Introduction:

Photovoltaic solar energy is the direct conversion of the energy contained in solar radiation into
electrical energy, without the need for any intermediate process.

It works as follows: Solar radiation is made up of particles of energy, called photons. When these
impact on a semiconductor body, they give up their energy and induce within the semiconductor an
electric potential difference between its faces.

Both sides of the semiconductor are connected externally by a conductive thread through which the
set of energized electrons will circulate, establishing an electric current. The electrical current thus
generated is called “photovoltaic solar energy”.

This solar energy basically has three types of applications:

 Provide electrical energy to isolated areas that do not have an electrical energy supply
(electrical energy distribution company).

 Injection of additional energy into electrical networks.

 Specific applications for power supply to satellites, automobiles, watches, calculators,

homes with single-phase power, among others.

Development:

What is the system like?

A photovoltaic system is a set of devices that take advantage of the energy produced by the sun and
convert it into electrical energy.

Photovoltaic systems are based on the ability of photovoltaic cells to transform solar energy into
electrical energy (DC). In a system connected to the electrical grid, this energy, through the use of
an inverter, is transformed into alternating current (AC), which can be used in homes and industries.

The generation of electrical energy will depend on the hours that the sun shines on the solar panel
and the type and quantity of modules installed, orientation, inclination, solar radiation that reaches
them, quality of the installation and the nominal power.
The devices through which solar energy is absorbed are solar cells. These are elements of
photovoltaic systems, which have the capacity to produce electrical energy by taking advantage of
the sunlight that falls on them. Solar cells are made with semiconductor materials, such as silicon,
which have the function of receiving photons that travel through the sun's rays.

Once the photons emitted by solar radiation come into contact with the atoms present in the solar
cells, electrons are released that begin to circulate through the semiconductor material with which
the cells are manufactured and electrical energy is produced.

A photovoltaic system can be “interconnected” which is most convenient for residences or

businesses with access to the electrical grid.

With this system, the energy generated is injected into the electrical grid and is taken from there
when needed. The other option is an “island” system that allows the supply of electrical energy in
places inaccessible to the electrical grid. These systems are mainly used in country houses or in
telecommunications antennas.

The photovoltaic effect consists of the photons of solar radiation incident on the valence electrons
and raising their energy to that corresponding to the conduction band (atoms have the valence
electrons located in an energy level that constitutes the so-called valence band. ). That is, it consists
of converting the energy of photons into useful electrical energy.

When light hits and the photons impart energy to the electrons of the semiconductor, some of these
electrons can cross the potential barrier, being expelled out of the semiconductor through an
external circuit: an electric current is produced. The electrons, after traveling through the external
circuit, re-enter the semiconductor through the opposite side.

For the photovoltaic effect to occur, the semiconductor must be treated to convert it into a
photovoltaic cell that makes the electrons available to circulate through an external circuit and
provide electrical energy.

Figure 1

This is achieved by doping (introducing impurities) to the semiconductor, which is generally

silicon, with boron impurities. On this semiconductor (within the semiconductor thus formed, at the
interface of the parts doped with phosphorus and boron, an exchange of electrons and holes is
created that produce a permanent electric field within the semiconductor) doped phosphorus is
introduced into one of its surfaces.

The silicon photovoltaic cell is completed with the placement of metallized areas on the
semiconductor surfaces.

How is it composed?

A photovoltaic system is made up of solar panels or photovoltaic modules, these are made up of
numerous cells that convert sunlight into electricity, the more solar cells a panel has, the greater the
electrical energy that can be obtained. The current or energy generated by the panels is managed by
a charge regulator whose mission is to direct the amount of energy that goes to the batteries,
preventing them from being damaged by overloads and limiting excessive discharges.
The batteries are responsible for storing the electrical energy generated by the photovoltaic
modules. These send the reserved energy when sunlight is not available.

In this way you can use the benefits of electricity even at night, but it is important to know that even
when the sun is available and much more so when the sun sets, we must use battery energy
reasonably so as not to exhaust your reserve. It should be noted that there are different storage and
manufacturing capacities in terms of batteries.

The inverter fulfills the function of transforming direct current (DC or CC), which comes from the
batteries and panels, into alternating current (AC or AC). Most devices used in everyday life base
their operation on alternating current (AC).

In a photovoltaic solar system , it is the inverter that is responsible for providing alternating current
energy.

