Introduction Wetlands are the most productive and biologically rich ecosystems on the earth that play a significant role in the ecological sustainability of a region. Wetlands are the transitional zone between land and water, and comprise lakes, ponds, oxbow lakes, surface waterlogged land, playa, swamps, reservoirs, tanks, abandoned quarries and ash ponds. Wetlands play myriad roles-flood and erosion control, water purification, sediment trapping, pollution and nutrient treatment and ecotourism. Thus wetland systems directly or indirectly support millions of people through their biological, ecological, social, cultural and economic values and provide habitats and support diverse range of biodiversity. Wetlands form the transitional zone between land and water, where saturation with water is the dominant factor determining the nature of soil development and the types of plant and animal communities living in and on it (Cowardian et al,, 1979). In general wetlands are categorized under two broad categories: Inland (¢.g., non-tidal, freshwater wetlands) and coastal (also known as tidal, salt water or estuarine) (Barbier ef al., 1997). The Ramsar Convention on wetland in 1971 in Iran defined wetland as “Areas of marsh, fen, peatland, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters.” ‘Two-thirds of the earth is surrounded by water and appears blue (the planet of water) from space (UNEP, 1994). Lakes and rivers, the most important freshwater resources, account for 2.53% of the total water found on earth. Of the total water in the hydrosphere (4 x 10° cubic kilometres), 97.5% is deposited in the oceans that cover 71% of the earth’s surface. Wetlands are estimated to occupy nearly 6.4% of the earth’s surface, 30% of which is made 1up of bogs, 26% fens, 20% swamps, about 15% flood plains, etc. (IUCN, 1999). ‘The amount of fresh water on earth is very small compared to seawater, of which 69.6% is locked away in the continental ice, 30.1% in underground aquifers, and 0.26% in rivers and lakes. Lakes in particular occupy less than 0.007% of the world’s fresh water. Wetlands: Indian Scenario India is blessed with rich diversity of wetland resources due to its geographical position, changing topography and climatic conditions. India has total 67,429 wetlands, covering an area of about 4.1 million hectares (MoEF, 1990). Out of these, 2,175 are natural wetlands occupying an area of 1.5 million hectares and 65,254 man-made wetlands with 2.6 million hectares area, Out of the total area 0.45 million hectares is covered by mangroves. Wetlands in India (excluding rivers), account for 18.4% of the country’s geographic area, of which 70% is under paddy cultivation. About 80% of the mangroves are distributed in the Sunderbans of west Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, with rest in the coastal states of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat. In India, inland water bodies are distributed ftom the cold arid Trans- Himalayan zone to wet Terai regions of Himalayan foothills and Gangetic plains extending to the floodplains of Brahmaputra and swamps of northeastern India including the saline expanses of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Along the east and west coasts they occur from the deltaic regions to the wet humid zones of Southem peninsula and beyond, to the Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands. There are several wetlands being shared with neighbouring countries too as in case of Ladakh and Sunderbans. The major river basins of the country are the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Tapti, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.The predominant wetland types in India’s geographical zones are as follows (Scott, 1989): © The reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south, together with the lagoons and other wetlands of the southwest coast © The vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kutch © The freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards. through Rajasthan (Keoladeo Ghana National Park) and Madhya Pradesh ¢ The delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s east coast (Chilka Lake) © The freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plains and the floodplains of the Brahmaputra © The marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast India and the Himalayan foothills © The lakes and rivers of the mountain region of Kashmir and Ladakh The mangroves and other wetlands of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands According to the Directory of Asian Wetlands (1989), wetlands occupy 58.2 million hectares or 18.4% of the country’s area (excluding rivers), of which 40.90 million hectares (70%) are under paddy cultivation. Estimates of the types of wetlands in India and the total area covered by them are given in Table 11. A preliminary inventory by the Department of Science and Technology in India, recorded a total of 1,193 wetlands, covering an area of about 3,904,543 ha, of which 572 were natural (Pole et al., 1989). The Directory of Indian Wetlands published by WWF and Asian Wetland Bureau in 1995 records 147 sites as important of which 68 are protected under the National Protected Area Network by the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. State-wise distribution of wetlands in India (Chatrath, 1992) is given in Table 1.2.India has a total of 