TEACHING MODELS

BRUCE JOYCE
AND
MARSHA WEIL

MADRID
ANAYA
1985
 CHAPTER 1

AGAINST DOGMATISM:
ALTERNATIVE TEACHING MODELS

In this book we examine and compare a wide variety of teaching approaches. In doing so,
we express our belief that there are different types of “good” teaching and that the concept of “good” as
applied to teaching should be used in expressions such as: “good for what?”, or “good for who?"
A teaching model is a structured plan that can be used to set up a curriculum (long-term course of
study), to design teaching materials, and to guide teaching in classrooms.
When we describe models and discuss their use, we find that the task of selecting appropriate models
is complex and that the forms of "good" teaching are numerous depending on the objectives.
We think of teaching as a process in which teachers and students create a shared environment that
includes values and beliefs (agreements about what is important), which, in turn, color our perception of
reality. The chosen teaching "models" are in relation to the type of realities introduced in the class and to the
worldview that drives the teacher and students to work together .
It is not surprising that people are wary of the models they use and that educators have searched for
millennia for the perfect model: the approach that will solve all educational problems (helping any student
learn anything in some way).
We started by promoting the idea according to which there is a perfect model. We should not limit
our methods to a single model, no matter how attractive it may be at first glance, because there is no model
capable of addressing all types and styles of learning. We assume that there are different kinds of learning
that require different teaching methods. We also assume that our students come to us with different learning
styles, seeking different approaches to learn effectively.
To illustrate this point of view, let's visit three teachers and briefly see how they work, what they
teach, and how they manage.

LEARNING A CONCEPT
A group of boys and girls from a summer camp in Santa Barbara, California, begin a hike through a
valley in the Santa Inés hills. The teacher says: "I'm going to try to teach you how to identify plants. To do
this we need to know the concept or principle that distinguishes them from other objects."
Shortly after, the leader stops before a vine-shaped plant climbing the trunk of an oak tree. He points
to the plant, to the leaves, to the place where it penetrates the earth and to the beginning of the division of the
roots, and says:
–Here is an example of the concept. This is the plant we were looking for. Don't touch her. look at
her with
careful.
The teacher indicates the keys:
– Observe especially the shape of the leaves, the trunk and the branches, the way they attach to the
trunk
host and the way of penetrating the earth.
A little later he stops next to a plant with small pink flowers in the shade of a large tree.
tree.
–This plant is not the one we were looking for. Also observe its leaves, branches and trunk and the
way it
enter the earth.
Then he points to a large tree and says:
–This plant is not what we were looking for either.
He then points out a small plant that grows on the ground in a place with grass and sun.
–This is what we are looking for.
And indicating another vine with lanceolate leaves and a slender trunk, he comments:
–This is not the plant that interests us today.
After a while, the schoolchildren begin to intervene.
“This isn't it,” says a child.
"Here's one," says another.
"You're wrong," the professor replies, "but just barely."
The students run around examining plants.
Finally the teacher asks:
–Is this this one? Is this another one?
And the students answer yes or no in each case.
 Then he calls everyone together and says:
–How can we describe our plant?
One answers:
Its leaves are always in a group of three, no matter how small the branches are. Three always emerge
leaves together.
–Yes –adds another–, and they are brilliant, at least on one hand.
Another adds:
–It looks like they have oil.
–They can climb, but they don't always do it.
–They like the sun, but can grow in the shade.
–Fair –says the teacher–; You have brought together the properties of our plant, its leaves and its
trunk.
This way you can differentiate its characteristics from those of other plants. Now I am going to add
something more to you
Guess his name. Note that I told you not to touch it, even if you could have learned
more touching her. One of the things that can be learned is that many of you would have had
red spots on the skin that are itchy for several days. Some would even have had to go to the
hospital. Do you know the name of the plant?
“Poison oak,” says a boy.
–Almost, almost, but it is not exact –answers the professor–. The poison oak has five leaves on each
outbreak.
“Poison ivy,” other kids say, and the teacher nods, smiling.
Using the principles of the Concept Inquiry Model (chapter 2), teach students
 providing positive and negative examples, until learning the concept of “poison ivy.” The
Most will never forget it. They will tell you its name and characters, and you will recognize the plant
when you
find for the rest of your days. And, what is more important, they will have learned how to
obtain the concepts corresponding to other plants and animals.
When the children return to camp they will look at the cages where there are various species of
reptiles.
–Teach us to identify them –says a child.
The teacher smiles. He points to a box where a two-foot-long snake is coiled. The
Spots on the back are diamond-shaped. It's an easy way to get to know that snake.