Classification of facilities:

1. Photovoltaic system – Grid isolated

Basic components: photovoltaic modules, battery to store the electricity generated and regulator
(electronic component responsible for ensuring that the battery is charged properly and that it is not
overcharged). In isolated systems that are used for pumping, the storage of excess energy is done in
the form of potential energy by storing water in elevated tanks. Such installations in turn come in
two types, which are:
 Centralized installations : They cover the needs of a group of homes, and whose
justification is the reduction of environmental impact and economic reasons.

 Decentralized installations: which correspond to those that cover the needs of a single
user, be it a home, delivery person, etc.
 2. Photovoltaic system – Grid connected

Basic components: photovoltaic modules, inverter (electronic component responsible for ensuring
that the battery is charged properly and is not overloaded) and the counter/meter.

Each kWp (kiillowatttt—peak) of modules occupies between 7 and 11 m 2 of panel and on a

horizontal surface of land between 1.5 to 3 or 4 times the surface of the modules, depending on
whether they are fixed panels or with solar tracking (the solar tracker is a structure that follows the
movement of the sun to capture more solar radiation and thus increase electricity production). These
installations involve two new components not used in the previous version, which are:
 A grid inverter, whose purpose is to synchronize the phase of energy to be injected with
that of the public grid, the only way that allows the energy contribution.
 An electrical energy meter to measure the injection of energy into the network for
collection purposes.

3. Hybrid installations
Installations that incorporate different electricity generating sources for the same application are
considered hybrid. The purpose is to obtain the maximum use of energy resources at all times to
reduce dependence on atmospheric conditions and the time zones of the sun.
Thus, considering that such facilities are equipped with photovoltaic solar panels, there are two
additional sources that can complement them:
 Wind turbines whose energy is added to that of the photovoltaic panels in conditions of
presence of winds and during the day, to be the main supplier at night, when the panels
cease their activity.
 Generators Based on a fuel-fed engine, which can come into operation automatically when
the available energy from the photovoltaic system is less than that required by the
application.

What are the advantages?

The advantages of solar energy, in its different technologies, are characterized in all its potential in
isolated installations, that is, when there are no other types of energy supplies. We are all used to
having basic services of electricity, fuel, water, etc., in any location, but we must take into account
that, sometimes, the electricity supply networks do not reach remote and undeveloped places.
Likewise, it is the installation of solar panels, with which a large part of the energy necessary for the
basic operation of a building can be generated. Fortunately, solar radiation reaches almost any point
on the planet.

Photovoltaic solar collectors make it possible to obtain the electrical energy necessary for different
applications. When planning the future installation, some considerations must be taken into account.

The collectors can be integrated into the building itself, on the roofs with the appropriate orientation
or inserted in different ornamental elements. The necessary surface will be proportional to the
expected power , also depending on the characteristics of the panel to be installed.

The power that the set of photovoltaic panels must supply will be the sum of the powers of the
different equipment in the consumer's internal installation that must be in operation simultaneously,
taking into account the devices that can operate in DC/DC, which directly supplies the set of solar
collectors, and those that need AC (this will also condition the e existence of an inverter in the
entire system).

The investment in the collection installation will be of special relevance by choosing equipment
with maximum energy efficiency. For example, the power needed to illuminate an area with
traditional fluorescent lamps will be different than using LEDs. This will result in the square meters
of collectors needed and, by extension, in its costs. Then, it will be possible to have a photovoltaic
electricity generation installation that will allow total autonomy , ideal for isolated areas or areas
with difficult supply.
In a similar way, heat energy can be obtained for the heating system, and even to generate domestic
hot water. In this case, thermal solar panels will be used, which, although they use the same
energy source, the sun , are technologically very different.

In summary, a photovoltaic solar system is installed to solve the lack of energy in isolated areas that
do not have a connection to an electrical grid or to become independent from it. Taking into account
that its main source is the sun (natural resource), it is considered a clean and environmentally
friendly source of energy and also has a low maintenance cost.

The useful life of a photovoltaic plant is determined by that of its components, mainly the
photovoltaic generator or module, which constitutes around 50% of the value of the installation.

Regarding the solar panel cell, it is composed of

crystallized Silicon, achieving average efficiency at an
average cost. The silicon cell makes up the majority of
solar cells manufactured in the world. The silicon wafer
has a thickness of 400 μm, offering a long optical path
and therefore increasing the absorption of photons with
higher energy.
Three types of crystallized silicon:

Types of solar cells:

 MONOCRYSTALINE SILICON
Most cells on the market are monocrystalline, uniform blue or black color.

