• Ethanoic acid is used : 1) (In vinegar) to preserve food

2) In making adhesives such as glue

Test yourself:

1 Which representation of dilute nitric acid is correct?

A H2 (aq) + NO─3 (aq)

B H+ (aq) + NO─3 (aq)
C 2H+ (aq) + NO32− (aq)
D HNO3 (l) [ ]

2 Which of the following is true about the characteristics of acids?

A Turn damp red litmus blue.
B Liberate hydrogen gas in reaction with some metals.
C Liberate carbon dioxide gas in reaction with some carbonates.
D Conduct electricity in liquid state [ ]

3 The strength of an acid is determined by

A number of dissociable H atoms only.

B concentration of acid only.
C degree of dissociation of acid molecules only.
D degree of dissociation of acid molecules and number of dissociable H atoms.
[ ]

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4 Which statement does not describe a property of a weak acid in solution?

A It forms a salt with sodium hydroxide.

B It has a pH between 8 and 9.
C It is only partially dissociated into ions.
D It reacts with sodium carbonate to give off carbon dioxide. [ ]

5 The following statements about sulfuric acid are all correct.

1 A white precipitate is formed when aqueous barium chloride is added.

2 The solution turns anhydrous copper(II) sulfate from white to blue.
3 Addition of Universal Indicator shows that the solution has a pH value of less
than 7.0.
4 The solution reacts with copper(II) oxide, forming a blue solution.

Which two statements confirm the acidic nature of the solution?

A 1 and 2
B 1 and 3
C 2 and 4
D 3 and 4 [ ]

6 Which ionic equation represents the neutralization of aqueous sodium hydroxide with dilute
hydrochloric acid?

A NaOH + H+ → Na+ + H2O

B Na+ + Cl− → NaCl
C Na+ + HCl → NaCl + H+
D H+ + OH− → H2O [ ]

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3 Bases and Alkalis

3.1 Definition of a base (Arrhenius definition)

A base is a substance that dissociates in water to produce OH─ ions.

E.g. NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH− (aq)

When an acid is added to a base, according to Arrhenius theory, the H+ ion reacts with the OH− ion to
produce a molecule of water, and undergoes neutralisation.

E.g. HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

The most common bases are metallic oxides or hydroxides. Most metallic oxides and hydroxides are
not soluble in water. Bases which are soluble in water are known as alkalis.

Table below shows some common alkalis, their formulae and ions they produce in water.

Table. 2 Formulae of common alkalis and the ions they produce in aqueous solutions

Name of alkali Formula Ions produced in aqueous solution

Sodium hydroxide NaOH Na+ (aq) OH─ (aq)

Potassium hydroxide KOH K+ (aq) OH─ (aq)

Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ (aq) OH─ (aq)

Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 Ba2+ (aq) OH─ (aq)

Aqueous Ammonia NH3 (aq) NH+4 (aq) OH─ (aq)

3.2 Role of water and strength of alkalis

Like acids, strength of alkalis depends on its extent of dissociation in water to produce OH─ ions.

Strong vs Weak Alkalis

Definition: A strong base/alkali is a substance that dissociates completely in water to give a

high concentration of hydroxide ions (OH─).
i.e. complete dissociation, eg. KOH (aq) → K+ (aq) + OH─ (aq)

Definition: A weak base/alkali is one in which its molecules dissociates partially in water to
give a low concentration of hydroxide ions (OH─).
i.e. partial dissociation, eg. NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH+4 (aq) + OH─ (aq)

Illustrate the particles present in the strong and weak alkali solution Legend:
Na+ Na+ NH3 OH─ OH─ : hydroxide ion
OH ─
Na+ : sodium ion
NH3 : ammonia
Na+ OH─ NH4+ molecule
NH4+ : ammonium
NH3 ion
─
OH NH3
Strong alkali Weak alkali

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Thus, like acids, alkalis only show their alkaline properties when it is dissolved in water, as it
dissociates in water to produce hydroxide ions which are responsible for the alkaline properties.

3.3 Acidity of base

Although soluble bases (alkalis) produces hydroxide ions, OH− (aq), when dissolved in water, not all
OH− ions will dissociate. The number of hydroxide ions that will dissociate is determined by the
acidity of the base. The acidity of a base is the number of ionizable hydroxide ions that can be
produced by a formula unit of the base.

