TUDOR AS

REVISION NOTES
Henry VII, 1485-1509

Henry’s consolidation of power

War of the Roses overview

 Battle between Houses of York & Lancaster following the disastrous reign of H6
 Begins in 1455 – civil war for over 30 years and violent changes to the monarch
 Richard III largely unpopular – lacking legitimacy seized the crown in 1483 –
supposed to be acting as regent denied his nephew Edward V his rightful position as
King
 People of England longed for a monarch they could trust
 Large lack of support for Richard III = usurpation easier

How Henry became king:

 Battle of Bosworth – 22nd August 1485. Stanley steps in when Henry standard bearer
killed. Richard III killed. Stanley places crown on Henry VIII head.

Chances of winning?
 Lord Thomas Stanley promised 3,000 troops to H  could not count on this
 R3 10,000 men H7 5,000 banked on support

Impact:
 Monarchs position is insecure
 Need for a legitimate heir – ensure succession
 Need an effective working relationship with the nobility

Aims

Henry
Tudor

Character Background

Problems immediately encountered:

1. Precarious link to the throne – through his mother, Margret Beaufort, direct
descendant of Edward III by the marriage of his 3rd son John of Gaunt. Fathers line
no connection to royal family. Edward, Earl of Warwick and John, Earl of Lincoln
still alive with more direct claims. BUT Most powerful claim for Lancaster.
 2. Kings in the past had been easily overthrown - Richard III naked body was paraded
around after the battle. Not the way a royal should be treated. BUT Richard III was
unpopular.

3. Henry’s background – only child lived in exile. Lacked knowledge of governing. No

heirs. Tudor dynasty could be short lived. Not involved in English politics BUT no
enemies, good observer.

4. The WofR: political turbulence of the last 30 years had seriously undermined the
strength of the English throne. Didn’t dispose of Richard III body respectfully BUT
victory as sign that God had approved Henry’s assumption of power

5. Context: Outbreak of sweating sickness just after victory 1485 – sent by god??

Establishing and consolidating the Tudor dynasty: (8)

1. Predated his reign to day before battle of Bosworth 21 August 1485. Richard &
supporters could be declared traitors

2. Publically rewarded many of his key supporters: conferring 11 knighthoods. Sir

William Stanley made Lord Chamberlin

3. Imprisoned 10 year old Earl of Warwick in 1485 who had a greater claim until 1499
when he was executed for conspiring with PW

4. Coronation take place on 30 October 1485 before meeting of his 1st parliament on 7
November 1485 – Propaganda that he was rightful heir based on hereditary right
rather than because parlt. had sanctioned it

5. Made key appointments to council and household e.g. Sir Reginald Bray chancellor of
the Duchy of Lancaster

6. Summoned 1st Partl on 7th November – recognise the King’s title and grant him
custom duties of Tonnage & Poundage for life. Royal Progress up North.

7. Marriage to Elizabeth of York – 18th Jan 1486. United the houses and dissuaded many
Yorkist’s from challenging Henry. – Tudor Rose

8. The birth of Prince Arthur early in reign September 1486 helped to establish the
dynasty
Government: councils, parliament and justice

Centre of medieval English gov was the king himself and then the men he chose to sit on his
council

Key Features:

 King’s Council: over 200 advisers to help the king make key decisions, legal
judgments and to run the country on the king’s before if necessary (working council
only around 6 or 7 members)

 Magnate: A member of the higher ranks of the nobility (Duke/ Earl of) 64 famillies

 Privy Chamber: The king’s private quarters. He met personal friends/ servnats in
these rooms

 Lord Chamberlin: Noble councillor & friend of the king. Had a lot of power and
political influence, speaking for the monarch and organising court ceremonies

 Great Council: A meeting of the House of lords only. Occasional body met 5 times to
deal with issues of war and rebellion.

How it worked:

Privy Council: small core group of councillors who met with him regularly. Elite group
include the chief officers of state, gave stability to new regime

Council: no established rules/procurers. Permanent body with a core membership.

Sometimes members met separately to deal with key administrative concerns when the King
was not present

Improve efficiency  smaller committees within

 Council learned in Law: Main offshoot of the Council. Function: responsible for
wardship, marriage and relief of all the king’s tenants and the collection of feudal
dues. System of Bonds & recognizances. Bray originally then Empson & Dudley –
end of reign most detested but most important institution of Henry Gov

 Responsible for Acts of livery & maintenance

 The court of General Surveyors, audited the revenues from crown lands

Regional government:
Entrusted by key me appointed by the king to govern through regional councils.

Thomas Howard, Earl of surrey  Council of the North

Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford  Council in Wales & Marches
Sir Edward Poyning  Council of Ireland
Local Government

2 most important royal officials in each county:

JP’s Sheriff
- Appointed to the commission of - Appointed annually
peace for life - Crown’s representative in each
- Governed and dispensed justice in county
courts known as quarter sessions - Management of parliamentary
- Power to arrest, try and imprison elections
- Issue a range of punishments - Peacekeeping and the detention of
including death penalty criminals

Serious offences such as treason and rebellion were tried at the courts of assize presided over
by judges appointed by the Crown. The highest criminal court was the Court of king’s
Bench which could override decisions made at the quarter session and assize courts.

Parliament

- Summoned on 7 occasions – 5 of those were in Henry’s first decade as king, when he

was relatively insecure
- 2 functions: Pass laws & grant taxation to the crown
- Legislation was also used to carry out his policies against rioting and retaining and
10% of all statutes dealt with social discipline – e.g. 1495 laid down rules on wages
and hours of work.
- Limited use after 1495 – only called 2x emphasised the fact that all power derived
from the crown

The Chamber

- Overseen by the Lord Chamberlin. Centre of court communications & patronage

- CHANGE: result of Sir William Stanley involvement in 1495 Perkin Warbeck plot.
Remodel the chamber. Changed the character of the court made it more difficult for
those who were out of favour to regain the king’s trust
Royal Finance

Aims: achieve solvency by increasing royal income, decreasing expenditure and thereby
restoring the crown strength

Use wealth to: (1) reward loyal service (2) bribe potential opponents (3) fund armies (4)
consolidate the dynasty – a full treasury for heir

Ordinary Revenue: regular income – Extraordinary revenue: came to crown on

annually. Finance the costs of the monarchy particular occasions - irregular
1. Crown lands – greatest landed estate of 1. Bonds & recognizances – subject
any king since William the Conqueror. paying a sum of money to the crown as
Less inclined to grant land to family & a guarantee of their future good
friends than Ed IV. 1486 – Act of behaviour. Receipts rose from £3,000
Resumption – reclaim all lands lost in 1493  £35,000 in 1505. Earl of
since 1455. £12,000 in 1485  £42,000 Westmorland had to pay £10,000 after
in 1509 BoB. 1504-1507 a total of £2,000 was
2. Feudal dues – exploited for both promised to the king but not all
financial & political purposes to ensure collected
good behaviour. 1487 annual feudal 2. Loans & benevolences – requests
dues from wardship and marriage was made to his landholding subjects for
£350  £6,000 in 1507. In 1501 financial support that were virtually
declared all land owners were now impossible to decline. 1491 - £48,000
tenants in chief – widening the no of raised for war with Brittany
deaths that could be exploited 3. Feudal Dues - £30,000 from Partl. in
3. Custom duties – provided 1/3 of the 1504 for knighthood of Prince Arthur
crowns ordinary revenue. Tonnage & 4. Clerical Taxes – money from the
poundage granted for life. Average church. E.g. £3000 for post of
annual receipts rose from £33,000 PY Archdeacon of Buckingham (simony
 £40,000 yet widely practiced) grants made by
4. Legal dues – Henry ensured most convocation such as £25,000 towards
criminal acts including treason, were the cost of the F campaign of 1491-92
punished by fines rather than 5. Parliamentary taxes/ grants – taxes
imprisonment. Increased use of fines & on moveable property called
attainders. E,g, William Stanley 1495 ‘fifteenths’ and ‘tenths’. Helped bay for
brought an immediate payment of battle of Stoke that marked the defeat
£9,000 and £1,000 each year after. TOE of the Yorkists
1492 French agreed to pay £5,000. 6. French Pension – Treaty of Ètaples
1492 to pay Henry £159,000 in annual
instalments of £5,000

Domestic Policies:

- Nobility: controlled the nobility by issuing attainders, curbing retaining and rewarding
good service

- Church: Henry offered the church his patronage and it publically upheld his God-
given right to rule. The Pope supported Henry
The Nobility

Why were they over mighty in 1485?

