Introduction to Broadcasting – MCM VU

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LESSON 01
BROADCASTING

Thanks to developments in mass communication, broadcasting is now a major global industry. Using
the airways to disseminate messages on a daily basis has become second nature. Finding the greatest
ways for society to benefit from these breakthroughs is made easier when we study broadcasting.

Beginning with FOUR BASIC questions

Why to broadcast?
The foremost thing coming to mind is why it is so essential to broadcast something. Broadcasting is
crucial because as societies grow, people need to stay informed about what's happening around them.
This keeps life organized, smooth, and sometimes eases everyday worries. Rapid communication
through broadcasting also helps improve society's overall quality of life.

What to broadcast?
Choosing what to broadcast is tricky. Programs can cover a wide range of topics: religious affairs,
children's shows, programs for women, military content, farming, business, education, sports,
entertainment like plays and music, interviews, news, comedy, and live commentary on daily life. And
there's always room for more ideas.

To whom to broadcast?
Deciding who the audience is for a broadcast is crucial for producers. While others might benefit, the
program should focus on a specific group. This helps in shaping the script, choosing presenters, and
deciding on the style. For example, a program for youth will be tailored to their tastes, but others can
still enjoy it. Similarly, a program for women will be designed with them in mind, but anyone can
listen. This clarity makes production easier.

When to Broadcast?
Deciding when to broadcast is important and depends on the type of program. For example, religious
programs often air in the morning, while women's programs might come around 11 am when they're
free after morning tasks. News typically starts at the beginning of the hour for easy access. Dramas are
usually broadcast when people are home and looking to relax. In agrarian societies like Pakistan,
programs for farmer’s air when they're done with field work and have time to listen. Choosing the right
time maximizes the impact of the broadcast, which reflects the effort of many involved.

Historical Facts about Radio

Radio developed as a logical next step from telegraph - the need to find a way to send telegraph signals
over land or water without cables.
But the discovery process goes back much further than that.

Discovering radio waves (1864) – An amazing piece of math’s

Before almost 30 years Marconi, James Clerk Maxwell, a professor at Cambridge, laid the groundwork
for radio in 1864. Although he never saw radio waves, Maxwell predicted their behavior through math,
forecasting their speed and likening them to light waves. He showed how radio waves could reflect,
absorb, and focus, essentially changing objects they touched. Heinrich Hertz's experiments in 1887
confirmed Maxwell's predictions, marking a crucial step in radio's development.

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Wireless and Radio

Wireless refers to any transmission without wires, often synonymous with radio. In the USA, "radio"
comes from "radiation," the principle behind radio waves. Electromagnetic waves, like radio waves,
cycle many times a second, measured in Hertz (Hz). Frequency is how often a wave cycles per second,
while wavelength is the distance between peaks or troughs. Multiplying frequency by wavelength gives
the wave's speed. For instance, a 100Hz wave with a 1-meter wavelength travels at 100 meters per
second.

Marconi's first wireless signal (1893) – Three dots that made history
In 1896, Guglielmo Marconi, a 22-year-old physicist from Italy living in London, demonstrated his
wireless telegraphy system to the Post Office. They allowed him to set up a transmitter on the Central
Telegraph Office's roof and a receiver on another building's roof 300 yards away. On July 27, he
successfully sent signals between the two locations, marking the world's first recorded wireless
message. The Post Office then supported Marconi's further experiments on Salisbury Plain and in
coastal areas.

The first transatlantic radio message (1901) – Cornwall to St. John's

In 1901, Marconi aimed to send messages across the Atlantic. He set up a powerful transmitter in
Cornwall and a receiver in Newfoundland. On December 12, 1901, he received signals from across the
ocean, hearing three dots representing the letter 'S' amid static. This achievement sparked controversy
because medium wave radio signals theoretically couldn't travel that far during the day. However,
Marconi might have unintentionally transmitted on short waves too. Regardless, news of his feat
spread worldwide, earning him recognition from notable scientists like Thomas A. Edison. This
marked a significant shift, as telegraphy and telephony no longer relied solely on cables to cross oceans
or span continents.

Alum Bay, Isle of Wight (1897) – Marconi's first wireless station

In 1897, Marconi set up his first wireless station at Alum Bay, Isle of Wight, a picturesque and isolated
area with a clear line of sight to the mainland. From there, he transmitted signals to two hired
ferryboats and another station in Bournemouth. His success caught the attention of Queen Victoria,
who invited him to demonstrate his equipment aboard the Royal Yacht in August 1898. During the
demonstration, Marconi amazed the audience by contacting Osborne House and the Alum Bay station.

Cape Cod Marconi station (1903) – an ocean view

In 1903, Marconi sought a location on the east coast of America to set up a wireless station for his
ambitious project: communicating across the Atlantic. He chose Cape Cod for its unobstructed ocean
view. In March 1901, he found the perfect spot at South Wellfleet, despite a mishap where an aerial
collapsed in a storm. Fortunately, it was rebuilt in time for U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt to
participate in the world's first official two-way trans-ocean communication with King Edward VII at
Poldhu in Cornwall on January 18, 1903.

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LESSON 02
CLASSIFICATION OF PROGRAMS

We will now see in detail as how programs are classified for a full-fledged broadcasting house.

Classification
Almost all the leading broadcasting houses have put their presentations in these distinct categories
namely;
 News
 Current Affairs
 Programming

Today, we start understanding the first category; news and current affairs.

NEWS
News is a vital component of broadcasting, often defining channels like BBC or CNN. Some houses
even have 24/7 news channels. By definition a news is a piece of information which tells you about the
recent, events taking place any part of the world and which interests large number of people. We'll
discuss how producers handle this segment in detail.

Authenticity
The producer must verify the news's authenticity and the reliability of its sources to prevent widespread
reactions from any errors.

Language
News language should adhere to socially accepted pronunciation and accent standards. Storylines
should be simple and short to effectively communicate. Complicated sentences or structures can ruin
the message.

Taboos
Certain topics are considered taboo in every society, even if the facts are accurate. These include
sacrilegious matters and discussions on racism, among others. Broadcasting houses often avoid giving
undesired publicity to sensitive topics like rape or murder in order to prevent further distress or tension
in the society. It's crucial for news producers to be aware of these sensitivities.

Sensationalizing
Sensationalizing news is strongly discouraged. News should be presented in a standard manner without
exaggeration. A good news producer avoids adding sensational elements, even in juicy stories about
showbiz, sports, or politics, to prevent immediate reactions. This doesn't mean reducing interest in the
news; it's a test of the producer's skills.

Voice Quality
For news reading, a standard voice quality is essential. This voice should have high social acceptability
and be considered "standard." It's challenging to define, but it generally involves clarity, neutrality, and
a lack of regional accents or unusual qualities.

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Reading Speed
A news reader should maintain a consistent reading speed throughout the bulletin, which requires
practice and training. It's important for the producer to provide enough material for the allotted time
and ensure the reader can finish it smoothly. This consistency avoids embarrassment for both the
producer and listeners.

Proximity
Choosing news for a bulletin is a tough job for a producer due to the sheer volume of incoming stories.
Proximity is a key factor in selection; events closer to home, like a rail accident in Pakistan, take
precedence over distant ones, like a cyclone in South America. Regional issues, developments in the
Muslim world, and international events of interest to the audience help guide the selection process.
Despite knowing these guidelines, it's still a challenging task for the producer due to time constraints
and the pressure to make quick decisions.

Specific NEWS
Special news bulletins cater to specific target audiences, such as farmers, the business community, or
sports enthusiasts. These bulletins focus more on relevant topics for their audience compared to general
news, allowing for more in-depth coverage.

Breaking NEWS
Breaking news interrupts regular programming to announce immediate and important news. It's
essential to handle breaking news prudently to maintain interest in routine newscasts. Additionally,
news bulletins in regional or national languages cater to remote towns, communicating local content in
specific dialects and diction.

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LESSON 03
CURRENT AFFAIRS

Current affairs programs cover day-to-day life topics and are essential for every channel. They
encompass a wide range of subjects and are classified to ensure organized broadcasting.

Talk Shows
Talk shows feature an expert speaking for 7-8 minutes on a current topic, followed by a discussion
with an anchorperson. These shows typically last 25-30 minutes, aiming to provide detailed insights
into recent or evolving issues.

Discussions
Discussions involve multiple participants, resembling a round-table conference where each person
shares their viewpoint equally. The host guides the conversation, requiring skill to manage passionate
discussions, especially on political or regional matters. It's crucial for the host to maintain neutrality
and ensure the discussion benefits listeners without causing any ill will. While some hosts may take
sides to spark lively debate, it's generally discouraged to maintain impartiality.

Interviews
Interviews are essential for broadcasting current affairs. They involve experts or individuals with
valuable insights who may not always have the opportunity to share their knowledge with the public.
Hosted by an interviewer familiar with the subject, interviews are exclusive question-answer sessions
aimed at providing valuable information to the audience.

