Task-based Language Teaching

Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is an approach to language instruction that focuses

on using tasks as the central element in planning and teaching. It is seen as a natural
progression from Communicative Language Teaching, drawing on principles such as the
importance of real communication and meaningful language use. TBLT advocates argue that
language learning is enhanced when learners engage in tasks that have real-world relevance
and meaning to them.

– Activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning.

– Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.

– Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.

Engaging learners in tasks provides a more conducive context for activating learning
processes and promotes meaningful communication. According to this view, language
learning depends not only on understanding input but also on participating in tasks that
involve negotiating meaning and engaging in authentic communication.

The key assumptions of task-based instruction are summarized as:

– The focus is on process rather than product.

– Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and
meaning.

– Learners learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in

the activities and tasks.

– Activities and tasks can be either:

those that learners might need to achieve in real life;

those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom.

– Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.

– The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of
the learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the
degree of support available.

Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) centers around the concept of a "task" as the primary
unit of planning and instruction. While definitions may vary, tasks generally involve language
use to accomplish a goal, such as solving a puzzle, giving directions, making a phone call, or
writing a letter. These activities prioritize meaningful communication, with success evaluated
based on achieving an outcome similar to real-life language use. TBLT emphasizes a
communicative approach, where learners engage in tasks that require comprehension,
manipulation, production, or interaction in the target language while focusing on meaning
rather than form. Tasks should be complete communicative acts, able to stand alone as
meaningful language activities.

Task-based training identified several key areas of concern.

1. analysis of real-world task-use situations

2. the translation of these into teaching tasks descriptions

3. the detailed design of instructional tasks

4. the sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom training/teaching

These issues continue to be significant in ongoing conversations about task-based language

teaching. While task analysis and instructional design originally focused on individual
performance in manual tasks, the emphasis shifted to tasks involving teamwork and
communication.

Four major categories of team performance function were recognized:

1. orientation functions (processes for generating and distributing information necessary to

task accomplishment to team members)

2. organizational functions (processes necessary for members to coordinate actions necessary

for task performance)

3. adaptation functions (processes occurring as team members adapt their performance to each
other to complete the task)

4. motivational functions (defining team objectives and “energizing the group” to complete
the task)

Theory of language

TBLT is motivated primarily by a theory of learning rather than a theory of language.

However, several assumptions about the nature of language can be said to underlie current
approaches to TBLT. These are:

Language is primarily a means of making meaning

In common with other realizations of communicative language teaching, TBLT emphasizes

the central role of meaning in language use.

Multiple models of language inform TBI

Advocates of task-based instruction refer to various models of language, including structural,

functional, and interactional models. This choice seems to be more about practicality than
ideology. For instance, Skehan uses structural criteria to discuss how to determine the
linguistic complexity of tasks. He sees language as progressing from simple to complex in a
traditional manner, with linguistic complexity influenced by structural syllabus
considerations.

Other researchers have suggested different ways to classify task types. For instance, Berwick
distinguishes between "task goals," which are educational or social goals that require
language use. Foster and Skehan propose three types of tasks: personal, narrative, and
decision-making tasks. These classifications often borrow ideas from language function
models by Jakobson, Halliday, and Wilkins. Additionally, researchers in second language
acquisition focus on interactional aspects of tasks, such as distinguishing between
interactional activity and communicative goals. Task-Based Instruction draws on all these
models of language, rather than being tied to just one.

Lexical units are central in language use and language learning

In recent years, vocabulary has become increasingly important in second language learning,
going beyond just individual words. It now includes phrases, sentence structures, and
collocations as significant units in language analysis and teaching. Many task-based
approaches reflect this view. For example, Skehan notes that while language teaching often
focused on structure, linguists argue that speech processing relies heavily on ready-made
phrases rather than individual words. Fluency, therefore, depends on the ability to use these
phrases effortlessly, without relying too much on rule-based processing.

Theory of Learning

Tasks provide both the input and output processing necessary for language acquisition

Krashen has emphasized that comprehensible input is crucial for language acquisition, but
others argue that productive output is also vital. For instance, Swain's research in Canadian
language immersion classrooms showed that students' language skills didn't catch up with
native speakers despite exposure to comprehensible input. She stressed the importance of
opportunities for using language actively. Tasks are believed to offer such opportunities for
both input and output, which are essential for language learning processes. Negotiating
meaning during tasks, where learners focus on modifying aspects of their language, is seen as
a trigger for acquisition. Tasks encourage learners to negotiate, modify, rephrase, and
experiment with language, reflecting the broader importance of conversation in language
acquisition. Task-Based Language Teaching suggests that tasks serve as a focal point for
practicing input-output, negotiating meaning, and engaging in conversation.