Henry took the throne by force. Could they do the same thing?

Gained lots of power under Henry VI as no one had confidence in him

King's depend on the nobility due to their wealth and status. No king could rule without them

Although some magnate (super noble) famillies had been wiped out during WoR - still some left

Patronage: The monarch’s granting of special favors (title + land) to retain support

(7) Methods of dealing with the Nobility in order of success

1. Financial control  (B+R’s) Lord Burgavenny convicted 1507 of illegally retaining

471 men fined £70,000 – placed under a bond to pay £5,000 over 10 years. Was not
allowed to set foot on family land until debt was paid. Allowed H7 to raise money
from someone he did not trust.

2. Council Learned in Law  members had training to act as investigators. In cases of

suspicion where noble men were not paying their dues properly to the king –
Implemented B+R’s. Induced fear downfall of Empson + Dudley in 1509 brought
rejoicing on the streets.

3. Patronage  reduced the number of grants & titles and therefore no. of nobles
reduced. Vacant lands absorbed by H7. No of nobles fell a ¼ in reign. Enabled him to
use men of lower social state when he needed royal agents. Reducing the risk.

4. Star Chamber  Created by Act of Parliament in 1487. Allowed H7 to sentence

noblemen to torture & imprisonment if they disloyal. Strong deterrence for noblemen.
Only used 5 times.

5. Attainders  Seizing the title + possession of nobles. Partl implemented one at the
beginning of reign against men who had thought at the BofB. Limited success 138
attainders in reign, 46 reserved, 51 passed in later years of reign

6. Crown Lands  1486 Act of Resumption. Recovered all lost crown lands since
1455. Crown lands 5x larger under H7 than H6, little action going directly against the
nobility

7. Attacks on Retaining  1485 partl announced that Lords & Commons had to swear
they wouldn’t illegally retain. 1504 – Act required nobles to get a license from the
King before they could retain large no. of men. Penalty £5 per month per illegal
 retainer. Nobles found ways of covering up records of wages they paid to servants so
no one could tell how many people were being illegally retained

Henry VII relationships with foreign powers

 Non- intervention on the Continent the most sensible approach

 FP subordinated to his domestic policies of enriching the monarchy and ensuring the
obedience of his subjects

 Aims: dictated by succession and lack of money

 (1) Gain acceptance from other monarchs for credibility at home and to stop the
harboring of Yorkist rivals
 (2) Stop France absorbing Brittany Why? To stop 1 power holding the coastline along
the Southern end of the E Chanel + to protect Calais

The Brenton Crisis

 Spent 14 years in exile there – ensured safety
 Supported their independence
 Relations with France initially friendly
 Problems: National security threatened as France would hold the entire coastline
along the E. Chanel = weaken southern coast of England + make Calais more
vulnerable
 Obliged to help Brittany BUT did not want a long conflict with France

What he did?

 Opened negotiations with France whilst at the same time sent troops to help the
Bretons repel the French army
 1489- Parl summoned to make a grant of 100,000 to finance a small force of (3,000 –
6,000 men)
 April 1489 – H7 crosses the channel with army (only acting in defense of Britany)
 1492 – H7 leads 12,000 force into B – but ToE means Henry leaves

Result: H7 armies do not win any of the engagements Brittany absorbed 1532

Burgundy: greatest threat to H7 because E4’s sister, Margret, was married to the ruler.
Supported the pretenders Lambert Simnel (1487) and Warbeck with finance and mercenary
troops
Timeline of H7 Foreign policy

Feb 1489: Treaty of Redon  England + Brittany H7 agrees to send a 6,000 men army to
help defend Brittany if AoB finances their employment. AoB agrees not to Marry/ for
alliances without H7 permission. H7 only sends 3,000 troops. 1491 AoB maries C8 without
H7 support.

March 1489: Treaty of Medina del Campo  Spain + England forms an alliance. Offering
mutual protection in the event of an attack from France. Spain closed to Yorkist pretenders.
Marriage alliance between princess Catherine of Aragon. Marriage delayed due to young age,
disagreements over Catherine’s dowry + Ferdinand weary of marrying off daughter while
pretenders were still a threat (PW 1491). Tudor dynasty recognized as equal by one of the
leading royal families in Europe. When Arthur died in 1502, agreed that Catherine would
marry Arthur’s brother Henry.

1492: Treaty of Ètaples  Henry’s army leaves France. France pay England 745,000 crowns.
To cover the cost of the expedition. France agree not to harbor Yorkist pretenders or give aid
(PW) However, likely wouldn’t have occurred if France weren’t preoccupied with interests in
N. Italy.

1496: Intercursus Magnus  England + Burgundy. Controlled Antwerp (Netherlands) and

end of trade embargo. Allowed England merchants to trade freely with all parts of Burgundy
except Flanders. By 1509, English merchants were exporting more than ½ of the total cloth to
Europe and 60% more than beginning of the reign.

1497: Treaty of Ayton  England + Scotland 7 year truce. Important as James IV’s auld
alliance of 1941 meant the Scottish would attack England if H7 attacked France. Reduced
threat on the border but alliance not secured (e.g. No marriage) Sealed by marriage below.

1502: Treaty of Perpetual Peace  Marriage of James IV to Margret (H. daughter) secured in
August 1503. Ensured good relations until the end of H7 reign.

1506: Treaty of Windsor: Recognised King Phillip as the king of Castille and mutual defense.
Proposed marriage of Henry to Phillips sister Margret but collapsed. Phillip and Maximillian
hand over Suffolk.

1506: Intercursus Malus  Trade deal with the Netherlands that would ensure a much
stronger trading position to English merchants, never fully implemented and by 1507 trading
returned to basis of Intercursus Magnus.
Securing the Succession

 Chief priority – secure kingdom at home and find allies abroad

 2 sons: Arthur 1486 and Henry 1491 – both needed to marry and have children of
their own

At home:

 Edward, Earl of Warwick

 John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln

Edward was imprisoned in the tower of London in 1485 and remained there until his
execution in 1499.

Lincoln was invited to join the gov and became a member of the King’s council. Remained
loyal until spring of 1487 when he fled the court and joined the Pretender Lambert Simnel.
Lincoln was killed at the Battle of Stoke in June 1487.

Surviving Yorkist nobility were either pardoned or eliminated:

 Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey and Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland were
pardoned. They could prove useful and were prepared to work with the new regime.
 Lord Lovell, Humprey and Thomas Stafford and Edmund de la Pole (EoS) were all
executed. Unwilling to work with the king. Examples to deter other would-be rebels.

Securing the Accession abroad:

 Henry’s foreign policy was defensive because of the nature of his accession of
usurpation
 Several claimants who sought aid from foreign powers + Henry had to be constantly
on guard for invasion
 Most serious threat Simnel + Warbeck
 Used diplomacy to conclude treaties with Brittany, France, Spain and Scotland. In
each treaty, the heads of state agreed not to aid the pretenders or any of Henry’s
enemies such as Earl of Suffolk and Richard de la Pole who fled England in 1501

 Marriage alliances

Diplomatic divide to bind Spain and Scotland into a closer union with England. Sealed by
treaty, these marriages helped to secure the succession because the Spanish and Scottish royal
families had a personal connection with the Tudor dynasty – important to ensure survival
Political Opposition to H7: Threats to the Regime

1486 Easter: Lovell & Stafford Rebellion

- Led by Viscount Lovell, Humphrey + Stafford – key R3 supporters
- Attempt to raise a rebellion in R heartland of support: North Riding of Yorkshire
- Simultaneously Stafford tries to raise a force at Worcestershire against H7
- Lovell escapes but Humphrey is caught an executed
- Little enthusiasm for a Yorkist uprising – No pretender to carry around

Rating of danger: 2/5

 L+S only minor nobles – no great  Date: Only a year prior to H7
wealth or large no. of servants usurpation
 Duration: 1 month  Executions: H7 saw Humphrey as a
 No of rebels very low large enough threat

