Study and thinking skills

Subtopic: Reading for comprehension

Imagine a boy named Billy. He is sitting alone in a corner and building a tower out of blocks. He places
one block on top of another as his tower becomes higher and higher. The more blocks he adds, the more
intricate his design becomes.

We can compare Billy’s intricate tower design to the process of reading comprehension. Reading
comprehension is the ability to process information that we have read and to understand its meaning. This
is a complex process where skills are built upon one another like the blocks used to make Billy's tower.
There are three levels of understanding in reading comprehension: literal meaning, inferential meaning,
and evaluative meaning.

Literal meaning
Literal meaning is simply what the text says. It is what actually happens in the story. This is a
very important level of understanding because it provides the foundation for more advanced
comprehension. Without understanding the material on this level, you could not go any
farther.

Here are examples of the type of information that could be identified as literal meaning:

 The main idea

 Stated facts
 The sequence of events
 Characters in the story

Inferential meaning

Inferential meaning involves determining what the text means. You start with the stated
information. This information is then used to determine deeper meaning that is not explicitly
stated. Determining inferential meaning requires you to think about the text and draw a
conclusion.
Examples of the type of information that could be identified as inferential meaning include:
 Generalizations
 Cause and effect relationships
 Future predictions
 An unstated main idea
Evaluative meaning
Evaluative meaning is what the text is telling us about the world outside the story. Readers
must analyze what they have read. Then, they must form an opinion based on the
information.
Evaluative comprehension requires a deeper understanding of the topic or event. It involves
analyzing and weighing an event or an author’s intent, opinion, language, and style of
presentation.
It also includes evaluating the appropriateness of the author’s devices in achieving his aim
and then making inferences based on the fact or idea implied in the event or reading material.
 For example:
 How did mike feel about losing the recognition award to Thomas?
 If you were mike, how would you have reacted?

Writing in the discipline

Sub topic: A common criticism of scholars is that they can utilize needlessly complex syntax or
overly expansive vocabulary that is impenetrable or not well-defined.

When writing, avoid problems associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following:

 Excessive use of specialized terminology. Yes, it is appropriate for you to use specialist
language and a formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big
words" just for the sake of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing
complicated sentence constructions gives readers the impression that your paper is more about
style than substance; it leads the reader to question if you really know what you are talking about.
Focus on creating clear, concise, and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on specialized
terminology.

 Inappropriate use of specialized terminology. Because you are dealing with concepts, research,
and data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of
study. However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate
application of a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--do not just
guess or assume! Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by
searching the US libraries catalog or the credo reference database [see above].
In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic writing
in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:

Personal nouns. Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., i, me, you, us] may lead the reader to believe the
study was overly subjective. These words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid presenting
empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to descriptions of things
you actually did [e.g., "i interviewed ten teachers about classroom management techniques..."]. Note that
personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper because this is where you as the
author/researcher interpret and describe your work.
Directives. Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or "do that." directives should be framed
as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes. Note that an exception to this
can be found in various forms of action research that involve evidence-based advocacy for social justice
or transformative change. Within this area of the social sciences, authors may offer directives for action in
a declarative tone of urgency.
Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms. Academic writing relies on excellent grammar and
precise word structure. Your narrative should not include regional dialects or slang terms because they can
be open to interpretation. Your writing should be direct and concise using standard English.
Wordiness.
Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area," etc.). Being concise in
your writing also includes avoiding vague references to persons, places, or things. While proofreading
your paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements that lack context or specificity.
Numbered lists and bulleted items. The use of bulleted items or lists should be used only if the narrative
dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is fine to state, "the four main problems with hedge funds are:"
and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this must then be followed by detailed
explanation and analysis of each item. Given this, the question you should ask yourself while
proofreading is: why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with systematic analysis of
each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers because they can imply a
ranked order of priority or importance.
Descriptive writing.
Describing a research problem is an important means of contextualizing a study. In fact, some description
or background information may be needed because you cannot assume the reader knows the key aspects
of the topic. However, the content of your paper should focus on methodology, the analysis and
interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the research problem rather than
background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
Personal experience

Speech and oral communication, Voice, place, manner

Subtopic: This is the foundation phrase speech and language therapists use when referring to
speech sounds.
Some sounds can be loud, like a d or v sound and others can be quiet or whispered like a t or h. This
refers to the use of voice, utilizing the voice box for the louder sounds and switching it off (or not
vibrating the vocal folds) for quieter sounds.
When looking at place, this refers to where in the mouth the sound is made i.e. At the front or the back,
with the tongue, teeth or lips.
The manner of articulation indicates air flow and whether a speech sound is made when the air flow is
stopped, allowed to flow a little or whether it is a sound made when the air flows out of the nose (like
when producing a m sound).
We make speech sounds in a few different places in our mouth and throat.
 Lip sounds- these sounds are made by using the lips in some sort of way. P, b and m are made
with both lips pressed together, w is made with lips rounded and f and v are made with the bottom
lip tucked under the top front teeth.
 Alveolar sounds- this refers to the hard palatal ridge just behind your top teeth. Here we make the
t, d, n, s, z, l, sh, ch, j. These are also referred to as front sounds.
 Back sounds- sounds made towards the back of the mouth include k, g, ng. There are some other
sounds made here in other languages, for example the spanish ‘j’, greek ɣ and german ‘ch’.
 Glide sounds- these are made when articulators move, r, l, w, y.