Task activity and achievement are motivational

Tasks are believed to boost learner motivation and thus enhance learning. This is because they
require learners to use real language, have clear objectives and completion, come in various
formats and activities, often involve physical movement, encourage collaboration, tap into
learners' past experiences, and accept different communication styles. For example, a teacher
trainee mentioned that listening tasks are genuinely authentic and easy to grasp due to natural
repetition, motivating students to listen and compare their performance. However, supporters
of other teaching methods could also argue for similar effectiveness based on their own
evidence.

Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical purposes

Tasks are suggested to facilitate the use and learning of specific language aspects. Long and
Crookes argue that tasks offer opportunities for learners to encounter target language samples,
which they reshape through cognitive processing, and to engage in comprehension and
production activities of adjustable difficulty levels. Skehan further explains that when
selecting or designing tasks, there's a balance between cognitive processing and focusing on
language form. Highly demanding tasks may reduce attention to formal features, potentially
affecting accuracy. Thus, tasks can be tailored in difficulty to promote both fluency and
awareness of language form. Additionally, tasks can guide learners towards specific language
aspects, such as discourse, accuracy, complexity, fluency, or certain language structures.

Objectives

There are few published examples of complete language programs fully based on Task-Based
Language Teaching (TBLT), with most literature describing task-based activities. Like other
communicative approaches, TBLT aims to address learners' specific needs. Long and Crookes
suggest selecting tasks based on an analysis of learners' real-world needs. Goals were broad,
focusing on common English-language activities, with specific objectives tailored to
anticipated vocational and recreational English use. These objectives formed the basis for
various activities outlined in the syllabus.

Syllabus

The syllabus outlines content and learning goals, serving as a foundation for classroom
instruction and material creation. While TBLT proponents value learners' development across
various areas, they prioritize the learning process over specific content and skills acquisition.
Thus, a TBLT syllabus delineates the tasks learners should engage in throughout the program.

Nunan (1989) suggests that a syllabus might specify two types of tasks:

1. real-world tasks, which are designed to practice or rehearse those tasks that are found to be
important in a needs analysis and turn out to be important and useful in the real world

2. pedagogical tasks, which have a psycholinguistic basis in SLA theory and research but do
not necessarily reflect real-world tasks

Using the telephone would be an example of the former, and an information-gap task would
be an example of the latter.

Theme: planning a vacation

Tasks

– decide where you can go based on the “advantage miles”

– booking a flight

– choosing a hotel

– booking a room

Theme: application to a university

Tasks

– applying to the university

– corresponding with the department chair

– inquiring about financial support

– selecting the courses you want and are eligible to take, using advice from your adviser

– registering by phone

– calculating and paying your fees

Apart from choosing tasks for a TBLT syllabus, deciding their sequence is crucial. While task
difficulty is suggested as a criterion for ordering tasks, gauging task complexity itself poses
challenges.

Teaching Activities

A language learning task serves as a platform for educational activities. It's a structured
approach providing opportunities to enhance knowledge and skills in a new language and its
usage during communication. Tasks vary in complexity, ranging from simple exercises to
comprehensive plans involving spontaneous communication or problem-solving. Language
tests also fall within this spectrum of tasks. All teaching materials, by organizing content and
learning procedures, can be viewed as collections of tasks.

In TBLT literature, various efforts have been made to categorize tasks, serving as a
foundation for task design and explanation.

1. listing

2. ordering and sorting

3. comparing

4. problem solving

5. sharing personal experiences

6. creative tasks
1. Jigsaw tasks: These involve learners combining different pieces of information to form a
whole (e.g., three individuals or groups may have three different parts of a story and have to
piece the story together).

2. Information-gap tasks: One student or group of students has one set of information and
another student or group has a complementary set of information. They must negotiate and
find out what the other party’s information is in order to complete an activity.

3. Problem-solving tasks: Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must
arrive at a solution to the problem. There is generally a single resolution of the outcome.

4. Decision-making tasks: Students are given a problem for which there are a number of
possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.