1487: Lambert Simnel (as Earl of Warwick)

- Dynastic – attempt to place a pretender on the throne
- Richard Symonds (Oxford priest) back from Irish Earl of Kildare had Simnel crowned
as king in Dublin May 1487
- Support from Earl of Lincoln – raised support in Flanders from MoB
- H7 response put real Earl of Warwick on show
- Battle of Stoke 16 June 1487
- H7 12,000 men VS 8,000 rebels and 2,000 mercenaries from MoB – 3 hour long
battle

Roger Turvey: “ That such a ridiculous scheme almost succeeded shows how fragile Henry’s
grip on the crown was”

Rating of danger: 4/5

 EoL killed in Battle  H7 had to reinstate Kildare to Lord
 Gov R: Simnel put in Kings service deputy despite his support for the
in Royal kitchen – no threat rebellion – difficulty of ruling Ireland
 Army no. very close
 3 hour long battle
 only an imposter ?? what if real
claimant

1491-99: Perkin Warbeck Rebellion

- cloth trader from Tournai – claimed to be Richard Duke of York
- Attracted patronage from FP – 1492 C8 received him as prince and 1493 tutored by
MoB
- Duration 8 years
- 1494: H7 spies discover there was English conspirator amongst the gov. Sir William
Stanley had 10,000 enough to fund an army
- Lands in England 1495, Deale Kent/ 1497 Cornwall tries to benefit from antagonism
felt towards H7 following the Cornish rebellion – little support
- 1499: PW and Earl of Warwick hanged
 Rating of danger: 4/5
 Gov R: only executed when he tries  Duration: constant
to escape tower  Lots of foreign support
 Occurred when H7 was more  5 attempted invasions
established on throne  William Stanley
 Only 50 days on English soil  Affected Arthur marriage to CoA as
Ferdinand complained of instability

End of H7 reign: White Rose rebellion

- Edmund, Earl of Suffolk
- Richard De La Pole (brother) White rose
- Rumors of plots to overthrow the king/ alter the succession
- Suffolk took refuge in court of Emperor Maximillian 1501 gives up after treaty of
Windsor (1506)
- Executed by H8 in 1513
- Richard DLP killed in the battle fought for the French in the Battle of Pavia 1525

Rating of danger: 3/5

 H7 only imprisoned Suffolk  Yorkist support as claimants to the
 Both executed / died throne
 H7 at end of reign: unstable?
 FP from emperor Maximillian
Success and failures throughout H7 reign

 England lived within its means  Miser in later years of reign

 Money carefully accounted for  Seen as greedy by his subjects
 Defensive FP saved money  Not all B+R’s collected
 “Keen financial mind”  Polydore Vergil “the people were
 Court of Audit set up in suffering on account of their monarch”
 Exploited his prerogative rights to claim  1509 income £113,000 same in real
money from nobles terms as the monarchs 100 years before
 £400,000 from tax  £113,000 compared to £800,000 for
 Left the crown solvent £10,000 in cast King of France
and £300,000 in jewels  Taxation caused rebellions (Y+C) Partl
made H7 agree he would not tax in that
way after 1504
 Never established a full sense of
security

Society

 Hierarchical and based on a class system

 Social status dominated society and a person’s place within the social pyramid was
strictly observed

King

Nobility, gentry and

higher clergy

Merchants, burgesses artisisans lower clergy & yeomen

Commoners: servants,
labouring poor and
those without work

Great Chain of Being: Teaching of the church each component of society had a duty to serve
those above. By the same toke the higher components were to look after the interests of those
below.

The Nobility/ Gentry

- Dominated land ownership
- Reluctant to create peerage titles
 - Most privileged.
- 1500: 55 nobles, 500 knights and 5,000 gentlemen making up just 1% of the
population
- Wealth and power derived from substantial landowning and office holding. Crown
relied on this class to govern the kingdom, keep the peace and pay the majority of the
King’s taxes
- Owned 15-20% of country’ land

Church and Churchmen

- Roman Catholic Church large and powerful – consisted of regular clergy (10,000) and
secular clergy (35,000)
- State within a state, with its own system of law courts and privileges which rivalled
the authority of the king – dealt with religious crimes e.g. adultery and heresy and
crimes committed by churchmen
- Vast social and economic gap between the higher/ senior clergy (Bishops and abbots)
and the lower clergy – parish priests and chaplains.
- Bishops and abbots had a political voice – entitled to sit on the House of Lords
- Archbishops such as John Morton + bishops like Richard Fox served as royal
councilors and advised the king on matters of justice and admin

The commoners
- Just over 2 million living in England and Wales in 1500
- Of these some 50% lived at or below the poverty line – laboring poor the majority of
whom lived and worked in rural areas
- Minority of commoners were able to rent or buy land which enabled them to rise in
economic terms – Husband men and yeomen
- Some yeomen were economically better off than some gentlemen and esquires but
they remained socially inferior
- Line between economic wealth and social division began to blur during 16th century,
when there was greater social mobility

Changes for commoners

- Second half of 15th century saw living conditions improve for the poor
- Real wages seemed to increase but towards end of inflationary pressures were
becoming more evident
- England also seemed to largely have avoided the subsistence crisis (when harvest falls
so food prices increase) which had an impact on real wages
Regional Divisions

Regional division of the kingdom of England was marked by councils set up to govern distant
and distinct parts of the realm.

 The north of England was governed through the council of the North based in York
 Wales and the western counties of England were governed through the Council of
Wales and the Marches based in Ludlow

Outside the kingdom of England, the king ruled Ireland and a small part of France centered
on Calais
 Ireland was governed by the Council of Ireland based in Dublin
 Calais was governed by a captain appointed by the king

Approximately ¾ of the population lived below the line separating the tees to Weymouth.
South-East densely populated: Mixed farming. Londoners looked down upon those from the
North due to perceived savergy. Northerners envied “Southern riches”

Regional division was complicated by:

 The existence of semi-independent lordships, which were self-governing units in
which the “king’s writ did not run’ the crown had limited power in the Marcher
lordships of Wales and the County Palatines of Durham and Chester
 Ethnic and racial differences- Wales, Cornwall Ireland and Calais each had its own
language and culture

Henry’s drive to force stronger links between central and local government caused friction in
these distant regions. Regional loyalties were strong and there was growing resentment at
what was regarded as outside interference. The extension of the royal government was
accompanied by a strengthening of royal justice. Officials appointed by the London- based
government were unwelcome in regions where local lords had been passed over in favor of
royal nominees.

Social discontent and rebellions

 H7 came to power largely unknown and untried nobleman

 Few people believed that the civil war was over and he would remain king
 Uncertainty of his rule, continuing political instability and economic dislocation
caused by the civil war affected noblemen and commoner alike
 Henry could not afford to ignore or treat lightly any protest or rebellion
Social Discontent

Yorkshire 1489 Cornwall 1497

 Sparked by Partl granting H7 a  1496 Scotland invaded (Cornwall
subsidy of £100,000 to help defend already contributed a large amount
Britany in 1496)
 Yorkshire had suffered a bad harvest  Against a demand for money for a
 Resentment that counties further campaign to resist the threat of PW
North did not have to pay tax and J4
 Unwilling to pay tax that did not  Invasion in the North would have
threaten them – geographically far little effect on them
away

Events: Events:

 Rebellion broke out April 1489  June 16th – 15,000 rebels marched to
 Earl of Northumberland met with the Black heath near London where they
rebels but resulted in being killed were met by the King’s forces. 1,000
 Rebels ask for a pardon H7 denies it killed at Battle of Black heath.
and sends army of 8,000 to North  Posed a large threat as failure to
led by Earl of Surrey – rebels obtain money could cause a full
disperse blown invasion from Scotland +
Perkin Warbeck
Effects:  Rebels reach the capital –
challenging the security of Henry’s
 Rebels receiving a royal pardon  regime
no further taxes were collected
£27,000 far short of initial amount
set of £100,000
 Made H7 aware of lawless nature of
the North. Thomas Howard, Earl of
Surrey made Lieutenant in the North

Change/ Continuation?