Philippine literature
Sub topic: The Spanish colonial tradition
 While it is true that Spain subjugated the Philippines for more mundane reasons, this former
European power contributed much in the shaping and recording of our literature.
 Religion and institutions that represented european civilization enriched the languages in the
lowlands, introduced theater which we would come to knowas komedya, the sinkable, the
sarswela, the playlets and the drama.
Spain also brought to the country, though at a much later time, liberal ideas and an
internationalism that influenced our own Filipino intellectuals and writers for them to understand
the meanings of "liberty and freedom.
  "literature in this period may be classified as religious prose and poetry and secular prose and
poetry. Religious lyrics written by ladino poets or those versed in both Spanish and Tagalog
were included in early catechism and were used to teach Filipinos the spanishlanguage.
 Fernando bagonbanta's "salamat nang walang hanga/gracias de sinsempiternas"
(unending thanks) is a fine example that is found in the memorial de lavida cristiana en lengua
tagala (guidelines for the Christian life in the Tagalog language) published in 1605.
 Another form of religious lyrics are the meditative verses like the Dalit appended to novenas and
catechisms. It has no fixed meter nor rime scheme although a number are written in octosyllabic
quatrains and have a solemn tone and spiritual subject matter. But among the religious
poetry of the day, it is the pasyon in octosyllabicquintillas that became entrenched in the
Filipino’s commemoration of Christ’s agony and resurrection at calvary.
 Gaspar aquino de belen's "ang mahal na passion ni Jesus christong panginoon natin na
tola" (holy passion of our lord Jesus Christ in verse) put out in 1704 is the country's earliest
known pasyon.other known pasyons chanted during the lenten season are in ilocano, pangasinan,
ibanag, cebuano, bicol, ilongo and waray.aside from religious poetry, there were various kinds of
prose narratives writtento prescribe proper decorum. Like the pasyon, these prose narratives were
also used forproselitization. Some forms are: dialogo (dialogue), manual de urbanidad
(conductbook); ejemplo (exemplum) and tratado (tratado).
 the most well-known are modesto de castro's "pagsusulatan ng dalawang binibini na si
urbana at si feliza"(correspondence between the two maidens urbana and Felisa) in 1864 and
joaquintuason's "ang bagong robinson" (the new robinson) in 1879, an adaptation of Daniel
Defoe’s novel.
 Secular works appeared alongside historical and economic changes, the emergence of an
opulent class and the middle class who could avail of European education.
 This Filipino elite could now read printed works that used to be the exclusive domain of the
missionaries. The most notable of the secular lyrics followed the conventions of a romantic
tradition: the languishing but loyal lover, the elusive, often heartless beloved, the rival.the leading
poets were jose corazon de jesus (huseng sisiw) and francisco balagtas.some secular poets who
wrote in this same tradition were leona florentino, jacintokawili, isabelo de los reyes and rafael
gandioco.other popular secular poetry is the metrical romance, the awit and korido intagalog.
The awit is set in dodecasyllabic quatrains while the korido is in octosyllabic quatrains. These
are colorful tales of chivalry from european sources made for singing and chanting such as
gonzalo de cordoba (gonzalo of cordoba) and ibong adarna (adarna bird). There are
numerous metrical romances in tagalog, bicol, ilongo, pampango, ilocano and in pangasinan. The
awit as a popular poetic genre reached new heights in balagtas' "Florante at Laura" (ca.
1838-1861),
the most famous of the country's metrical romances. Again, the winds of change began to blow in 19th
century Philippines. Filipino intellectuals educated in Europe called illustrates began to write about the
downside of colonization.
 Master works of the world
Sub topic: The story entitles “the mats” was written by Francisco Arcellana, one of the meritorious
literary artists.

“THE MATS”
(Francisco Arcellana)
I.SETTINGS:
a. Place: Nana Emilia’s House
b. Time: The time setting for the action is in the afternoon.
This story happened between
1950’s up to the present time. There is no specific season for the said story but the story evolves in the
evening.
II.CHARACTERS:
 Protagonist: Mr. Angeles B . Antagonist: Himself
III.PLOT:
 . Exposition: The story is started by Mr. Angeles who is coming home for his periodic inspection
trip. Then he had written in Marivel’s to Nana Emilia that he has a surprise to him that he bought
mats that are made by an artistic craftsman at this area. These mats have colorful designs with
their own distinguish weaves, design, and colors. He is excited to give it to them all.
 Rising Action, the rising action is when Mr. Angeles is giving his surprised gift to the whole
family. And the siblings were very excited to get their gifts. And one by one, on the lighted area
of the house, he gave the mats with distinguish names and symbolism on it.
 Climax The highest part of the story is wherein they all get the mats but there are 3 remaining
mats that must be unfolded. And Mr. Angeles unfold it one by one and he speaks in a loud voice
that he offers this simple mat to his 3 dead siblings which are Josefina, Victoria, and Concepcion.
 Falling Action, The falling action of the story is where Nana Emilia and Mr. Angeles argues about
this sensitive issue that they must forget already because they are dead but Mr. Angeles is so
stubborn that he emphasized that these children must not be taken for granted.
 Denouement. The denouement of this story is when the children heard the word exploding in the
silence. They wanted to turn away and not to see the face of their father and also when Nana Emil
shivered once and twice, bowed her head, gripped her clasped hands between her thigh
 Ending, At the end of the story there was a total silence on the house. Then the mats were
unfolded and each name was slowly revealed. And the mats for the 3 dead siblings were
described.
 CONFLICT: Man vs. Himself Because Mr. Angeles wants to commemorate his 3 siblings and he
was so emotional that this sensitive issue must not be talked about and also the emotion was look
before in himself and he find the way out to burst that emotion by offering mats to the 3 siblings
V. THEME:
“We must not forget and take for granted the people whom passed away
because they contributed to our life and we must respect them
by commemorating them.”

PROF ED

Assessment of student learning

Subtopic: Summative and formative assessment.