Interviews are divided into two main sub-categories:

1. Single Person Interviews: One person interviews an expert to cover an issue comprehensively.
2. Panel Interviews: Conducted by multiple people, panel interviews are often for high-profile
individuals like the Prime Minister. Experts in the panel ask questions in a way that simplifies
complex issues for the audience.

Interviews can focus on different aspects:

1. Personality Interviews: Explore individuals like literary figures, politicians, sportspeople, or
philanthropists to understand them better.
2. Situation Interviews: Gather information from various people about events like earthquakes,
fires, storms, or crimes.
3. Topic Interviews: Question experts, such as doctors, about specific topics like health
epidemics in a town.

Seminars
Seminars are popular in current affairs broadcasting. They feature a sizable audience and an expert
presiding over the session. Speakers present on various topics like religion, economics, or sports,
followed by audience questions. The chairperson manages the session, and it concludes with remarks
summarizing the topic.

Live Shows

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Live shows are typically for entertainment but can cover various topics, from honoring national
achievements to showcasing election processes. They generate more interest and encourage audience
participation. Scripts are usually light-hearted, allowing for freer discussion. However, producers face
the challenge of managing unpredictable content and ensuring nothing inappropriate airs.

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LESSON 04
OUTDOOR BROADCASTING I

Outdoor broadcasts are often challenging due to unpredictable weather, difficult terrain, and unreliable
equipment. However, they're necessary for capturing real-life events and stories. Some situations
where outdoor broadcasts are essential include covering live events, capturing the atmosphere of a
location, and providing on-the-spot reporting. Despite the challenges, outdoor broadcasts offer a
unique perspective and authenticity that can't be replicated in a studio.

VIP Movement
Covering events for VIPs involves navigating security protocols, setting up equipment, and ensuring
proper positioning for recording. This includes obtaining security passes, arranging an outdoor
broadcast (OB) van, and dealing with strict security measures. Challenges like limited power sources
and unfamiliar surroundings can complicate setup. Additionally, last-minute changes in venue can
occur, requiring quick adaptation and relocation of equipment. Despite these hurdles, the team must be
prepared to capture the event smoothly.

Suddenly Assigned Events

Sometimes unexpected events like fires, floods, or earthquakes require immediate outdoor coverage.
You have to quickly gather your equipment, including the microphone, and rush to the scene to capture
the unfolding situation. Being prepared to respond swiftly ensures that important events are reported
accurately and promptly.

Collecting Reactions
During major events, it's crucial to gather public reactions on various topics such as the annual budget,
political changes, or local incidents like a rail accident. This often requires conducting outdoor
broadcasts to capture the opinions and perspectives of people on the streets.

Road Shows
Broadcasting houses are increasingly engaging in on-the-go conversations with people, both for
entertainment and serious discussions. Special outdoor broadcast teams are deployed to gather insights
from various locations within a set timeframe. While this trend is intriguing, it poses challenges for
broadcasters.

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LESSON 05
OUTDOOR BROADCASTING II

Regular Public Events

The outdoor broadcasting is a huge area, perhaps as much spread out as the indoor. One major aspect
of outdoor broadcast is covering the regular public events.

Horse and Cattle Show

The Horse and Cattle Show in Lahore is a weeklong event held during spring festivals. It attracts local
and foreign dignitaries as well as visitors from across the country. Events run from daytime into the
late hours, drawing large crowds throughout the week.

The Sibbi Mela in Balochistan

The Sibbi Mela in Balochistan mirrors the Horse and Cattle Show in Lahore. Throughout its duration,
it attracts both local and foreign dignitaries, as well as a significant number of visitors from all over the
country.

Pakistan Day March Past

The Pakistan Day March Past occurs annually on March 23 in front of the Parliament House,
accompanied by various activities across the capital city. Broadcasting houses must cover these events,
along with others like the Shandhoor polo matches, Thar Mela, and religious gatherings like the Urs of
Hazrat Data Gunj Bukhsh or Shah Abdul Latif. OB teams are dispatched to ensure coverage of these
important events, even in remote areas.

General Elections
General elections are bustling times for broadcasting houses as they cover activities nationwide. Due to
the widespread nature of the event, OB teams can be stretched thin, leading to occasional lapses in
coverage. Producers may receive notices for negligence if shortcomings are observed.

Sports
Outdoor broadcasting plays a crucial role in covering sporting events, especially in cricket, hockey,
and squash where Pakistan excels. OB teams manage coverage both domestically and internationally,
providing live commentary and updates on these games.

Floods
During Pakistan's rainy season, floods often occur as rivers overflow and rainfall intensifies. OB teams
are tasked with gathering firsthand information about the damage caused by the rain and floods.
Despite challenges like equipment malfunctioning in moist conditions, special measures are taken to
keep instruments and leads dry and functional.

Authorities' visits
During emergencies like floods or rail accidents, high-ranking officials such as the president, prime
minister, governors, or chief ministers visit affected areas along with senior officials for rehabilitation
work. OB teams accompany them to cover these visits and events.

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LESSON 06
CURTAIN RAISER

A curtain raiser is a prelude program aired before a major event, providing an overview of the topics to
be discussed. For example, before a significant conference like the OIC, special programs are
broadcast to familiarize people with the conference agenda and issues.

We shall now have a detailed study of different types of curtain raisers.

Political
Political events, from parliamentary sessions to general elections and discussions on governance, are
often significant and require coverage. These events range from national to regional and global politics,
addressing issues that affect millions. For example, meetings like those of the OIC or SAARC may
discuss matters indirectly relevant to a country's foreign policy. A curtain raiser program helps
audiences grasp the importance and context of these events beforehand.

Financial
Financial events like annual budgets and changes in economic policies affect daily life, but
understanding them can be tough. A curtain raiser program helps by providing insights into these
issues, making them more understandable for the average person. It's especially helpful for keeping
people informed about international decisions and their impact on business interests.

Sports
Sports events of national interest, whether it's Pakistan playing abroad, hosting teams, or major
tournaments like the World Cup or Olympics, create continuous excitement. Broadcasting houses
capitalize on this by producing curtain raiser programs throughout the year to engage sports
enthusiasts. These programs provide insights into team records, athlete backgrounds, and future
prospects, enhancing the audience's enjoyment and understanding of the games. They may also feature
interviews with key figures like team captains or coaches to discuss upcoming series or matches.
Overall, curtain raiser programs cover all aspects of sporting events, enriching the audience's
experience.

Academics
Academic events, such as conferences with top scientists or education camps held by foreign
universities, provide opportunities for curtain raiser programs. These programs engage listeners by
discussing the agenda and importance of upcoming events, and may even feature interviews with key
figures. Additionally, significant events like the inauguration of Gawadar port or visits by foreign
dignitaries warrant curtain raisers to inform the public about their significance and agenda.

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LESSON 07
RADIO FEATURE

Radio features are detailed programs that delve into subjects not covered elsewhere. A production team
handles everything from topic selection to research and post-production, ensuring thorough coverage
of the chosen subject.

These features can be placed in four separate columns.

Personality Features
Personality features on radio provide detailed insights into individuals, highlighting their life
achievements, contributions, and impact. For example, in preparation for December 25th, a team may
produce a feature on Quaid-i-Azam, covering his life, struggles, leadership qualities, and relevance
today. Similarly, features on figures like Mirza Ghalib focus on their literary contributions,
contemporary poetry, and interpretations by literary scholars.

Features on PLACES
Radio features on places provide listeners with insights into both new and historical locations. These
features offer a glimpse into cities like Lahore and Peshawar, covering their civilizations, cultural
transitions, and recent history. Additionally, spots of historical importance such as the Khyber Pass,
Shalimar Gardens, Murree hills, Minar-e-Pakistan, Texila remains, and Mohenjodaro are explored,
sparking listeners' interest in visiting or learning more about these places.

Features on Events
Radio features on events provide listeners with detailed insights into significant historical occurrences,
such as the Lahore Resolution of 1940 and World Wars like 9/11. These features delve into the
background, consequences, and societal impacts of these events, requiring careful research to avoid
controversies. Additionally, historical events like the Second World War and the Indian War of
Independence in 1857 are explored, offering interesting perspectives on their causes, key events, and
outcomes.

Occasional Radio Features

Occasional radio features offer unique opportunities for producers to explore various topics, such as
presidential visits to foreign cities or discussions on ideas, laws, and education. These features provide
a safe platform for introducing new information to listeners, but producers must double-check facts to
avoid misreporting, as radio broadcasts are irreversible. Additionally, producers must ensure that the
content aligns with ethical and legal standards, overseeing the editing process to maintain accuracy and
integrity.

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LESSON 08
MUSICAL PROGRAMS

Music is integral to broadcasting stations, comprising around 50% of their content. It's not just limited
to entertainment but also plays a significant role in commercials and advertisements. Radio has made
music accessible to all demographics, influencing listeners of all ages.

