STUDY GUIDE FOR THE MASTER IN SYSTEMIC FAMILY THERAPY

INVESTIGATION METHODOLOGY

1 Research approaches
Quantitative approach : Uses data collection to test hypotheses, based on numerical
measurement and statistical analysis, to establish patterns of behavior and test theories.
Qualitative approach : uses data collection without numerical measurement to discover
or affirm research questions in the process of interpretation. In qualitative processes,
hypotheses are generally not tested, they are developed in the process and refined as
more data is generated.
Mixed approach: Mixed methods represent a set of systematic, empirical and critical
research processes and involve the collection and analysis of quantitative and
qualitative data, as well as their integration and joint discussion, to make inferences
resulting from all the information collected (meta-inferences). ) and achieve

Correlations

-offer predictions

-explain the relationship between

variables

Explanatory

-determine the causes of phenomena

-generate a sense of understanding

-they are highly structured

Exploratory studies: they are carried out when the objective is to examine a poorly
studied topic (they generally precede other investigations) value: it helps to become
familiar with unknown phenomena, obtain information to carry out a more complete
investigation of a particular context, investigate new problems , identify promising
concepts or variables, establish priorities for future research, or suggest statements or
postulates
Descriptive studies: seek to specify important properties, characteristics and features
of any phenomenon being analyzed. Describes trends of a group or population value: it
is useful to accurately show the angles or dimensions of a phenomenon, event,
community, context or situation
Correlational studies: associate variables through a predictable pattern for a group or
population value : to a certain extent it has an explanatory value, although partial, since
knowing that two concepts or variables are related adopts certain explanatory
information
Explanatory studies: aims to establish the causes of the events, occurrences or
phenomena that are studied value: it is more structured than other investigations (in fact
it implies their purposes); In addition to providing a sense of understanding of the
phenomenon to which they refer
3 Hypotheses : they are tentative explanations of the relationship between two or
more variables, their functions are: guide the study - provide explanations - support the
testing of theories / indicate what we are trying to prove and are defined as tentative
explanations of the phenomenon investigated - are derived of the existing theory and
must be formulated as propositions
Variables: A variable is defined as a property that can take different values; It is a
symbol to which values are assigned
The independent (x) varies and is the supposed cause of another variable, the
dependent. In an experiment, it constitutes the manipulated variable, it is the one that is
under the control of the experimenter. In a non-experimental study, it is the variable that
has a logical effect on the dependent variable
The effect of the dependent variable (y) is altered concomitantly with changes or
variations in the independent variable
Characteristics: 1-the hypothesis must refer to a real situation, 2-the variables or terms
of the hypothesis must be understandable, precise and as concrete as possible, 3-the
relationship between variables proposed by a hypothesis must be clear and logical, 4 -
the terms or variables of the hypothesis must be observable and measurable, 5- the
hypotheses must be related to techniques available to test them
Guys:
1 .- research hypotheses: they are tentative propositions about the possible
relationships between two or more variables, (they are the most used in research)
research hypotheses-Hi, can be: descriptive, correlational, group, causal
2 .- null hypotheses: they are the reverse of the research hypothesis, they deny or
refute the relationship between variables-Ho
3 .- alternative hypotheses: they are alternatives to the research hypothesis or null,
they are only formulated when another possibility exists-Ha

4 Research design
Definition: plan or strategy that is developed to obtain the information required in an
investigation
Objective: answer research questions, meet study objectives, test hypotheses
5 Research validity
Internal: degree of confidence that the results of the experiment are interpreted
appropriately and are valid (achieved when there is control) - internal validity is achieved
through several comparison groups (at least two), and equivalence of the groups in
everything, except the manipulation of the independent variable(s)
External: the possibility of generalizing the results of an experiment to non-experimental
situations, as well as to other people and populations