CLARIFICATION OF VALUES
The senior class of Mervyn Park High School is preparing its traditional spring arts festival, which
takes place on a Friday and Saturday in April, and consists of a series of events around the visual and
auditory arts. Normally there are concerts with chamber music, Jazz music and an exhibition. The actors and
exhibitors are students and other invited professionals. The tickets allow you to pay the professionals, plus a
nice gift that the class gives to the school. The organizing committee reviews students, teachers and
community members to select the actors and exhibitors.
One aspect of this year's program has raised considerable controversy. The committee has invited a
professional modern dance group with a dance called "The body that dances is yours." It is a work with
narration, dialogue and dance. It insists on the idea of fully identifying with one's own body and its image.
The dancers discuss the problem of inhibiting feelings, seeking reconciliation with their own body and
sexuality.
A community member neighboring another whose daughter is a member of the committee is
outraged and goes to the center's director asking him to remove that part of the program. The director
responds by saying that the students are responsible and that he trusts that it will be an appropriate program,
attractive to everyone and without offending anyone. Another dissatisfied member of the community calls on
the Board of Education to remove the program number. A member of the Council presents a motion in that
regard. Upon finding out, the students decide to boycott classes.
The tutor of the organizing class persuades the students to attend a meeting. Everyone shows up in
class. Also get some members of the Board of Education to attend, as well as the director and members of
the community.
After the presentations he says:
–I think that we are interested in clarifying the things that affect us, so that the solutions of the
problem are based on the understanding of our most important values. I have asked some
students to lead the discussion to help us understand the situation, clarify the values in
issue and we agree on the priorities for action.
One of the students says:
–It would be convenient to review the facts and write them down.
 Everyone sits there without responding. Someone then says:
–Well, the fact is that a dance group has been invited.
Sam writes it down on the board. A Council member says:
–I heard that it was a pornographic dance.
Another says:
–None of us have seen the performance.
A student adds:
–The group was recommended by Professor Mr. Solway.
Gradually the facts become clear. After asking if there is more data, Sam asks:
–What is the principle that must be applied here?
–Freedom of expression –says a student. Dance is a form of expression, and free expression
It is protected by the institution.
One of the Council members stands up and says:
–I think that the center has the responsibility of maintaining order, and morality is an element of the
order.
Sam says:
–Can both things be separated? Maintaining order is a matter and responsibility
another morality.
After a lively discussion the data and principles are clarified. One issue is whether the Board of
Education or the school management has the right to interfere in everything, or whether it is the
responsibility of the students to govern themselves. A second issue is the responsibility of the Council and
management in maintaining order. And a third issue is its responsibility in moral issues. The last issue is the
responsibility of students and administration in creating an educational atmosphere.
Sam then hands over the leadership of the assembly to a student, Susan Markov, who begins
saying:
 –We have isolated some topics, but we want you to feel free to investigate new topics.
It is not always possible at the beginning to determine the problems we have to deal with. Lets see if
we are able to locate the values that underlie the themes. Sometimes it is clear that a
question implies a value. For example, if an issue is the right to freedom of expression, the
value is evidently freedom of expression. Other issues involve contradictory values.

In the controversy, the values involved and their conflict are clarified. Next, Susan asks the group to
relate facts and values. There is general agreement that dance is a form of expression, which in this case
implies a specific message. There is also agreement that the prohibition, by the Council or the Management,
of the act represents a violation of said principle. The question is whether such an act is justified by reason of
the moral order of the school. The question of whether in fact the dance in question is immoral is not decided
at the moment. Susan adds:
–Suppose that the dance group effectively explores sexuality and body awareness. In that case, let's
let people define their position, what they think would happen, and then we'll examine the social values of
each proposal and the consequences that would follow if approved.
At that moment a certain number of proposals begin to take shape. The discussion revolves around
the alleged violation of values by the proposals and the desirable and undesirable consequences. Gradually
the group establishes a priority of values and a course of action in view of desirable consequences. At the
time of making the decision, the priority issue, the contribution to a just society, is evident to everyone, and
the community is sure that the students are committed to a decision based on shared values.
The students who led the weight of the discussion then worked on the analysis of a teaching model
that is analyzed in chapter 15: the “jurisprudential model”, a strategy used to address controversial public
issues that imply various assessments.