25 Ramsar sites covering an area of 648,507 ha. Many of the sites qualify on hydrological grounds, many for their birds and some for their sea turtles, others for their support for fisheries, and a few are considered to be sacred in one way or another. Under the national wetland conservation programme, 68 wetlands have been identified across India (MoEF, 2000).Table 1. Area covered by different types of wetlands in India Si. No. | Wetland Types ‘Area (in million ha.) 7 ‘Area under paddy cultivation 408 2 ‘Area suitable for fish culture 36 3 “Area under capture fisheries (brackish & freshwater) | 29 4 Mangroves 04 3 Estuaries 39 6 Backwater 35 7 ‘Man-made impoundments 30 3 Rivers, including main tributaries (28,000 km 3 Canais and irrigation channels 1173,000 km 70 Total Area of Wellands (Excluding Rivers) 382 Source: Directory of Asian Wetlands, IUCN, 1989Table 1.2: Distribution of wetlands in India ‘SINo | State ‘Natural | Artificial Nos. | Area(hay [Nos | Area (ha) 7 “Andhra Pradesh 278 700487 | 49,020 | 425,682 2 | Arunachal Pradesh 2 20,200 | NA NA 3 [Assam 730¢—*(86,955 | NA NA 4 | Bihar oa 224,788 | 33 48607 5 | Goa 3 72,360 [NA NA 6 | Gujarat 2B 3627 [87 7,208,660 7 | Haryana 4 2697 4 [i078 @ | Himation Pradesh 3 702 3 10.165 9 | Jammu and Kashmir 8 | 7207 NA 27,880 70 | Kamataka 0 [3320 22,758 | 638,185 77 | Kerala @ 2a 2at_~|210878 72 __| Madhya Pradesh 8 324 [3 787,618 73 __| Maharashtra 9 Biers | 1,004 | 2,78,025 14 | Manipur 3 26600 | NA NA 15 _ | Meghalaya 2 NA NA NA 76 | Mizoram 3 ES 7 Tt 17 | Nagaland 2 20 NA NA 78 | Orissa 20 137022 [36 148.454 79 | Punjab B 77,085 —~«4| 6 5301 20 | Rajasthan 3 74027 ‘| 85 7.0027 2 | Sikkim @ Tor_—*4(2 3 2 | Tamil Nadu a 38068 | 20,030 | 2,07,132 23 _| Tripura 3 875 7 4853 24 | Uttar Pradesh 125 280 (| 28 212,470 25 | West Bengal 54 297,963 | 9 52,564 TOTAL Bier | 14,58,580 | 65251 | 25,87,965 ‘SENo | Union ] Natural ‘Artificial Territories ‘Area (ha) | Nos | Area (ha) i Chandigarh [= = 7 170 2 Pondicheny | 3 7533 z 7434 TOTAL 3 7533 3 7,307 GRAND TOTAL 2i70 | 74,60,143 | 65.254 | 25,80,266 Source: Chatrath, 1992Wetland Functions and their Values In the 1970’, scientists, ecologists, and conservationists began to articulate the values of wetlands. At a wetland conference in 1973, wetlands were acknowledged to be an important part of the hydrologic cycle (Helfgott and others, 1973). In 1977, participation at the first National Wetland Protection Symposium-attended by more than 700 people demonstrating a growing interest in the value of wetlands and the need to protect them (Kusler ef al., 1978). At a Wetland Values Management Conference in 1981, scientists defined the unique qualities of wetlands and developed a list of wetland functions (Richardson, 1981). In addition to the more commonly recognized habitat functions of wetlands, the scientists described hydrologic and water- quality functions. During the 1980’s participants at many more conferences and symposia expanded the understanding and appreciation of the values of wetlands (Kusler et al., 1986). Thus public recognition of the value of wetlands has risen rapidly over the past 25 years. Wetland functions are defined as a process or series of processes that take place within a wetland, Wetlands have several major functions: 1) biologic diversity/integrity; 2) water storage; 3) water exchange between surface water and ground water; 4) surface water filtration; 5) vapor and gas exchange with the atmosphere; 6) chemical attenuation and transformation. The functional capacity of a wetland is determined by characteristics of the wetland ecosystem such as hydrologic regime, plant species composition, and soil type, and the larger systems that surround it (Forman ef al, 1986). Natural wetlands are quite variable, thus the capacity of a given wetland to perform a given function also is variable (Bruce et al., 2006). Wetlands have value because their functions have proved to be useful to humans value increases with increased use/increased scarcity (Mitsch er al.,2000). Wetland functions have value on several levels- internal, local, regional and global. Thus wetland ecosystems are part of our natural wealth. A recent assessment of our natural ecosystems estimated them at US$ 33 trillion. The study estimated the global value of wetland ecosystems at an amazing USS 14.9 trillion, 45 percent of the total (IUCN). The recent ecosystem study valued the ecosystem services of different wetland types, as defined by the Ramsar Convention, as follows: Wetland Type Total value (US$) | Total global flow value per hectare per | (USS per year) year Seagrass/algae beds 19,004 3,801,000,000,000 Coral reefs 6075 375,000,000,000 Tidal marsh/mangroves 9,950 1,648,000,000,000 ‘Swamps/flood plains 19,580 | 3:231,000,000,000 *Taken from Costanza et al.1997. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387, 253-260. +The figures above exclude the study’s ‘continental shelf" category since only part of this would be defined as wetland under the Ramsar Convention. While the study acknowledged that this is a first approximation to valuing ecosystem services, the authors also consider it to be a minimum estimate. A dollar value on wetland functions is powerful ammunition to convince decision- makers that wetlands should be conserved and wisely used. Status of wetland loss in India Wetlands are fragile ecosystems and are susceptible to changes even with little change in its composition of biotic and abiotic factors. In recent years, there has been increasing concem over the continuing degradation of wetlands and inparticular, rivers and lakes. The major activities responsible for this wetland loss ate urbanization, drainage for agriculture and water system regulation (IUCN, 1999). Development activities like excavation, filling, draining etc. are the major destructive methods resulting in a significant loss of wetland acreage throughout the country. The impact on wetlands may be grouped into five categories: loss of wetland area, changes to water regime, changes in water quality, overexploitation of wetland products and introduction of exotic or alien species (Ramachandra, 2001). Though accurate results on wetland loss in India are not available, the Wildlife Institute of India conducted a survey on these aspects and revealed that 70 ~ 80 percent of individual fresh water marshes and lakes in the Gangetic flood plains have been lost in the last five decades. At present, only 50 percent of India’s wetlands remain. They are being lost at a rate of 2 to 3% every year. Indian mangrove areas have been halved almost from 700,000 hectares in 1987 to 453,000 hectares in 1995 (Sustainable Wetlands, Environmental Governance-2, 1999). ‘The Directory of Indian Wetlands published by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)-India and Asian Wetland Bureau in 1995 records 147 wetland sites. About 32% of these sites were lost primarily through hunting and associated disturbances, while 22% were lost to human settlements, 19% to fishing and associated disturbances, and 23% through drainage for agriculture. Removal of vegetation in the catchment leads to soil erosion and siltation that is estimated to contribute to over 15 % of wetland loss. Nearly 20 % of wetlands have been lost mainly due to pollution from industries (WCMC, 1998). The loss of wetlands leads to environmental and ecological problems, which have a direct impact on the socio-economic benefits of the associated populace. As wetlands provide various direct and indirect values to society through different processes accompanied with them.Ihansi, the walled city grew up in 1613, regionally, falls in Uttar Pradesh part of Bundelkhand and is close to counterparts in Madhya Pradesh. Total number of wetlands in Jhansi district as reported by SAC, ISRO, is 16, covering an area of 5127.47 hectares. Predominant wetland types are man-made lakes and reservoirs/tanks, historically noted among those are Lakshmital, Antiatal and Baruasagar Lake, Two of them lay in the Jhansi city itself ie. Antiatal and Lakshmital. Lakshmital situated outside the city wall in the direction of Kaimasan Hill, covers an area of 32.52 hectares with an average depth of 2.5 meter. It lies between longitude of 78° 37' E and 25° 57' N of latitude and has a catchment area of 2370 hectares having a storm water intensity of nearly 0.75 per hour/acre of flood rain. It is a rain fed water body. It is a beautiful lake surrounded by little hillocks. Topping these hillock and around the lake there are twelve temples built in similar design, some of them are in the vicinity of the taal. The sight of Lakshmital with the temples all around is enchanting and a reminder of the architectural skills of the builders and shows its religious importance. Adjoining the Lakshmital there is a Narayan Bagh, famous garden of Jhansi. Any time of the day the atmosphere here is a cool peacefull and serene. The lake possesses economic, ecological and aesthetic values to society. But like many other water bodies in India, Lakshmital is also under ecological crisis due to a number of urban anthropogenic activities. Lakshmital presently received 06 channels of municipal sewage and runoff from the surrounding area covering the watersheds of the Lakshmital carries numerous waste and pollutants. Defecation and waste disposal aggravated the problem. Earlier there were bathing and washing ghats which are non-functional now due to highly degraded quality to lake water. Apart from these activities, a number of other natural processes like decomposition of dead leaves and plants residues, siltation etc., also cause degradation in lake quality. 10Objectives Keeping all the above discussed views in consideration, the current study entitled “Ecosystem-Health: Approach to Restoration of Wetland Resources” has been undertaken with the following objectives: © Identification of most appropriate indicators for ecosystem health for wetland-system components. © Assessment of physico-chemical characteristics of Lakshmital Lake in different seasons and observation of significant correlations between them in different seasons and in annual mean. © Assessment of metals concentration in lake water, sediments and in macrophytes, and calculation of their significant correlation coefficients. © Identification and assessment of macrophytes in Lakshmital with reference to phytoremediation mechanisms. © Assessment of socio-economic pressures on the lake ecosystem of Lakshmital and evaluation of its wetland potential for specific use-values and functions. © Development of specific planning and restoration strategy for sustainable and cost-effective management of Lake Lakshmital. The outcome of present study would help and assist the lake mangers in their efforts to effectively restore and rehabilitate the lake ecosystem. n