 POLYCRYSTALLINE SILICON
The main difference with the previous one is that a low-cost silicon is used. They have a random
pattern of crystallization.

 RIBBON SILICON
They are made by stretching molten silicon instead of using an ingot. It has a multi-colored
prismatic appearance.

PHOTOVOLTAIC CONCENTRATION
Notable features are:

 Especially suitable for large solar farms with trackers.

 Modular conception: support arms and removable trusses.
 Lower aerodynamic loads, and balanced grille.
 Easy maintenance in access to modules and mirrors.
 Solar tracker disorientation system due to excess temperature.
 Simplicity of control, through a centralized panel
ARRANGEMENT OF PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES

They can be connected in series or parallel or in a combination of both, so that in a photovoltaic

installation the desired voltage or intensity can be achieved.

In an isolated system the modules must be connected to a battery, so that the system can provide
electrical power day and night.

In an installation that is intended to be connected to the grid, the modules must be connected to an
inverter to convert the direct current generated into alternating current that is transported in the
electrical grid.
The solar cell is based on silicon, which is extracted from common sand (Si O 2 ). Six main
processes are involved to obtain the solar module capable of providing electrical energy:

1. Extraction of oxygen from sand to obtain silicon.

2. Silicon purification.
3. Growth
4. Cut to obtain silicon wafers
5. cell formation
6. Encapsulation of cells to form the photovoltaic panel

What are the disadvantages?

Although we have mentioned that the sun's rays reach almost anywhere, it is necessary to
technically evaluate the real possibilities of obtaining quality solar radiation. The existence of
shadows created by the geographic configuration, nearby mountains or mountain ranges, or by
different biological beings, can make the necessary generation difficult.

Those derived from astronomical factors, which imply variations in the solar radiation received on
the planet between day and night and throughout the year.

There are also differences produced by geographical factors, such as the variation in the reception
of solar rays on the surface, whose angle of incidence is different depending on latitude. Likewise,
the thickness of the atmospheric layers influences, which is different at the equator and at the poles,
as in areas of high or low relief. All these factors, therefore, affect the ability to harness the Sun's
energy to be differentiated according to different places on the planet.

The use of this energy also produces certain indirect problems, such as the waste materials left in
the manufacture of photovoltaic panels, which are toxic.

It is considered that the areas best suited for the use of solar energy are hot deserts, because they are
located in intertropical zones and because they have clean skies and low atmospheric humidity. This
can mean an environmental problem, since solar plants require large spaces, which affects
ecological systems that are highly fragile in desert areas; They also produce a visual impact that is a
disadvantage for the natural landscape. Likewise, concentration systems use significant amounts of
water to clean the different elements of the facilities. In this case, the indiscriminate use of water
from wells or aquifers seriously affects ecosystems in
arid regions.
It should also be mentioned that cleaning must be carried
out periodically due to the dirt accumulated on the
surface.

PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS IN THE INDUSTRY

The application of this technology depends on the

product they develop and in our country it is available on
a minimal scale. At this point, it should be mentioned that
the demand (kW) requested by the industry does not
claim power; in any case, depending on the technology,
great benefits can be produced and it can greatly facilitate
the process that the production must go through. of a
product.

An advance is that solar energy can be applied in

industrial processes taking advantage of the same solar
technology that is used at the domestic level. The
potential is enormous, because around 30% of the heat
needed for industrial processes requires temperatures
below 100ºC, which falls within the range in which
domestic solar thermal energy is found. The
implementation costs, being high, limit the application of
photovoltaic systems.

Experience in developed countries:

 In countries where the photovoltaic system has been
most developed, there are high-performance solar
collectors, producing heat at temperatures that reach
150 ºC with excellent performance. High temperature
heat is needed for many industrial processes.

Among these industrial use processes we can find:

steam generation, washing, drying, sterilization,
pasteurization, heating of liquid baths for washing
cycles, dyeing, chemical treatments, air heating in
drying phases, generation low pressure steam for
various uses, etc.

It is worth highlighting the existence of a

concentration device that was originally created for
application in fixed solar cookers in developing
countries, but due to its high technology, in
combination with a simple construction, public plans
and high performance, It is spreading as steam
generation technology for industrial processes. This
solar thermal concentrator is called Schffler.

Solar energy can be used in industry to obtain 100%

of the sun's energy, as in the case of the Schffler, or
to take advantage of the sun's free energy to preheat
and save on the company's energy costs.