To produce musical programs for radio is a real challenge to producers, but you can work with some
ease if you understand its various categories mentioned as follow:

Classical Music
Producing classical music programs requires meticulous attention to detail. Artists are often masters of
their craft and have high expectations. Producers must ensure all arrangements are in place before
recording, including microphone placement, artist platform, studio lighting, and equipment readiness.
Delays or oversights may lead to frustration for the artists and jeopardize the recording session.

Semi-classical Music
Producing semi-classical music programs involves selecting from a variety of genres like thumri, kafi,
and ghazals. While it's less intricate than classical music, care is still needed as it forms the foundation
for light and modern music. Producers must ensure all necessary arrangements are made for recording,
similar to classical music. Understanding the differences between classical and semi-classical music is
crucial for creating programs tailored to each genre's distinct characteristics.

Light and Film Music

Light and film music form a significant part of radio programming, with stations airing musical
programs throughout the day. This genre allows producers to engage listeners through requests,
dedications, and call-ins. However, selecting suitable songs is crucial, as not all film songs are suitable
for broadcasting due to social norms. Early radio faced complaints about inappropriate songs, leading
to stricter song selection criteria for radio programs.

Folk Music
Radio has been a game-changer for folk singers, providing them with a wider audience and
recognition. Before radio, folk singers performed in small countryside gatherings repeatedly to gain
popularity. However, radio broadcasts of folk songs and invitations for recording sessions at radio
stations gave them a platform to reach a larger audience and showcase their talent more efficiently.

National Songs/ Arifana Kalam/ Qawwalies

National songs, Arifana Kalam (Sufi poetry), and Qawwalis have been in high demand in the music
world. Iconic national songs, especially those sung by Madam Noor Jehan during the 1965 war, gained
instant popularity and are still loved by music enthusiasts. Arifana Kalam and Qawwalis on various
subjects have also enjoyed widespread popularity. Radio plays a crucial role in promoting and
preserving these diverse genres of music.

Rock, Pop …and what not

In the 1980s, the influence of Western music transformed traditional music in the subcontinent. This
era saw the emergence of rock, pop, remixes, bhangra, and album music, leading to a diverse musical

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landscape. Some of these genres became immensely popular, with FM radio stations dedicating
programs to them.

Different Recording Mood

Recording music programs requires careful setup to capture the desired mood and orchestral sound.
Microphone placement is crucial, keeping the technical team busy until the final take. Yet, there's
always room for improvement.

New Voices
Introducing new voices is challenging for producers, as it requires a blend of voice quality, musical
knowledge, and performer dedication. While many producers create separate programs for newcomers,
eventually, they integrate into regular shows.

Musical Conferences
Musical conferences, gaining popularity, often span a week with daily changes in music categories.
Managing and airing these events with live audiences presents a challenging task for producers.

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LESSON 09
RADIO DOCUMENTARY

Radio documentaries are a significant aspect of radio programming, typically lasting 10 to 15 minutes.
Unlike radio features that can be repeated, documentaries are usually produced only once. While
producers of current affairs programs often handle documentary production, any producer showing
interest may be tasked with creating them.

Types of Documentaries

Narrative
In a narrative documentary, a skilled presenter delivers facts and details about the topic to captivate
listeners. For instance, a documentary on the Texila ruins would cover its history, lifestyle of its
inhabitants, recovered artifacts, and possibly the language spoken. This approach aims to engage
listeners by providing intriguing information about the subject matter.

Musical
Musical documentaries blend narration with musical interludes, often used for topics related to music,
nature, and tourism. The combination of voice and music enhances the script, captivating listeners and
creating a vibrant atmosphere. This approach is particularly effective for documentaries on tourist
destinations, providing a lighter and more engaging experience for the audience.

Dramatized
Occasionally, adding a touch of drama to a documentary enhances its theme, especially for topics like
historical wars. This can be achieved through carefully chosen words or sound effects to create
excitement and immerse the audience in the historical context. However, excessive dramatic effects
can detract from the overall quality of the documentary.

Imagination
Documentary production requires imaginative treatment of the subject matter, going beyond a simple
script reading. However, it's important to balance imagination with objectivity to maintain the essence
of the documentary. Overemphasis on subjective elements can detract from its broadcasting value.

Insertions
A well-crafted radio documentary includes insertions from relevant materials, such as quotes from
books or interviews with experts. This involves conducting interviews and selecting brief, pertinent
answers to intercut into the documentary. This approach requires careful post-production and a
dedicated production team.

Close to places
To create engaging radio documentaries, producers must visit the places they're covering to capture the
essence of the surroundings. For instance, making a documentary on the River Chinab involves
walking along its banks and stopping at key points to mention specific details. Similarly, documenting
landmarks like Minar-e-Pakistan requires experiencing the picturesque surroundings firsthand,
interacting with visitors, and capturing the historic significance of the place. These documentaries
delve into people, places, and events of historical importance.

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Post Production
In post-production, radio documentaries receive careful attention as they are often archived for future
reference. During this stage, various elements recorded during production are refined. Unwanted
elements, such as irrelevant comments or background noise, are removed to enhance clarity.
Additionally, any flaws in voice recordings are corrected, and new elements can be added if necessary.
Post-production ensures that the final product is polished and error-free before it is broadcasted or
archived.

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LESSON 10
DISC JOCKEY

As radio stations expanded their broadcasting hours, they introduced new programs to fill the time.
Alongside news, current affairs, dramas, features, interviews, and music, disc jockey programs became
popular. These programs catered to the demand for continuous broadcasting and commercial activities,
offering a diverse range of content to listeners.

Early Morning Transmission

Early morning radio programs vary from country to country, with preferences ranging from religious
content to news or music. While producing these programs doesn't necessarily require extra staffing,
their content and timing must be carefully planned to cater to listeners preparing for their day.
Typically, they include segments like health tips, jokes, and weather reports to help listeners get ready
for work or school while keeping them entertained and informed.

Women in Focus
As the day progresses, radio programs shift focus. In the morning to noon period, shows targeting
housewives and featuring light music are common. Radio stations have provided training to rural
women, offering education on topics like housekeeping, childcare, hygiene, and social life through
light discussions accompanied by film and folk music. This approach has proven effective in educating
and entertaining rural women between morning and afternoon broadcasts.

General Interest
During the noon to afternoon period, radio stations air programs of general interest suitable for
everyone. This time is seen as a transition between work and relaxation, so light-hearted talks, jokes,
and music are common. Regional news and language programs are also featured, catering to listeners
from diverse backgrounds, especially those in rural areas.

Daily/ Weekly Division

Planning radio programs is tough. Some shows, like quizzes and interviews, work better weekly.
Broadcasting houses often split programs into daily and weekly schedules. This ensures variety and
maintains listener interest. It prevents important content from being overlooked.

The Urban/ Rural divide

Addressing the urban-rural gap is crucial in programming. Mid-day slots often feature regional news
and analysis to engage both city and countryside listeners. Focusing on shared local issues ensures
broad appeal.

Program for different segments

Afternoon programs are a pivotal moment for radio stations. They tailor content for diverse groups like
forces, farmers, businesspeople, and students, mixing in music, jokes, and practical advice. Evening
shows aim to captivate listeners winding down for the day, offering a relaxing and enjoyable
experience.

Late Night Shows

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Nighttime and late-night radio shifts often feature serious discussions on politics or economics,
catering to listeners preparing for bed. These programs adopt a more focused approach.
Disc jockey shows usually blend live and recorded content, including music, interviews, analysis, and
public comments. They shouldn't be seen as mere fillers, but rather as chances to enrich the listener's
experience.

Making Titles
Radio programs need clear titles to help listeners distinguish them and provide specific feedback.
Separate titles for similar programs, like music shows at different times of day, aid in organization and
audience engagement.

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LESSON 11
VOICE IN BROADCASTING

Radio broadcasting relies heavily on voice. Listeners rarely know the appearance, dress, or age of the
speaker. Broadcasters typically have distinct voices—soft, hard, harsh, or sharp. The producer decides
which type of voice suits each broadcast, as long as it meets other criteria. Clarity of voice is crucial
for broadcasters.

However, the quality of a voice is subjective. Producers must match voices to specific situations and
programs for effective communication. With training, an ordinary voice can become compelling. For
instance, someone with a mature Sindhi accent might be ideal for a Sindhi program, attracting its own
audience. This applies to other languages as well, provided the speakers meet other broadcaster
requirements.

Here are key voice characteristics that good broadcasters and producers should consider:

Speech
For a broadcaster, mastering the language they are speaking is essential. Basic language skills are not
enough; broadcasters must be familiar with specific pronunciations and phrases, including foreign
terms like "sine qua non" in English or poetic verses in Urdu. Since Urdu is widely spoken and
understood, having a higher-than-average proficiency in this language is crucial for effective
communication.