The scholarship of teaching and learning discusses two general forms of assessment. The
first, summative assessment, is one that is implemented at the end of the course of study, for
example via comprehensive final exams or papers. Its primary purpose is to produce an
evaluation that “sums up” student learning. Summative assessment is comprehensive in nature
and is fundamentally concerned with learning outcomes. While summative assessment is often
useful for communicating final evaluations of student achievement, it does so without providing
opportunities for students to reflect on their progress, alter their learning, and demonstrate growth
or improvement; nor does it allow instructors to modify their teaching strategies before student
learning in a course has concluded (maki, 2002).
 The second form, formative assessment, involves the evaluation of student learning at
intermediate points before any summative form. Its fundamental purpose is to help students
during the learning process by enabling them to reflect on their challenges and growth so they
may improve. By analyzing students’ performance through formative assessment and sharing the
results with them, instructors help students to “understand their strengths and weaknesses and to
reflect on how they need to improve over the course of their remaining studies” (maki, 2002, p.
11).

Child and adolescent development

“child development”, or “child and adolescent development” refer to the process of growth and
Maturation of the human individual from conception to adulthood.

Child and adolescent (2019)

Sub topic: Prenatal development

A. Germinal period: first 2 weeks of prenatal development after conception characterized by rapid
cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation about60% do not survive the germinal
period as they don’t implant correctly. 1. Blastocyst is the cell mass and placenta is the shell and
nucleus will be the embryo 2. Implantation: the process beginning about 10 days after conception
in which the developing organism burrows in the placenta that lines the uterus where it can be
nourished and protected.
B. b. Embryonic period: the stage of prenatal development from week 3 to week 8 after conception
in which basic forms of body structures including internal organs develop. 1. Embryo: name for
developing human organism about third through 8th week after conception.
C. Fetal period: stage of prenatal development from 9th week after conception until birth during
which the fetus gains about 7 pounds and organs mature gradually being able to function on their
own. 1. Fetus: the name for the developing human from 9th week until birth. 2. The third month:
xy, sry genes trigger male development otherwise female, sex organs may become visible via
ultrasounda. Ultrasound: an image of a fetus or internal organ using high frequency sound waves.
3. The middle 3 months: new neurons (neurogenesis), synapses (synaptogenesis), cns a. Age of
viability: the age (22 weeks) at which a fetus might survive outsidethe mothers uterus if medical
care is available. B. As brain matures organs begin to work in harmony 4. The final 3 months:
viability simply means possible, each day in final 3 months increases the likelihood a. After 9
months newborn is typically ready to thrive at home, full term newborn b. Maturation of
neurological, respiratory, and cardiovascular system c. Gains 4 and a half pounds usually around
7 and a half at birth d. Mother child relationship intensifies

Curriculum development
Subtopic: learner-centered design

The learner-centered design focuses on the understanding that each learner has different characteristics.
The teachers or instructors are to give opportunities to the learners to take ownership of a project or
assignment.
There are four distinct attributes of learner-centered design, which includes:
Context- this refers to the assignments and tasks given in the classroom that should have real-world
application. Consequently, the relevant context in student learning will help learners to connect with what
they are learning.
Construction - learners should relate their own experiences and prior learning with new learning.
Collaboration- creating an environment and providing opportunities that encourage collaboration between
classmates. Activities like group discussions and team assignments allows the learners to only form
individuality but also expose to others’ opinions.
Conversation- exercises to improve learners' communication skills are mandatory, and hence instructors
should employ them accordingly.
2) subject-centered design
Subject-centered design is a traditional approach to curriculum that focuses on a particular
Subject matter or discipline rather than on the individual. Additionally, during the curriculum
development process, this approach includes four subtypes of curriculum designs: subject-area design,
discipline design, broad-field design, and correlation design.
3) problem-centered design
Problem-centered design is an approach that focuses on developing problem-solving skills, thinking and
communication skills. This is a student-centric strategy wherein the learners are given problematic
situations and encouraged to solve them after careful observation.

Developmental reading
Subtopic: 4 developmental phases of reading words

Pre-alphabetic
■ read words based on visual but nonalphabetic features
●ex: read the word look by remembering that the in the word looks like “two round eyes”
■aka visual cue reading or logographic reading
Partial alphabetic
■ learning letter-sound correspondences and using what they know to form partial connections between
letters and sounds in words and word meaning
■initial and final letters are often the letters used to remember and read words
●ex: might use the s and n to remember and read the words
Full alphabetic
■well developed knowledge of letter-sound correspondences.
■formed complete connections between letters and sounds in words and word meanings
■aka alphabetic reading or sequential decoding
●ex: formed connections between the s, p, oo, and n in the word spoon and would use them all to
read the word
Consolidated alphabetic
■consolidate the letter patterns that they see across words into larger units
■connect these larger units to the spoken forms of words and their meanings
■enables children to read words more easily
■aka orthographic reading
●ex: children encounter words such as nest, pest, rest, best, and test, they consolidate the e, s, and t into
the unit est

Educational technology
Sub topic: Technology integration matrix (Tim) comprehensive framework for evaluating
technology integration in the classroom.
Introduces 5 characteristics of learning environments:
active, collaborative, constructive, authentic, and goal-directed.
entry- teachers begin using technology tools to deliver content to students.
adoption-teachers are able to direct students in the use of technology tools.
adaption-teachers act as facilitators to help students find ways to use technology independently.
infusion- students and teachers are comfortable enough with technology that teachers can define a
learning objective and students are able to choose the appropriate technology tools to achieve it.
transformation-teachers encourage innovative use of technology tools and use technology tools to
enable higher-order learning activities not possible without technology.

Facilitating learning
Sub topic: Theories of learning

A. Edward Thorndike’s connections, /associationism theory: human activity is based on the association
between stimulus and response.
A. Law of effect
The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that:
 “Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur
again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to
occur again in that situation (Gray, 2011, p. 108–109).”
Edward Thorndike put forward a “ Law of effect ” which stated that any behavior that is
followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by
unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.