For monoacidic base, 1 formula unit of the alkali yields 1 OH─ ion when dissociated.
For diacidic base, 1 formula unit of the alkali yields 2 OH─ ions when dissociated.

Monoacidic base: KOH (aq) → K+ (aq) + OH− (aq)

Diacidic base: Ba(OH)2 (aq) → Ba2+ (aq) + 2OH− (aq)

3.4 Properties of Alkalis

1. Alkalis have a bitter taste and soapy feel.

2. Alkalis turn red litmus paper blue.
3. All alkalis produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water.

Example 5
NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH─ (aq)

When ammonia dissolves in water, ammonium ions and hydroxide ions are formed.
NH3 (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH+4 (aq) + OH─ (aq) **No ammonium hydroxide/oxide.

4. All alkalis can react with acids to form a salt and water only. This reaction is called neutralisation.

Example 6
Reaction of aqueous sodium hydroxide and dilute sulfuric acid.

Sodium hydroxide + sulfuric acid → sodium sulfate + water

Chemical equation:

2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Ionic equation:

H+ (aq) + OH─ (aq) → H2O (l)

5. Alkalis react with ammonium salts, with heating, will produce ammonia gas. The general equation
for this reaction is shown below:

alkali + ammonium salt → ammonia + water + salt

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Example 7

When solid ammonium chloride is added to sodium hydroxide solution, the hydroxide ions and
ammonium ions react to produce ammonia gas. (*Used for ammonium ion identification test)

Sodium hydroxide + ammonium chloride → sodium chloride + water + ammonia

Chemical equation:

NaOH (aq) + NH4Cl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + NH3 (g)

Ionic equation:

OH─ (aq) + NH4+ (aq) → H2O (l) + NH3 (g)

Test for ammonia gas

If a colourless, pungent gas that turns damp red litmus paper blue is produced, gas is ammonia.

Fig. 4 Testing for ammonia gas

6. Alkalis when mixed with a salt solution, can produce an insoluble metal hydroxide and a soluble
metal salt.
This is a precipitation reaction commonly used to identify cations, with the insoluble metal
hydroxide precipitating out of the reaction mixture.

Example 8
Aqueous sodium hydroxide reacts with copper(II) sulfate solution to give a blue precipitate of
copper(II) hydroxide.

Sodium hydroxide + copper(II) sulfate → sodium sulfate + copper(II) hydroxide

Chemical equation:

2NaOH (aq) + CuSO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + Cu(OH)2 (s)

Ionic equation:

2OH─ (aq) + Cu2+ (aq) → Cu(OH)2 (s)

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3.5 Uses of Bases and Alkalis

• Ammonia solution is used: (1) In window cleaning solutions

(2) In fertilizers
• Calcium oxide (Quicklime) is used: (1) In neutralizing acidic soil
(2) To make iron, concrete and cement
• Magnesium hydroxide is used: (1) In toothpaste to neutralize acid on teeth
(2) In antacids, to relieve gastric problems
and indigestion
• Sodium hydroxide is used: (1) In making soaps and detergents
(2) In industrial-cleaning detergents

4 The pH Scale and Indicators

The degree of acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution is measured on a scale called the pH Scale.

The reference point on this scale is the pH of pure water at 25 oC, which has the value of 7. Such a solution is
said to be neutral. pH values lower than 7 are acidic; the lower the pH, the stronger the acidity. pH values
greater than 7 are alkaline; the higher the pH, the stronger the alkalinity.

The pH Scale

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
 increasing acidity - Neutral - Increasing alkalinity →

Concept of pH and pOH

pH and pOH

The concentration of H+ and OH− in an aqueous solution is usually quite small. A convenient indication of the
concentration of H+(aq) is to express it in terms of its negative logarithm to base 10.

pH = −lg [H+(aq)]

E.g. for 0.01 mol dm–3 HCl, [H+(aq)] = 10–2 mol dm–3 and pH = 2.

Note:

pH is a measure of the (total) concentration of H+ in a solution. It is not a measure of the strength of the acid
unless the two acids being compared have the same initial concentration.

Similarly, a convenient indication of the concentration of OH−(aq) is to express it in terms of its negative
logarithm to base 10.

pOH = −lg [OH−(aq)]

E.g. for 0.01 mol dm–3 NaOH, [OH−(aq)] = 10–2 mol dm–3 and pOH = 2.