 Structure of society remained largely similar to that of the feudal system –

crown/nobility/church still greatest land owner
 King reluctant to appoint men whose backgrounds were aristocratic. Result: Higher
clergy became less socially exclusive during H7 reign
 Pope Martin – H7 head of church: appoint Bishops
 Traditional values continued to prevail. Sumptuary laws passed: ruled how each class
should dress. Highlighted how those from higher positions in society benefited from
the Feudal system
Economic Development

 England was a largely agricultural country in which nearly 90% of its population
lived and worked on land
 Arable farming was the mainstay of the agricultural industry, but its dominance was
being challenged by the growth of pastoral farming and the expansion of trade
 Most significant economic development growth of industry and expansion trade
 3 most important industries in 1500 were: Cloth, Coal and Iron
 Coal and iron small in comparison to the cloth which was the biggest in the Kingdom
 Close link to agriculture as it relied on wool
 English cloth was exported to the continent via the city of Antwerp. England’s cloth
trade with the Netherlands was so significant that it was used as an economic weapon
by Henry VII to encourage the Duke of Burgundy to cease his support for Perkin
Warbeck

Trade:
 Custom duties introduced and “tonnage and poundage for life”
 To expand English trade with other countries. Henry built a merchant fleet that could
compete with those of continental rivals.

 The Navigation Acts (1485-86) were passed to promote & protect English trade and
thereby break the monopoly enjoyed by the Hanseatic league. Allowed E ships to
carry certain products. Limited usefulness as foreign vessels still transported English
goods from English ports

 Support the Merchant adventurers, a trading company which controlled the export and
sale of English cloth.

 Trade and the revenue derived from its custom duties and taxes led Henry to insert a
clause on trade in every treaty he signed. E.g 1490 Henry’s treaty with Florence
enabled English merchants to trade in the Mediterranean

 The exploration, discover and claim to new lands led to greater opportunities to
expand trade. Henry believed that wealth derived from trade would promote the
security of the dynasty

 Magnus Intercursus 1496 improve relationships with Burgundy – 90% English

Exports were cloth and 60% increase in the volume of cloth exports since beginning
of reign
 Intercursus Malus 1506 trading deal with Netherlands – much stronger trading
position for English merchants – never fully implemented

 Decline in exportation prices of wool and agriculture as prices of grain and animal
products decrease – decrease in profitability of farming
 Exploration
 Keen to follow Spain by encouraging overseas exploration
 H7 financed voyage of John Cabot – funded £50 Cabot reached the
Newfoundland, in modern Canada in 1497 + discovered new fishing grounds
 Portugal dominated spice trade
 Bristol fishing merchants looked for alternative fishing grounds to exploit having
been excluded from the Icelandic waters by the Hanestic league
 Waters of Greenland especially rich in fish

Prosperity and depression

 Prices seemed to remain steady in 15th century although temp rise in 1480s
 Decline in export price of wool, grain and animal products in 1490
 Development of industry + expansion of trade in the Mediterranean and Baltic
contributed to significant growth in England’s economy  Led to increasing wealth
and prosperity
 However, expansion was followed by periods of contraction and depression,
especially when international political disputes intruded into trade
 In 1493, Henry issued a trade embargo against the Netherlands because of their
support for Perkin Warbeck – led to a severe depression in the cloth industry
 Prosperity only returned when the embargo ended with the signing of Intercursus
Magnus in 1496.

Engrossment
 Negative effect of enclosure
 Engrossing of farms = where different farms would join to make one profitable farm
 led to many families being evicted
 As this was happening Partl introduced 2 laws in 1489 – Anti-enclosure laws were to
stop depopulation of the farms and to try and prevent the breakdown of low and order
from people trying to abuse enclosure

Enclosure
 Developed under reign of H7
 Land fenced off and common rights over land were abolished (negative effects on
peasantry)
 After enclosure was introduced the farmer could do whatever they wanted with the
land e.g. farming of animals/growing of crops
 Abuses of enclosure: Land owners tried taking more land than they owned or other
farmers tried taking land they did not own. Because of this people who could not
prove legal ownership of land lost out.

Agriculture
 Income from land declined after the Black death leaving England economically
unstable
 Greater move towards sheep farming  increased profitability

Domestic Industry
 Most valuable commodity under H7 was the woolen cloth trade = 90% E. exports
 Other aspects of fertile production declined however this was on a small scale 
Linen in Lancashire and Knitted stockings in Lake district
 Re-coinage
 H7 introduced new coinage called Sovereign coinage. One side of the coin saw
king seated on the throne and other side showed royal shield.
 Showed power. Coin made from gold

Religion, humanism, arts and learning

 Religion and religious beliefs played a central role in the lives of the vast majority of
people
 Relationship between church and the state: Erastian (state had authority over the
church)
 Church practiced 7 sacrements
 H7 received £25,000 from the church to fund the war with France in 1489
 H7 also purposely not appoint a bishop so he could receive £6,000 for the time the
Bishop’s vacant

 Parish church was the focal point of village life and its priest the most respected
member of the community. Parish priests offered advice, guidance and community
leadership, while monks provided charity, education and employment
 Majority of people devout followers of the traditional practices and beliefs of the
church
 Attended regularly as part of their routine of life they followed the church calendar
which marked the religious feasts, festivals and holy days

 Priests main preoccupation was the teaching and preaching on matters of death,
judgment, heaven and hell
 Parishioner was more concerned with baptism, marriage and burial

Hersey
 Although there was a steady growth in anticlericalism in the late 15th century the only
heretical idea to have acquired a significant following in the later middle ages was
lollardy – favored an English translation of Bible / skeptical about transubstantiation
and urged the clergy to confine themselves to pastoral duties.
 Systematic persecution in the early 15th century had forced lollardy underground and
there was no resurgence under H8
 By opposing anticlericalism Henry gained a valuable ally in his quest to secure the
crown. The church taught that it was a sin to oppose or rebel against Henry VII

Humanism, arts and learning

 Cultural developments that were taking place on the continent in a movement known
as the Renaissance (the ‘rebirth’ of art, architecture and letters) came late to England
 Took a literary form known as humanism, rather than the artistic form, more typical in
Italy

 Humanism: return of the study of original classical text and the teaching of
humanities as the basis of civilised life. Made appearance in the middle of 15th
century. Literacy confined to upper levels of society, followers restricted to educated
class. Celebrated humanist Scholar Erasmus visited England for first time in 1499 &
was impressed with teaching of John Colet Dean of St Paul’s Cathedral and founder
 of St Paul’s school. Colet saw humanist approaches as a way of reforming the church
from within. Henry VII patronized this ‘new’ learning style and his support led to the
development of a humanist circle under H8

 Arrival of the printing press brought to England from Germany 1476 by William
Caxton. A steady stream of major English texts and translations from French and
Latin emerged from the press. This led to the growth of a wider reading public, the
beginnings of the standardization of the English language and the circulation of the
radical ideas of Erasmus, such as free will and religious toleration.
 Erasmus prolific writer who began his career by attacking corruption and superstition
within the church – On the freedom of will in which he criticized Luther and
questioned the validity of his religious ideas

 Most important art form was drama – festival occasions set out moral messages to
improve audience’s morality. Massive amount of rebuilding of parish church’s
occurred during this time – gothic perpendicular style

Change/ Continuity?

 Humanism made little impression on England + intellectual life continued to be

dominated by traditional philosophy – considered old fashion by humanists
 Tastes of architecture began to change and by the time of Henry’s death humanist
influence had reached England and English men like Thomas More and John Colet
became more fashionable
 Lead to work by traditional scholars e.g. Caxton to fall out of favor
 Litle change
 C.H.Bill stated “ The institution of the English Church in the early 16th Century did
not appear of urgent radical reform”
Henry VIII, 1509-1547

Character and aims: addressing Henry VII legacy

Character:
 H8 knighted by father in 1495 – large impression H8 went back and changed records.
 Aged 17 when crowned king on 23 April 1509 (legal age of majority was 21)
 His minority did not require the appointment of a reagent or lord protector
 “Self interest ruled at the beginning of reign” – John Guy
 pious but not deeply spiritual being more practical and flexible in his religious beliefs
 Man of strong convictions
 Not to suggest he was infallible

Aims:
 Consolidate and extend his personal power
 Ensure the succession and continuation of the Tudor dynasty

 (1) Reestablish the role of the nobility: Disbanded CLiL and Partl Jan 1510
cancelled 175 B+R’s. Nobility joined H8 in his revelry. Ruthless execution of Duke
of Buckingham, 1521

 (2) Reestablish the monarch as a warrior king through success in battle: Used
money left by father to go to war with France 1512. Battle of Flodden 1513 England
lost 1,500 men but Scots lost 10,000 including king James IV

 (3) Establish his status amongst European rulers: Spain v powerful in Europe.
Married Catherine of Aragon in June 1509.