CREATIVE WRITING
In a class a book of stories and poems is being made. English professor Martin Abramowitz believes
that some stories and poems lack originality. He helps some to improve them, but on the whole he is not
happy.
The teacher has read a book by William Gordon, from Cambridge (Massachusetts), who believes
that creativity can be enhanced through a series of group exercises that help understand the creation process,
using metaphors and analogies that generate new alternatives. Abramowitz decides to try Gordon's methods.
One morning, after each student has read a poem and a story, he tells them:
–Today we are going to try something new to improve our stories and poems in a new light.
For fifteen or twenty minutes we are going to examine some ideas and then try to improve
the writings, rewriting them partially or completely.
Start by asking what a poem is. The students answer in different ways. The teacher selects some
phrases and writes on the blackboard:
"It doesn't need to rhyme."
"It makes feelings expressed."
"Use different kinds of words."
 Then ask:
–How is a poem similar to a car?
The students are baffled. One says:
–It makes us take a journey, a journey of words along the highway of the imagination.
Another says:
–Walk on your own. One gets on and runs.
Another student adds:
–When writing, sometimes you are afraid that the engine will start.
After a while, Abramowitz says:
–Let's take any animal. The giraffe. How is a poem similar to the giraffe?
–It has some parts attached in a very funny way –says a student laughing.
–It is above other things and looks differently –says another.
The exercise continues. After a while, Abramowitz asks the students to select one of the words used
when discussing the stories and poems. They select the word “above.”
–How does one feel being “on top of”? -ask.
One answers:
–You feel different. You can see things that you don't normally see.
–You start to feel better if you don't look outside...
Finally, the teacher asks them to make lists of the words they have used that oppose each other,
creating a certain tension.
They choose the giraffe-snake pair because they are animals that differ in the way they live and
move.
–Well –says the teacher–, let's go back to our book of stories and poems. Think together about
giraffes and snakes and write your stories and poems as if a giraffe and a snake were together hand in hand in
the forests...
Here are two samples resulting from the exercise.
 The motorcycle
It sounds like a rabid lion in the bush.
It looks like a steel horse.
Engage and disengage the notes.
It's going very fast.
The sound of the motorcycle
breaks the silence of the night.
The Adventures of Samuel O'Brian, Secret Agent
It all started when Samuel Watkins O'Brian, a thirty-five-year-old blonde and vulgar chemist,
worked at Hartford Laboratory 200 in Connecticut for the government. When mixing chemicals in a flask,
they began to bubble strangely, becoming hot. Then he threw the flask on the ground and ran. But before he
reached the stairs he felt himself crushed to the ground by the sound of a blinding explosion. When he started
to run he felt his skin shrink. He continued to run and shrink until he was five and a half inches, a tenth of his
normal size.
His boss came with the fire extinguisher.
–What happened, Sam?
Jumping from side to side, Sam moaned:
–I have shrunk, I have shrunk.
The boss did not respond. Sam continued to call for help. Then Sam, checking that his voice could
not be heard over the noise of the fire extinguisher, pulled on his superior's gigantic shoelace. He bent down
to see what was happening in his shoe and saw a small and scared Samuel O'Brian.
Samuel screamed:
–Hey, Jack, take me carefully.
The boss answered:
-What happened to you?
Sam explained the story in Jack's ear, while Jack carefully climbed to the second floor carrying Sam
in the palm of his hand. When they arrived, Jack said:
–Close the building! It's a state secret!
Sam passed out.
 The first thing he saw in the president's Central Security Office, stuffed in a marble ashtray filled
with water (and, naturally, with bubbles), was the face of David Shields, president of C. S.
Sam confirmed his regret when he felt himself on top of the president's table, but... then David
blurted out:
–It's nothing, many people shrink every day, but I thought you hadn't noticed because
you can't see the edges of the ashtray.
David presented Sam with a box of cigarettes and a tailored James Bond-style suit (you know what I
mean). Sam got dressed and David said:
–We would like you to work for us, Sam.
These three teachers have used different teaching models in different ways, models appropriate for
each of their objectives. The first is to teach concepts; the second, to teach students and adults to analyze a
public issue, and the third, to induce a metaphorical style. Each of them is a good teacher and they all have a
repertoire of teaching approaches to select the most suitable one.

