GEOMETRICAL

CONSTRUCTIONS 1
by Johanna PÉK PhD

Budapest University of Technology and Economics

Faculty of Architecture
Department of Architectural Geometry and Informatics
 Table of contents

• Introduction
• Triangles and their properties. Basic theorems about triangles
• Circles and related terms. Basic theorems about circles
• Quadrilaterals
• Regular polygons. The golden ratio
• Geometric transformations 1: Isometries
• Geometric transformations 2: Similarities
• Geometric transformations 3: Axial affinity
• Geometric transformations 4: Central-axial collineation

2
 INTRODUCTION
Drawing instruments (necessary to this and further courses)

• loose-leaf white papers of the size A4

• 2 mechanical (propelling) pencils
thickness/hardness: 0.35/H (or HB) and 0.5/2B
• eraser
• rulers: 1 straight and 2 set squares
• pair of compasses (with joint for pen)
• set of coloured pencils (min. 12 pcs)
• sharpener
• drawing board (size A3)

3
 Basic constructions

• drawing parallel lines (by using set squares)

• drawing perpendicular lines (by using set squares)
• finding the midpoint of an segment
• copying an angle
• bisecting an angle

lecture & practical (This sign means that you must take your own handwritten notes and drawings on lecture/practical.)

4
 TRIANGLES AND THEIR PROPERTIES
A triangle is plane figure that has 3 vertices/vertices and 3 sides (denoted by eg. △ABC)

Vertices: A, B, C (capital letters)

Sides: a, b, c (small letters)
(Interior) angles: α, β, γ (small Greek letters)

Exterior angles: eg. α’

α + α’ = 180°

β + β’ = 180°

γ + γ’ = 180°

5
 Essential theorems about triangles

β + γ = α’ α + γ = β’ α + β = γ’

The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle

is always 180 degrees: α + β + γ = 180°

Triangle inequalities: a<b+c b<a+c c<a+b

a<b<c ⇔ α<β<γ
("Bigger side and bigger angle are opposite each other.")

6
 Types of triangle
By interior angles By lengths of sides

Acute triangle Scalene triangle

The biggest interior angle is has all its sides of
an acute angle ( < 90° ). different lengths.

Right triangle Isosceles triangle

The biggest interior angle is has two sides of
a right angle ( = 90° ). equal length.

Obtuse triangle Equilateral triangle

The biggest interior angle is has all sides the same length.
an obtuse angle ( > 90° ).
practical
7
 BASIC THEOREMS ABOUT TRIANGLES – 1

Perpendicular bisector
is perpendicular to a segment at its midpoint.

Circumscribed circle or circumcircle

is a circle which passes through all the vertices
of the triangle.
Circumcenter
is the center of the triangle’s circumcircle.

The perpendicular bisectors of a triangle meet

at the circumcenter of this triangle.

 lecture & practical

8
 Basic theorems about triangles – 2a

(Interior) angle bisector

divides the angle into two angles with equal measures.
𝛼
2 𝛼

Inscribed circle or incircle 2

touches (is tangent to) the triangle’s three sides.

Incenter
is the center of the triangle’s incircle.

The interior angle bisectors of a triangle meet

at the incenter of this triangle.

 lecture & practical

9
 Basic theorems about triangles – 2b
Remark

Exterior angle bisector ⟶

Exscribed circle or excircle

touches the triangle’s three sides
as straight lines.
(Number of excircles: 3)

Excenter
is the center of the triangle’s excircle.

Two exterior and one interior angle bisectors

of a triangle meet at one of the three excenters
of the triangle.

10
 Basic theorems about triangles – 3

Altitude
is a segment (or line) through a vertex and
perpendicular to the side opposite the vertex.
(Number of altitudes of a triangle: 3)

Three altitudes of a triangle intersect in a single point,

called the orthocenter of the triangle.

 lecture & practical

Point H lies outside △ABC if and only if △ABC is obtuse.

If △ABC is a right triangle, point H coincides with
the vertex at the right angle.
11
 Basic theorems about triangles – 4
Sketch of the proof existing of orthocenter

Midsegment (midline)
joins the midpoints of two sides of the triangle.