6 Sample
Definition: Sampling refers to taking a portion of a population or universe that is
representative of that population or universe.
It is a subgroup of the population from which data is collected and must be
representative of this population.
Sample selection
Tests are selected based on the problem statement, hypotheses, research design, and
the extent of their contributions. Probability samples are essential in transactional
research designs, both descriptive and correlational-causal.
Types of sample Non-probability samples do not use random assignment, while
probability samples use the random method
Probability sampling : All elements of the population have the same possibility of being
chosen and are obtained by defining the characteristics of the population and the
sample size - it is required to 1 calculate the sample size that is representative of the
population and 2 select the sample elements (cases) so that at the beginning everyone
has the same possibility of being chosen
In random sampling, a portion (or sample) is taken from a population or universe so that
each member of the population or universe has the same chance of being chosen.
Simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling and systematic
sampling are four types of probability sampling.
 Simple random
(everyone has the
same possibility
of being elected-
simple draw )

Stratified

You get a
proportion of each
group or stratum
Sampling
probabilistic By bunches
(It allows Similar to
generalization) stratified-
works great
scale (country,
edos, muns )

Systematic
Of the total
population
generate intervals
Non-probability sampling : the choice of the sample does not depend on probability,
but on causes related to the characteristics of the research or who makes the sample.
Quota sampling, purposeful sampling, and accidental sampling are three types of non-
probability sampling.

Accidental-
availability
(Whoever is found
available)

Dues
(It is an analogy of
strata)

Intentional
Non-probabilistic (Key people, who
have information)

Snowball
(That the
others recommend
members of the
sample)

Type subject
(Which has one
characteristic of
our interest)
MEASUREMENT
7 MEASUREMENT LEVELS
NOMINAL. (In name only) This type of measurement refers to differences in quality,
counting is not required to include members in some category, they simply belong, for
example, smokers-non-smokers, what matters is the categorization
ORDINAL. They represent positions in a group, a clear example of this is what happens
in sports competitions, the data does not tell us by how much difference someone won,
they simply tell us who is first, second, third, etc.
INTERVAL. This is a scale that uses equal intervals, number of words remembered in a
memory test or percentage score in an exam, these tests lack a “pure zero” rather it is
assigned arbitrarily.
REASON. They are scales with a “true zero” such as time, distance and most physical
dimensions, on a ratio scale negative numbers do not make sense.

Evidenc
e

8 RELIABILITY
Reliability is the degree of coincidence produced by several measures that are similar in
procedure and method (obtaining similar results on consecutive occasions)
Reliability is defined as the consistency or stability of the measurement instrument.
Reliability and validity are often confused because they both deal with the precision of
measurements. However, reliability has little to do with whether the instrument really
measures what it intends. Its precision aspect refers to the measurement of the “true”
score.
STABILITY. It is a criterion to determine the reliability of an instrument, it is sought that
the measurements are similar at two different times. This is called TEST-RETEST.
Statistically, reliability is obtained by Pearson's r correlation coefficient, where values
close to 1 indicate a correlation and those close to 0 indicate a lack of correlation. 1
positive indicates a direct correlation and 1 negative indicates an inverse correlation,
values greater than .7 are acceptable.
PARALLEL FORMS. This method seeks to verify the reliability of the instrument by
comparing it with a different instrument.
DIVISION INTO HALVES. In this method, the instrument is divided into two halves, they
can be evens and nones. When obtaining the score, the correlation is applied to know
how similar the results are.
INTERNAL CONSISTENCY. In the Cronbach alpha method it is also divided into
halves, but these halves are obtained from statistical methods, generating multiple
possibilities.

Stability: it is the It is obtained with Person's r- if it is 1 +

reliability criterion, it is indicates direct correlation, 1- inverse
sought that the correlation, 0 no correlation- values
measurements are equal greater than .7 are acceptable
at two different times
(test-retest)

Parallel forms: reliability method based on comparing two

measurements of the same instrument in a short period

Reliability Division by halves: the test is divided into two halves (even-odd) and the
scores are compared