 Ordered the immediate execution of his predecessors financial agents Sir Richard
Empson and Edmund Dudley.

Henry VII’s legacy

 Inherited a stable, prosperous and peaceful kingdom
 Dynasty was secure and succession passed on without either incident or challenge
 First monarch to leave the crown solvent £10,000 in cash £300,000 jewels
 Henry VIII’s task to build upon this solid foundation and honour his father’s legacy

Henry VIII put in place measures to ensure the continuation of:

 Strong and stable government, both at the centre and in the localities
 England’s foreign policy, by honoring his pledge to marry CoA and thus maintain
good relations with Spain
 The dynasty by marrying early in his reign, to improve the prospect of gaining a male
heir
Government

The rise of Thomas Wolsey

 Character: Driven, trustworthy + unusually able. Ambitious and driven

 Ability: Degree at Oxford (15). Son of a butcher – humble. Organized H8 army to

France in 1513 – sorted transport supplies and equipment for 30,000 men. King
impressed – rapid promotion to high office

 H8 Character: Disliked dealing with matters of state. Lack of knowledge on

governing meant he required a chief minister

 Aid from others: Gained patron at H8 court under Bishop Fox (one of H8 most trusted
councilors) used Bishop fox to get promotion to the Royal Almoner

Wolsey’s rise to church office and state:

1513: Became Bishop of Tournai (captured in the French campaign that year)

1514: Made Archbishop of York (2nd highest post in the church)

1515: Made Cardinal by Pope Leo X (highest ranking position of E church) Made Lord
Chancellor after Warham resigned

1518: Appointed Papal Legate – allows him to speak on the pope’s behalf and exercise papal
powers – 1524 Legatus a latere – confirms for life

Personality
 Unusually proud + ostentatious
 “Alter rex” the other king
 Enemies saw him as arrogant and vindictive
 Enemies: Duke of Norfolk / Duke of Buckingham

Investigated in 1520 by Wolsey

after alleged rumours he had
made comments about the
succession. 1521 ordered to
London arrested and imprisoned
in the tower – refused to plea
for his life. Trialled + beheaded

Contemporaries believe that Wolsey had played on the King’s insecurity and had used
Buckingham’s fate as a warning to anyone who attempted attacking his power.
Henry VIII’s government

“Only on issues which engaged him personally was he willing to become fully committed” –
E.W.Ives

Key feature: King. Personal style of government as worked alongside ministers. The final
decision always rested with the king. Dominated by Wolsey and Cromwell

Change Continuation
 H8 liked to have an overview but  Before 1530’s Partl role remained
happy to let others do the mundane similar 2 main functions. (1) grant
work for him extraordinary revenue (2) Pass laws
 H8 disenchanted with some of  1st half of reign called Partl –
H7enior advisors to support a war securing revenue Act of Parliament
with France – impressed by skills of Feb 1512 – March 1514 providing
Wolsey EO rev for invasions of France +
 By 1514 – Henry referring all major Scotland
business to Wolsey  Councilor gov adopted at start of
 Privy Chamber  extended King’s reign 1509-1514
minions became gentlemen of the  Continued to use JP’s to carry out
Privy Chamber. Increased the status wishes of local gov rather than rely
– One part of government that on the nobility
Wolsey had little control over  Followed H7 practice of
 H8 never gave the affairs of encouraging talented advisers/
government the personal attention administrators from outside of the
his father had exercised nobility
 Delegated far greater power to chief
ministers
 Use of dry stamp – 3 others could
authorise signature
 Factionalism as chief ministers
gained power
 Inherited some of H7 ministers: Sir
John Heron who continued in office
until his death in 1521 – continuity
in personnel strengthened
government

Crown and parliament

 Master + servant relationship
 King had the power to summon, prorogue and dismiss parliament

3 traditional functions of Partl:

1. Advice – advise the king on matters of national importance

2. Taxation
3. Law-making – draft and pass laws to ensure obedience and the mantinence of law and
order
H7 called parliament only 7 times during 24 year reign. H8 made more use of parliament as
he needed: (1) money to pay for expensive foreign wars. (2) Law to establish the Royal
Supremacy.

During H8 38 year reign Parlt was summoned 9 times, but it sat for longer and dealt with a
wider range of issues. The Reformation Parliament was summoned in 1529 and dismissed in
1536.

The 1530’s are said to have marked a significant step in the evolution of parliament  used
to effect changes in the constitutional relationship between the church and the state.

Wolsey’s domestic policies

Main concerns:

1. Management of the church

2. Legal system
3. Formulation of a domestic policy

The church
 Ordered inspections into the quality of  Fell from power before he could use the
life in monasteries and other religious money obtained from closing
institutions – over 2 dozen religious monasteries to properly establish
houses were destroyed as a result cardinal college in Oxford
 1528 – closed monasteries with fewer
than 6 inmates
Law + order
 Tackled the problem of slow and unfair  Courts became too successful and
delivery of justice therefore cases were often delayed and
 Promoted Civil law by contributing to affected the delivery of justice
establish the regular court of chancery  Court angered the nobility
 Star chamber flourished – revived it
after the relatively small use during H7
reign. Used to attack the nobility and
local officials to reduce their power
 Increase in number of cases from 12 per
annum to 120
Finance: need for tax payers to provide EO Rev because of H8 expensive FP
 1522 – organised a national survey to  Subsidy far lower than desired £800,000
judge who could pay tax and how much. and therefore wasn’t sufficient to fund
Gained £260,000 from these individuals H8 war efforts
 1523 – subsidy more realistic than  War had cost the crown 1.4 million
previous “fifteenths and tenths’ system – between 1511 + 1525
raised £322,000 and largest subsidy to  1525 – amicable grant – heavy tax
date without parliament approval to fund
expedition in France (Clergy taxed 1/3
of goods while normal subjects 1/6)
king had to suspend it as caused
discontent: East Anglia resistance of
20,000 men armed
 Enclosure and the economy
 1517 organised a national enquiry on  Opposition of land owners in partl –
how much land was being enclosed and disliked Wolsey
its effects  1526 – recoinage increased no of silver
 As a result – legal cases were drawn up coins but reduced weight. Stimulated
against land lords judged to be having export but contributed to inflation
enclosed land without proper
permission. Legal proceedings began
against 264 landowners and 188 clear
verdicts
Parliament and Admin
 January 1526 – Eltham ordinances:  Only 2 parliaments called during
order to reform finances of privy Wolsey’s time as chief minister  1513
council. Wanted a reduction of + 1523. These were to agree taxation
household expenditure. Wolsey secured  Ruled mostly without parliament
a reduction in the no of people in the
Privy Chamber (which he did not have
much control over). Professionalised the
Crown’s admin.
 Got rid of H8 groom of stool William
Compton and replaced him with a more
compliant Henry Norris

David Stakey: “The issuing of the Eltham ordinances reflected Wolsey’s fear that the
amicable grant may make him so unpopular that he would be in danger of losing political
influence over Henry”
 Ministers

Thomas Wolsey: 1512 to 1529

 Owed to the church his promotion and

opportunity to serve the king
 Church was a meritocracy that enabled men
of humble birth to rise to positions of
power
 Archbishop of York 1514
 Cardinal in 1515, Lord Chancellor
 Papal Legate 1518
 Dismissed after failure to secure the
annulment of Henry’s marriage to CoA
Thomas Cromwell: 1532-1540

 Humble man
 Career: law
 H8 impressed with Problem solving skills
 Delivered the annulment and engineered
H8 marriage to Anne Boleyn
 Administrative skill: run gov, manage
partl and established the RS
 “revolutionised government”
 Blamed for arranging and failing to annul
H8 marriage to AoC
Thomas More