THE SEARCH FOR GOOD TEACHING

THE FALLACY OF THE ONE METHOD
As in the case of art, many people believe that good teaching is something that can be recognized at
first glance, even if it is difficult to explain and reason. Implicit in many discussions is the idea that one type
of teaching is better than another. We hear about student-centered teaching, inductive methods, research
methods, methods that get kids working and interested, process-centered curricula, materials built around the
principles of behavior modification. Judging our three teachers, many would prefer one of them, starting a
debate about which is the best.
The question is remarkably ambiguous. There are hundreds of works that compare some methods
with others, and the majority - whether they compare different curricula, specific methods or diverse
approaches - show divergences precisely in the intended objectives. Although the results are difficult to
interpret, there is no room to conclude that there is a single optimal, safe, multi-objective approach.
This conclusion is disconcerting. Naturally, it bothers those who believe they have this optimal and
total method. They often say that the reason why such a demonstration has not been achieved is our inability
to accurately measure results that confirm the goodness of their preferred strategy.
Possibly such a position may be correct. The art of measuring learning results is still in its infancy,
especially with regard to the education of feelings, personality, intellectual development and creativity. It
seems reasonable to assume that as our technology for the study of learning improves, regularities will
appear in the teaching process that have not yet been highlighted. Few good general methods can appear. It is
likely, however, that a few weak models will be discovered, leaving more powerful ones latent.
The problem of choosing appropriate teaching strategies is different if, instead of pursuing
the only good path, we concentrate on the possibilities of a single variety of models that experience offers us.
No known proprietary method is successful with all students or achieves all objectives. Our task is to provide
an environmental environment in which we can teach students in a variety of ways that facilitate their
development.

THE SEARCH FOR TEACHING MODELS

We have carried out extensive research on useful teaching models. And we have found them in
abundance: useful models for any objective and of such breadth that they can be effective with any type of
student.
They crop up everywhere. Some have been invented by the teachers themselves. Others are the
subject of important psychological research. Others have been configured by therapists or philosophers.
Some models are simple and easy to use, while others are complex and difficult. Some have very broad
objectives, while others are only valid for particular goals (see chapter 28). Each in their own way. It
represents a vision of humanity: what needs to be learned and how it needs to be learned.
Over time, a large number of educational models have been created in various branches of activity.
Models can be based on practice, empirical work, theories, intuitions, and speculations about the meaning of
theories and research conducted by others. The aim of this book is to describe a number of teaching models,
analyze their merits and show how they are adapted to different learners.
 MODEL FAMILIES
From the enormous list of existing models we have selected twenty-two in this book. They
constitute, in our opinion, the basic educational repertoire with which to meet most learning objectives.
We have grouped them into four families or groups that represent different learning orientations.

Information processing models

The methods of this broad group refer to the students' information processing capacity and how to
improve this capacity (see Table 1-1).
Information processing is the way of managing environmental stimuli, consolidating data, posing
problems, generating concepts and solutions, and using verbal and non-verbal symbols.
Some information processing models refer specifically to the ability to solve problems, thus
enhancing productive thinking; others affect intellectual capacity in general. A large number of models deal
with concepts and information corresponding to academic disciplines. It should be noted, however, that
almost all models in this group are concerned with social relationships and the development of an active and
integrated self.
Personal models
The models of the second group are oriented to the development of the individual self (see table 1-
2). They underline the process by which individuals construct and organize their unique reality. They
frequently insist on aspects of emotional life. It is believed that by helping subjects develop productive
relationships with their environment and consider themselves capable people, richer interpersonal
relationships and a greater capacity to process information will occur.

Social interaction models

The models of this group study the relationship between the individual and other people (see table 1-
3). They study the social processes of reality. Consequently, these models prioritize the improvement of the
subject's capacity vis-à-vis others, democratic processes, and productive social work. It must be emphasized
that social orientation does not imply that these objectives constitute the only important dimension of life.
Although social theorists preferentially insist on social relationships, they are also concerned with the
development of the mind and self, as well as the learning of academic issues. (Every educator deals with the
development of multiple aspects of the subject and the various dimensions of the environment that influences
the development of the individual.)

TABLE 1-1
Information processing models (selection )

Model Theorists Goals

Inductive Hilda Taba1 Designed primarily to develop inductive mental processes,
thinking academic reasoning and theory construction, also affecting
personal and social objectives.
Investigation Richard Suchman2
Scientific Joseph J. Schwab3 Designed to teach the research system of a discipline. It is
investigation (the curriculum reform expected to produce effects in other domains (sociological
movement of 1960) methods can be taught to increase social understanding and
problem solving).

Concept Jerome Bruner4 Designed to develop inductive reasoning and also conceptual
formation analysis.

1
Hilda Taba (1966): Teaching Strategies and Cognitive Functioning in Elementary School Children , Cooperative
Research Project 2404, San Francisco State College, San Francisco.
2
J. Richard Suchman (1962): The Elementary School Training Program in Scientific Inquiry , Report to US Office of
Education, Project Title VII, Project 216, University of Illinois, Urbana.

3
Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Joseph J. Schwab, supervisor (1955): Biology Teachers' Handbook , John
Wiley & Sons. Inc., New York.
4
Jerome Bruner, Jacqueline J. Goodnow and George A. Austin (1967): A Study of Thinking , Science Editions, Inc.,
New York.
 Cognitive Jean Piaget5 Designed to enhance general intellectual development,
development Irving Sigel6 especially logical development, and can also be applied to social
Edmund Sullivan7 and moral development.
Lawrence Kohlberg8
Intellectual David Ausbel9 Designed to enhance the effectiveness of information
organization processing, to absorb and relate bodies of knowledge.
model
Memory Harry Lorayne10 and Jerry Lucas Designed to increase humorous capacity.