At 25 oC,

pH + pOH = 14

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EXERCISE 1

(a) An aqueous solution contains 1.0  10–5 mol dm–3 of hydrochloric acid. Calculate the
concentration of H+ in mol dm–3, and hence the pH of this solution at 25 oC.

HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

[H+] = [HCl] = 1.0  10–5 mol dm–3

pH = –lg [H+] = –lg (1.0  10–5) = 5.00

(b) An aqueous solution contains 0.10 mol dm–3 of calcium hydroxide (a strong base). Calculate the
concentration of OH– in mol dm–3, and hence the pH of this solution at 25 oC.

Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)

[OH–] = 2  [Ca(OH)2] = 0.200 mol dm–3

pOH = –lg [OH–] = –lg 0.2 = 0.699

pH = 14 – pOH = 14 – 0.699 = 13.3

Measurement of pH experimentally

The simplest way to determine the pH of a solution is to make use of indicators, such as the Universal
Indicator, phenolphthalein and methyl orange. These indicators show the pH values by changing colour
depending on the acidity and alkalinity of the solutions.

Universal indicator, which is a mixture of several indicators, is particularly useful since it changes colour
gradually from red, through orange, yellow and green to violet/purple, over a wide pH range.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Red orange yellow green blue Violet/purple

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In general the colour changes for each of the three common indicators is summarized in the table below:

Acidic Neutral Alkaline

Universal Indicator Red Green Purple
Methyl Orange Red Orange Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pale pink Pink
Thymolphthalein Colourless Pale blue Blue

For very accurate measurements, pH meters may be used.

Instant Fact
Do you know that red cabbage juice can be used as a pH indicator? Find out more about the pigment found
in red cabbages that enable it to function as an indicator.

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EXERCISE 2

(a) Different chemicals and household materials were tested with the Universal Indicator.

Substance Colour of universal indicator

Bleach Dark blue
Citrus drink Yellow
Deionized water Green
Tooth paste Blue
Vinegar Orange
Hydrochloric acid Red
Sodium hydroxide Purple

Arrange the substances, listed in the above table, in order from the lowest pH value to the highest
pH value.

Hydrochloric acid, vinegar, citrus drink, deionized water, toothpaste, bleach, sodium hydroxide

(b) The table below shows the changes of colour of four acid-based indicators as the pH changes.

pH Methyl Red Methyl Orange Nitrophenol Phenol red

1 Red Red Colourless Yellow
2 Red Red Colourless Yellow
3 Red Red Colourless Yellow
4 Red Orange Colourless Yellow
5 Orange Yellow Colourless Yellow
6 Orange Yellow Yellow Yellow
7 Yellow Yellow Yellow Orange
8 Yellow Yellow Yellow Orange
9 Yellow Yellow Yellow Orange
10 Yellow Yellow Yellow Orange
11 Yellow Yellow Yellow Orange
12 Yellow Yellow Yellow Orange

(i) One of these indicators was tested on three solutions of known pH. These results were tabulated as
follows:

pH 1 4 5
Colour Red Orange Yellow

Which indicator was being tested?

Methyl Orange

(ii) Separate samples of a solution of unknown pH were tested using phenol red and nitrophenol. In both
cases the indicator colour was yellow. What was the pH of the unknown solution?

pH 6

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(iii) Another solution of unknown pH gave an orange colour with methyl red but was colourless with
nitrophenol. What was the pH of this solution?

pH 5

(iv) As seen from the above table, indicators do not usually change colour sharply at one particular pH.
Instead they change over a narrow range of pH, known as the pH range of that particular indicator.
Based on the data in the above table, predict the working pH range of the following indicators.

Methyl Red : 4-6

Methyl Orange: 3 - 4

Nitrophenol: 5-6

Phenol Red: 6-7

(c) The following table shows the colour change of some indicators in acid and alkaline media and the
approximate pH range at which the colour change occurs.

Indicator Approximate pH range Colour in acid medium Colour in alkaline

medium
Thymol blue 1.2 – 2.8 Pink Yellow
Methyl Orange 3.2 – 4.4 Red Yellow
Methyl Red 4.2 – 6.2 Red Yellow
Litmus 4.7 – 8.2 Red Blue
Bromothymol blue 6.0 – 7.8 Yellow Blue
Phenolphthalein 8.3 – 10.0 Colourless Red
Alizarin yellow 10.2 – 12.1 Yellow Red

(i) A beaker contains a solution of dilute hydrochloric acid of pH 1.0. If a mixture of thymol blue, methyl
orange and phenolphthalein was added into the beaker, what colour would you observe in the
resulting mixture? Explain your reasoning.