 Lawyer, politician and humanist scholar

 Known and respect across Europe
amongst the king’s most favoured
courtiers
 Succeeded Wolsey as Lord Chancellor,
but served for only 2 years (1530-32)
before he resigned
 Did not support BwR or marriage to AB
 Arrested and executed in 1535 for
refusing to acknowledge H8 as head

Thomas Cranmer

 Appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in

1532. Helped enforce Royal Supremacy
 Instrumental in reforming church
doctrine, supporting the publication of
the Bible in English and embracing the
Protestant faith
The State of the Church before 1530
1515: Parliament want to reduce the power of the church – Wolsey refuses
Church in a poor state Church in a good state
 Anticlericalism – E.g. lollardy  People continued to give large
th
movement still there from 15 amounts of money to the church
century  Large scale building £1,500 shown
 Lack of celibacy by funding of church
 Wolsey personified the abuses –  Harmonious relations between
Non-residence Bof Durham 1534, parishioners and priests
BofWinchester 1529  Not widespread yearning for reform
 Clerical Misconduct (Richard in England still a high attendance at
Hunne) mass
 1528 Wolsey draws up plans for
closing monasteries with fewer than
6 inmates

Support for the church remained high but there were cracks in the fundamentals which would
enable the opportunities for the Catholic church to be drastically changed under H*

Annulment Crisis: King’s Great Matter

Mid 1520’s CoA past child bearing age, only 1 child Princess Mary. Desire for a Male heir,
H8 fallen in love with AB. Anne refuses to become one of his mistresses. H8 considering
legitmising his bastard son Henry Fitzroy.

Wolsey’s plan of action

Scriptual arguments
Argued that original dispentation was incorrect and therefore invalid. Based on Validity of CoA marriage in 1509 - depended on Catherine's word that her first
Leviticus "If a man shall take his brothers wife it is an inpurity" - lots of theologians marriage to prince Arthur had never been consumated --> Catherines best interests
believed this was only the case if the brother was still alive. If dead there was a duty to say that. If this was not the case H8 had been mislead and the mrrriage had never
to marry. been valdi

Diplomatic manouvers
Wolsey tried to free the pope from Italy's influence by using an alliance with France
and the renewal of warfare in Italy. Fails as Charles too strongly entrenched in Italian 6 May 1527 Rome Sacked by C5
peninsula to be evicted

Legal Efforts
Wolsey wanted to hold the divorce hearings in England. Where he as Papal legate
Pope Clement VIII sends a commissionar Cardinal Campeggio to delay hearing and
would make the judgment. Catherine refused to accept the courts verdict and
ensure a decision was not reached
appealed to the Pope on "Cannon law"

Court meets in June to discuss case. Campeggio adjourned it on 30th July  Wolsey had
failed

October 1529 – Charge with Praemunire and surrenders himself and his assets. November
1530 arrested and died on his way to his execution on 29 November in Leicester Abbe.
Timeline/ stages of the Break with Rome
 Timeline/ Stages of the Break with Rome

 The role of Thomas More (1516 – executed in 1535) – Humanist – published beliefs in
Utopia, 1516. Convinced reform could be achieved by persuasion. Intolerant of Henry,
persecuted protestant reformers. Chancellor in 1529 – power to attack Lutheranism, but
frustrated by Boleyn, refused to take Oath of succession.

 The role of Anne Boleyn and Tyndale’s book (1528) – Refused to become mistress. In
1528 Tyndale publishes “the obedience of the Christian man” – Kings authority from God
and Supreme. Banned in England but Anne had a copy and brought it to Henry’s
attention.

 The role of Thomas Cromwell in parliament (1529 – 1540) – 1529- MP- attacked abuses
of Church. Suggested Henry makes a break with Rome and place himself as head of
English church. Chief minister 1532 and by then had taken over management of the
King’s divorce. Introduced ‘supplication against the ordinances’ into house of commons.

 English scholars to the continent (1530 year) - Scholars from Oxford and Cambridge
sent to European universities to find support for Henry’s divorce.

 Attacks on clergy: In 1530 revival of law of Praemunire and 15 of upper clergy charged
with supporting Wolsey’s abuse of power against the king. Forced to pay huge fine
£100,000 to escape punishment. 1531 – Henry pardoned clergy of crimes against him but
forced from them an acknowledgement that the king was ‘protector’ and supreme head of
the English Church.

 The Act of Annates 1532 (suspended for one year) – Prevented payment of annates
(revenue paid to the pope by bishop/cleric on appointment), collected money and
significant attack on the Pope’s right over clergy.

 Thomas Cromwell – Supplication against the ordianries 1532 – TC introduces into the
house of Commons – a petition calling on the king to deal with the corruption of the
clergy

 The submission of the Clergy 1532 – H8 demands the church should agree to the
submission of the clergy which gave him power to reject (veto) church laws and to
choose bishops, even if not approved by Rome.

 Archbishop of Canterbury (William Warham dies) 1532

 Cranmer’s assigned Archbishop of Canterbury 1532 – Henry impressed with his reformist
ideas. Cranmer drew up the Collectanea satis copiosa – theological case for the annulment

 Thomas More reassigned as Chancellor 1532 – After the King won the approval of the
‘submission of the clergy’

 Henry secretly married Anne Boleyn Jan 1533 – Anne was known to be pregnant in Dec
1532. According to C church marriage was invalid.
 Act in restraint of appeals, 7 April 1533 – Monarch possessed an imperial jurisdiction
which was not subject to any foreign power (papacy). Act declared that appeals could not
be made to Rome regarding decision in cases of matrimonial and other areas. Catherine
could not seek the pope’s arbitration when the divorce came before the courts. Marriage
annulled in may 1533 by Cranmer using the same arguments used in late 1520’s. Since
1533 Anne crowned as king -> gives birth to Elizabeth (7) in September 1533.

 Act of First Fruits and Tenths – The annates paid by a bishop which had been
intolerable when paid to the pope became perfectly acceptable when paid to the King.

 Act of Supremacy, Nov 1534 – Acknowledge the King of as the head of the Church with
all rights to decide its organisation, personnel and doctrine.

 Act of succession, April 1534 – Declared that H8 marriage to Catherine was void. The
succession should be vested in the children of his marriage to Anne. To deny the validity
of H8 marriage to Anne was treasonable. An oath should be taken to affirm an
individual’s acceptance of the marriage.

 Treason act, Nov 1534 – Made the denial by spoken word, deed writing of royal
supremacy a crime punishable for death. Made it clear the monarch in charge of the day-
day running. Mostly high profile people e.g. More, not used on ordinary people.

Consequences of BwR:

 Wealth
 Power
 Succession

Henry VIII Early Foreign Policy 1509-1529

H8 Aims:
 Establish presence in foreign affairs
 Demonstrate his strengths to his subjects
 Desire to win glorious victories
 Limit power of France

Wolsey Aims:
 Desire for power, influence and recognition
 Committed to making peace as it saved money and war was v. risky

France: traditional enemy. All English kings since Edward III claimed the title of King of
France

1510: Renewal of Treaty of Ètaples (councilors wanted a continuation of peace) – H8 not

committed war 2 years later

1511: Joins Pope Julius II’s Holy League  Anti-French alliance with Spain, HRE, Venice
and Papacy – Getting along with powerful countries

1512: First invasion of SW France – Sends 10,000 men under control of Marquis of Dorset.
Achieves very little and used by Ferdinand as a distraction

1513: Battle of Spurs: Wolsey organises an army of 30,000. Captures Thérouanne and
Tournai. H8 receives annual payments for giving up claims to French throne.  Propaganda
used to exaggerate the victory

1513 (sept): Battle of Flodden: Anglo-Scottish War against forces of James IV + Earl of
Surrey. James + Scottish nobility killed throne left to infant James V.