B. Law of exercise
When actions are repeated frequently, it leads to better performance that the actions that are
performed rarely.
The law of exercise states that response becomes stronger and easier with use, just like a muscle
grows in strength if it is exercised regularly.
The more you practice a skill, the better you get at it. The more often you practice something, the
easier it gets to do it again. And when we get good at something, say, riding a bicycle. It becomes
second nature and then we're less likely to forget how to do it!
It basically can be interpreted as how students will perform better in studies if they practice more.
C. Law of readiness
The law of readiness is the theory that particular behaviors will be carried out more quickly if
someone is physically and mentally ready. It says that if you are ready for something, then you
will learn more about it. This can be demonstrated by the example that if your muscles are
fatigued, you might not be able to lift as much weight as you normally would.
However, after a short period of rest, such as an afternoon sleep, those same muscles can be used
again with more strength, allowing you to lift twice as much weight!
Learning cannot be automatically ingrained in someone if they are not ready to learn. Hence,
teachers ought to make sure that the students are ready to engage in learning to bear positive
results.

Field study
Subtopic: Assessment of, as and for learning.

Assessment of learning scores are often used to move students from one grade to a higher one or from
one learning level to another based on their results of specified achievement tests – e.g., state tests.
The effectiveness of assessment of learning for grading or ranking depends on the validity and reliability
of tests.
Assessment of learning is also known as a summative assessment.
Assessment for learning embeds assessment processes throughout the teaching and learning process. It
includes both quantitative and qualitative data.
During assessment for learning teachers know where their students are in terms of their learning and
check their progress.
The ultimate purpose of assessment for learning is to create self-regulated learners who can leave school
able and confident to continue learning throughout their lives.
Assessment for learning is also known as formative assessment.
Assessment as learning.
It occurs when students are their own assessors, when they monitor their own learning, ask questions, and
use a range of strategies to decide what they know and can do, and how to use assessment for new
learning.
Principles of assessment as learning
Encourages students to take responsibility for their own learning.
Requires students to ask questions about their learning.
Involves teachers and students in creating learning goals to encourage growth and development.
Provides ways for students to use formal and informal feedback to help them understand the next steps in
learning.
Encourages peer assessment, self-assessment and reflection.
Begins as soon as students become aware of the goals of instruction and the criteria for performance.
Involves goal-setting, monitoring progress, and reflecting on results.
Occurs throughout the learning process.

Practice teaching
 Subtopic: Going to my cooperating school, my second home
Deped vision statement
We dream of Filipinos
Who passionately love their country
And whose values and competencies
Enable them to realize their full potential
And contribute meaningfully to building the nation.
As a learner-centered public institution,
The department of education
Continuously improves itself
To better serve its stakeholders.

The deped mission statement

To protect and promote the right of every Filipino to quality, equitable, culture-based, and complete
basic education where:
Students learn in a child-friendly, gender-sensitive, safe, and motivating environment.
Teachers facilitate learning and constantly nurture every learner.
Administrators and staff, as stewards of the institution, ensure an enabling and supportive
environment for effective learning to happen.
Family, community, and other stakeholders are actively engaged and share responsibility for
developing life-long learners.

Our core values

Maka-diyos
Maka-tao
Makakalikasan
Makabansa

Principles of teaching
Sub topic: Humanism

Humanistic psychology also focuses on finding rational ways to solve these human problems. At its root,
the psychology of humanism focuses on human virtue. It has been an important movement throughout
history, from greek and latin roots to renaissance and now modern revivals.
This theory and approach in education takes root in humanistic psychology, with the key concepts
focusing on the idea that children are good at the core and that education should focus on rational ways to
teach the “whole” child. This theory states that the student is the authority on how they learn, and that all
of their needs should be met in order for them to learn well. For example, a student who is hungry won’t
have as much attention to give to learning. So, schools offer meals to students so that need is met, and
they can focus on education. The humanistic theory approach engages social skills, feelings, intellect,
artistic skills, practical skills, and more as part of their education. Self-esteem, goals, and full autonomy
are key learning elements in the humanistic learning theory.

Maslow and the humanists believed that behaviorism and other psychology theories had a negative
perception of learners—for example, operant conditioning in behaviorism psychology suggested that
students only acted in a good or bad manner because of the reward or punishment and could be trained
based on that desire for a reward. Maslow and humanistic psychology suggest that students are inherently
good and will make good decisions when all their needs are met. Humanistic psychology focuses on the
idea that learners bring out the best in themselves, and that humans are driven by their feelings more than
rewards and punishments. Maslow believed this and wrote many articles to try and demonstrate it.

Social dimensions of education

Sub topic: Functionalism
It is one of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology; a macro-level/ top-down theory that
looks at society as a whole. Functionalists see society as a complex system whose parts work
together to promote and sustain stability and harmony. Biological and mechanical analogies are
often used to demonstrate and explain the theory. The english sociologist, herbert spencer compared
society to a human body.
Functionalism emphasizes consensus (relative stability is mostly the result of widespread agreement
on what is morally acceptable and desirable) and order that exist in a society, focusing on social
stability, integration, harmony, continuity.

As social structures are interconnected and dependent on each other, change is viewed as evolutionary.
When one part of society is dysfunctional, it affects all other parts too, resulting in social problems
being emerged. To recapture stability, productivity and to create a new order, other parts must adapt.
This is how social change occurs.
Functionalists tend to favour scientific sociology when it comes to research. Researchers act more
like objective observers.

MAJORSHIP
English for specific purposes
Sub topic: Used to refer to someone/something that has already been mentioned.
When something/someone has already been mentioned, refer to them again by using pronoun.
Use pronoun to refer directly to people in same situation you’re in.
2 sets of pronouns: subject vs object

subject pronouns= subject of verb

e.g: i ; you ; he; she; it; we ; they

Use object pronouns as direct/indirect object of verb.

e.g: you ; him ; her ; it ; us ; them.