AB ∥ QP BC ∥ RQ AC ∥ RP
AB BC AC
QP = RQ = RP =
2 2 2
△PQR is called medial triangle.
12
 Basic theorems about triangles – 5

Median
connects a vertex with the midpoint of the opposite side.
(Number of medians of a triangle: 3)

Three medians of a triangle intersect in a single point,

called the centroid of the triangle.

Moreover,
AM = 2 ∙ MP BM = 2 ∙ MQ CM = 2 ∙ MR

 lecture & practical

13
 Basic theorems about triangles – 6
Let △ABC be a right triangle.
Legs of the triangle – a, b
Hypotenuse of the triangle – c

Pythagoras' theorem
△ABC is a right triangle ⇔ a2 + b2 = c 2

Let △ABC be a right triangle.

Then
h2 = p ∙ q a2 = c ∙ q b2 = c ∙ p

Proof: ⟶ Similarities

14
 Interesting theorems about triangles
H – orthocenter of △ABC
M – centroid of △ABC
O – circumcenter of △ABC

O, H and M are collinear.

This straight line is called Euler line.
The ratio of HM to MO is 2:1 .

The midpoints of the sides of the triangle,

the foots of the altitudes, and
the midpoints of segments AH, BH, and CH
lie on a circle called
nine-point circle (or Feuerbach’s circle).
(HF = FO)

15
 CIRCLES AND RELATED TERMS

Circle is the set of all points in a plane that are

at a given distance from a given point.
O – center
r – radius

d – diameter
c – chord
s – secant
a – arc
t – tangent line (T – tangent point)
X – segment
Y – sector
16
 Additional related terms

Central angle
The vertex of the angle is the center and
the legs are lines of radii. E.g. ∢AOB
(Central angles subtended by arcs of the same
length are equal.)

Inscribed angle
The vertex of the angle lies on the circle and
legs are two secants, or one secant and one
tangent line. E.g. ∢ACB
In other words, arc a (or chord c) subtends
angle ∢ACB at point C.

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 BASIC THEOREMS ABOUT CIRCLES – 1

If AB is an arc (of a circle) then the measure of central

angle ∢AOB is twice the measure of inscribed angle ∢ACB.
(Inscribed angle theorem)

Sketch of the proof

=∢ACB= ∢DAB
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 Basic theorems about circles – 2

Important corollaries

Any two inscribed angles (in a circle) with the same

intercepted arc are congruent.

Thales’ theorem
An inscribed angle in a semicircle is a right angle.

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 An essential construction – subtended angle

Let segment AB and angle α be given.

How can we find every point (vertex) where segment
AB subtends angle α ?
⟶ finding the locus of the vertex

Locus (plural loci) is the set of points that satisfy the given condition.

 lecture & practical

20
 Construction of tangent lines to a circle
An arbitrary circle and an exterior point are given.
Construct tangent lines to the circle which pass through the given point.

 lecture & practical

21
 Construction of common tangent lines to circles – 1
Two arbitrary disjoint circles are given. Construct all common tangent lines to the given circles.
Part 1 – Outer tangents

Circle 1 – center O1, radius r1

Circle 2 – center O2, radius r2

blue circle – center O2, radius r2-r1

 lecture & practical

22
 Construction of common tangent lines to circles – 2
Two arbitrary disjoint circles are given. Construct all common tangent lines to the given circles.
Part 2 – Inner tangents

Circle 1 – center O1, radius r1

Circle 2 – center O2, radius r2

blue circle – center O2, radius r2+r1

 lecture & practical

23
 QUADRILATERALS
A quadrilateral has 4 sides and 4 vertices.

The diagonals of a quadrilateral connect

two opposite vertices.

Convex (planar) quadrilateral:

every angle is acute, right or obtuse angles (0°<α<180°).
Concave (planar) quadrilateral:
exactly one angle is a reflex angle (180°<α<360°).
Its shape is like an arrowhead.

The sum of the interior angles of a (planar) quadrilateral

is 360°.
Hint of the proof: ABCD can be divided into two triangles by one of the diagonals.

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 Kites (deltoids)
A kite has two pairs of equal-length adjacent sides.
(E.g. AD and CD are adjacent to each other.)

A kite has an axis of symmetry.

(This axis is one of the two diagonals of the kite.)
Due to symmetry, the following statements are true:

One of the diagonals of a kite is the perpendicular bisector

of the other diagonal.