1514 (Oct): Marriage of Louis XII of France + H8 sister Mary  powerful alliance

1515/1516: Death of Louis XII, Succeeded by Francis I. Death of Ferdinand of Aragon,

succeeded by Charles V  disrupted alliance. Mary states that H8 could no longer use her
marriage for ‘diplomatic’ reasons

1517: Treaty of Cambrai. Peace between HRE and France leaves England isolated

1517: Duke of Albany (member of F nobility) heir presumptive to the throne, sent by Francis
I to undermine Anglo-Scottish relations

1518: Treaty of London: Pope Leo X had wanted Christian crusade to stop threat of Ottoman
Turks. Wolsey created this peace signed by France, Spain, HRE committed signatories to
avoid war/conflict with other signatories. England seen as a peacemaker. Future conflicts
suggest treaty was meaningless

1519: Maximillian I dies, Charles elected as HRE – lands encircled by France. Dominance
over Europe Breaks down TOL. Charles & Francis in direct opposition
1520 (June): The Field of the Cloth of Gold. Meeting between Henry & Francis. Good
relations restored. Costs H8 treasury £15,000 and achieves very little. Propaganda
1522/23: Failed invasion of Northern France. Subsidy not enough, campaign gained little,
Partl reluctant to grant taxation to cover the costs

1525: Battle of Pavia – between C5 and Francis but England join in. C5 forces defeat French
in battle and F1 captured. Henry wants to do a joint invasion with France but Charles refuses
 makes peace. Richard DLP killed. Charles repudiates marriage contract to Princess Mary
and marries Isabella of Portugal

1526: League of Cognac: Anti-Hasburg alliance between France, Pope, Venice and France to
try and counter balance excessive powers of C5. Led to problems with annulment and proved
the king was not on the best terms with the emperor

1527: Treaty of Amines: England offers support to France against HRE (alliance) trade
embargo on Burgdarian lands

1529: French defeated at Landriano

1529 (Aug): Peace of Cambrai – required French to give up ambitions in Italy and reinforced
Papal’s political dependency on C5. England left out and problems with annulment

Judgment on Early FP:

Largely unsuccessful as he prioritised his interests over the interests of the realm. insists on
trying to prove himself as a ‘renaissance warrior’ and to bolster England’s status in Europe.
Failure of peace with France after renewed TOE. “Enjoyed considerable success at
beginning” – Battle of Spurs 1513. But towards end of reign FP was less constructive. E.g.
Peace of Cambrai. DO: Time

Henry VIII later foreign policy 1532-1547

Break with Rome repercussions: horrified Catholic powers but no repercussions in the short
term as C5 too concerned with the threat posed by the Ottoman Turks.

1532: League of Schmalkalden Cromwell made overtures to league (Protestant group trying
to preserve semi-independence from C5)

1535: Reduced pressure on H8. Death of CoA/ Execution of AB opened up the possibility of
a renewed alliance with the emperor. Renewal of fighting between F1 + C5 over succession
in Milan. = reduced danger of isolated position

Position worsens

1538: Treaty of Nice agrees to server connections with England. Papal ordering deposing of
H8 in Dec 1538. Pope dispatches Cardinal Pole to rally Catholic power against a “most cruel
and abominable tyrant” costal defenses repaired with materials from mons and 120 ships at
mouth of Thames for defense

1540: Anne of Cleves. Marriage. Did not connect with her and marriage became politically
redundant – divorce. Give house and £500 yearly income. New talks open with Schmalkaldic
league but fails after 6AA is passed.

1540-1547

1542: Scottish invasion, James V had pursued French FP and married Mary of Guise and
French preoccupied in Italy. Soloway Moss battle. Scots defeated J5 dies one week later
leaving infant MQofS. 1,000 prisoners taken.

1543: Treaty of Greenwich. Prince Ed + MQoS betrothed but Mary to stay in Scotland until
she is 10. Arran (Scottish reagent) deserted E. cause and parliament refuses to ratify treaty.
H8 annoyed + orders Earl of Hertford to carry punitive raids on Scottish border (1544+1545)

Scottish policy failures: missed opportunity for military invasion. 1542 ignored Salder’s
(English ambassador in Edinburgh) warnings on hostility of the marriage. Raids short only
retaliation and costlty

1543: Alliance with Emperor. Guaranteed the others army against invasion and uphold
ancient trade agreements.

1544: French invasion. H8 head of army of 48,000 men meant to march on to Paris with
Charles but followed own priorities. Unsuccessful in besieging Monreuis but captured
Boulogne (siege cost £587,000)

Position worsens: 4 days later C+F make peace at Crépi. Defeated at Battle of Ancrum Moor.
Lured into trap by Scottish 800 Englishmen killed.

1545: French Naval raid on Portsmouth/ Isle of Wight. Mary rose sank but IoW and
Boulogne held out.

1546: Treaty of Ardres. H8 keeps Boulogne and return in 1554 if French renew pension of
£35,000 a year. Scots coerced into signing
  Lack of repercussions after BwR  League of Schmalkalden founded
from foreign powers (fortune) amid mutual distrust and nothing
 Luck that CoA died agreed about alliance vs C+F
 C5 +F1 didn’t trust each other  H8 threatened by Catholic crusade
 Scottish weakness victory at  defense
Soloway moss and death of J5 =  Anne of Cleves debacle
exposed  Despite winning H8 main interest
 Capturing Boulogne (had been was France and missed opportunity
French part for embarkation for for full invasion uniting the British
Scotland) isles
 Treaty of Ardres  Treaty of Greenwich
 Defeat at Ancrum Moor
 Cost £2 million 1538-46 when
annual income was little more than
£150,000
 Had to debase coinage £363,000 in
profit from debasement 1544-46
 1546 silver content 33% of what it
had been
 £270,000 forced loans

Society: elite and commoners

  16th Century highly significant period because major changes were taking place within
English society.
 The actual shape of social structure had altered very little mid-sixteenth century
society was more competitive and individualistic than it had been during the Middle
ages.
 Tudor society was still overwhelmingly rural, and retained many of the characteristics
of the old feudal system
 Most important signs of change was the increasing social mobility

Elites/ Nobility
 Size of peerage increased although only 9 more at end of reign
 Only 1 duke when came to the throne appointed Suffolk and Norfolk
 Economic decline during 15th century many of the great aristocratic landowners had to
sell part of their land and lease out much of the remained on long leases of up to 99
years
 Immediate impact  temporary lowering of the social prestige of the nobility
 No longer afford to maintain their great households and service to the crown became
more attractive to the ambitious among the lesser elites or gentry
 The sale and leasing out of the great estates created a very active land market, which
widened the availability of land – redistribution of land marked the rise of the gentry:
5000 gentry families in 1540
 Prices and rents began to rise after 1500 due to improving industrial and commercial
conditions the gentry benefitted from such increases – nobility unable to reap any real
profits from their estates until the long leases ran out at the end of the 16 century

Bastard Feudalism
 More control of monarch. Nobles executed. Duke of Buckingham, Courtenay (1538)
Darcy/Hussey for PoG

Commoners
 Decline in economic and political power of the great landowners brought about the
disappearance of serfdom and labor services in England during 15th Century
 All the peasantry were no theoretically free so could move about the country more
freely

Changes in the structure of the peasantry

 Peasant smallholders were generally described as husband men, Self sufficient small
holders with about 12-16 hectares of land
 Customary tenures were being replaced by a new form of tenancy for the lifetime of
the holder, called copyhold, for which rent was paid in cash
 Many of the former peasants took advantage of the availability of land and amassed
holdings of some 80 hectares or more
 They became commercial farmers and joined the ranks of the yeomen
 Commoners with skills and trades moved into towns where they were able to build up
their business
 Little change in standard of living for first half of reign  although inflation caused a
drop in real income/wages. Worst at end of reign when debasement

Regional issues and the social impact of religious upheaval

Regional issues: Wales, Ireland and the north of England

 Peripheral regions of the kingdom were remote, culturally different and economically
poor
 Crowns power in these regions was tenuous at best and the local populations tended to
resent outside interference
 2 major problems affecting these regions (1) Lawlessness and disorder (2) a lack of
respect for the authority of central government

Crown first appointed powerful nobles to represent and extend his authority. Although this
system worked well under H7. H8 was determined to bind these regions into a closer union
with the rest of the kingdom.