The resulting colour of the solution is red. At pH 1.0, thymol blue is pink, methyl orange is red and
phenolphthalein is colourless.

(ii) Another beaker contains a solution of ammonia solution of pH 9.0. If a mixture of litmus and
bromothymol blue was added, what colour would you observe in the following mixture? Explain your
reasoning.

The resulting colour of the solution is blue. At pH 9.0, both litmus and bromothymol blue will be
blue.

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(iii) An unknown solution, X, was divided into 2 portions. Each portion was tested with a different
indicator and the results were recorded as shown in the table below.

Indicator added to solution X Colour observed

Bromothymol blue Blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless

Deduce the approximate pH of solution X.

pH of the solution is between 7.8 – 8.3.

that is, pH of the solution could be 7.9, 8.0, 8.1 or 8.2

Put on your Scientist Cap!

Evaluate the claims in the following advertisement. Would you recommend this device to a relative seeking
your advice about this product?

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4 Types of Oxides

Many acids and alkalis are formed by dissolving oxides in water. An oxide is a compound of oxygen and
another element. Most oxides can be grouped into 4 different types: acidic, basic, amphoteric and neutral
oxides.

4.1 Acidic Oxides

Acidic oxides are oxides of non-metals. Most acidic oxides dissolve in water to form an acid.
Common examples of acidic oxides are given in below.

Physical Acid produced in water

Acidic Oxide Formula
state Name Formula

Carbon dioxide CO2 Gas Carbonic acid H2CO3

Sulfur dioxide SO2 Gas Sulfurous acid H2SO3

Sulfur trioxide SO3 Gas Sulfuric acid H2SO4

Phosphorus(V) oxide P4O10 Solid Phosphoric acid H3PO4

Properties of Acidic Oxides

• Acidic oxides react with alkalis to form a salt and water, just like acids.

Example 9

Sulfur trioxide(g) + sodium hydroxide (aq) → sodium sulfate (aq) + water (l)

Chemical equation:
SO3 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

Ionic equation:
SO3 (g) + 2OH─(aq) → SO42─ (aq) + H2O (l)

4.2 Basic Oxides

The oxides of metals are basic oxides. Most basic oxides are insoluble in water, except for a few, such
as sodium oxide and potassium oxides, which dissolves readily in water and are called alkalis.

Limewater is the solution of calcium hydroxide, which is formed by dissolving calcium oxide in water.

Calcium oxide + water → calcium hydroxide

Chemical equation:
CaO (s) + H2O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Ionic equation:
CaO (s) + H2O (l) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH─ (aq)

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Properties of basic oxides

• Basic oxides are solids at room temperature.

• They react with acids to form a salt and water, just like alkalis.

Example 10

Calcium oxide + nitric acid → calcium nitrate + water

Chemical equation:
CaO (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l)

Ionic equation:
CaO (s) + 2H+ (aq) → Ca2+ (aq) + H2O (l)

4.3 Amphoteric Oxides

Amphoteric oxides are metallic oxides that react with both acids and bases to form salts and water.
Common examples of amphoteric oxides are given below.

Amphoteric oxide Formula Salt produced in NaOH

Aluminium oxide Al2O3 Sodium aluminate, NaAl(OH)4
Lead(II) oxide PbO Sodium plumbate(II), Na2Pb(OH)4
Zinc oxide ZnO Sodium zincate, Na2Zn(OH)4

Reactions of Amphoteric Oxides

Example 11

Zinc oxide reacts with dilute sulfuric acid to give zinc sulfate and water (refer to Example 3, page 8).
It also reacts with aqueous sodium hydroxide with the following equation:

Sodium hydroxide + zinc oxide → sodium zincate

Chemical equation:
ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O(l) → Na2Zn(OH)4 (aq)

Ionic equation:
ZnO(s) + 2OH─(aq) + H2O(l) → [Zn(OH)4]2─ (aq)

Thus, in reaction with acids, amphoteric oxides behave as a basic oxide.