Accent
A broadcaster must use a socially acceptable accent that most listeners agree with in terms of
pronunciation, speech, and dialect. Deviating from this standard in programs like news, sports
commentary, or regular announcements can cause listeners to react negatively, impacting the quality of
the broadcast.

Loudness
Loudness is an important voice characteristic. Speaking at a standard volume is typical, but changing
the volume can alter the meaning. For example, saying "be off" quietly might seem affectionate, while
saying it loudly can imply anger. Loudness often signifies rage, while a lower volume is more polite.
Laughing loudly might make people think you're mad. In dramas, this aspect of voice adds depth to the
meaning.

Stretch
Stretching a word can change its meaning. For example, in the recitation of holy verses or in songs,
words are stretched to convey different emotions or purposes.

Stress
Placing stress on different words in a sentence changes its meaning. For instance, in the sentence
"Nadeem will go to Islamabad next week," stressing different words (Nadeem, Islamabad, next, week)
alters the focus and meaning each time.

Pauses

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Pauses, or silence between words, enhance the meaning and drama of a speech. They are used in
storytelling and even in news broadcasts to change subjects or add emphasis.

Other Voice Characteristics

Other characteristics like sharpness, hackling, mincing words, and whispering add color and meaning
to broadcasts. Producers use these traits to match the right voice to the right content, ensuring the
program engages and builds its audience effectively.

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LESSON 12
NOISE

In communication, "noise" refers to anything that distorts or hampers the true meaning of a message,
not just sounds or voices. This distortion often causes misunderstandings between the sender and the
receiver, and sometimes the message doesn't reach the receiver at all, which is frustrating.

In electronic media, noise is a common issue but can be managed. Identifying and addressing the
source of the noise can help mitigate its effects. Broadcasters and producers must be aware of different
types of noise and learn ways to overcome them to ensure clear communication.

Physical
Physical noise occurs when messages are distorted as they travel through different media, affecting the
clarity of broadcasts like announcements, music, and news. This distortion has been a long-standing
concern in radio. While strengthening transmissions and improving signal reception have enhanced
audibility, completely eliminating physical noise remains a challenge. Physical noise has many forms;

A. Medium itself
The medium for broadcasting can be weak or low quality, and external factors like thundering
clouds, a motorbike with a damaged spark plug, or high-tension overhead wires can cause
issues, such as amplitude modulation problems, resulting in static noise.
B. Problem at sender’s end
Imagine making a phone call in a noisy place like a railway platform. You say "three," but the
noise makes the listener hear "free." This miscommunication illustrates why broadcasting
studios are kept as soundproof as possible to ensure clear message delivery.
C. Problem at receiver’s end
Similarly, if the receiver is in a noisy environment, they may struggle to understand the
message. Often, receivers will seek out a quieter space to ensure clear communication. For
example, if someone is watching TV and the phone rings, they might mute the TV to hear the
phone conversation clearly. In another scenario, if a husband calls his wife from the office to
dine out, but she's holding a crying baby, she might misinterpret the message and think he
wants a good meal at home. This highlights the importance of minimizing noise at the
receiver's end for effective communication.

Psychological/ Bias
The sender's and receiver's psychological states significantly influence message interpretation.
Differences in socioeconomic status can alter how a message is perceived. For example, an invitation
from a wealthy person to a poorer individual may carry different implications than the same message
exchanged between affluent peers. Cultural and political backgrounds also shape understanding, as
seen in conferences where diverse perspectives influence interpretations. Even within families,
socioeconomic status can affect the weight given to each member's voice. These nuances highlight the
need for broadcasters to consider diverse perspectives to ensure accurate communication.

Semantics

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Some noise in communication arises from differing interpretations of words or phrases, even among
individuals without psychological or physical impairments. For example, a person saying they visit
Malaysia "once in a blue moon" might confuse a friend who interprets the phrase literally, leading to a
humorous misunderstanding. Radio producers must ensure clarity for their diverse audience by using
simple language, clear articulation, and an appropriate speaking pace. This helps minimize semantic
issues commonly encountered in mass communication.

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LESSON 13
STUDIO

A studio is the heart of a broadcasting operation, crucial for recording and transmitting programs.
Unlike regular rooms, studios undergo specialized treatment to prevent sound leakage, making them
sound-proof. Special materials cover the walls, and the floor is often carpeted to dampen footsteps.
Tight-sealing doors further ensure sound isolation.

Inside, studios feature essential equipment like microphones, recording systems, lighting setups, and
control booths for producers. These elements collectively enable seamless recording and transmission
of broadcasts.

Here below are details of different forms of frequently used studios:

News Studio
A compact setup primarily for broadcasting news. It typically includes a small table with a
microphone, chair, and minimal lighting. Background effects are unnecessary, so additional equipment
is minimal.

Talk Shows/Discussions Studio

Designed for hosting discussions with multiple participants, such as representatives, mayors, or
ministers. It features a long table accommodating several people, with strategically placed microphones
to capture all voices. Special soundproofing counters extra noise, and the anchor-person's position
allows for easy control of the discussion.

Drama Studio
Used for recording dramas, this studio has a standing arrangement for performers. Microphones are
centrally positioned in a half-circle setup. Additional equipment for background effects, like musical
instruments, is placed within reach. A separate booth with glass separation houses the director and
recording panel, providing ample lighting for performers to read scripts and cues.

Music Studios
Essential for recording music, these studios accommodate singers and composers who often sit on
carpets for rehearsals and recordings. Proper cabling and recording panels are necessary to capture
each element, from vocals to instruments or orchestras. Directors play a crucial role in managing
performers and ensuring optimal recording conditions.

Each studio type serves specific broadcasting needs, but variations may exist based on individual
broadcasting requirements, such as running commentaries, VIP interviews, or children's programs.

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LESSON 14
RADIO DRAMA I

Drama, as a literary form, is as ancient as novels and short stories. Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet was
a milestone, but he wasn't the first to write in this genre. Drama, or storytelling through dialogue,
already existed but was less known. Over time, its vibrancy and liveliness attracted more writers.

Stage drama became popular because of its expressive and dynamic characters. By the early 20th
century, when radio emerged, stage drama was a leading form of entertainment. Radio dramas evolved
from theater, bringing a new dimension to the genre. In the subcontinent, playwrights like Agha Hashar
Kashmiri, Syed Imtiaz Ali Taj, and Krishn Chandr were prominent.

Radio quickly adopted drama, along with music and news, to attract audiences. Initially, radio dramas
mirrored stage dramas, maintaining their style and structure. Understanding stage drama's history helps
appreciate its adaptation to radio.

Stage Dramas
In 1840, merchant F. Cowasjee sought to open a theater in Bombay, achieving this goal in 1846 with
the founding of the Grand Road Theatre, the subcontinent’s first theater. Initially, it staged English
plays. In 1853, Parsee Natak Mandli emerged, becoming popular with over 1,000 performances of the
satire Uttejak Mandli, bringing drama to the middle class.

Dadabhai Sorabji Patel staged a musical Urdu play, Benazir Babre Munir, early in the 20th century.
However, Agha Hasan Amanat Ali's Indrasabah, performed in Oudh, Lucknow in 1885, was a
landmark success.

Stage dramas began to be translated into vernacular languages like Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, and Gujarati,
flourishing particularly in Bombay. Agha Hashar Kashmiri’s Kashmir ki Kali, Yahudi ki Larki, and
Rustam o Sohrab were notable performances. Prominent playwrights and directors included
Premchand, Raam Babu Saksena, Saadat Hasan Manto, Krishn Chandr, Ahmed Shah Bokhari, and
N.M. Rashid. These performances often featured loud dialogue for audibility, interwoven with songs,
verses, and dances.

Early Radio Dramas

When radio came to India in 1926, prominent playwrights transitioned from stage to radio, starting in
Bombay and spreading to Lahore, Peshawar, Delhi, and, after partition, Karachi, Rawalpindi, and
Hyderabad. Initially, radio dramas resembled loud stage plays. However, pioneers like Rafi Peerzada
and Z.A. Bokhari adapted these plays specifically for radio by introducing new writing techniques and
refined voice control.

By the time the second generation of writers, including Agha Nasir, Kamal Ahmed Rizvi, and Ashfaaq
Ahmed, emerged, radio drama had matured in Pakistan. Notable shows like Hamid Mian Kay Haan
and Talqeen Shah resonated with audiences for decades. Numerous experiments with the format
contributed to its evolution, making radio drama a distinct and rich storytelling medium.

Ethics

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Radio dramas should avoid immoral dialogue, societal humiliation, blasphemy, and government
criticism. They should promote harmony and expose hypocrisy.

Classification
It was soon realized that not all dramas appealed to everyone. Audience analysis led to categorizing
listeners and creating separate dramas for children, military personnel, farmers, rural and urban people,
and the general public. Radio dramas were also classified by genre: historical, translations, romantic
(the most popular), wartime, and social life, often depicting the defeat of bad characters.