Internal consistency: Cronbach's alpha - splits into random halves

9 VALIDITY
CONTENT VALIDITY Content validity refers to the adequacy of the representativeness
or sampling of the content of the test.
Face validity is similar to content validity, but is not quantitative and includes a mere
visual inspection of the test, by sophisticated or unsophisticated reviewers .
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY. (convergent, divergent) Construct validity seeks to explain
individual differences in test scores. Deals with abstract concepts that may contain two
or more dimensions
Construct validity requires both convergence and discrimination
Convergence establishes that instruments that attempt to measure the same thing must
be highly correlated.
Discrimination is demonstrated when instruments that are supposed to measure
different things have a low correlation. One method used to demonstrate both
convergence and discrimination is the Campbell and Fiske multitrait-multimethod matrix.
VALIDITY OF CRITERION. (concurrent, predictive) There are two methods under
criterion-related validity: concurrent or predictive
The distinguishing characteristic between concurrent and predictive validity is the
temporal relationship between the instrument and the criterion.
An instrument with high criterion-related validity helps test users make better decisions
in terms of placement, classification, selection, and evaluation.
STATISTICS
10 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS This part of statistics focuses on the description of
data, values and scores - pie charts, histograms, and other types of graphs are
frequently used.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY They are points in the distribution obtained,
the central or average values of it, the main measures of central tendency are 3 mode,
median and mean, the mode is the category or score that occurs most frequently, the
median is the value that divides the distribution in half, the mean is half of the most
used central tendency and can be understood as the arithmetic average of a distribution
VARIABILITY MEASURES indicate the dispersion of the data on the measurement
scale and answer the question: Where are the scores or values obtained dispersed? -
The most used variability measures are range, standard deviation and variance. The
range is the difference between the highest score and the lowest score, the standard
deviation is interpreted as how much a set of scores deviates, on average, from the
mean, the variance is the standard deviation squared, it is very important because
many Statistical tests are based on the
SYMMETRY AND KURTOSIS Asymmetry is a necessary statistic to know how much
our distribution resembles a theoretical distribution called a normal curve. A curve with
asymmetry equal to zero is a symmetric distribution. When it is positive, it means that
there are more values grouped to the left of the curve (below the average). When it is
negative, it means that the values tend to cluster to the right of the curve (above the
mean)
Kurtosis is an indicator of how flat or sharp a curve is. When it is zero, it means that it
may be a normal curve. If it is positive, it means that the curve, distribution or polygon is
more peaked or elevated, if the kurtosis is negative, it indicates that it is flatter or more
curved.
11 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Hypothesis test: it is in relation to the Ho, it is accepted or rejected

in relation to the level of significance

Sampling distribution: it is the distribution of the population

calculated from the samples. It is a theoretical concept

Significance level: it is the probability that the data is in an area of acceptance-alpha level

Statistics
inferential
Estimation of
parameters and Confidence interval: it is a parameter around the mean, within
checking which the results are acceptable
hypothesis
Error types:
Type I- reject the true hypothesis-alpha error
Type II- accept the false hypothesis- beta error
12 PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
ASSUMPTIONS : 1) the population distribution of the dependent variable is normal: the
universe has a normal distribution, 2) the level of measurement of the variables is
interval or ratio, 3) when two or more populations are studied, they have a
homogeneous variance: the populations in question have a similar dispersion in their
distributions
PEARSON CORRELATION It is a statistical test to analyze the relationship between two variables using a level by
interval or ratio.

LINEAR REGRESSION It is a statistical model to estimate the effect of one variable on another. It is associated with
the Pearson r coefficient. It provides the opportunity to predict the scores of one variable by taking the scores of
another variable. The greater the correlation between variables, the greater the prediction capacity.

T TEST It is a statistical test to evaluate whether two groups differ significantly from each other with respect to their
measurements on a variable.

ONE WAY ANOVA It is a statistical test to analyze whether more than two groups differ significantly from each other
in terms of their means and variances. The t test is used for two groups and one-way analysis of variance is used for
three or more, although it can also be used for two groups.

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF MORE THAN ONE FACTOR

MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS

FACTOR ANALYSIS

COVARIANCE ANALYSIS

For two groups:

Student's t for
groups
independent and
related

Statistics For more than two groups: ANOVA

parametric

For two variables

numerical:
Pearson's r
13 NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
ASSUMPTIONS 1) Most of these analyzes do not require assumptions about the shape
of the population distribution. They accept non-normal distributions, 2) the variables do
not necessarily have to be measured at an interval or ratio level; They can analyze
nominal or ordinal data. In fact, if nonparametric analysis is required to apply data by
interval or ratio, these need to be summarized into discrete categories. The variables
must be categorical.
Chi SQUARE is a statistical test to evaluate hypotheses about the relationship between
two categorical variables.
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT AND INDEPENDENCE FOR TABULATIONS
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT BY ORDERED RANKS OF SPEARMAN AND
KENDALL