The axis of symmetry of a kite is the angle bisector of two

interior angles whose vertices lie on the axis.

Remark: Convex and concave kites also exist.

25
 Trapeziums (trapezoids) – 1
A trapezium is a convex quadrilateral
which has at least one pair of parallel sides.
The parallel sides are the bases of the trapezium,
the other two sides are called the legs.

The sum of two interior angles on the same leg is 180°.

The midsegment of a trapezium joins

the midpoints of the legs (and is parallel to bases).

The length of the midsegment of a trapezium

is the arithmetical mean of the two bases.

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 Trapeziums (trapezoids) – 2

The legs of an isosceles trapezium have the same length.

Therefore, an isosceles trapezium has an axis of symmetry.

A right trapezium has two adjacent right angles.

The right angles lie on the same leg.

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 Parallelograms

A parallelogram has two pairs of parallel sides.

⟹ The opposite angles have the same measurement.

A midsegment of a parallelogram joins

the midpoints of parallel sides.

A midsegment of a parallelogram is parallel

The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect
to two sides and these segments have the
each other.
same length.

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 Rhombuses, rectangles, squares
Special cases

A rhombus is a parallelogram A rectangle is a parallelogram A square is a rectangle

whose sides are equal. whose angles are right angles. whose sides are equal.
or
The diagonals of a rhombus The midsegments of a
A square is a rhombus
are perpendicular to each rectangle are perpendicular
whose angles are right
other. to each other.
angles.
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 Cyclic quadrilaterals

A cyclic quadrilateral (or inscribed quadrilateral) has

four sides which are chords of the same circle.

A quadrilateral is a cyclic quadrilateral if and only if

its opposite angles are supplementary.
The sum of supplementary angles is 180°.
Proof ⟶ the inscribed angle theorem

Remark: The perpendicular bisectors of a cyclic quadrilateral

meet at the center of its circumscribed circle.

 lecture & practical

30
 Tangential quadrilaterals

A tangential quadrilateral (or circumscribed quadrilateral)

has four sides – as lines – which are tangent lines of the
same circle.

A quadrilateral is a tangential quadrilateral if and only if

the two sums of the lengths of the opposite sides are equal.
Proof ⟶ construction of tangent lines to a circle

Remark: The angle bisectors of a tangential quadrilateral

meet at the center of its inscribed circle.

 lecture & practical

31
 REGULAR POLYGONS
A regular polygon is an n-sided polygon in which the sides are all the
same length and are symmetrically placed about a common center.
A regular polygon is equilateral and equiangular.

Some regular polygons are "constructible" using the compass and

straightedge.
For example, if n = 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 20, 24, 30, 32, …
(For reason see this link ⟶ geometry & number theory)

Well-known constructions:
n = 3 (equilateral triangle), n = 4 (square),
n = 6 (regular hexagon), n = 8 (regular octagon)

 lecture & practical

32
 An approximate construction of regular polygons
For example, n = 7 (regular heptagon)

Sketch of steps of the construction:

1. △ABC is an equilateral triangle
2. side AB as a diameter of a circle (denoted by c)
3. drawing circle c
4. dividing AB into n(=7) equal parts (see here)
5. choosing the second point of this division (denoted by P)
6. drawing ray CP
7. the intersection point of ray CP and circle c
is point D
8. segment AD is the approximate length of
the inscribed regular polygon

 lecture & practical

33
 THE GOLDEN RATIO

Numbers a and b (a>b) are in the golden ratio if

the ratio of a to b is the same as the ratio of a+b to a:

a a+b
= =φ
b a

1+ 5
φ= ≈ 1.618
2

Golden ratio in architecture

Sources: Internet
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 Constructions on the golden ratio
If we know the length of segment a: If we know the length of segment b:
using a special right triangle constructing the golden rectangle

1. segment AB=b
2. drawing square ABCD
3. M is the midpoint
of segment AD
1. segment AB=a 4. drawing a circle
2.
a
drawing segment BC = which is whose center is M
perpendicular to a
2 and radius is MC

3. segment AC = b +
a 5. this circle intersects
2 ray AD at point E
4. BC=DC ⟹ AD=b
6. AE=a

 lecture & practical Moreover, b and DE are in the golden ratio as well.
35
Connection between the golden ratio and regular polygons
In the case of regular decagon, its side a and
Golden triangle the radius of the circumscribed circle r are in
the golden ratio.