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LESSON 15
RADIO DRAMA II

Selection of director
Drama production is a specialized field, requiring skilled producers and knowledgeable technical staff.
In the 1920s and 1930s, dramas were broadcast live, which was very challenging. With the advent of
recording technology, production became easier, allowing for rehearsals and multiple takes. The
director is crucial, ensuring the drama follows the script, utilizes technical resources, manages the
performance levels, and stays within budget.

The Playwrights
Radio drama relies heavily on the playwright. The writer's descriptions and dialogue help listeners
visualize scenes and understand emotions. Writing for radio is different from writing for print; it
requires simple, precise lines that performers can deliver effectively. Playwrights should limit the
number of characters to avoid confusing listeners, especially if voices sound similar. Additionally,
radio dramas should balance entertainment with serious themes, avoiding excessive negativity.

Diversity in radio plays

Initially, radio dramas were meant for everyone. By 1930, they began to target specific audiences
based on interests and audience research. Categories emerged for adults, farmers, women, the military,
and children. While it's hard to create a play that appeals equally to all listeners, playwrights should
avoid making content too specific, which could alienate others. Using common language, relatable
jokes, and everyday events can help maintain broad appeal.

Script
Once target audiences were identified, playwrights tailored scripts for specific listener groups. This led
to specialized writing. In Pakistan, for example, Sofi Tabbassum focused on children's dramas, while
Ashfaq Ahmed and Ibn e Insha wrote for middle-class families. Writers like Intezaar Hussain, A
Hameed, and Ahmed Nadeem Qasmi tackled a variety of topics, including historical and romantic
plays, and the interactions of the lower middle class. Scripts typically featured a few characters (five to
nine) with straightforward lines and brief dialogue, differing significantly from stage or print scripts.

Special Effects
Special effects are key in radio dramas, setting background atmospheres that enhance storytelling.
Artists specialize in creating these effects, which often set scenes more effectively than dialogue alone.
Techniques include musical cues, table tapping for movement, and innovative methods like crumpling
paper to mimic walking on dry leaves.

Voices
In radio dramas, voices are vital. Artists like Sultan Khosat excelled in voicing multiple characters.
Training ensures voices fit characters, prioritizing clarity. Actors adjust mic distance as directed by the
producer; for distant characters, they speak louder while maintaining distance for effect. Whispering
requires actors to lean closer to the mic for clarity.

Pre and Post production

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Pre-production involved careful planning of the script, casting suitable performers, arranging
background effects, and ensuring proper recording equipment. Post-production included editing,
dubbing, and adding special effects to enhance the final product.

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LESSON 16
ADVERTISEMENT – INCOME GENERATION

Since ancient times, humans have used publicity to sell items, with evidence dating back to Greek wall
chalking. Formal advertising campaigns appeared in the 16th century. The rise of print media in the
19th century made advertising a distinct field.

Initially, advertising was part of communication studies and heavily utilized research on
communication methods. Media growth depended on revenue from sales and advertisements, with ads
eventually becoming the primary income source. This led to the development of a dedicated
advertising industry.

Today, advertising budgets surpass those of many other communication channels. For broadcasting
students, understanding advertising is essential due to its significant role in the media industry.

Similarities
Broadcasters and advertisers operate on three levels: global, national, and regional/local. Each level has
its own scope, range, purpose, and investment. Advertisers choose broadcasting stations based on how
far they want their product information to reach, the nature of the product, and the investment made in
production, targeting the right audience effectively.

The Early Phase

Initially, companies requested radio stations to announce their products for payment. By 1925, radio
stations recognized the potential income from advertising, shifting focus from print to electronic
media. The US Congress passed bills to regulate this income for licensed stations. As industrialists
found it challenging to approach radio stations individually, the advertising industry emerged. This
industry served as a bridge between radio stations and producers, facilitating the use of electronic
media for product promotion.

The Money, the Entertainment – the Revolution

The rise of the advertisement industry brought significant money to broadcasters and unprecedented
entertainment to the public. With increased funds, broadcasters could hire more talent and establish
offices, including those for Audience Analysis, to better promote their content.

Audience Analysis
Big broadcasting houses now have dedicated teams that regularly survey audience interest, program
timings, scripts, anchor-persons, and accompanying advertisements. This data helps shape their
programs. Audience analysis also benefits advertisers, who use this information to identify popular
programs and target their campaigns effectively. Sometimes, advertisers conduct their own surveys for
more precise insights.

The Audience Pattern

Audience research has identified key segments: men, women, children (up to 13), youth (14-30),
middle-aged (31-50), middle-aged with low income, upper income group, rural listeners, and urban
listeners. Advertisement agencies must consider these segments when preparing radio or TV
campaigns.

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More Analysis
Before diving into radio ad production, students should understand that beyond audience classification,
factors like program analysis, channel policies, popularity, and hidden elements are crucial in shaping a
successful advertising campaign.

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LESSON 17
ADVERTISERS’ APPROACH

Radio advertisements are carefully crafted to target specific audiences, based on thorough research.
While they aim to influence their primary audience, any additional impact is a bonus. Advertisers use
different lines and characters to appeal to various listener segments within a short time, often around
15 seconds. For example, a bank ad might target youth, men, women, and affluent rural individuals
simultaneously. However, some ads focus on specific classes, such as those for visa cards, business
loans, or everyday products like soap.

Advertisers’ Choice
Advertisers prefer entertainment programs like music, sports, and comedy because they attract larger
audiences and generate better responses. Advertising agencies conduct regular studies to track radio
program trends among different target groups. They use this data to match products with suitable
programs. Programs featuring popular celebrities or in-demand hosts are especially favored.

Types of Ads

Straight announcements
Straight announcements are brief ads typically aired between programs to save time. They're
straightforward and lack sound effects. Because of their short length, advertisers can repeat them
frequently throughout the day.

Dramatized
Dramatized ads add excitement by portraying everyday situations in a surprising light. They often
feature characters expressing amazement over a product's benefits, like shiny hair from a specific
shampoo. These ads aim to engage listeners by presenting the product in an intriguing way.

Dialogue based
Dialogue-based ads feature conversations between characters to highlight the superiority of a product
or service. Including both male and female voices aims to appeal to a wide audience, suggesting the
product is suitable for everyone.

Comedy / funny
Comedic ads are often targeted towards children and quickly gain popularity. However, it's important
to ensure they align with social values and avoid making fun of sensitive topics like family
relationships.

Sound effect commercials

Most advertisements use sound effects to captivate listeners. On radio, sound effects are essential and
often start with attention-grabbing noises before introducing the product. Some ads employ acoustical
effects to mimic specific conditions, like a sore throat, using microphone filters or echo chambers.
These techniques are also used for humorous characters in ads.

Jingle – short song

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Jingles are catchy short songs commonly used in radio ads. They often feature memorable musical
compositions that listeners may find themselves humming throughout the day. Crafting a good jingle
requires expertise in radio production techniques and typically costs more than other ad formats.

Verse commercial
Verse commercials fall between jingles and plain dialogue ads. Performers recite rhyming lines that
create a musical impression without actual music.
The Insertion Orders
Insertion orders, also known as release orders, are requests from an advertising agency to a media
outlet like a radio station or TV channel. They specify how and when the advertisement should appear:

 Integrated: Seamlessly part of a program, like ads within a series of dramas or during a
sporting event.
 Non-integrated: Inserted between programs.
 Trailer: A brief commercial previewing more detailed ads later in a program.
 Spot: Specific times for ads to appear.
 Time signal: Begins with announcing the time followed by a brief advertisement, often used
with sports or weather programs.

Sponsors – a new marriage of convenience

Sponsors sometimes book entire series, matches, or long plays, allowing multiple advertisers to
participate. This arrangement allows broadcasting houses to charge higher rates and is seen as an
advanced way for radio stations to make money.

News
Recently, there's been a shift in news broadcasts, especially on TV channels, with ads becoming more
common during newsreels. This change has sparked debate about its impact. However, the fixed timing
of ads during news segments can be disruptive, especially if they delay important news. Also, the
contrast between cheerful ads and serious news topics can be jarring for viewers.

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LESSON 18
FM – A NEW GENERATION IN BROADCASTING

FM (frequency modulation) radio is very popular today. Traditionally, listeners tuned into medium
wave and short wave frequencies for radio stations. With advancements in broadcasting, both
programming and technical aspects have evolved. FM radio, unlike older long-range stations, has a
shorter range and is not global.

Understanding FM transmission shouldn't be too technical for mass communication students. It's
similar to a doctor understanding medical equipment or an architect using new design software. This
basic technical knowledge can enhance the effectiveness and understanding of FM radio broadcasts.

Amplitude & Frequency Modulation

In Amplitude Modulation (AM) broadcasting, sound waves are combined with electromagnetic waves
by adjusting the amplitude (measured in volts) but not the frequency. This amplification increases the
wave's strength to the desired level.