For two groups:

- x²
-U de Man Whitney p/g ind
-Wilcoxon T p/g rel

Statistics no
parametric

For more than two groups:

3
 Association or
Description and
Measurement level Hypothesis testing correlation
presentation
measures

-Frequency tables -
Circular graph -Mode - Cramer's V -
- Chi square - Fisher
Nominal -Qualitative Contingency
-Mc Nemar
coefficient of Coefficient - Phi
variability

Independent groups:
- Mann Whitney U -
- Contingency tables
Kruskal Wallis
- Histogram - Mode -
Ordinal -Spearman's rho (r¸)
Median
Related groups: -
- Range
Wilcoxon t -
Friedman ANOVA

- Frequency tables -
Independent groups:
Frequency polygon -
- Student's t - 2 variables:
Histogram - Mode -
Factorial ANOVA -Pearson's r
Median - Mean -
Interval or ratio
Range
Related groups: - More than 2 variables
- Standard deviation
Student's t - Factorial - R Multiple R²
- Variance -
ANOVA
Variability coefficient
QUALITATIVE METHODS
14 NARRATIVE METHOD
Narratives are constituted as new objects of discourse analysis, attributing relevant
importance in the ability to describe subjective reality.

15 ETHNOGRAPHIC METHOD
Ethnographic designs aim to describe and analyze ideas, beliefs, meanings, knowledge
and practices of groups, cultures and communities.

16 DATA ANALYSIS METHOD

Categories, themes or patterns are created as units of analysis and these are analyzed
in relation to the theory in any of the following ways:
1) Chronological sequence, 2) by themes, 3) by relationship of themes, 4) by a
developed model, 5) by contexts, 6) by actors, 7) by the vision of a central actor, 8) from
a relevant fact

Significance level: it is a level of the probability of being wrong and that the researcher sets a
priori less than .05 of p and rejects Ho

Statistical analyzes univariate analysis—parametric and nonparametric statistical tests

Bivariate analysis—correlation coefficients

Multivariate analysis: multiple linear regression models ANOVA-FACORIAL-MANOVA-

ANCOVA
Investigation methodology:
1. Research approaches
• Quantitative
• Qualitative
• Mixed
2. Types of research
• Exploratory
• Descriptive
• Correlational
• Explanatory
3. Hypothesis
• Variables
• Characteristics
• Goals
• Guys
4. Research design
• Experimental (pre-experimental, pure experimental, quasi-experimental)
• Non-experimental (longitudinal, transectional)
5. Research validity
• Internal
• External
6. Sampling
• Sample selection
• Sample types
• Probability sampling
• Non-probability sampling

Measurement:
7. Measurement levels
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Intervals
• Reason
8. Reliability
• Stability
• Parallel shapes
• Division in halves
• Internal consistency
9. Validity
• Content validity
• Construct validity (convergent, divergent)
• Criterion validity (concurrent, predictive)

Statistics:
10. Descriptive statistics
• Measures of central tendency
• Variability measures
• Symmetry and kurtosis
11. Inferential statistics
• Hypothesis testing
• Sampling distribution
• Significance level
• Confidence interval
• Error types
12. Parametric statistics
• Assumptions
• Pearson correlation
• Linear regression
• t-test
• one-way anova
• Variance analysis of more than one factor
• Multivariate analysis
• Factor analysis
• Covariance analysis
13. Non-parametric statistics
• Assumptions
• Chi Square
• Correlation coefficient and independence for tabulations
• Spearman and Kendall rank-ordered correlation coefficients

Qualitative Methods:
14. Narrative method
15. ethnographic method
16. Discourse analysis method

Recommended texts:
• CLARK-CARTER, D. (1997) Quantitative research in psychology. From experimental
design to research report. Oxford University Press.
• KERLINGER, F.N. (1988) Behavioral research. Techniques and methodology
 . Mexico: Interamericana Editorial.
• SAMPIERI, R. FERNÁNDEZ and BAPTISTA. (2003) Research methodology.
Mexico: McGrawHill.
• COOLICAN, HUGH. (2005) Research methods and statistics in
psychology. Mexico: Modern Manual
• SILVA, ARTURO. (1992) Quantitative methods in psychology: a methodological
approach. Mexico: Editorial Trillas
GONZÁLEZ FERNANDO. (2000). Qualitative research in psychology: directions and
challenges. New Jersey [United States] : Thomson

Guide for the Preparation of

Research Projects in Behavioral
Sciences Published by Lic. Hugo Quiroz on November 6, 2013 in Guides
| 10 comments

The purpose of this instruction manual is to guide those students of behavioral sciences in
general, and psychology in particular, who prepare research protocols or projects.
This guide includes aspects of organization, sequence, methodological and format for both
basic and applied research.