”you” and “they” can be used in to talk about people in general.
Use ‘it’ as impersonal subject in general statements that refer to time, date or weather.
Singular pronoun usually refers to singular noun, and plural pronoun to plural noun. Can use plural
pronouns to refer back to:

indefinite pronouns (although usually followed by sing. Verb)

e.g: if anybody comes, tell them i'm not in.
collective nouns (even when used with singular verb)
e.g: his family was waiting in the next room, but they had not yet
Been informed

Introduction to linguistics
Sub topic: Morphology

Morphology is the study of the rules governing this variability.

Part of the work of morphology is morphological analysis of unfamiliar languages;
figuring out the lexicon for an unfamiliar language, and the rules for combining its parts.
Some terminology:
cat-s atroc-ity culp-able un-worth-y
dog-s atroc-ious culp-abil-ity worth-y
• cat, dog, -s, atroc-, -ity... are morphemes
• cat, dog, atroc-, culp-, worth-... are roots
• -s, -ity, -able, un-... are affixes
• cat, dog... are free
• -s, atroc-, culp-... are bound
Note that some words just consist of one morpheme: cat, dog
Others consist of more than one: cat-s, industri-al-iz-ation

Some more terminology:

• open-class morphemes: nouns (xerox, laser)
verbs (google, fax)
adjectives (cromulent)
• closed-class morphemes: prepositions (in, at, on)
determiners (the, an)
auxiliaries (will, has)

Structure of English

Subtopic: Definite and indefinite articles (the, a, an) central determiners-possessive determiners
(my, your, his hers its, our, their) followed by a noun (central determiners- determiners:
Interrogative (whose, what, which)
Exclamative (what, such)
Relative (whose which what)
Nominal relative (what(so)ever, which, which(so)ever,
Conditional (which(so)ever, what(so)ever)-indefinite determiners (all of, both of, some any no,
either neither, each, every, enough, much, another)
Demonstrative determiner (this those these that)-numerals cardinal (one two three..) Ordinal (first
second..) Fraction (half of a third of a quarter of ) multipliers (once, twice, double three times

Literary criticism
Subtopic: Survey of literary theories/approaches.
classical literary theory.
this theory is premised on the idea that literature is an imitation of life. It is interested in looking
at literature based on:
Mimesis (plato).
mimesis is the greek word for imitation. We try to see whether a piece of literary work shows imitation
of life or reality as we know it. If it is, what is imitated? How is the imitation done? Is it a good or bad
imitation?
Function (horace). Function refers to whether a piece of literary work aims to entertain (dulce) or to teach
orto instruct (utile).
Style (longinus). Style refers to whether the literary work is written in a low, middle, or high style.
Longinus even suggested a fourth style which he called the sublime.
Catharsis (aristotle). Catharsis refers to purgation, purification, clarification, or structural kind of
emotional cleansing. Aristotle’s view of catharsis involves purging of negative emotions, like pity and
fear.
Censorship (plato). Censorship is an issue for plato for literary works that show bad mimesis. Literary
works that show bad mimesis should be censored according to plato

Literature
Subtopic: Forms of non-imaginative literature
Advertisements
Brochures
Newspapers
Articles
Categories of literature
1. Literary text - consists of textual meaning and referential meaning.
2. Non – literary text - only consists of referral meaning.
Textual vs referential
Textual meaning - is the meaning that is produced by the relationship of text itself.
Referential meaning - it is produced by the relationship between internal text and external text (world
beyond the text).
Literary is differ from ordinary spoken or written language
Literature uses special words, structures, and characteristics. Primarily the language of literature
differs from ordinary language in three ways:
1. Language is concentrated and meaningful.
2. Its purpose is not simply to explain, argue, or make a point but rather to give a sense of pleasure
in the discovery of new experience, and
3. It demands intense concentration from the readers. It indicates that the language of literature has
originality, quality, creativity, and pleasure.
4. To persuade the audience to accept messages we wouldn’t otherwise consider.

Mythology and folklore

Subtopic: “Japanese Creation Myth: The Story of Izanagi and Izanami”