TABLE 1-2
Personal models (selection)

Model Theorists Goals

Non-directive Carl Rogers0 Personality development in terms of self-awareness,
teaching understanding, autonomy and self-worth.
Development of Fritz Perls0 Increased capacity for self-exploration and self-awareness.
consciousness William Schutz0 Insistence on the development of interpersonal awareness and
understanding, as well as body and sensory awareness.
Synectic William Gordon 0 Personal development of creativity and creative problem
solving.
Conceptual David Hunt 0 Designed to encourage personal flexibility and breadth.
system
group therapy William Glasser 0 Development of self-understanding and personal and group
responsibility.

Behavioral models
The models of this group have in common a theoretical basis, a body of knowledge called behaviorism (see
Table 1-4). They also frequently use other concepts such as learning theory, social learning theory, behavior
modification, and behavioral therapy.

TABLE 1-3
Social interaction models (selection)

Model Theorists Goals

group research Herbert Thelen 0 Development of participation in democratic social processes,
and John Dewey0 combining interpersonal skills and academic research. The goal
is personal development.
Social Byron Massialas Solving social problems through academic research and logical
investigation and Benjamin Cox0 reasoning.
5
Jean Piaget (1952): The Origins of Intelligence in Children , International University Press, New York.
6
Irving E. Sigel (1969): “The Piagetian System and the World of Education,” in Studies in Cognitive Development ,
eds. David Elkind and John Flavell, Oxford University Press, New York.
7
Edmund Sullivan (1967): “Piaget and the School Curriculum: A Critical Appraisal”, Bulletin no. 2, Ontario Institute
for Studies In Education, Toronto.
8
Lawrence Kohlberg (1976): “The Cognitive Developmental Approach to Moral Education”, in Moral Education... It
Comes with the Territory , ed. Dayid Purpel and Kevin Ryan, Ca.: McCutchan Publishing Corp., Berkeley.
9
David Ausubel (1963): The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning , Grune & Stratton. Inc., New York.
10
Harry Lorayne and Jerry Lucas (1974): The Memory Book , Ballantine Books, Inc., New York.
0
Carl Rogers (1971) Client Centered Therapy , Houghton Mifflin Company Boston.
0
Frederick Perls, Ralph Hefferline and Paul Goodman (1951): Gestalt Therapy , Julian Press, New York; Frederick Perls (1968):
Gestalt Therapy Verbatim , Real People Press. Lafayette California.
0
William Schutz (1958): FIR0: A three-Dimensional Theory of Interpersonal Behavior Holt , Rinehart & Winston. NY; JOY (1957)
Expanding Human Awareness , Grove Press Inc., New York.
0
William J. J. Gordon (1961): Synectics , Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., New York.
0
David E. Hunt (1970) “A Conceptual Level Matching Model for Coordinating Learner Characteristics with Educational
Approaches ” -, Interchange, 1, no. 2, pp. 1-31
0
William Glasser (1965): Reality Therapy, Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., New York.
0
Herbert Thelen (1960): Education and the Human Quest , Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. New York.
0
John Dewey (1916): Democracy and Education , Macmilian, Inc., New York.
 Laboratory Bethel, Maine NTL (National Development of personal and group skills, personal awareness
Methods Training Laboratory)0 and flexibility.
Jurisprudence Donald Oliver Teaching cases to solve social problems.
And James P. shaver 0
role play Fannie Shaftel Study by students of personal and social values, taking their
And George Shaftel0 own behavior as a research topic.
Social simulation Sarene Boocock0 Help students experience various processes, examining their reactions.
Harold Guetzkow0 Acquisition of decision-making habits.
The emphasis is on changing the visible behavior of the subject rather than the latent psychological
structure and unobservable behavior. Behaviorist models are widely applicable, with diverse objectives in
education, training, interpersonal behavior and therapy. Based on the principles of stimulus control and
reinforcement, behavioral models have been successfully used in conditions of interaction and mediation,
individually and in groups. These techniques have been the subject of research and publications more than
others. In this book we offer six models, all of them based on behaviorist theory. They include teaching,
conceptual, and anxiety-reducing or relaxing models.