Introduction
1. Describe the importance of the applied or theoretical problem that is going to be
investigated, for the population that is going to be studied or for the development of your
line of research. In the case of research on applied problems (in health, education,
communities, organizations, etc.) it is especially important to document their social
relevance. Support the idea that a real or important problem is going to be attacked,
among others, two reasons that help to make this foundation include:
a) A description of the magnitude of the problem in social, statistical or epidemiological
terms. Describe and comment on the most recent figures available on the extent or
severity of the problem being studied. Comment on the social, epidemiological, financial,
etc. consequences of not studying this problem and of not generating interventions aimed
at solving it, from a behavioral perspective.
b) It is possible that the problem does not affect large proportions of individuals from a
social or epidemiological point of view but that the deterioration, suffering or interference
with human and social development in those who suffer or experience it is significant or
serious. In this case, describe these consequences and comment on their severity in the
context of the population that will participate in the study.
2. Describe the most important published works of international and national research
literature, which are direct antecedents of the study you propose. Specify how each work
relates to the main research question posed by your project. Take the background from the
most recent sources (scientific journals, books, etc.) most recognized in your specialty.
Specifically look for gaps in knowledge, contradictory findings, methodological flaws,
etc., in the study of the problem or in its treatment.
3. Concretely describe the purpose of your research. Be sure to specify how that purpose
clearly emerges (logically and methodologically) from the background you've described.
Specify what the contribution of your study will consist of. Anticipate the criticism that if
extensive work has already been done on that problem, the study will add little or nothing
to that line of research. The simple argument that “it has not been done in our country” is
normally not acceptable.
4. If you propose the use of novel techniques, describe their advantages over others
(validity, reliability, precision, cost, social relevance, ease of instrumentation, simplicity,
social acceptance, etc.).
5. If any procedure in your research involves an ethical objection, specify how you will
avoid or address it.