At the beginning of the everything, chaos took over the universe, it was then the three kami
known as Zoka Sanshin (kami of creation) Amenominakanushi., Takamimusubi, and Kamimusubi
resided in Takamagahara (World of Heaven) created the heaven and earth.
Following them came the Seven Divine Deities known as Kamiyonanayo which includes Izanagi
and Izanami. From Takamagahara, the two stood on the Heavenly Bridge and stared down at the
chaos of Earth below. Their task was clear: they were to give shape to the Earth; to ring in its
chaos and give to it structure and order. Gifted a Jeweled Spear (Ame-no-Nuboko) by their
primordial elders, the couple dipped its tip into the sea. From its point dripped a brine which
congealed and formed into the island Onogoro. There, the couple descended to Earth, made the
island their dwelling, and erected a Heavenly August Pillar, Ame no Mihashira.
The two kami worked under the utmost harmony and fell in love due to the proximity.
Conducting a marriage ceremony, the gods walked around the heavenly pillar in opposite
directions until they met once again on the opposite side.
With the ceremony concluded, the newlywed couple proceeded to bring their first child into
being, but the child was not right. It was deformed, ugly, weak; born without bones, arms, or legs,
it came to be known as Hiruko (the leech-child). It struggled to survive, and deeming the child a
failure, Izanagi and Izanami built it a boat of reeds and sent it out to sea.
Their second child became the island of Awaji, but still the couple was not satisfied. They were
meant to give birth to powerful beings, to the gods that would rule over the land and forever seize
the reigns of chaos that formed the world. The couple was disturbed to their unprecedented
children and thus, they reach their primordial elders and asked where and when they’ve gone
wrong.
The primordial kami gives their advice as transgression, it was Izanami who speak first during the
ceremony instead of Izanagi. It was concluded that the man should take the initiative not the
woman. The couple return to Onogoro and repeat the ceremony however, this time, Izanagi was
the one who speak first and followed by Izanami.
Appeasing the will of the Primordial Elders and performing the ceremony properly, the two kami
once conceived beautiful children that became the islands of Japan and other were the elements of
the nature such as trees, valleys, mountains, water, wind.
The last child of the two kami was Kagutsuchi, just control fire; he was fire incarnate, and he
burned brightly. But the heat of Kagautsuchi’s body was too much for Izanami to bear, and upon
his birth she was so badly burned that she died shortly after.
Stricken with grief and rage, Izanagi murdered Kagutsuchi, cutting his body into eight pieces
which he tossed into the sea. The pieces of Kagutsuchi’s body cooled in the sea and formed into
the eight volcanoes scattered across Japan’s landscape. And the blood from his sword (Totsuka no
Tsurugi – Ame no o Habari) became another different Kami/spirits.
Izanami was laid to rest on Mt. Hiba, but Izanagi remained in denial. He refused to accept the
death of his beloved and in his agony, he determined to bring her back to life. But the powers of a
god were limited; it would be no simple task.
Izanagi sought to search for Izanami. The entrance to the underworld was deep within a cave, in
front of which Izanagi stood preparing for his journey. Yomi-no-kuni (the land of the dead), lay
before him, the path dark and foreboding; to the land where souls rest in purgatory, he ventured.
 Then, he came upon a large gate, and behind it saw a shape in the distance: a woman’s figure,
silhouetted and vague, but he knew her instantly. Somehow, in the labyrinthian cave, he had
found Izanami.
Overzealous by the silhouette sight of his wife, he rush towards her however, he was stop by
Izanami as she eat the fruit of the Yomi and returning to the world of living seems dimmed. She
asked Izanagi to wait as she will ask the lord of the Yomi and pleased him to not look at her.
But Izanagi grew restless; his impatience propelled him forward. Removing the comb he kept in
his hair, he broke off one of the teeth and struck it, lighting a bright fire to illuminate his path. He
stepped through the gate and crossed the border between Earth and the land of the dead. The land
was dark, veiled in shadow, vast and empty. The obscured outlines of wretched things watched
him from the shadows; the world itself felt dead beneath his feet.
As the light of the comb tooth brightened her face, Izanagi recoiled with shock. Her skin, which
had once been like pure porcelain, now flaked and cracked, exposing rotten flesh and bone.
Maggots writhed in the open sores that speckled her body, and from her body hung eight hideous
kami of thunder.
Izanagi was horrified by the sight of his once beloved wife. Izanami was furious by his husband’s
reaction ordered the demons to catch Izanagi.
Izanagi spun around and ran toward the gate, but the demons were quick and was about to catch
him, in desperate maneuver, Izanagi removed his headband from his head and threw it to the
ground behind him where it burst and shifter to a wild grapevine. The demons can’t resist their
unsatiable hunger and gave up and eat the fruit.
The demons finished the fruit quickly and chased Izanagi once more. This time Izanagi removed
the remaining tooth to his comb and threw it to the ground and transformed into massive bamboo.
At last, Izanagi came out from the Yomi. Izanagi knew now that he could not bring her back. She
was no longer the Izanami he’d loved. She was part of Yomi-no-kuni. It was where she belonged.
Mustering what remained of his strength, Izanagi levied his weight on a large boulder and sealed
shut the entrance of Yomi-no-kuni, forever shutting it off from the land of the living. He could
hear Izanami on the other side of the boulder, banging the rock with her fists, but the boulder
would not budge. Her efforted attempts slowed, and eventually silence befell them both. Now
standing on opposite sides of the large boulder, they bade each other their final farewells and
dissolved their marriage.
The impurities of the underworld clung to Izanagi like a foul stench. Finding a spring nearby, he
removed his clothes and submerged himself in the water, letting the heat soak into his bones and
cleanse his body. As he washed himself, he imbued the water with life and begat himself more
children.
From his left eye came the first child. She was iridescent, shimmering and golden light radiated
from within her; she was beautiful and perfect, and her father named her Amaterasu, shines from
Heaven, for her beauty. Wanting all the world to see her, Izanagi ascended Amaterasu (Sun
Goddess), to Takamagahara where she would sit high in the heavens.
From his right eye came the second child. He did not shine as brightly as his sister, but his silvery
beauty was still magnificent. To this child, named Tsukuyomi (The Moon God), he gave the
night, and the moon god rose each night in the sky opposite his sister.
As Izanagi washed his nose, he created the third child, Susanoo (The Sea and Storm God). To
him, Izanagi granted the sea. But Susanoo-o was a difficult, loud child. He wept constantly for his
mother, and his howling continued until his beard had grown long, causing rivers to dry and
mountains to wither. Izanagi eventually banished him from the heavens.
Izanagi remained in the realm of the living, giving birth to new lands and gods. He became
known as the God of Creation. Izanami, meanwhile, persisted in Yomi-no-kuni, left to rot in the
land of the dead and becoming its ruler, the Goddess of Death.
All the while, her lust for vengeance against her former lover carried on.