It is like this;
AM Diagram

A B

FM Diagram

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The same wave in the case of FM is treated differently; the number of times it spins have been
increased instead of its height, or amplitude be disturbed.

Advantages & Disadvantages

AM broadcasts can travel longer distances but are more prone to interference from static charges and
electrical sparks, leading to distortion. FM broadcasts, while having a shorter range due to their
reliance on line-of-sight transmission, are less susceptible to interference, providing clearer sound
quality. However, FM signals weaken as they interact with the ground, necessitating higher and more
powerful transmitters for optimal clarity.

Low Cost
Setting up an FM radio station is cost-effective compared to traditional stations. Essential equipment
includes a transmitter, main studio, two small studios, a control room with necessary equipment, a
continuity studio, computers with multimedia software, headphones, and a high-quality radio set.

The FM Broadcasting Products

FM stations offer programs similar to those on AM stations, but their reach is limited to local areas.
This makes them popular for local advertisers. Regular programs include religious recitations, national
and folk songs, along with film, album, pop, and rock music preferred by disc jockeys.

Handling the Broadcast

For FM stations, maintaining continuous programming is crucial to retain listeners. Weekly program
schedules need careful planning to ensure seamless transitions between shows. An anchor-person on an
FM station requires specialized training to engage listeners effectively. Regular practice and effective
use of speech techniques are essential to keep audience interest intact.

The Difference
FM stations typically avoid airing long discussions, talk shows, or serious current affairs programs.
Instead, they focus on playing the latest music albums and engaging listeners through interactive
segments like taking phone calls or emails during musical programs. Dramas are not commonly
featured on FM stations.

Some FM station Services

Many FM stations provide useful services like weather updates for travelers, informing about rain in
specific areas along highways, currency exchange rates, PIA flight schedules, and train timings. These
announcements are helpful for listeners, particularly those on the go.

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LESSON 19
MICROPHONE TO TRANSMITTER

Since Marconi's time, radio technology has undergone immense changes, rendering old vinyl records
obsolete. Recording equipment has evolved significantly in appearance and functionality over the past
century.

The iconic microphones and soundproofing setups of early radio stations are now relics of the past,
fondly remembered by older generations. It's important for radio broadcasting students to grasp the
technological advancements that have facilitated the transmission of voice messages to listeners, akin
to how doctors today must understand various machine functions for accurate diagnoses.

Microphone – From human voice to electrical pulse

Microphones, often called mikes, serve as a crucial device in transmitting our voices beyond ordinary
distances. Whether it's a public announcement system, a telephone, or a studio setup, the voice first
enters a microphone.

This device converts sound waves into electrical pulses, making it easy for the signal to be carried over
a desired distance in a fraction of a second. Once bulky and heavy, microphones now come in various
types and shapes to suit different needs.

Broadcast type
 Outdoor recording
 In-built in various voice recording and actuating devices
 Small stick with headphones
 Collar mikes
 Mobile phone mikes
 Some microphones are fitted with wind-screens which block air (breathing) interference with
voice.

Amplifiers
The electric pulse from the microphone is sent to the first voltage amplifier to adjust its amplitude.
Next, the signal goes to the power amplifier to increase its strength. An oscillator then converts the
signal into radio frequency (RF) for transmission.

Modulator
After passing through the oscillator and amplifier, the signal reaches the modulator, where it is
transformed into a suitable form for transmission. From there, it is sent to the antenna, which may act
as a powerful transmitter itself.

Transmitter
Transmitters are sophisticated devices that receive radio frequencies in a modulated form and transmit
them at specific frequencies authorized by regulatory authorities. They enable the broadcast of
messages in various forms.

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A radio station transmitter looks like this =>

The Broadcasting House

The broadcasting house includes studios for program production and a special studio labeled "on-air"
for real-time broadcasting. The voice undergoes careful treatment to adjust its pitch, volume, and bass
for optimal broadcasting value. This is done through a console panel, which enhances the voice signal
before it is transmitted through the transmitter.

Studios
At a broadcasting house, there are two essential types of studios: one for live transmissions such as
news and speeches, and another for producing various programs like dramas and talk shows. All
recordings from these studios are processed through the console board to ensure optimal voice and
sound quality for broadcast.

Broadcasting House & Transmitter

Sometimes, a broadcasting house may not have a transmitter on-site; it could be located 30 to 40
kilometers away for various reasons. In such cases, the broadcasting house sends signals to the
transmitter via transmission lines or microwaves. These microwaves, which are of very high frequency,
are received by a transmitter equipped with special devices. The transmitter then lowers their
frequency to mega or kilohertz, making them accessible to ordinary radios, thus completing the cycle
of voice transmission to listeners.

Broadcasting is not end of the road - wait for Podcasting

The rise of online broadcasting brings the possibility of having your own radio station on your website
through RSS and mp3 files. This opens up avenues for news, music, talks, albums, and advertisements
under your control. It's a new chapter in interactive broadcasting.

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LESSON 20
WRITING SCRIPT FOR RADIO BROADCAST

Managing a 24-hour broadcast requires meticulous planning, starting with scripting for various
programs. Each program begins with the delivery of a script to the announcer or anchorperson. Missing
a script can lead to delays or cancellations, much to the frustration of program managers.

Scriptwriting for radio is a specialized task, requiring writers familiar with the program type. Scripts
are organized by time and program on a daily or weekly basis, with meticulous record-keeping. This
ensures quick access to scripts when needed, even for past broadcasts. Efficient organization is key to
keeping the broadcast running smoothly.

Here below a broad classification is given to identify scripts for different types of programs;

NEWS Script

Writing news scripts is a top priority, demanding skilled writers with experience in language and news
copywriting. The focus is on:
 Clear and understandable language
 Simple words and concise sentences
 Smooth flow without jarring transitions
 Proper paragraphing and use of slugs
 Adherence to ethics and legal standards
 Correct terminology and references in international relations.

Interviews
Interviews require meticulous preparation to avoid mistakes in names, backgrounds, and subjects.
Scripts with questions and references about the interviewee are essential, especially for panel
interviews where supplementary questions may arise. Research beforehand, often conducted by skilled
researchers, ensures interviews are engaging and accurate. For celebrity interviews, in-depth
knowledge of their achievements is crucial to ask pertinent questions and avoid redundant narration.

Talk Shows / Discussions

Talk shows and discussions require thorough scripting, including opening remarks, participant
introductions, and questions to ensure a smooth program. The anchorperson often rehearses specific
lines beforehand. Like interviews, talk shows demand the anchorperson's familiarity with the topic or
person being discussed. For example, discussing globalization of the economy requires understanding
concepts like free market economy and recent developments in world trade. This knowledge is
essential for generating new ideas and avoiding repetitive discussions already known to listeners.

Documentaries & Radio Features

Before producing documentaries and radio features, it's crucial to have a ready script, which may
include historical data. The language used should be simple and easily understood by the general
audience.

Live Shows

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During live shows and events, what may seem like spontaneous speech is actually carefully scripted
and rehearsed. This ensures that everything said on the microphone, especially in front of large
audiences or VIPs, is well-prepared to avoid any embarrassment for the producer and the station.

Disc Jockeys
All programs, whether for children, women, farmers, or others, require scripts. These scripts guide the
disc jockeys and announcers in delivering advice, jokes, announcements, and other content during the
broadcast. Even shift announcers are provided with scripts to ensure that programs and news bulletins
are delivered as planned.

Dramas
A drama script is essential for radio plays, providing cues for actors and including instructions for
sound effects. Rehearsals can span days to ensure the director's satisfaction.

Key points for a drama script include:

 One-liner
 Few Characters
 Brief lines
 All sound effects mentioned (radio script)
 Story sequence well defined and easy to understand
 Turning points fully emphasized

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LESSON 21
INTERACTIVE BROADCASTING

Interactive broadcasting involves getting real-time responses from listeners or guests. Recently,
broadcasting has evolved to include more listener interaction, making programs more engaging and
popular, especially on FM stations. Traditional, one-sided discussions are being replaced by interactive
programs where ordinary people can participate. This shift is transforming broadcasting, with new
technological developments promising even more changes. The future of broadcasting is rapidly
approaching, with interactive formats leading the way.

On-line
Digital technology has transformed radio listening. With computers, you can now listen to radio
programs online without needing separate hardware. Simply visit a website, select a program, and
enjoy listening while you work. You can use earphones or speakers and even record programs to listen
to later. Many websites also offer recorded broadcasts, such as news or interviews, allowing you to
listen to your favorite programs at your convenience.

E-mails
If you want to give feedback to a radio station, just send an email during the program. This is much
faster than traditional mail. Listeners frequently email their suggestions or corrections, and radio
stations receive many emails for their various programs. Due to time constraints, stations can only read
a few emails on air. To increase your chances of being heard, write concise, direct, and relevant emails.