However in reaction with alkalis, amphoteric oxides behave like an acidic oxide.

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4.4 Neutral Oxide

Some non-metal oxides show neither basic nor acidic properties and are thus referred to as neutral
oxides. Neutral oxides are insoluble in water. Examples of neutral oxides include water (H2O), carbon
monoxide (CO) and nitric oxide (NO).

Test yourself:

1 A white solid is often seen around the stoppers of bottles containing sodium hydroxide solution.
Which substance has reacted with sodium hydroxide to form the solid?

A water in the solution

B glass
C oxygen in the air
D carbon dioxide in the air [ ]

2 Which pair of substances when mixed together shows no observable change?

A ZnO (s) + NaOH (aq) (ZnO(s) will appear to dissolve to form colourless solution
as it reacts with alkali to form a soluble salt)
B CuO (s) + HCl (aq) (CuO(s) will appear to dissolve to form blue solution
as it reacts with acid to form soluble salt + water)
C P4O10 (s) + H2O (l) (P4O10(s) will appear to dissolve to form colourless solution
as it reacts with water to form an acid H3PO4(aq) )
D MgO (s) + NaOH (aq) [ ]

3 Which pair of gases each cause a change in the colour of damp blue litmus paper?

CO2 is an acidic oxide, dissolves slightly in water

A Ammonia and hydrogen to give a mildly acidic solution.
B Ammonia and sulfur dioxide
C Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide HCl is an acidic gas, dissolves in water and
dissociates completely to form hydrochloric acid.
D Carbon dioxide and hydrogen chloride
[ ]

4 The following table gives the colours of various indicators and the pH at which the colour changes.

colour in strongly pH at which colour in strongly

Indicator
acidic solution colour changes alkaline solution
methyl orange Red 3 yellow
congo red Blue 5 red
phenolphthalein Colourless 10 pink

Which one of the following sets of colours would be obtained when each indicator was added
separately to pure water?
methyl congo phenolphthalein
orange red
A red blue pink
B red red pink
C yellow blue colourless
D yellow red colourless [ ]

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5 Both magnesium oxide and magnesium carbonate react with dilute sulfuric acid.
How are both reactions similar with each other?

A A gas is produced.
B An acid is neutralized by a soluble base.
C An insoluble salt is produced.
D Water is a product. [ ]

6 A colourless liquid X shows the following reactions:

(1) it gives H2 gas with magnesium
(2) it gives a white precipitate with aqueous Ba(NO 3)2/ HNO3 mixture

What conclusion can we make about liquid X?

A It could be the acid HCl (aq).

B It could be the acid H2SO4(aq).
C It is definitely a sulfate salt solution.
D It is definitely an acid solution. [ ]

7 Which substance can be safely used to neutralize excess acidity in peaty soil, even when used in
excess? Keyword: when used in excess.

Aq. NH3 and CaO both when added in excess will

A aqueous ammonia B CaCO3 cause the soil to become alkaline, due to too
C CaO D Al2O3 [
much OH- ions concentration ] introduced.
Al2O3 reacts with acids to form soluble
aluminium salts, but *aluminium ions are toxic
to plants. When used in excess will result in
high conc of Al3+ ions, affects crop yield.

8 To remove an oil stain from a shirt, baking powder was first rubbed onto the stain. The same oil stain
was then rubbed with a detergent solution and a pungent smell of ammonia was produced.
What substances were likely present in the baking powder and detergent respectively to cause this?

A Sodium chloride and sodium hydroxide

B Ammonium carbonate and sodium chloride
C Ammonium carbonate and sodium hydroxide
D Calcium carbonate and magnesium sulfate [ ]

9 The pH of an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide is 13.

What will be the pH of the alkali after the addition of 10g of sodium nitrate?

A 5
B 7
C 13
D 14 [ ]

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Summary

Acids and Bases

Acids and bases are two classes of chemicals that are widely used in industry and frequently encountered in
daily living.

Characteristics of Acids and Bases Acids Bases

Arrhenius Theory An acid is a substance in which A base is a substance that
(Classical) its molecules dissociates in dissociates in water to give OH-
water to give H+ ions. ions.
Definitions Bronsted-Lowry An acid is a proton (H+) donor. A base is a proton (H+)
Theory acceptor.
(SMTP)
Lewis Theory An acid is an electron pair A base is an electron pair
(SMTP) acceptor. donor.
General Physical Properties of • All acids taste sour. • Alkalis have soapy and
Arrhenius Acids and Bases slippery feel.
• Acid solutions turn blue
litmus paper red. • All alkalis taste bitter.

