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Unit 4 NLP

Nlp notes for unit 4 Natural language processing

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41 views

Unit 4 NLP

Nlp notes for unit 4 Natural language processing

Uploaded by

aafreen2406
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Auxiliary Verbs

Definition: Auxiliary verbs (helping verbs) accompany the main verb to


express tense, aspect, mood, and voice.

Key Points:

● Types:
○ Primary Auxiliaries: "be," "have," "do"
■ Example: "She is running," "They have eaten."
○ Modal Auxiliaries: "can," "may," "must," etc.
■ Example: "She can swim," "You must go."
● Functions:
○ Tense: "She has finished."
○ Aspect: "She is reading."
○ Mood: "You should study."
○ Voice: "The cake was eaten."

Verb Phrases

Definition: A verb phrase (VP) consists of a main verb and its dependents
(auxiliaries, objects, modifiers).

Key Points:

● Structure:
○ Simple VP: Main verb only. Example: "He runs."
○ Complex VP: Main verb + auxiliaries/objects/modifiers. Example:
"She has been reading."
● Components:
○ Main Verb: Central verb. Example: "run."
○ Auxiliary Verbs: Example: "is," "has."
○ Objects: Example: "books."
○ Modifiers: Example: "quickly."
● Functions:
○ Express Actions/States: "She is cooking dinner."
○ Convey Additional Info: "He has been working hard."
Movement Phenomenon in Language

Definition: Movement phenomenon refers to the syntactic process in which


constituents (words, phrases) are displaced from their base position in a
sentence to another position within the same sentence, typically to satisfy
grammatical constraints or to convey specific meanings.

Key Points:

● Purpose: Movement allows for greater flexibility in sentence structure


and enables speakers to convey complex meanings.
● Occurs: In many languages, including English, to form questions,
passive constructions, topicalizations, and wh-movement (question
words).
● Constrained: By grammatical rules, such as island constraints, which
limit the movement of constituents in certain contexts.

Types of Movement

1. Wh-Movement (Question Formation):


○ Definition: Movement of question words (who, what, where, etc.)
to the beginning of a sentence.
○ Example: "What did you eat?" (Original: "You ate what?")
2. Topicalization:
○ Definition: Moving a constituent to the beginning of a sentence to
make it the topic of discussion.
○ Example: "That book, I have read." (Original: "I have read that
book.")
3. Passive Construction:
○ Definition: Moving the object of an active sentence to the subject
position.
○ Example: "The ball was kicked by John." (Original: "John kicked
the ball.")
4. Subject-Verb Inversion (Question Formation):
○ Definition: Reversing the order of subject and auxiliary verb in
yes-no questions and some other constructions.
○ Example: "Are you coming?" (Original: "You are coming.")
5. Extraposition:
○ Definition: Moving a constituent to the end of a sentence for
stylistic reasons or to avoid ambiguity.
○ Example: "He believes that aliens exist." (Extraposition: "He
believes aliens exist.")

Handling Questions in Context-Free Grammar

Process: In context-free grammar (CFG), handling questions involves


defining rules that allow for the transformation of declarative sentences
into interrogative (question) forms. This transformation often requires
manipulating the structure of the sentence, particularly the placement of
auxiliary verbs and question words.

Example: Consider the following CFG rules for handling questions in


English:

1. S → NP VP
○ Base rule for declarative sentences.
2. S → Aux NP VP ?
○ Rule for forming yes-no questions.
○ Aux represents auxiliary verbs like "do," "is," "can," etc.
○ ? signifies the end of the question.
3. S → Wh-Aux NP VP ?
○ Rule for forming wh-questions.
○ Wh-Aux represents question words like "what," "where,"
"who," etc., followed by an auxiliary verb.
○ ? signifies the end of the question.

Example Transformation: Consider the declarative sentence: "She is


reading a book."

1. Declarative Form:
○ S → NP VP
○ NP → She
○ VP → Aux VP
○ Aux → is
○ VP → reading NP
○ NP → a book
2. Yes-No Question Transformation:
○ S → Aux NP VP ?
○ Aux → is
○ NP → She
○ VP → reading NP
○ NP → a book
○ Result: "Is she reading a book?"
3. Wh-Question Transformation:
○ S → Wh-Aux NP VP ?
○ Wh-Aux → What is
○ NP → She
○ VP → reading NP
○ NP → a book
○ Result: "What is she reading?"

Human Preferences in Parsing

Definition: Human preferences in parsing refer to the tendencies or biases that


speakers of a language exhibit when interpreting ambiguous or complex
sentences. These preferences influence how sentences are understood and
processed by individuals.

Key Points-

Minimal Attachment:

● Interpretation: "The man saw [the woman with the telescope]."


● Explanation: Minimal attachment favours the simplest structure, so
"with the telescope" is interpreted as part of the direct object ("the
woman") rather than as a separate phrase.

Late Closure:

● Interpretation: "The man saw [the woman] [with the telescope]."


● Explanation: Late closure extends the current phrase ("the woman")
rather than forming a new one, so "with the telescope" is interpreted as
modifying "the woman."
High Attachment:

● Interpretation: "The man [who is tall] saw the woman with the
telescope."
● Explanation: High attachment attaches the modifier ("who is tall") to the
closest constituent ("the man") rather than to the verb ("saw").

Encoding Uncertainty in Natural Language

Definition: Encoding uncertainty in natural language refers to the linguistic


strategies used to convey doubt, ambiguity, or lack of certainty in
communication. These strategies allow speakers to express uncertainty or
ambiguity effectively.

Key Points:

Modal Verbs:

● Definition: Verbs that indicate possibility, necessity, or ability.


● Example: "might," "could," "may," "should," "would."

Hedges:

● Definition: Words or phrases that weaken the force of a statement.


● Example: "It seems that," "perhaps," "possibly," "maybe."

Quantifiers:

● Definition: Words that indicate approximate quantity or degree.


● Example: "some," "several," "many," "few."

Evidential Markers:

● Definition: Linguistic elements that indicate the source or degree of


evidence for a statement.
● Example: "apparently," "reportedly," "allegedly."

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