Method
6. Describe in detail the participants (subjects, users, patients, community members,
laboratory animals, etc.) in your study. Explain how you will select or recruit them, how
many will be included in the study; what its characteristics will be and how those
characteristics are relevant to your main research question. Pay special attention to the real
feasibility of obtaining and working with the type and number of participants you propose.
7. Specify the behavior you are going to study (actions, types of performance, symptoms,
reactions, behaviors, responses to instruments or interviews, etc.) Describe in detail the
procedures you will use to observe or record that behavior, that is, to collect your
behavioral data. research and make sure they are replicable, that is, someone else can
reproduce them. If applicable, include the use of audio or video recordings.
8. If you are going to use psychometric instruments or questionnaires, specify how you
are going to guarantee their validity, reliability, relevance, etc. for its main research
purpose or for the population under study. Make sure your definitions are reasonably
objective. If this is difficult, make sure they are reliable in terms of the agreement of
independent observers by background published in reputable sources. If your study is
qualitative, stick to the minimums indicated by some guides. See, for example, a guide
available in the Spanish version of: http://www.healthnet.unam.mx The article can be
consulted by choosing the “Spanish” version of the aforementioned page, then going to
the “Readings” section in Psychology and Health” and in point 1, the guide appears with
the name “Qualitative methods in behavioral sciences”, which is in pdf format.
9. Describe in detail the setting and situations in which you will collect your data and the
equipment or materials you will use, but do not include irrelevant details (those that are
not necessary to perform a replication). If you are going to use direct behavioral
observation systems, describe how and when you will obtain reliability records.
10. Describe the comparisons you will make in your study, indicating, if applicable, the
scheme or design you will use. Explain how each comparison answers the main research
questions you have asked.
11. Describe, in sufficient detail to allow replications, the procedures with which you will
administer your intervention, treatment, or independent variable. Some already published
studies can be used as examples or as a general guide to see the level of detail required in
this section. A reference example in the health area (although it can be extrapolated to
other areas) appears at the end of this guide.
12. Indicate how you will avoid contamination resulting from the experimenters or
recorders in your study knowing the experimental design, or the likely effect of the
procedures or the assignment of participants or subjects to treatments (for example, the
Rosenthal effect).
13. If you are going to use a group comparison scheme, describe how you will ensure
comparability of subjects, that is, how you will prevent subject selection from
contaminating your results.
14. Indicate, if necessary for your study, what procedures you will apply to avoid or at
least record the effects of the following contaminants:
a) Any event that may occur between the beginning and the end of your research and that
may affect your observations, producing the results independently of your intervention,
treatment, or independent variable.
b) Factors such as the mere passage of time or changes directly related to it (age, fatigue,
hunger, etc.).
c) The effects of some observation or test on a subsequent observation or application
(“carryover”).
d) The likely changes in the sensitivity of instruments to be used or observations made by
humans.
e) The effects derived from the fact that there are subjects who abandon the study for
some reason and only those who show treatment effects remain.
f) Reactive effects derived from an observation or test affecting the sensitivity of the
participants (patients, subjects, etc.) to the intervention or treatment.
g) Interference of multiple treatments applied to the same subjects, including effects of
the successive application of sequenced procedures, which prevent isolating the effect of
the components of the intervention or treatment (if that is what is sought).
Results
15. Describe the procedures you will use to analyze your data. Explain what types of
findings would, in effect, answer your main research questions.
16. In the case of statistical analysis, specify which ones you will use, explaining how
they are appropriate for:
a) The structure and level of measurement of your observations or scales
b) The probable (statistical) distribution of your data
c) The type of comparisons made (longitudinal, group, repeated measures, etc.).

Discussion
17. Briefly outline how you will relate your results to the research findings you reviewed
in the introduction and to the purpose of your study, as stated at the beginning of the
project.

Summary
18. Include a summary at the beginning of your project. Make the summary clear and
precise. In this summary, include a brief description of: purpose, background information,
participants, setting, behavior to be studied, and intervention or treatment.

Style and Writing

19. Write your project clearly and concisely. Don't make sentences too long. Avoid
grammatical, spelling, expression and stylistic errors. Do not use idiosyncratic
abbreviations such as “Phase I”, “Procedure B” or “Condition 3″ but rather short,
descriptive phrases or titles. Adhere to the most recent edition of the Spanish version of
the APA Manual of Style published by El Manual Moderno.
20. Include at the end of your project a list of the references you have cited. Make sure
that all references in the text are listed at the end and vice versa, and that they follow the
format prescribed by the style manual referred to above. Take special care when writing
proper names and words in other languages.

Indications for the specific exam (written exams)

1. All applicants are requested to submit a written Autobiography, which has a maximum
length of 3 pages. The autobiography will be delivered on the day of the written exams
(Friday, April 11).
2. The written exams that will be administered on Friday, April 11, consist of 3 parts:

to. English Reading Comprehension Test b. Spanish reading comprehension exam c.

General knowledge exam related to the area.
The first two exams will consist of reading an article in Spanish and another in English
and candidates will answer comprehension questions about the reading.
The general knowledge exam related to the area will consist of questions on the following
topics:
• Psychological development
• General concepts of Clinical Psychology.
General concepts about Systemic and Postmodern Family Therapy

a. Text on Psychological Development, as an example: Papalia and Olds. (2000). Human

development. Ed. McGraw Hill: Mexico
b. Text on Clinical Psychology.
c. Texts on general concepts of Family Therapy, for example:
• Eguiluz, L. (2000). The Systemic Theory. UNAM. Mexico.
• Minuchin, S. (1992). Families and Family Therapy. Ed. Gedisa. Mexico.
• Ochoa de ALda. (1995). Approaches in Family Therapy. Herder: Barcelona.
• Haley, J. (1985). Unconventional Therapy. Ed. Amorrortu. Argentina
Eguiluz, L. (ed.) (2004). Family Therapy Today. Ed. Pax Mexico Mexico.