• Acid solutions have pH value • Alkaline solution turn red

less than 7. litmus paper blue.

• All acids are good • Alkaline solutions have pH

conductors of electricity. value more than 7.

• Acids are able to change the • All alkalis are good

colour of indicators. conductors of electricity.

• Alkalis are able to change

the colour of indicators.

Common examples of Arrhenius • HCl (aq) • NaOH (aq)

Acids and Bases • HNO3 (aq) • KOH (aq)
• H2SO4 (aq) • Ca(OH)2 (aq)
• H3PO4 (aq) • NH3 (aq)
• CH3COOH (aq) • Na2CO3 (aq)

Basicity of Acids and Acidity of Basicity of an acid is the number Acidity of a base is the number
bases of ionizable hydrogen ions (H +) of ionizable hydroxide ions
that can be produced by 1 (OH-) that can be produced by
molecule of an acid. 1 formula unit of alkali.

Strength of Acids and bases A strong acid is one in which its A strong base is a substance
molecules dissociate that dissociates completely in
completely in water to give a water to give a high
high concentration of Hydrogen concentration of Hydroxide
ions (H+). ions (OH-).

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A weak acid is one in which its A weak base is one in which its
molecules dissociate partially in molecules dissociate partially
water to give a low in water to give a low
concentration of Hydrogen ions concentration of Hydroxide
(H+). ions (OH-).
Chemical Properties of Acids and • Acids react with metals to • Alkalis react with acids to
Bases form salt and hydrogen gas. form salt and water in a
neutralisation reaction.

• Acids react with metal • Alkalis react with some

carbonates to form salt, metal ions to form
carbon dioxide and water. insoluble metal
hydroxides.
• Acids react with bases to
form salt and water in a • Alkalis react with
neutralisation reaction. ammonium salts to
displace ammonia.

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ANNEX A: Ionic Equations

An ionic equation is a chemical equation to show ions that have undergone a chemical reaction only.

Example: Balanced chemical equation between aqueous magnesium chloride and aqueous silver nitrate is

MgCl2 (aq) + 2AgNO3 (aq) → Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + 2AgCl (s)

Since ionic compounds dissociate in water into their respective ions, the above equation can be rewritten as

Mg2+ (aq) + 2Cl─ (aq) + 2Ag+ (aq) + 2NO3─ (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) + 2NO3─ (aq) + 2AgCl (s)

Take note that Mg2+ (aq) and Cl─(aq) do not take part in the above precipitation reaction. They are termed as
spectator ions. After removing the spectator ions from the above equation, an ionic equation is obtained that
provides information about the actual chemical reaction that has occurred.

Ionic Equation: Ag+ (aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl((s)

This process can be summarized in 3 steps:

Step I: Write balanced chemical equation with state symbols.

Step II: “Split” ONLY aqueous compounds into its respective cation and anion.
Leave the other compounds/substances in solid/liquid/gaseous state alone.

Step III: Write ionic equation by removing spectator ions.

(Spectator ions are ions that are found on both sides of the chemical equation, not participating in the
reaction. They can be “cancelled out on both sides” of the equation.)

Example: sodium hydroxide(aq) + nitric acid(aq) → sodium nitrate(aq) + water(l)

Step I: NaOH(aq) + HNO3 (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)

Step II: Na+ (aq) + OH− (aq) + H+ (aq) + NO3− (aq) → Na+ (aq) + NO3− (aq) + H2O (l)

Step III: OH− (aq) + H+ (aq) → H2O (l)

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Use the solubility rules to determine if the salt produced in a chemical reaction in aqueous medium is
soluble or insoluble.

Ions Solubility
NO3– All nitrates are soluble.
Cl –, Br –, I– All halides are soluble except Ag+ and Pb2+

SO42– All sulfates are soluble except Pb2+, Ba2+ and Ca2+.

Na+, K+, NH4+ All sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble

CO32– All carbonates are insoluble except Na+, K+ and NH4+

O2– All oxides are insoluble except Na+ and K+

OH– Ba2+hydroxides
All and Ca2+ are
aresparingly except Na+ and K+
insolublesoluble.
(Ba2+ and Ca2+ are sparingly soluble.)