WALES:
 1536-1543 the government and administration of Wales was transformed by
Cromwell’s reforms
 Act of Union in 1536 – Wales fully integrated into the English state
 Welsh forced to adopt English law, speech and customs
 For the first time Welsh members were elected to parliament and JP’s were appointed
to the newly created counties of the principality

IRELAND
 More difficult to control
 Irish parliament closely controlled and an English army was stationed in the country
 1541 Henry adopted the title the king of Ireland
 reality: control didn’t stretch beyond the Pale

NORTH OF ENGLAND
 Council of the North set up in York. Permanent body with admin/legal functions to
govern the North
 Anger of northerners, southerners were often appointed to rule this region
 Conservative north particularly resented Cromwell’s instruction to close the
monasteries
 Monasteries were an integral part of norther life, which is why such large no. of
northerners rebelled in PoG
 Scottish border split into marches, each with a warden and a council of marches
offered cheap local access to law

Protest, opposition and rebellion

Protest:
 Method for commoners to vent their anger and frustration
 Majority of protests during H8 reign were local and usually focused on availability and affordability of
foodstuffs
 Occasionally directed against a particular magistrate/ royal commissioner whom they found to be
corrupt or cruel
 Anne Boelyn disliked as she replaced the popular Queen Catherine
 Ministers to blame for unpopular policies suited the king

Opposition:
 Price rises, inflation and unemployment often led to outbreaks of violence, but the localsied nature of
these protests meant they never seriously threatened the king or his court
 When the members of the ruling elite joined to resist or oppose government policies – became a matter
of grave concern

The Pilgrimage of Grace:

October 1536 – February 1537

Key: Dangerous/ mildly dangerous / limited danger

 Pro- catholic rebels

 Badge and banner of the 5 wounds of Christ

Causes:
 Political – Wanted restoration of Mary as heir / Cromwell heretic and was going against state beliefs
 Religious – recognition of papal supremacy / felt king was pushing too quickly for religious change
 Economic – fear that North would be impoverished by monastic land falling into the hands of southerners /
Resentment of taxation (subsidy in 1534) – ordinary rebels motivated by this
 Social – loss of charitable and educational functions / monasteries distributed alms / usefulness of the
facilities and services the M offered

Aims:
 Removal of ministers: Punishment of the King’s chief minister – blame Cromwell not the King
 Articles/ demands: recognition of papal supremacy – restore monasteries – suppression of heresy –
Pontefract 24 articles – demands
 Multi – faceted: religious aims / economic aims / social aims
 Appeal: yes

Government response and events:

 Violence: minor battles / few executions – not masses killed in battles
 Leadership: Robert Aske -> capable – turned the varied movements of the rebels into a cohesive whole.
Tried to unite support but reluctant to be leader
 Events: No large battles
 Areas affected: Started in Lincolnshire and other risings spread over Humber – Large part of the North very
geographically widespread – Louth and York
 Number of rebels: 30,000-40,000 pilgrims
 Duration: 3-4 months
 Deaths: Robert Aske / Darcy & Hussey
 Executions: 74 rebels hanged – Duke of Norfolk total 178 pilgrims hanged
 Military response: King sent an army North under command of Duke of Norfolk – hugely outnumbered by
rebels
 NOTE: Norfolk sought to diffuse the rebellion through issuing of a pardon and the promise that the
dissolved monasteries would be restored and a free parliament established – tactic rebel forces dispersed
despite Henry having no intention in honouring these promises

Economic Development
16th century was shaped as much by the underlying changes in the society and he economy as
by the actions of the ruling monarchs. The rise in population and the onset of inflation had a
profound effect on the lives of the ordinary people.

“Upper strata of society became richer but the poor became poorer”

Inflation
 Prices and rents continued to rise steadily after 1500
 By the 1530’s grain and meat prices had 2x since 1510 – was due in part to the poor
harvests of the 1520’s but prices showed signs of failing even after good harvests
 Debasement of coinage which began in 1526 became very frequent in the 1540’s
when H8 was desperately trying to raise money to finance a war against France
 Debasement caused very rapid inflation of prices
 Reformation contributed to this process – Gold and silver ornaments were seized
from the chantries and churches were melted down into coins, so adding to the
volume of debased coinage in circulation

Agriculture
 Number of new crops such as clover and lucerene were being grown to improve
fodder for animal feed
 Industrial crops such as Saffron, woad and rapeseed were being grown to produce
dyes and oils for textile and manufacture
 Enclosure enabled the growth of more efficient medium-sized farms – much of the
common land enclosed and brought under intensive cultivation – Wolsey enclosure
1517 : 264 landowners
 1534 – legalization tried to limit sheep ownership/ engrossing but limited results
 Agricultural sector was just able to feed the population, except in the bad harvest
years
 As population began to rise, surplus labor became available to work in industry – led
to a migration of rural workers to the towns, which increased in size and importance
over 500 migrants a year adding to the population of London

Trade
 Volume of trade increased in first ½ of century
 Increase in cloth exports, decreases in raw wools
 Biggest change in cloth industry: increase in cheaper fabrics e.g.Kersey
 Dominated by Merchant adventurers – owed their dominant position to the large loans
that they gave to the crown in return for which they were granted privileges denied to
other English merchants
 MA established themselves at Antwerp in the Netherlands which was a major centre
for dyeing and finishing cloth
 H8 little interest in exploration his focus was fixed on increasing trade at the expense
of rivals such as the Hanseatic league

Prosperity & depression

 Price of consumables increase 85% in reign
 Engrossing: joining of 2 farms to make 1 single agricultural unit. More efficient but
families left homeless
Impact of the BwR in Europe:
Before:

 Anticlericalism exist but wasn’t massively popular

 Ideas stemmed from Luther who was a Catholic but was horrified that abuses of the
church were instilled in the Catholic religion
 Main difference: Protestants believed more in tolerance religion between man and god
and not the symbols that got in the way

Europe: Mainly Catholic. Horrified by England’s sudden change in religion. H8 had to adapt
religion to not upset foreign powers. E,g. 6AA, Treat of Nice C+F

Renaissance ideas:

 Spread of renaissance ideas, together with the rise of Christian humanism were
powerful influences that contributed to the Reformation and the weakening of the
influence of the church
 Caused a growth in anticlericalism by attacking the wealth and abuses in the church –
renaissance thought encouraged the spread of secular education
 Emphasis on education for the laity to help promote universities, the Inns of Court
and secular schools as an alternative for political careerists
 Act of First Fruits and Tenths
15 Allowed Henry 8 to tax the church. Used to pay the pope. (First Fruits)
when a person was appointed to a position and then 1/10 of their
income every year.

34
Act of Supremacy
15 Parliment acknowledge Henry 8 as the supreme head of the Church of
England

34
Valor Ecclesiasticus "value of the church"
15 Cromwell sends commissionars to survey the value of monastic lands
and properties and a report is to be produced "VE"

35
Act for the dissolution of the smaller
monastries
15 Based on VE findings. Parliment passed the Act - Closed all religious
houses with lands valued under £200 - New commisonars were
36 sent out to supervise these closures

1 Act for the dissolution of larger monastries

Extending the closeure to all religious houses except chanceries

5 By 1540 all religious houses dissolved (800)

3
9 Court of Augmentations
15
Richard Rich - Chancellor
Court to handle the property and (wealth) income from the dissolved
monastries and redistribute this
40
 The effects of the dissolution of the monasteries

 Protestants – Closure of the strongholds of the catholic ritual dealt a great blow to the
possibility of the return of Catholicism to England.
 Money – 10% of the entire wealth of the kingdom – all came to Henry in one great
transfer in the 1530’s
 Growth of the lesser gentry – Held monastic lands as a way of establishing their
presence in local community – change in society from traditional ruling elite to a
more widely-based ruling class
 Henry VIII – had the money to fulfil his ambitious foreign policy
 Nobility – Gain land – more loyal to Henry – Gain his support

 Monasteries – valuables confiscated and melted down even the lead from the roofs /
sold of too become houses for the wealthy or were crumbling ruins
 Libraries – Books held by learning monasteries – sons and daughters of well off
families may go to receive part of their education – Books taken by private collects or
burned
 Monks – lost their work and accommodation – Compensation in form of pensions or
one off payments – wealthier you were more likely you were to receive (friars and
nuns didn’t get much) - 1/5 managed to secure other paid pensions within the church
 Money – Did little to help the monarchy’s financial independence
 Land – Henry had sold more than ½ of the monastic land at full market value in the
years 1543 -1547- crown lost control of these lands and the possibility of collecting
taxes from these lands in the future
 Peasants – monasteries helped ordinary people e.g. “pray for the dead” gave
hospitality