Afro-Asian literature
Sub topic: To whom should I speak today is written by Eric Peet
To whom should i speak today?
To whom shall i speak today?
i am laden with misery
through lack of an intimate ...
Death is in my sight today
 like the clearing of the sky,
like a man attracted thereby to
what he knows not.
Death is in my sight today,
like the longing of a man to see home
when he has spent many years held in
captivity.
Analysis
To whom should i speak today is written by eric peet. The poem tells about someone who has
Been experiencing such sorrow ,yet ,he does not know to whom should he speak, to whom
Should throw up all his regrets, to whom should he confine himself for the brutal acts he had
Done before.he considers everyone as brothers but the irony is that these brothers does the
Otherwise from what a brother normally does. And that love doesn't exist anymore among his
Former fellows. He had also suggested from the poem that many fellow today ransacks each of
His fellow's lives, and there is no place for such brotherly love. Love has faded away and what is
Left is brutality. He also adds that men do not as they were done by nowadays, this implies that
People change over a period of time but this change is unlikely for the better and thus, suggests
Otherwise. Moreover, he expresses that most of the people are not to be trusted with. And that
Everyone cannot be relied on , and we cannot hold or lean on anybody at this time. And a
'Righteous' fellow does not exist anymore, and what lives in their land are evil doers. And in the
Last part he suggests that sorrows are to be said betterly to a stranger. He considers strangers as
His avenue for his discomforts to breathe out and release.

To whom should i speak today?

To whom shall i speak today?
I am laden with misery
Through lack of an intimate ...
Death is in my sight today
Like the clearing of the sky,
Like a man attracted thereby to
What he knows not.
Death is in my sight today,
Like the longing of a man to see home
When he has spent many years held in
Captivity.
Analysis
To whom should i speak today is written by Eric Peet. The poem tells about someone who has
Been experiencing such sorrow ,yet ,he does not know to whom should he speak, to whom
Should throw up all his regrets, to whom should he confine himself for the brutal acts he had
Done before.he considers everyone as brothers but the irony is that these brothers does the
Otherwise from what a brother normally does. And that love doesn't exist anymore among his
Former fellows. He had also suggested from the poem that many fellows today ransacks each of
His fellow's lives, and there is no place for such brotherly love. Love has faded away and what is
Left is brutality. He also adds that men do not as they were done by nowadays, this implies that
People change over a period of time but this change is unlikely for the better and thus, suggests
Otherwise. Moreover, he expresses that most of the people are not to be trusted with. And that
Everyone cannot be relied on , and we cannot hold or lean on anybody at this time. And a
'Righteous' fellow does not exist anymore, and what lives in their land are evil doers. And in the
Last part he suggests that sorrows are to be said bitterly to a stranger. He considers strangers as
His avenue for his discomforts to breathe out and release.

English and American literature

Subtopic: There are three main types of ode form:
1) Pindaric ode
 Named after ancient greek poet Pindar, often credited with creating the ode poetic form.
 Consists of a strophe, an antistrophe that is melodically harmonious, and an epode.
 Pindaric poems are also characterized by irregular line lengths and rhyme schemes.
 A greek chorus would move to one side of the stage to deliver the strophe, shift to the
other side of the stage for the antistrophe, then deliver the epode from center stage.
What are the structure of pindaric ode?
A pindaric ode is traditionally divided into three sections, or stanzas:
a) The strophe
 In a greek ode, the strophe usually consists of two or more lines repeated as a unit. In
modern usage, the term strophe can refer to any group of verses that form a distinct unit
within a poem.
b) The antistrophe
 The second section of an ode is structured the same way as the strophe, but typically
offers a thematic counterbalance.

c) The epode
 This section or stanza typically has a distinct meter and length from the strophe and
antistrophe, and serves to summarize or conclude the ideas of the ode.

2) Horatian ode
 Named after roman poet horace.
 Consists of two- or four-line stanzas that share the same meter, rhyme scheme, and
length.
 Explores intimate scenes of daily life (love, friendship, poetry itself)
 Focused on more personal, informal topics.

3. Irregular ode
 Irregular odes follow neither the pindaric form nor the horatian form. Irregular odes typically
include rhyme, as well as irregular verse structure and stanza patterns.

The Teaching of Speaking

Perspectives on speaking
> 1) forms of oral communication
• face to face vs. Social interactive technologies (sit)
> 2) types
• monologic
• dialogical: interpersonal
• small groups
• public
> 3) register
• formal vs. Informal, bics vs. Calp
(basic interpersonal communicative skills vs. Cognitive academic language proficiency)
> 4) performance dimensions
• complexity, accuracy, fluency (caf)
> functions of oral language (halliday

Sub topic: > communication strategies

• 1) direct strategies
- resource deficit-related strategies
- own-performance-related strategies
- other performance-related strategies
• 2) interactional strategies
- resource deficit-related strategies
- own-performance-related strategies
- other performance-related strategies
• 3) indirect strategies
- processing time pressure-related strategies
- own-performance-related strategies
- other performance-related strategies
> teaching speaking in the efl classroom
• 1. Your students should do most of the talking, not you!
• 2. Enable smooth processing conditions
• 3. Make use of the gap-principle, use communicative interactional
patterns (think-pair-share, jigsaw activities, double-circle act. Etc)
• 4. Teach chunks (not words) used in real life, use appropriate input

• 5. Focus on prosody rather than single sounds/phonemes

• 6. Incorporate improvisation activities
• 7. Give feedback but don’t carry all of the communicative load yourself
you can’t caf it all.
• 8. Practice doesn’t make perfect but it helps. A lot. Task repetition has
its merits
• 9. Teach communication strategies
• 10. Embrace new educational technology: chats, voice recordings etc.

Listening and reading

Sub topic: Listening can be classified into several types depending on how you pay
Attention to what is being said or heard.
 Marginal/passive listening–also called hearing or auding, the listener
Hears the sounds, often in the background but simply ignores them.
Because he or she is engrossed in another task.
 Attentive listening–the listener focuses attention and shows interest in
What is being said. He or she takes note of the specifics and how they
Relate to the main points made by the speaker.
 Critical/analytical listening–in this type of listening one has to decide on
The truth of ideas, pass judgment on claims made and make decisions on
Whether to accept what she or he hears, reject it or take it with a grain of
Salt.
 Appreciative listening–this type of listening gives the listener pleasure
Maybe from the humor, or the blending of voices in choric arrangements.