Interview
During an interview with a politician, mayor, university principal, business tycoon, or celebrity,
listeners can participate by asking questions via phone or email. Radio stations often encourage this
interactivity and forward these questions to their guests. Nowadays, interviewees are prepared to
answer questions from the general public while in the studio.

Views in News
Interactive newsreels are now popular. Unlike the old practice of obtaining comments after the news,
newscasters today engage experts, politicians, or business leaders in real-time during the broadcast.
This approach makes news more dynamic and engaging, adding a new dimension to news casting.

Internet Radio
Internet radio is transforming distance-listening and is poised to revolutionize broadcasting. Although
currently limited in reach, advances in multimedia technology suggest that internet radio stations will
soon become widespread and significantly impact the broadcasting industry.

Pod-casting
Podcasting is creating your own radio station on the internet with minimal costs and no need for
licenses. Currently, it's mostly for fun, but it could become commercially significant in the future. You
just need to know about RSS (Really Simple Syndication) and MP3 formats, which allow you to create
and share audio programs on your website.

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LESSON 22
REVISION

Why to broadcast?
Broadcasting is essential for keeping people informed about developments around them, helping to
organize life, reduce routine anxieties, and improve the quality of life in growing societies.

Invention of Radio:
 Discovering radio waves (1864) – An amazing piece of math’s
 Marconi's first wireless signal (1893) – Three dots that made history
 The first transatlantic radio message (1901) – Cornwall to St. John's
 Alum Bay, Isle of Wight (1897) – Marconi's first wireless station

CURRENT AFFAIRS:
 Talk Shows
 Discussions
 Interviews
 Seminars
 Live Shows

OUTDOOR BROADCASTING:
 VIP Movement
 Suddenly Assigned Events
 Collecting Reactions
 Road Shows
 Regular Public Events

CURTAIN RAISERS:
 Political
 Financial
 Sports
 Academics

RADIO FEATURE
 Personality Features
 Features on PLACES
 Features on Events
 Occasional Radio Features

MUSICAL PROGRAMS:
 Classical music
 Semi classical music
 Light and Film music
 Folk Music

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 National songs/ Arifana Kalam/ Qawwalies
 Popular Music
 Musical Conferences

RADIO DOCUMENTARY:
 Narrative
 Musical
 Dramatized
 Insertions

DISC JOCKEY
Disc jockeys (DJs) became essential in radio programming when stations extended their broadcasting
hours. Initially, radio shows were limited in length and variety, but with longer airtime and commercial
pressures, the need arose for programs to fill these slots. DJs now offer a wide range of content beyond
news and interviews, catering to diverse audiences throughout the day.

VOICE IN BROADCASTING:

Speech:

 Accent
 Loudness
 Stress
 Stretch
 Pauses

NOISE:
 Noise in communication refers to anything that interferes with the accurate transmission and
reception of a message. It can take various forms, including:
physical barriers like background sounds
 psychological barriers such as distractions or biases, and
 semantic issues like language differences.

When noise disrupts the intended meaning of a message, it can lead to misunderstandings between the
sender and receiver.

RADIO STUDIO:
A radio studio is a crucial component of any broadcasting facility. It's designed to prevent sound from
escaping, with sound-proof walls and padded floors. Microphones, recording equipment, and control
booths are standard features. Different types of studios cater to specific programming needs:

 News Studio
 Music Studio.
 Drama Studio

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 VIP Studio.
 Talk Show Studio

RADIO DRAMA:

 History of Drama
 Radio Techniques
 Ethics
 Playwrights
 Script
 Special effects

ADVERTISEMENT

 Income Generation
 The Money, the Entertainment – the Revolution
 Advertisers’ Approach
 Types of Ads
 Insertion Orders
 Sponsors – a new marriage of convenience

FM –A New Generation in Broadcasting

Advantages & Disadvantages

 FM Broadcasting Product
 Handling the Broadcast

MICROPHONE – from human voice to electrical pulse

 Amplifier
 Modulator
 Transmitter

Writing Script for Radio Broadcast:

NEWS Script

 Proper language (understood by most listeners)

 Simple words (at times difficult to find)
 Small sentences
 No jarring / jumbling
 Paragraphing
 Slugs

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 Ethics
 Legal
 Proper terminology in IR…proper references

Script for Interviews

Interviews require thorough preparation to avoid mistakes in names, backgrounds, and references. A
scripted list of questions and references about the interviewee is essential. Supplementary questions
may need scripting for panel interviews. Research on the topic or personality is commonly conducted
before crafting questions, often involving top researchers. The goal is to make interviews engaging. It's
crucial to be well-informed about a celebrity's achievements before conducting an interview to avoid
asking them to narrate their accomplishments.

Script for Talk Shows / Discussions

Talk show scripts outline opening remarks, participant introductions, and discussion questions. The
anchorperson rehearses key lines beforehand. Talk show hosts need in-depth knowledge of the topic.
For instance, if discussing globalization, they should understand concepts like free market economy,
World Trade Organization rounds, and their country's stance on global trade. The discussion aims to
explore new ideas rather than repeating known information.

Script for Documentaries & Radio Features

Documentaries and radio features require scripts before production. The script may include historical
data. Simple language that's easy for everyone to understand is essential.

Script for Live Shows

Live shows may seem spontaneous, but they're actually meticulously scripted and rehearsed. This
ensures that presenters don't make mistakes or cause embarrassment, especially in front of VIPs and
important guests.

Script for Disc Jockeys

All programs, including those for children, women, various professions, and entertainment, require
scripts. These scripts include talking points, advice, jokes, announcements, and other necessary
content. Even announcers during shifts are provided with scripts for making announcements and
delivering news bulletins. Producers also use scripts to ensure that programs follow the planned
content accurately.

Script for Dramas

A drama cannot exist without a script. Scripts for radio dramas are essential and meticulously crafted,
often including cues for pauses, loud speech, whispers, and background music. Rehearsals for these
scripts can last for hours or even days until the director is satisfied with the performance before
recording begins. The following point should be kept in mind while dealing with a script for dramas:

 One-liner
 Few Characters
 Brief lines
 All sound effects mentioned (radio script)
 Story sequence well defined and easy to understand

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 Turning points fully emphasized

INTERACTIVE BROADCASTING
Interactive broadcasting involves engaging with the audience or guest speakers by asking questions or
prompting actions, and receiving immediate responses. It's about creating a dialogue and involving the
listeners or participants in real-time interactions during a broadcast.

 Online
 E-mails
 Interviews
 Views in News

Internet radio
The rise of internet radio stations is poised to revolutionize broadcasting. With the advancements in
multimedia technology, internet radio is gaining momentum rapidly. While it's not yet widespread, its
potential impact on traditional broadcasting is significant, offering a new way for audiences to access
and engage with content online.

Pod-casting
Podcasting allows anyone to create their own radio station online at minimal cost and without the need
for licenses or regulations. It's currently a fun and informal way to broadcast content, but it's expected
to become more commercialized in the future. To start a podcast, you just need to understand RSS
files, which help distribute your content to subscribers, and MP3 format for audio files. With these
tools, you can easily run a broadcasting operation on the internet.

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LESSON 23
HISTORY OF TELEVISION

By the early 20th century, electronic communication was mostly limited to voice messages, leading to
the widespread development of radio broadcasting. Guglielmo Marconi is widely recognized as the
inventor of radio. Television, which transmits both voice and images, is often attributed to John Logie
Baird of Scotland. However, its invention is a collaborative achievement of many scientists. Since its
inception, television has rapidly influenced social, cultural, and economic changes, playing a crucial
role in globalizing human thinking and understanding through visual communication.

Here below we will make an attempt to see TV history and various stages, it has scaled so far.

Early History
While John Logie Baird is often credited with inventing television, its history is complex and involves
many contributors. The concept can be traced back to 1869 when French artist Albert Robida
illustrated a man watching a screen at home. Later, Thomas Edison captured one of the earliest films,
"Record of a Sneeze," in 1894. However, television required unique developments beyond those of
motion pictures.

The discovery of selenium, a key material, was crucial. Swedish scientist Berzelius discovered
selenium in 1817, but its photosensitive properties were identified by Joseph May in 1873, enabling the
conversion of light into electrical impulses. In 1881, Shelford Bidwell demonstrated silhouette
transmission. Paul Nipkov's disc scanner used selenium cells, yet lacked the ability to amplify signals,
a challenge for many early inventors.

Karl Ferdinand Braun introduced the first commercial cathode-ray tube in 1897, and Dr. Ambrose
Fleming patented the two-diode thermionic valve in 1901. Significant progress in television stalled
until 1923, when scientists in the US, France, and England began transmitting shadows. John Logie
Baird then made a major impact; in 1924, he demonstrated a mechanically scanned television system
that transmitted outlined objects. By 1925, he showed a real image of a dummy's head.