TABLE 1-4
Behavioral models (selection)

Model Theorists Goals

Contingency control b. F. skinner 0 Data, concepts, skills.
Self-control b. F. skinner0 Behavior and social skills.
Relaxation Rimm and Masters Personal goals (reduction of stress and anxiety).
Wolpe0

0
Byron Massíalas and Benjamin Cox (1966): Inquiry In Social Studies , McGraw-Hill, New York
0
Leland P. Bradford, Jack R. Gibb and Kenneth D. Benne, eds. (1964) T-Group Theory and laboratory Method , John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York
0
Donald Oliver and James P Shaver (1966): Teaching Public Issues in High School , Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
0
Fannie Shaftel and George Shaftel (1967): Role Playing for Social values: Desision Making In the Social Studies , Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
0
Sarane Boocock and E. 0. Schild (1964) Simulation Games in Learning, Sage Publications , Inc., Beverly Hills, California.
0
Harold Guetzkow et al. (1963): Simulation in International-Relation , Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
0
; b. F. Skinner (1953): Science and Human Behavior , Macmillan, Inc., - New York.
0
David C. Rimm and John C. Masters (1974): Behavior Therapy: Techniques and Empirical Finding , Academic Press,
Inc., New York
0
J. Wolpe (1969): Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition , Stanford University Press, t958, Stanford, Callfornia; The
Practice of Behavior Therapy , Pergamon Press, Inc., Oxford.
 Reduction of Rimm and Masters, Replacing anxiety with relaxation in social problems.
Stress Wolpe
Training Wolpe, Lazarus 0 Direct and spontaneous expression of feelings in a social
Affirmative Salter 0 environment.
Deconditioning Wolpe
Training Gagne 0 Behavior models. Skills.
straight Smith and Smith0

0
J. Wolpe and Arnold A. Lazarus 11966): Behavior Therapy Techniques: A Guide to the Treatment of Neuroses ,
Pergamon Press, Inc., Oxford.
0
TO. Salter (1964): Conditioned Reflex Therapy , Farrar, Strauss, New York; , The Theory and Practice of Conditioned
Reflex Therapy , in Conditioning Therapies: The Challenge in Psychotherapy , eds. TO. Salter. J. Wolpe and L. J.
Reyna, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York.
0
Robert Gagne et al. (1962): Psychological Principles In Systems Development , Holt, Rinehart & Winston. NY.
0
Karl U. Smith and Margaret Foltz Smith (1966): Cybernetic Principles of Learning and Educational Design , Holt,
Rinehart & Winston, New York.
 One of the common characteristics of these behavioral models is their division of learning into a
series of small, sequenced behaviors. Although control of the learning situation may be in the hands of both
teachers and students, in educational matters we are more familiar with behavioral models whose control is
held by the teacher. Self-control techniques are barely studied in this book.

Unique and common traits

These groups of models are in no way antithetical or exclusive, although each represents a particular
approach to teaching.
Debates around educational methods assume that teachers and schools should stick to a single
method, but students should progress in all areas. Paying attention to the personal, but not to the social, or to
the informative, but not to the personal is something that does not make sense in the life of the student who
progresses and learns.
Therefore, progress in teaching consists of the increasing mastery of a variety of teaching models
and the ability to use them effectively. We believe that very few teachers limit their capacity in this way.
Most have a basic repertoire of six or eight models with which they meet all needs. Certain models are more
appropriate than others for certain curricula. The curriculum defines our role, as well as the necessary skills.
For example, a high school biology teacher using Biological Sciences Studies Committee materials will want
to master the appropriate inductive method to get the most out of such materials. Or an elementary social
sciences teacher who aims to teach students what values are will need to master the appropriate models for
analyzing values and public problems.
Once the teacher masters the "basic" repertoire of appropriate models, he will expand them by
learning new models and combining and transforming the basic ones to create new ones. In working on a
social issue, the teacher will use, for example, the inductive method to teach how to interpret graphs, and a
group dynamics model to confront a social problem. An advanced teaching performance will adequately mix
the appropriate methods. Good teachers create new models and test them in their work, appropriately
combining the models and ideas of others.

ELEMENTS OF THE MODEL: ITS DESCRIPTION

Each of the chapters includes four sections: introduction to the model, the teaching model,
application and didactic and educational effects. In the introduction to the model we describe its objectives,
its theoretical hypotheses and its fundamental principles and concepts. With some models we make a
transcription and with others a description. In the second section we analyze the model based on four
dimensions: syntax, social system, reaction principles and support system. This description is the operational
heart of each model: they inform us about the necessary activities and their consequences. The third section,
application, gives us information about the use of the model in the classroom. Sometimes this information is
an illustration of different areas, a guide for making age adaptations, designing a resume, or suggestions for
combining the model with other models. Sometimes it is the problem of specific points that causes
difficulties for teachers when applying a model. Finally, the pedagogical and educational effects that can be
derived from the application of the model are briefly presented.
The four concepts that describe the operations of the model (syntax, social system, reaction
principles and support system) have been developed by the authors of the book to examine the basic
procedures necessary to apply any model.