5. Opinion exchange tasks: Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not
need to reach agreement.

Other characteristics of tasks have also been described, such as the following:

1. one-way or two-way: whether the task involves a one-way exchange of information or a

two-way exchange

2. convergent or divergent: whether the students achieve a common goal or several different
goals

3. collaborative or competitive: whether the students collaborate to carry out a task or

compete with each other on a task

4. single or multiple outcomes: whether there is a single outcome or many different outcomes
are possible

5. concrete or abstract language: whether the task involves the use of concrete language or
abstract language

6. simple or complex processing: whether the task requires relatively simple or complex
cognitive processing

7. simple or complex language: whether the linguistic demands of the task are relatively
simple or complex

8. reality-based or not reality-based: whether the task mirrors a real-world activity or is a

pedagogical activity not found in the real world

Learner roles

group participant

Many tasks will be done in pairs or small groups. For students more accustomed to whole-
class and/or individual work, this may require some adaptation.
Monitor

In TBLT, tasks serve as tools to enhance learning rather than being used in isolation.
Activities in class should be structured to allow students to observe how language functions in
communication. Learners should focus not only on the message conveyed during tasks but
also on the linguistic structures used. Bell and Burnaby suggest various learner-initiated
strategies to help learners reflect on task features, including language form.

risk-taker and innovator

Tasks often involve learners in creating and understanding messages even when they don't
possess all the necessary language skills or prior knowledge. This is intentional as it
encourages practice in restating, paraphrasing, and using non-verbal cues when needed.
Learners may also need to develop skills such as guessing from context, asking for
clarification, and collaborating with peers.

Teacher roles

selector and sequencer of tasks

A central role of the teacher is in selecting, adapting, and/or creating the tasks themselves and
then forming these into an instructional sequence in keeping with learner needs, interests, and
language skill level.

preparing learners for tasks

Many TBLT advocates recommend that learners receive some form of preparation before
starting new tasks. This preparation can involve introducing the topic, explaining task
instructions clearly, teaching or reviewing relevant vocabulary, and demonstrating part of the
task process. These preparations can be either indirect and implicit, or direct and explicit.

consciousness-raising

In contemporary TBLT, it's emphasized that learners should pay attention to important
language features while engaging in tasks, known as "Focus on Form." This doesn't involve
teaching grammar before tasks, but rather includes techniques like pre-task activities to focus
attention, exploring texts, exposure to similar tasks, and highlighting relevant material.

The role of instructional materials

pedagogic materials

Instructional materials are crucial in TBLT as they provide the necessary tasks for classroom
activities, which may require significant time and effort to develop. These materials can vary
widely and include task-focused textbooks, teacher resource books with sample activities,
multimedia resources, and task cards. Additionally, real-life objects and situations can serve
as valuable resources for TBLT.

Realia
TBI proponents favor the use of authentic tasks supported by authentic materials wherever
possible.

Newspapers

– Students examine a newspaper, determine its sections, and suggest three new sections that
might go in the newspaper.

– Students prepare a job-wanted ad using examples from the classified section.

– Students prepare their weekend entertainment plan using the entertainment section.

Television

– Students take notes during the weather report and prepare a map with weather symbols
showing likely weather for the predicted period.

– In watching an infomercial, students identify and list “hype” words and then try to construct
a parallel ad following the sequence of the hype words.

– After watching an episode of an unknown soap opera, students list the characters (with
known or made-up names) and their possible relationship to other characters in the episode.

Internet

– Given a book title to be acquired, students conduct a comparative shopping analysis of three
Internet booksellers, listing prices, mailing times, and shipping charges, and choose a vendor,
justifying their choice.

– Seeking to find an inexpensive hotel in Tokyo, students search with three different search
engines (e.g., Yahoo, Netscape, Snap), comparing search times and analyzing the first ten hits
to determine most useful search engine for their purpose.

– Students initiate a “chat” in a chat room, indicating a current interest in their life and
developing an answer to the first three people to respond. They then start a diary with these
text-sets, ranking the responses.

Procedure

Before engaging in a role-play task, learners typically go through a series of activities to

prepare, perform the task, and reflect on their performance. These activities are divided into
three main stages: pre-task, task activity, and post-task activities.

In the pre-task stage, learners are introduced to the topic and task through activities like
brainstorming or reading related dialogues. They then perform the role-play task in pairs,
followed by post-task activities such as listening to recordings of native speakers performing
the same task to compare their expressions.
A similar sequence of activities is recommended by Willis, starting with introducing the topic
and objectives, followed by preparation activities and listening to a parallel task. During the
task, learners use the language they have to express themselves, while the teacher provides
support without correcting errors. Planning for reporting follows, where students draft their
reports with teacher guidance. Finally, post-task listening and language-focused analysis
activities are conducted to enhance learning.