AB=b
AC=BC=a

∢ABC=∢BAC=72°
∢ACB=36°

⟹ We can construct regular decagon

(and regular pentagon).
36
 Constructions on regular decagon
Let segment AB=a be given. Construct a regular decagon
whose side is the given segment.

1. constructing the bigger part of the golden ratio using

the golden rectangle ⟹ radius r
2. drawing an arc of radius r and center A
and drawing an arc of radius r and center B
3. the intersection point of arcs is the center of the
circumscribed circle (point O)
4. drawing the circumscribed circle
5. measuring 9 times segment AB=a

Remark: Every second vertex forms a regular pentagon.

 lecture & practical

37
 Constructions on regular pentagon – 1
Using a regular decagon or… Construction on regular pentagon if…
the radius of the circumscribed circle is given.

1. segment OA=r (as the radius) and the circumscribed circle

2. drawing the perpendicular diameter PQ to r
3. X is the midpoint of OQ
4. drawing a circle of radius XA and center X
5. Y is the intersection point of PQ and the previous circle
6. drawing a circle of radius AY(=a) and center A
7. this circle intersects the circumscribed circle at point B
where B is a vertex of the regular pentagon
8. drawing missing vertices (using the length of AB=a)

 lecture & practical

38
 Constructions on regular pentagon – 2
Construction on regular pentagon if the side of the pentagon is given.

1. segment AB=a (as the side)

2. drawing a perpendicular segment at point B
a
to AB whose length is (its endpoint is P)
2
3. ray AP
4. PB=PQ (using a circle) ⟹ point Q (lies on ray AP)
5. drawing a circle of radius AQ and center A
6. drawing a circle with of radius a and center B
7. these circles intersect each other at point C (as a new vertex)
8. construct missing vertices
(using the circumscribed circle of triangle △ABC)

 lecture & practical

39
 TRANSFORMATIONS

A geometric transformation is a one-to-one correspondence between two sets of points.

The image point of a point P is denoted by P’.

Fixed point: Q=Q’

Pointwise fixed line:
every point of it is fixed point
Invariant line: l=l’ as a set of points

Remarks:
– We can “combine” transformations. This act is called composing.
– The “reverse” transformation of a transformation is called inverse transformation.
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 ISOMETRIES (of a plane)

A plane isometry (or congruence) – denoted by ≅ – is a geometric transformation which

preserves
• collinearity (the image of a line is a line),
• parallelism,
• distance,
• angle measure.

Direct/rigid/orientation-preserving isometry:
triangle △ABC and its image triangle △A’B’C’ have the same orientation (both of them are clockwise or
counter-clockwise).
⟶ translation, rotation
Indirect/opposite/orientation-reversing isometry:
triangle △ABC and its image triangle △A’B’C’ have different orientations.
⟶ reflection

41
 Translation

Translation is an orientation-preserving
plane isometry which moves every point by
the same distance in a given direction.
Translation is a geometric transformation
with no fixed points.

The given distance and direction can be

represented by a vector called translation
vector.

42
 Rotation
Rotation is an orientation-preserving plane
isometry which has a fixed point (center O) and a
given angle α so that the measure of any angle
POP’∢ is α and OP=OP’ (where P is an arbitrary point).

The rotation is clockwise if α<0 .

The rotation is counter-clockwise if α>0 .

A shape is rotationally symmetric if

it looks the same after a particular rotation.
E.g. regular polygons

Trivial case: a rotation is the identity if the given angle is the zero (or n·360°, nℤ) angle.
43
 A special rotation: Point reflection

Point/central reflection is a special rotation

whose given angle is 180°.
Every line passing through the center is an
invariant line of the point reflection.

A shape is centrally symmetric if

it looks the same after a point reflection.
E.g. parallelogram, regular polygons
(with respect to their centers)

44
 Reflection

Reflection (or axial reflection) is an

orientation-reversing plane isometry which
has a pointwise fixed line (the axis of
reflection) so that the axis is the
perpendicular bisector of every segment PP’
(where P is an arbitrary point).
Every line PP’ is an invariant line of the reflection.