Syntax
The syntax of the model sentences describes the model in action. For example, if a teacher decides to
use a model as the basis of his strategy, what type of activities will he implement? How should he start?
What will happen next? We describe the syntax in terms of sequences of activities that we call phases . Each
model has a different flow of phases.
For example, one model begins with the teacher's presentation of a concept called "anticipatory
organizer" orally or in writing. In the second phase the data is presented. The student reads something,
watches a movie, etc. A phase follows in which the student relates the material to the organizing concept. In
another model, the first phase will consist of data collection by the students. The second phase will consist of
the organization of data under concepts formed by the students, and the third in a comparison of their
concepts with those achieved by other people.
 As can be seen in Table 1-5, these two models have very different structures, although they use
similar elements, and in fact they have been conceived for very different objectives. The first to master
certain material and the second to teach students an inductive thinking process.
Comparison of the phases in Table 1-5 reveals practical differences. An inductive strategy has
different activities and different sequences than a deductive one.

TABLE 1-4
Example of phase flow in two models

Phase 1. Phase 2. Phase 3.

Model 1 Concept presentation Data presentation Relationship of data and
concepts
Model 2 Data presentation Development of categories by Identification and naming of
students concepts

The social system

The social system describes the roles of teacher and students and the relationships and type of norms
that prevail. Teacher leadership roles vary markedly from one model to another. In some models the teacher
is an animator or facilitator of the group activity, while in others he is an advisor and in others a task
assigner. In some models the teacher is the center of the activity, the source of information and the organizer
and controller of the situation (strong structure). Other models distribute activity equally between teacher and
student (moderate structure), while others place the student in the center, promoting intellectual and social
independence (weak structure).
One way to describe a teaching model refers to the degree of structuring of the learning environment.
As roles, relationships, norms, and activities become less externally imposed and more under the control of
students, the system becomes less structured. As we will see, some models are essentially more structured
than others. However, the structure of all models can vary greatly to adapt to the personality type of the
students. We can close or open the structure.

Reaction principles
They are principles that tell us how to attend to the student and how to respond to what he or she
does. In some models the teacher openly tries to shape certain behavior by rewarding some attitudes and
remaining neutral towards others. In other models, such as those designed to encourage creativity, the
teacher maintains a non-evaluative and egalitarian stance so that the student is self-directed. Reaction
principles are rules for tuning into the learner and selecting appropriate responses to their actions.
Support system
We use this expression to describe not the model itself, but the conditions necessary for its existence.
What are the additional demands of the model beyond the usual capabilities and technical skills? For
example, the <<human relations>> model requires the presence of a trained leader and the <<non-
directive>> model requires a strong patient and understanding personality. Suppose that a model asks
students to teach themselves, limiting the teacher's role to mere consultation and organization, what support
is needed? Obviously, a classroom that only has textbooks will not be enough. Without books, movies, self-
teaching systems, field trips, etc., the model will be empty.

Didactic and educational effects

The effects of stimulation can be direct, designed to occur from the content and activities on which
they are based. They can also be implicit. One of the most fascinating questions in the study of models is that
of implicit effects. For example, a model that enhances academic discipline can also (although not
necessarily) produce obedience to authority. A method that promotes personal development may (but does
not necessarily) raise issues around social responsibility. The examination of latent functions can be as
important as that of direct ones.
That is why we talk about direct or didactic and indirect or educational effects. Didactic effects are
sought directly, orienting the subject in a certain direction. The educational effects come from the experience
of the environment worked by the model.
 Competitiveness toward a goal can influence performance, but an atmosphere of competition can
alienate people. In this case alienation is promoted obliquely.
When choosing a model, designing a curriculum, or selecting a material, the teacher must balance
teaching effectiveness and predictable educational effects, as can be seen in Figure 1-1.
If we have two models whose didactic effects are both appropriate to our objective, we can choose
one of them for its indirect educational effects that reinforce the direct effects.

Effect A
(It is desirable?)

model Effect B
(It is desirable?)

Didactic level Effect B

Education level (It is desirable?)