The percentage of energy demand in the form of heat in the medium (60 ºC – 150 ºC) and medium –
high (150 ºC – 250 ºC) temperature range is high in the food, paper, textile and chemical industries.
These industries, for more than 50% of the total process, require temperatures of up to 200 ºC.

The paper and food industries are those that work with higher temperatures.

The food, textile and chemical industries work with temperatures between 100 and 200 ºC, using it
for applications as diverse as drying, cooking, cleaning, extraction and many others.

Advantages of applying solar energy to industry

• Reduction of budget allocated to energy

• Reduction of CO2 emissions
• Greater energy independence

Especially in India, the Scheffler reflector is used, a device originally designed to allow cooking
using a fixed solar cooker in third world countries, but the advanced nature of the system, combined
with the simplicity of its construction, is allowing its use to spread more and more. once again.
Photovoltaic modules require little maintenance because they have been developed to withstand the
most adverse atmospheric conditions. Nevertheless

PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS IN BOLIVIA:

Bolivia is one of the countries that receives the most solar radiation in the world. Two thirds of
Bolivia have one of the highest levels of solar intensity on the planet. The highest annual average
daily solar radiation occurs in the highlands, followed by the valleys and, with less potential, in the
tropics.

If we take the average annual solar radiation of Bolivia (IGH) from 1999 to 2013, we will see that
in the southern highlands of the country we reached 2,700 kWh/ m 2 -year (Kilowatt hours per square
meter per year) and in the east of the country 1,800 kWh/ m 2 -year. The solar radiation that Bolivia
receives is two to three times higher than that of Germany, which is one of the countries that
produces the most solar energy in the world and has a global horizontal radiation of 1,000 to 1,200
kWh/m 2 -year.

Photovoltaic Systems nationwide:

YUNCHARA:

The work, which is the first of its kind in Tarija, was installed on an area of 12 hectares in
Yunchará, with more than 19,000 solar panels and an investment of about 11.4 million dollars. It is
the first of its kind in Tarija, it was installed on an area of 12 hectares, with more than 19,000 solar
panels and an investment of about 11.4 million dollars.

UYUNI:

The largest solar plant in the country, which required an investment of 62 million dollars and is
located on 105 hectares (which could be expanded to 180). The plant will generate 50 MW, which
represents half of the current demand for electrical energy of the department of Potosi.

BLANKET:

It is the first solar plant in Bolivia, which provides 5 MW of power to the SIN, and benefits more
than 54,000 inhabitants of 6 towns in the area: Cobija, Porvenir, Philadelphia, Bella Flor, Puerto
Rico and Chivé. The investment was USD 11.3 million dollars; of which USD 4.8 million dollars
are an investment from ENDE Corporación and USD 6 million dollars come from the Danish
Cooperation. This renewable energy plant is located in the Villa Busch area, 9 kilometers from the
city of Cobija, in the department of Pando. The Solar Plant is installed on 11 hectares, it has the
capacity to produce 5,000 kilowatts (KW) and in the future it is estimated that this production will
reach 7,500 kilowatts (KW). Diesel consumption last year was 12 million liters, with an increasing
trend due to population growth, however, with the photovoltaic system it will be possible to reduce
the use of this fuel.

PROJECT: CONSTRUCTION OF THE ORURO PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR PLANT (50

MW)

Description: Solar Photovoltaic generation project that consists of a solar plant with a peak power
of 50 MWp, composed of 151,520 photovoltaic modules, a 24.9/115.0 kV step-up transformer, and
46 1.1 MW inverters, to be connected to the National Interconnected System. It is located in the
municipality of Caracollo in the Cercado province of the department of Oruro.
Location: Oruro Department/ Cercado Province/ Caracollo Municipality approximately 45 km from
the city of Oruro in a North-West direction.
Energy Type: Solar Photovoltaic - Executing Company: ENDE CORPORACION
Financing: Central Bank of Bolivia (BCB), French Development Agency (AFD) and European
Union (EU)
Power: 50 MW - Current Status: In Execution
Project Stage: In Investment
Project Start Date: March 2018
End Date Project: July 2019
Operation Start Date: 2019

OTHER DEVELOPED PROJECTS:

CONSORTIUM LED BY ENERSOL SA IS AWARDED A 168 KW HYBRID SOLAR

PLANT IN EL REMANSO, ITÉNEZ PROVINCE, BENI.

The Consortium made up of ENERSOL SA, INEL of Colombia, and the construction company
SERCRE, was awarded the construction and commissioning of a hybrid solar plant, Solar - Diesel
with an installed power of 168 KW peak.

