UNIT V

1)A step counter is a digital modular counter, constructed from stepping units which serve a sequence steppers for asynchronous
sequen�al fluid power controls. A basic stepping unit is built from a signal output MEMORY valve and a pre-switched AND valve
with two inputs. Achieving an output signal from the stepping unit requires
Steps involved
Step 1: Draw the posi�on step diagram.
Posi�on step diagram is used to represent
movement of drive elements. In posi�on step
diagram the X-axis represents steps thats is
the sequence of opera�on is divided into a
number of steps which are expressed as
1,2,3,4,etc. The Y-axis represents posi�on and
is indicated as 0,1. The func�onal lines are
drawn in thick lines and they determine the
posi�on of the driving unit. Any change of
posi�on of a member has to start or stop at a
corner of the squares.
Step 2: From the posi�on step diagram, the
number of stepping units are decided.
Step 3: Draw the cylinders and their memory
valves. Connect the memories to the
cylinders.
Step 4: Draw the step counters
Step 5: Draw the stepping units and valves
2) The Cascade method is simple to apply and results in reliable and easily understood the circuits.
STEPS INVOLVED
step 1: Each cylinder is given a code leter and their sequence is determined. For example A+, A-, B+, B- etc. '+' and '-' represent
extension and retrac�on in the cylinders respec�vely.
Step 2: The sequence is split into minimum number of groups. Care should be take to see that no leter os repeated within any
groups. Next the circuit is draw up using the following steps.
Step 3: Each group is assigned a pressure manifold line which must be pressurised only wode that par�cular group is ac�ve. So the
number of pressure lines equals thr number of groups.
Step 4: selec�ng the valves.
a) The limit valves are denoted as a0, a1, b0, b1 etc., where the suffix 0 corresponds to valves which are actuated at the end of
return stroke and the suffix 1 corresponds to valves which
are actuated at the end of forward stroke.
b) In order to pressurise the various manifold lines in the
proper order, one or more group charging valves or
cascade valves are employed. The number of group
valves always equals the number of groups minus one.
c) For each cylinder, a pilot operated direc�on control
valve is selected. The number of cylinder ac�ng valves
equals the number of cylinders.
Step 5: The valves are connected as follows. The output
of each limit valve is connected to the pilot input
corresponding to the next sequence step with one
excep�on.
ADVANTAGES:-
1) Circuit design, drawing and checking can be
accomplished very quickly.
2) Fault diagnosis and trouble shoo�ng are very simple.
3) Required task by each cylinder and their signal
elements is fully ensured.
3) Design an electropneuma�c circuit using cascade method for a following sequence A+ B+ B- C- C+ A-, where A, B, & C stands for
cylinders, (+) indicate extension and (-) retrac�on of cylinders.
Solu�on :
Step 1: Given sequence: A+ B+ B- C- C+ A-
𝐴𝐴+ 𝐵𝐵+ 𝐵𝐵−𝐶𝐶− 𝐶𝐶+𝐴𝐴−
Step 2: Grouping: , ,
𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
Step 3: No. of pressure lines = No. of groups = 3
Step 4: (i) No. of pilot operated 4/2 DC valve = No. of cylinders = 3
(ii) No. of limit valves = 2 x No. of Cylinders = 2x3 =6
 (iii) No. of Cascade valves= No. of Groups -1 = 3 – 1 = 2
Step 5: The cascade circuit and their valve conec�ons for the sequence A+ B+ B- C- C+ A- is shown in the figure.
UNIT 1
1) Applica�ons of pascal's law:
1) Bramah's Hydraulic Press was developed by applying the pascals law. In a hydraulic press, a small input force is applied
to generate a large output force.
WORKING : consider two oil containers both in cylindrical form and connected together contain some oil. Both the cylinders have
a piston having different diameters says D1 &. D2 respec�vely, where D1 is smaller than D2.
If a fprce F1 is applied to the small diameter piston, then this will produce an oil pressuren
P1 at the botom of the piston1. Now the pressure is transmited through the oil to the
large diameter piston2. Because the piston2 has a larger area, the pressure at the botom of
the piston2 will be P2. Now this pressure P2 will push up the piston 2 to create an output
force F2.
According to pascal's law, P1=P2.
F1/A1 = F2/A2 or
F2/F1 = A2/A1
Where A1= Area of the smaller piston = pi/4 D1square, A2 = similarly.....
Since A2>A1, therefore F2 will be higher than F1.
2) Transmission of Displacement (Hydraulic jack)
3) Air to hydraulic pressure booster
2) LOSS OF ENERGY IN PIPES :
When liquid flows in a pipe, there will be some energy loss. This loss of energy may be classified as follows :
1. Major energy losses - this loss is due to fric�on
2. Minor energy losses -
These losses are due to:
(i) losses in valves and pipe fi�ngs
(ii) sudden enlargement in pipe
(iii) bend in pipe
(iv) an obstruc�on in pipe
3) DARCY EQUATION :
The major energy losses that is the energy losses due to fric�on in the pipe can be calculated by using Darcy's equa�on. The darcy
equa�on for the loss of head due to fric�on in pipes, Hl =f (L/D) (v square /2g)
Where,Hl = loss of head due to fric�on in pipe(m)
F= fric�on factor
L= length in pipe (m)
D= inside diameter of the pipe(m)
V= average velocity of liquid (m/s)
G= accelera�on due to gravity (m/s2)
The darcy equa�on holds good for both laminar and turbulent flow provided a proper valve of fric�on factor 'f' is evaluated.
4) FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN LAMINAR FLOW :
64
For laminar flow, the fric�on factor 'f' is func�on of Reynolds number only. 𝑓𝑓 =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
64 𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉 2
Sub equa�on 1 in Darrcy equa�on, 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = � �� �
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐷𝐷 2𝑔𝑔
5) FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN TURBULENT FLOW :
Unlike for laminar flow, the fric�on factor 'f' for turbulent flow is a func�on of Reynolds number as well as the rela�ve roughness
of the pipe. The rela�ve roughness is defined as the pipe inside surface roughness (c) divided by the inside diameter of the
pipe(D)
Rela�ve roughness =c/D
Where, c = absolute roughness
LOSSES IN VALVES AND FITTINGS:
The loss of head is the various valves and fi�ngs is given by
Hl = K (v square /2 g)
Where k = constant of propor�onality called the 'K- factor'
The value of k factor depends on the type of valves and pipe fi�ngs. If the loss of head Hl is known, it can be expressed into
equivalent pressure drop by
Triangle P =Hl * W oil
Where, W oil = weight density of oil flowing through valves and fi�ngs