A shape is reflection/line/mirror symmetric

if it looks the same after a reflection.
The axis is called the axis of symmetry.
E.g. deltoid, rectangle, regular polygons

45
 Applications of isometries 1.

An important composition of two isometries:

a reflection and a translation whose vector is

parallel to the axis of the reflection

⟹ glide reflection

46
 Applications of isometries 2.

Some exercises
1. An arbitrary circle and a segment (whose length is smaller than the diameter of the circle)
are given. Construct chords of the circle which are parallel and have the same length with
the given segment. (Hint: translations)
2. The center of a square, and line l and k are given. One of vertices of the square lies on line l
and another vertex lies on line k. Construct the square. (Hint: rotation)
3. A circle and a disjoint line l are given. Choose an arbitrary point P on the circle. Construct a
line through point P so that the chord lying on this line is equal to the segment of P and the
intersection point of this line and l. (Hint: point reflection)
4. There are two cities near the same bank of a river. Find the right place of a water disinfection
station (on this bank) for both cities so that the distances of the cities from the station are
minimal. (Hint: reflection)

lecture
47
 SIMILARITIES

A plane similarity transformation – denoted by ∼ – is a geometric transformation where

the ratio of a segment and its image is constant, and it preserves
• collinearity,
• parallelism,
• angle measure.

48
 Homothety 1.
Homothety (or homothecy or homogeneous dilatation) is
a similarity transformation with a fixed point O and a
real number λ so that for every point P its image point
P’ lies on line OP, and OP’=λ·OP .

homothetic center – point O

scale factor – real number λ (where λ≠0)

Every segment and its image are parallel.

lecture
1
The scale factor of the inverse transformation is .
λ
If A is the area of an object, then the area of the image object is λ2·A .
(In space, if V is the volume of an object, then the volume of the image object is λ3·V .)
49
 Homothety 2.

If λ>1 , then the object is enlarged by the scale factor.

If 0<λ<1 , then the object is shrunk by the scale factor.
If λ<0 , then the object is enlarged/shrunk and reflected by point O.

50
 Intercept theorem

Intercept theorem: If two lines intersecting in point O

are cut by parallel segments AA1 and BB1, then the
following formulas are true:
OA OA1 AA1
= =
OB OB1 BB1
OA OA1
=
AB A1 B1

Using this theorem, we can divide

an arbitrary segment AB into n equal parts:

lecture
51
 Applications of similarities 1.

We can combine a homothety and an isometry.

The result is a similarity transformation again.

For example, a rotation and a homothety

with the same center:
⟶ homothety-rotation

52
 Applications of similarities 2.
Some examples

1. Show that the midpoints of sides of a quadrilateral form a parallelogram.

2. Given a triangle ABC, construct a square such that two vertices lie on BC and CA respectively,
and the opposite side lies on AB.

53
 Applications of similarities 3.

3. Prove the following theorem.

Angle bisector theorem: Consider a triangle ABC.

Let the angle bisector of angle C intersect side AB
at a point T between A and B. Then

AT b
=
TB a

54
 AXIAL AFFINITY

An axial affinity (or axial affine collineation) is a plane geometric transformation with a
pointwise fixed line (axis) which preserves
• collinearity,
• parallelism,
• ratios of lengths along a line.

Motivation: We can find objects which are related by (axial)

affinity in every parallel projection.

For example, the relation between a face of a cube and its image
by a parallel projection
(e.g. face ABCD)

55
 Axial affinity – construction 1.

An axial affinity is uniquely determined by

• the axis and
• a pair of points (P,P’) where P’ is the image of point P.

Constructing the image of a new point

1. Q is a new (arbitrary) point
2. drawing line PQ (line l)
3. l intersects the axis in point A
4. A is a fixed point: A=A’
5. the image of l is determined by P’ and A’ ⟹ P’A’=l’
6. copying the ratio of PQ to QA onto line l’ using
the intercept theorem ⟹
⟹ drawing a parallel line to PP’ in point Q
7. the intersection point of parallel line and l’ is point Q’
56
 Axial affinity – construction 2.
The key step of the previous construction is copying the ratio of PQ to QA. In this step, we use the definiton:
an axial affinity preserves ratios of lengths along a line.
We can see that QQ’ is parallel to PP’. The direction of PP’ does not change and we use this
direction to construct the image point of an arbitrary point.
This direction is called the direction of the axial affinity.
The axial affinity is called orthogonal if the direction PP’ is perpendicular to the axis.