The system will be made up of 524 Trina brand solar panels of 320Wp each, 144 BAE brand
German industry batteries, 2380Ah/2V each, Schneider brand inverters and battery chargers. These
equipment will be connected to the existing network, which is currently powered by a 250 KVA
Diesel Generator.

The Project includes the installation of 170 Circutor brand pre-paid meters and the implementation
of a business model for the creation of a local Electricity Cooperative. The execution of this work
will require an investment of USD 1.4 million.

FIRST HYBRID SOLAR PARK IN SANTA CRUZ – BOLIVIA

Since September 2015, Santa Cruz has had the first solar-diesel hybrid park, generating significant
savings in diesel consumption, which the government imports at international prices and delivers to
generators at subsidized prices.
It is a 60 Kilowatt (KW) hybrid solar plant that injects energy into the distribution network of the
town of El Espino. The system is basically composed of solar panels, grid injection and
bidirectional inverters, Battery Bank and Diesel Generator; This system allows 235 families to have
electricity 24 hours a day, making the generator functional for only 2 to 3 hours per day.

Designed to reduce the use of a diesel generator from 24 to 3 hours a day.

System caracteristics
Power: 60 KW Peak. Energy: 100 MW/h - year .
Rated power: 51 KW
Number of photovoltaic modules: 240 units
Battery bank capacity: 9660 Ah
Number of batteries: 72 cells

PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS FOR SCHOOLS IN THE RURAL AREA OF BOLIVIA.

(May 2013) The Ministry of Hydrocarbons and Energy awarded Enersol the provision and
installation of 136 220Wp photovoltaic systems, to provide electricity to Rural Schools in the
Departments of Santa Cruz, Tarija and Chuquisaca. The installed systems are composed of 2 solar
panels of 110Wp each, 2 Gel batteries of 150AH, 1 voltage regulator of 20ª and 1 inverter from
12VDC to 220VAC of 800W. Enersol also provided 32" LCD televisions, DVDs and music
equipment for each school.

GUTIERREZ COMMUNITY

It is a land where faith and solidarity are cultivated; "It has been a special place because it has
always been waiting for development and progress." There are 67 solar panels, which are a state-of-
the-art alternative energy to benefit the communities of Kuruguaka, Itambeguazu, Itiai, Ipitacito del
Monte, Los Pozos community, Palmarito, Choroqueti, Tatarenda Viejo, San Silvestre, Karitati and
Kapiakuandi.

In the ENERGY PRESS magazine article FROM MARCH 19 TO APRIL 1, 2018, a

Departmental energy law is announced, in addition to pointing out that Santa Cruz seeks to
change its energy matrix.

FIRST EXPERIENCES OF CONNECTION TO THE NETWORK OF THE ELECTRICDAD SA

COMPANY LA APAZ DELAPAZ:

The first pilot experience of a small photovoltaic project that will inject electricity into the National
Interconnection System is on the Cota Cota campus of the Universidad Mayor de San Andrés in La
Paz with the support of Japanese Cooperation.

This small system consists of 250 panels of 200 watts each. The total installed power will be 50kW
and it will be a pioneering project to connect to the grid.

In the first phase, electricity from the 50 kW photovoltaic system located on the Cota Cota
university campus is delivered at no cost to the grid. Connecting to the grid and paying for solar
energy will be an experience that will set a precedent at a technical, regulatory and economic level
that will contribute to future grid connection ventures that are based on the net balance scheme.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK:
In Bolivia, according to Electricity Law No. 1604 of December 21, 1994, Title III STRUCTURE
OF THE ELECTRICAL SECTOR, CHAPTER I NATIONAL INTERCONNECTED SYSTEM,
Article 15, paragraph d), the Distributor company may own generation stations, which it uses and
take advantage of natural resources, as long as the capacity does not exceed 15% of its total
maximum demand.

Likewise, to date, the Standard that regulates the development and functionality of Photovoltaic
Systems in Bolivia is under evaluation by the Vice Ministry of Energy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-

 SOLAR ENERGY – INTERNET

 ENERGY ALTERNATIVE Richard Montgomery
 THEORY NOTEBOOK Eng. Mario Guzman
 SOLAR ANGLES AND PATHS IN THE TERRITORY OF BOLIVIA
ANDRES TREPP DEL CARPIO
 INFORMATION FROM THE VICEMINISTRY OF ENERGY BOLIVIA
 ENERGY PRESS SPECIALIZED MAGAZINE
 RENEWABLE ENERGY INSTALLER'S GUIDE Tomás Perales Benito