PO43– All phosphates are insoluble except Na+, K+ and NH4+

Point to ponder

Cake mixes contain a solid mixture of tartaric acid and sodium hydrogen carbonate among other ingredients.
Why will the mixture only ‘rise’ if water is added?

The dough will rise when carbon dioxide gas is produced when HCO 3─ (aq) reacts with H+ (aq) from tartaric
acid to produce CO2 and H2O. In the absence of H2O, tartaric acid will not ionize to produce H + (aq) ions and
not CO2 will be produced.

HCO3─ (aq) + H+ (aq) → CO2 (g) + H2O(l)

What is your expert advice?

A farmer tells his workers to first correct the pH of the soil in his field by using solid calcium hydroxide and
instructed them to thereafter, add fertilisers such as ammonium nitrate (V) to improve the soil fertility.
What is your expert opinion on the soundness of the farmer’s instructions to his workers?

Ammonium nitrate (V) should not be added straight after the soil is treated with solid calcium hydroxide as
these two compounds would react, with the loss of ammonia gas. The effectiveness of the fertilizer will be
much reduced.

2NH4NO3 + Ca(OH)2 → Ca(NO3)2 + 2NH3 + 2H2O

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More Practice Questions on Writing Ionic Equations

For the following reactions, write (with state symbols)
(i) The balanced chemical equation (B.E)
(ii) The ionic equation (I.E)

1. A solution of barium nitrate is added to a solution of sodium sulfate causing a precipitate to form.

B.E: Ba(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

I.E: Ba2+ (aq) + SO42─ (aq) → BaSO4 (s)

2. Solid copper (II) oxide is added to dilute nitric acid.

B.E: CuO (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l)

I.E: CuO (s) + 2H+ (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + H2O (l)

3. Powdered limestone is added to dilute hydrochloric acid

B.E: CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

I.E: CaCO3 (s) + 2H+ (aq) → Ca2+ (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

4. Iron metal is added to a solution of copper (II) sulfate.

B.E: Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

I.E: Fe (s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Fe2+ (aq) + Cu (s)

5. A solution of silver nitrate is added to a solution of sodium chloride.

B.E: AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

I.E: Ag+ (aq) + Cl─ (aq) → AgCl (s)

6. Solutions of lead(II) nitrate and potassium iodide are mixed, producing a yellow precipitate of lead(II)
iodide and a colourless solution of potassium nitrate.

B.E: Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

I.E: Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) → PbI2(s)

7. A precipitate of barium sulfate is formed when two solutions of sulfuric acid and barium nitrate are mixed.

B.E: Ba(NO3)2 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq)

I.E: Ba2+ (aq) + SO42─ (aq) → BaSO4 (s)

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8. Zinc reacts with silver nitrate to produce silver and zinc nitrate.

B.E: Zn (s) + 2AgNO3 (aq) → 2Ag (s) + Zn(NO3)2 (aq)

I.E: Zn (s) + 2Ag+ (aq) → 2Ag (s) + Zn2+ (aq)

9. Potassium iodide reacts with lead (II) nitrate to form potassium nitrate and a yellow precipitate of lead (II)
iodide.

B.E: Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) → PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)

I.E: Pb2+(aq) + 2I─ (aq) → PbI2(s)

10. Magnesium + Sulfuric acid → Magnesium sulfate + Hydrogen

B.E: Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

I.E: Mg (s) + 2H+ (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) + H2 (g)

11. Ammonium chloride + Calcium hydroxide → Calcium chloride + Ammonia + water

B.E: 2NH4Cl (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) → CaCl 2(aq) + 2NH3 (g) + 2H2O (l)

I.E: NH4+ (aq) + OH─ (aq) → NH3 (g) + H2O (l)

12. Aluminium oxide + Nitric acid → Aluminium nitrate + water

B.E: Al 2O3 (s) + 6HNO3 (aq) → 2Al(NO3)3 (aq) + 3H2O (l)

I.E: Al2O3 (s) + 6H+ (aq) → 2Al3+ (aq) + 3H2O (l)

13. Hydrochloric acid + Barium hydroxide → Barium chloride + water

B.E: 2HCl (aq) + Ba(OH)2 (aq) → BaCl 2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

I.E: H+ (aq) + OH─ (aq) → H2O (l)

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