Preparation and evaluation of instructional materials

Sub topic: Materials for teaching vocabulary

• vocabulary teaching has the goal of supporting language use.

There have been considerable debates about how can be done the core of the debates involves the roles
played by decontextualized vocabulary learning. The argument against such learning usually include the
following points:
- deliberate learning can only account for a small proportion of the vocabulary knowledge of
learners.
- deliberate learning not in communication context does not result in much learning.
- deliberate learning not in a communication context does not help later vocabulary use in
communicative contexts.

• planning vocabulary learning

Studies of the statistical description of vocabulary confirm that there is a relatively small group of words,
that are much more frequent and useful in a very wide range of language uses than other words in the
language.
These high frequency words are the essential basis of all language use and deserves a great deal of
attention in language teaching materials. Unless learners have very special needs, it makes little sense to
focus on other vocabulary before most of these high frequency words have been well learned.

• designing input activities to encourage vocabulary learning

A) listening to a text and having to answer question

B) glossaries
C) extensive reading
- designing output activities to help vocabulary learning
Work on communication activities has shown that careful design of written input can have a major effect
on vocabulary learning.
Some design requirements and features of the activities to support vocabulary learning are the following:
- the written must contain l2 target words.
- the vocabulary must be highlighted and repeated.
- the communicative task must have closer outcome.
- it must split information, jobs, or roles.
- the task should be broken into series of steps.
- supports the understanding of the target vocabulary.

Campus journalism
Sub topic : Campus journalism faces threats of repression
Repression- is the action of subduing someone or something by force.
Related article:
• it is said that the process of publishing stories has been “very bureaucratic and with strict
censorship, “sometimes disallowing students from producing articles concerning the school and
national issues. This was confirmed by sinag, the student publication of the college of social
sciences and philosophy of the university of the philippines-diliman.

Funding
Related article:
• it was claimed that school administrators paralyze the printing of newspapers by
withholding publication funds.

Red-;tagging and harassment against various campus publications and organizations

Red-tagging
Red-tagging, also known as red-baiting, has been used for decades in the philippines in the
government’s campaign against the communist new people’s army (npa), which began in 1969.

Other issues of journalism:

Libel
According to the american and english encyclopedia of law, a libel is a malicious defamation
expressed either by writing or printing, or by signs, pictures, effigies or the like; tending to
blacken the memory of one who is dead or impeach the honesty, integrity, virtue or reputation, or
to publish the natural or alleged defects of one who is alive and thereby expose him to public
hatred, contempt, ridicule; or to cause him to be shunned or avoided, or to injure him in his office,
business or occupation.

Confidentiality
Journalists are bound by a code of ethics that does not allow them to reveal their sources of news.

News cannot be copyrighted, but the actual wording of an account of the event can. A newspaper
that wishes to rewrite or quote a copyrighted article appearing in another publication either buys
the copyrighting privileges or requests permission to quote. Credit must be given to the original
source.

Reportorial ethics
A student of journalism is encouraged to be as open-minded and objective as possible. This is to
prepare him/her to be free of bias and prejudices, conscious or unconscious.

Translation and editing of text

Sub topic: Purposes of translations
Translation, editing, and proofreading (tep) are the main stages of the
Translation process. Revision or editing is the phase that follows translation. Editors
Check the target-language content against the original, and ensure that the message
From the source text delivers the intended idea accurately
The purpose of translation is to convey the original tone and intent of a message, taking into account
cultural and regional differences between source and target languages. Translation has been used
by humans for centuries, beginning after the appearance of written literature. The function of translation –
like language – is to communicate. The general over-riding function of translation is communicative. This
should always be at the fore-front of our minds. Therefore, theories of translation should mirror theories
of language. The six main principal translation theories: sociological, communicational,
hermeneutic, linguistic, literary and semiotic. Translation and interpreting are forms of linguistic
mediation that involve rendering written or oral text from one language to another. As
language-based activities that have practical implications, they are often seen as falling within the remit
of applied linguistics.

Speech and stage arts

Sub topic: Manner of articulation
plosive – the sound is produced with a complete obstruction of the vocal tract, which, when
released, makes the air “explode” out of the mouth.(/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/).
nasal – the sound is produced by the obstruction of the vocal tract and the lowering of the velum,
which causes the airflow to flow out of the nasal cavity rather than from the oral cavity.(/m/,
/n/, /ng/).
fricative – like the stop/plosive, there is constriction in the vocal tract by the articulators but they
do not
Make a complete closure. When the air passes through a very narrow opening, the air
becomes turbulent, producing a hiss-like friction.
affricative – the sound produced is a combination of a stop and a fricative. There is a complete
closure in the vocal tract which blocks the airstream, and when the articulator’s part slowly, they
produce friction. (/ch, /j/)
approximant - the sound is formed by the constriction of the vocal tract, but with no obstruction
in the vocal tract. This means that the articulators have enough space between them to allow the
airstream through with no audible friction. (/r/,/y/,/w/)lateral approximants are produced with the
center of the tongue forming a closure with the roof of the mouth but the sides are lowered. (/l/)

Creative writing
Sub topic: Exposition, Inciting Incident, Climax, Falling action, and Climax.
Writing should be loose enough so readers are free to use imagination to create the world where the story
takes place but constrained enough so that readers are still guided through the plot it isn’t always good to
write about what you know since what actually happened doesn’t always make a good story; perhaps
write what you don’t know about what you know “a writer must always use the time of a stranger in such
a way that she or he feels it has not been wasted” -kurt vonnegut “fiction is sustained by the suspension
of disbelief” -samuel t. Coleridge