Fig. 1-1
Didactic and educational effects

Model 1
AND. didactic
A (Desirable)
AND. didactic
A (Desirable)
AND. didactic
B (Acceptable)

Model 2
AND. didactic
A (Desirable)
AND. didactic
B (Acceptable)
AND. didactic
C (Undesirable)

Model 3
AND. didactic
B (Acceptable)
AND. didactic
A (Desirable)
AND. didactic
B (Acceptable)

Fig. 1-2

We can consider three possibilities, as shown in Figure 1-2. If we assume equal effectiveness, we
can choose model 1, because its teaching and educational effects are reinforced without undesirable
secondary educational effects. (In model 3, object A is not reinforced, and in model C there is an undesirable
educational effect.)
 Didactic effects
Academic
Education level
Content
(Variable effectiveness)

(Effective) Democratic
(Effective) powers
Model (democratic)

Democratic
commitment

Civics
asset

Fig. 1-3
Didactic and educational effects. Sample.

It is possible to defend the choice of a model mainly for its educational effects, even if it does not
have very clear didactic or teaching effects. The <<progressive movement>>, for example, defends the
teaching of academic issues through democratic procedures, less because it is an effective method of
teaching content (although some also believe it) than because of its power to shape democratic and citizen
behavior and its teaching. of democratic powers. Figure 1-3 exemplifies these effects.
Educators have to choose between models that differ considerably from each other. The models we
choose create a certain type of reality in the students.

DEVELOPMENT OF A REPERTOIRE OF MODELS

Some consider teaching to be preferably a personal art. For them, models constitute the art of
teachers, a kind of collective wisdom on which personal art is built.
We believe that the teacher should consider these teaching models as ways to achieve a wide range
of objectives. Since there is no single teaching strategy that covers all objectives, the conscientious teacher
must master a sufficient repertoire of strategies to address specific learning problems. For example, the
"nondirective model" is especially useful in making people more open and aware of their feelings, in
releasing their sense of inquiry and initiative, and in helping them develop the drive and sensitivity necessary
to are able to educate themselves. Similarly, the "laboratory method" will help improve human relationships.
Having a repertoire of models is especially important if the teacher has to serve many children in
different areas of the curriculum. But even the specialist restricted to teaching a single discipline to mature
students is faced with tasks for which there is no single adequate model. For example, the middle-level
English teacher can use various models. Synectics can be used in teaching creative writing. Skinner's
techniques teach skills, and non-directive methods help develop a sense of one's ability and the willingness
to use it.
 A team of teachers working together can discover the models that each of their members need most.
Some will effectively use counseling models while others will prefer behavior modification strategies, etc.
A good team of teachers capable of setting up a system of help and other support systems may be
able to develop a full spectrum of opportunities for students.
Developing a repertoire of models is equivalent to developing flexibility. Part of this flexibility is
professional competence. Every teacher faces a wide range of problems, and the greater his repertoire of
models, the broader and more creative the solutions he can generate. On a personal level, such a repertoire
requires the ability to progress and expand one's potential, and the ability to learn varied and interesting ways
to address one's own need for development. The environment conducive to personal development is greatly
enhanced if people can define their current position and its alternatives. An enthusiastic teacher can embrace
new forms of experience, explore new aspects of their students and find new paths to help them progress.
This satisfaction with development and exploration should be reason enough for the teacher to set
himself the goal of having not just one or two basic models usable for all objectives, but a variety capable of
exploring the latent potential in teachers and students.
. .
SELECTION OF MODELS FOR THE TEACHER

What models should a teacher learn? We suggest the idea of learning one model from each of the four groups
at first, adding others as they are needed for special teaching. Teacher training should include mastery of four
or five methods as an initial repertoire.
The first two or three models are more difficult to learn than the next ones. New models can then be
learned more quickly and efficiently.
Teaching models create environments, provide general guidelines to design and build learning
situations. We believe that the four families or groups constitute a normal repertoire for teachers and
curriculum designers, with sufficient breadth for all types of educational objectives. However, the most
creative educators rarely build their repertoire with what exists. They use the models not as recipes, but as
stimulants of their activity.
The four groups: information processing, personal, interactive and behavioral, pursue characteristic
objectives with their own means. Information models depend on activities that involve content and skills.
Interactive models refer to group energy and group interaction processes. Behavioral models pursue the
change of specific behaviors, examining the conditioning, determinations, substitutions and repetitions of
behavior.
In this book we present a sample of each of the groups. Each group begins with a brief <<scenario>>
in the style of the one described at the beginning of this chapter. Then follow the introduction, the syntax, the
principles of recreation and other components already described with the probable didactic and educational
effects. Finally, it is about its application and the way to learn the models.
Choosing some models and not others is partly a matter of effectiveness (models appropriate to a
task) and partly a matter of considerable philosophical scope. The chosen models subtly create the learning
atmosphere. You learn that world along with its values.
The world we want is a world in which students experience many models and learn from them. As
teachers expand their repertoire, students will expand theirs, becoming more powerful and multidimensional
learners. This is the reason for Teaching Models.