Another axial affinity An orthogonal axial affinity

57
 The image of a triangle

Let the axial affinity be determined by

axis a and a pair of points (P,P’).
Construct the image of triangle △PQR.

Hint: Use the construction of

the image of a new point.

lecture
58
 Example 1.
An arbitrary triangle △PQR and the axis of an
axial affinity are given.
Determine the axial affinity so that the image
of the given triangle will be a right triangle.
Construct △P’Q’R’ .

Main steps
1. Goal: Let angle R’P’Q’ be a right angle.
2. The fixed points of line PR and PQ are A and B.
3. drawing the Thales’ circle over AB
4. every point of this circle can be P’
5. constructing the missing image points Q’, R’

lecture 59
 Example 2.

An arbitrary parallelogram PQRS and the

axis of an axial affinity are given.
Determine the axial affinity so that the
image of PQRS will be a rectangle.
Construct P’Q’R’S’ .

Hint: Use Thales’ circle.

lecture
60
 CENTRAL-AXIAL COLLINEATION
PREPARATIONS

Point at infinity (or ideal point): a new point is added to every line called its point at infinity so
that parallel lines have the same point at infinity.

In a plane, every point at infinity

lies on a special line called
the line at infinity (or ideal line)
of the plane.

Example: a photo of a piece of paper on a table

can show the line at infinity of the table

61
 Central-axial collineation

A central-axial collineation (or perspective collineation) is a geometric transformation of a

plane with its line at infinity which preserves collinearity, and it has a pointwise fixed line (axis)
and a fixed point (center) so that every line passing through the center is an invariant line.

A central-axial collineation is uniquely determined by

• the axis,
• the center, and
• a pair of points (P,P’) where P’ is the image of point P
so that line PP’ passes through the center.

62
 Basic constructions
A central-axial collineation is given by its axis, center and a pair of points (P,P’).

Constructing the image of a new point

(and the image of a line)
1. Q is a new (arbitrary) point
2. drawing line PQ (line l)
3. l intersects the axis in point A
4. A is a fixed point: A=A’
5. the image of l is determined by P’ and A’ ⟹
⟹ P’A’=l’
6. drawing line CQ (an invariant line)
7. the intersection point of lines CQ and l’ is point Q’

lecture
63
 Vanishing line and neutral line
A central-axial collineation has two special lines which are parallel to the axis:
the vanishing line and the neutral line.

The vanishing line (v):

its image is the line at infinity.
Each line l has one special point V
(called its vanishing point)
so that line CV is parallel to l’.
⟹ Image V∞ ′ is the point at infinity of l’.

The neutral line (n’):

it is the image of the line at infinity.
Each line l’ has one special point N’
so that line CN’ is parallel to l.
⟹ N’ is the image of the point at infinity
of line l (denoted by N∞ ).

lecture
64
 Properties of the vanishing line
A central-axial collineation is uniquely determined by its axis, center, and vanishing line.

Construction of the image of line l Construction of the image of segment PQ

(using its vanishing point) (if PQ contains the vanishing point)

65
 The image of a triangle 1.

The axis, center, and vanishing line

of a central-axial collineation are given.
Construct the image of triangle △PQR.

Hint: Use the vanishing point of a side.

lecture
66
 The image of a triangle 2.
Remark: The image of a triangle can be formed by segments and rays as well.

The shape of the image depends on the number of intersecting points of the triangle and the
vanishing line.
67
 The image of a special quadrilateral

The axis, center, and vanishing line

of a central-axial collineation are given.
Construct a quadrilateral PQRS
so that its image will be a parallelogram.
Construct the image of PQRS.

Hint: Use the vanishing line.

lecture
68
 Application 1.
In this case, the image of a quadrilateral is a square
⟶ constructions in a perspective system (see Descriptive Geometry) / freehand drawing

69
 Application 2.

The construction of the intersection of a pyramid and a plane

⟶ see Descriptive Geometry (next academic year)

70