Baird's work, along with contributions from other pioneers, rapidly advanced television, transforming
it into a cornerstone of modern society. The development of television is a complex mosaic of inspired
individuals whose combined efforts created one of the most significant inventions in human history.

The Black & White Images:

Many companies patented
early television technology,
leading to widespread interest
in black-and-white programs
featuring music, live chats,
announcements, and news.
Early TV transmission had
limited range, so only urban
populations enjoyed these
broadcasts.

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THE World War II
World War II temporarily halted the progress of TV technology, but black-and-white broadcasts
continued to captivate audiences. Wartime images on TV allowed people to witness the devastation
and follow the war's progress, showing who was winning and which cities were being controlled.
These broadcasts left a lasting impression, especially the German defeats and the Allied forces'
advance into Germany.

Color Television
The earliest proposal for color television was a German patent in 1904, followed by a 1925 patent
filing by Zworykin for an all-electronic color system. Neither succeeded initially.

From 1946 to 1950, RCA Laboratories developed the first electronic, monochrome-compatible color
TV system. Before this, in 1940, CBS, led by Peter Goldmark, created a mechanical color TV system
based on John Logie Baird's 1928 designs. The FCC approved CBS's system as the national standard in
1950, but it was bulky, flickered, and incompatible with black-and-white sets. The Korean War paused
color TV production, giving RCA time to develop a better system, which the FCC approved in late
1953. RCA began selling color TVs in 1954, with their 21" model introduced in December.

The 1950s were a dynamic decade for television in the USA, with black-and-white TV becoming
widespread, the introduction of color TV and remote controls, and later, new styling and transistorized
TVs.

Nature of Programs
Television adopted many of its program formats from radio, including:

 News
 Music
 Films
 Comedy shows
 Live shows
 Sports

The Cultural Revolution

Television has significantly changed lifestyles worldwide. Key factors influencing this cultural
revolution include:

 Tourism
 Languages
 Immigration policies
 Education

The Transmission Systems

When TV transmission began in the 1940s and 1950s, various technical advancements led to different
systems for transmitting and receiving TV signals. The table below details the television broadcast
standards used in most countries worldwide. There are three main standards used worldwide:

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NTSC (National Television Standards Committee): Developed in the USA and first used in 1954. It
features a 525-line display with 60 vertical lines.
SECAM (Système Électronique pour Couleur avec Mémoire): Developed in France and first used
in 1967. It has a 625-line vertical display with 50 horizontal lines.
PAL (Phase Alternating Line): Developed by German engineer Walter Bruch and Telefunken, first
used commercially in 1967. It also has a 625/50-line display and is an alternative to NTSC, often
referred to as "Perfection at Last."

Television Standards by Country:

COUNTRY SIGNAL TYPE

AFGHANISTAN PAL B, SECAM B

ALBANIA PAL B/G

ALGERIA PAL B/G

ANGOLA PAL I
ANTARCTICA NTSC M
ANTIGUA & BARBUDA NTSC M

ARGENTINA PAL N
ARMENIA SECAM D/K
ARUBA NTSC M

AUSTRALIA PAL B/G

AUSTRIA PAL B/G
AZERBAIJAN SECAM D/K
AZORES PAL B

BAHAMAS NTSC M
BAHRAIN PAL B/G
BANGLADESH PAL B
BARBADOS NTSC M

BELARUS SECAM D/K

BELGIUM PAL B/H
BELGIUM (ARMED FORCES NETWORK) NTSC M

BELIZE NTSC M
BENIN SECAM K
BERMUDA NTSC M

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BOLIVIA NTSC M

BOSNIA/HERZEGOVINA PAL B/H

BOTSWANA SECAM K, PAL I
BRAZIL PAL M

BRITISH INDIAN OCEAN TERRITORY

NTSC M
(AF DIEGO GARCIA TV - AFRTS)
BRUNEI DARUSSALAM PAL B

BULGARIA PAL
BURKINA FASO SECAM K
BURUNDI SECAM K

CAMBODIA PAL B/G, NTSC M

CAMEROON PAL B/G
CANADA NTSC M
CANARY ISLANDS PAL B/G

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC SECAM K

CHAD SECAM D
CHILE NTSC M
CHINA (PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC) PAL D
COLOMBIA NTSC M

CONGO (PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC) SECAM K

CONGO, DEM. REP. (ZAIRE) SECAM K
COOK ISLANDS PAL B
COSTA RICA NTSC M

COTE D'IVOIRE (IVORY COAST) SECAM K/D

CROATIA PAL B/H
CUBA NTSC M

CYPRUS PAL B/G

CZECH REPUBLIC PAL B/G (cable), PAL D/K (broadcast)
DENMARK PAL B/G
DIEGO GARCIA NTSC M

DJIBOUTI SECAM K

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DOMINICA NTSC M
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC NTSC M

EAST TIMOR PAL B

EASTER ISLAND PAL B
ECUADOR NTSC M
EGYPT PAL B/G, SECAM B/G

EL SALVADOR NTSC M
EQUITORIAL GUINEA SECAM B
ESTONIA PAL B/G

ETHIOPIA PAL B
FALKLAND ISLANDS (LAS MALVINAS) PAL I
FIJI NTSC M
FINLAND PAL B/G

FRANCE SECAM L
FRANCE (FRENCH FORCES TV) SECAM G
GABON SECAM K
GALAPAGOS ISLANDS NTSC M

GAMBIA PAL B
GEORGIA SECAM D/K
GERMANY PAL B/G
GERMANY (ARMED FORCES TV GERMANY) NTSC M

GHANA PAL B/G

GIBRALTAR PAL B/G
GREECE PAL B/G

GREENLAND PAL B
GRENADA NTSC M
GUAM NTSC M
GUADELOUPE SECAM K

GUATEMALA NTSC M
GUIANA (FRENCH) SECAM K

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GUINEA PAL K

GUYANA NTSC M
HAITI SECAM
HONDURAS NTSC M
HONG KONG PAL I

HUNGARY PAL K/K

ICELAND PAL B/G
INDIA PAL B

INDONESIA PAL B
IRAN PAL B/G
IRAQ PAL
IRELAND, REPUBLIC OF PAL I

ISLE OF MAN PAL

ISRAEL PAL B/G
ITALY PAL B/G
JAMAICA NTSC M

JAPAN NTSC M
JOHNSTONE ISLAND NTSC M
JORDAN PAL B/G
KAZAKHSTAN SECAM D/K

KENYA PAL B/G

KOREA (NORTH) SECAM D, PAL D/K
KOREA (SOUTH) NTSC M

KUWAIT PAL B/G

KYRGYZ REPUBLIC SECAM D/K
LAOS PAL B
LATVIA PAL B/G, SECAM D/K

LEBANON PAL B/G

LESOTHO PAL K
LIBERIA PAL B/H

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LIBYA PAL B/G
LIECHTENSTEIN PAL B/G
LITHUANIA PAL B/G, SECAM D/K
LUXEMBOURG PAL B/G, SECAM L

MACAU PAL I
MACEDONIA PAL B/H
MADAGASCAR SECAM K

MADEIRA PAL B
MALAYSIA PAL B
MALDIVES PAL B
MALI SECAM K

MALTA PAL B
MARSHALL ISLANDS NTSC M
MARTINIQUE SECAM K
MAURITANIA SECAM B

MAURITIUS SECAM B
MAYOTTE SECAM K
MEXICO NTSC M
MICRONESIA NTSC M

MIDWAY ISLAND NTSC M

MOLDOVA (MOLDAVIA) SECAM D/K
MONACO SECAM L, PAL G

MONGOLIA SECAM D
MONTSERRAT NTSC M
MOROCCO SECAM B
MOZAMBIQUE PAL B

MYANMAR (BURMA) NTSC M

NAMIBIA PAL I
NEPAL B

NETHERLANDS PAL B/G

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NETHERLANDS (ARMED FORCES NETWORK) NTSC M
NETHERLANDS ANTILLES NTSC M
NEW CALEDONIA SECAM K

NEW ZEALAND PAL B/G

NICARAGUA NTSC M
NIGER SECAM K

NIGERIA PAL B/G

NORFOLK ISLAND PAL B
NORTH MARIANA ISLANDS NTSC M
NORWAY PAL B/G

OMAN PAL B/G

PAKISTAN PAL B
PALAU NTSC M
PANAMA NTSC M

PAPUA NEW GUINEA PAL B/G

PARAGUAY PAL N
PERU NTSC M
PHILIPPINES NTSC M

POLAND PAL D/K

POLYNESIA (FRENCH) SECAM K
PORTUGAL PAL B/G

PUERTO RICO NTSC M

QATAR PAL B
REUNION SECAM K
ROMANIA PAL D/G

RUSSIA SECAM D/K

ST. KITTS & NEVIS NTSC M
ST. LUCIA NTSC M

ST. PIERRE ET MIQUELON SECAM K

ST. VINCENT NTSC M

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SAO TOMÉ E PRINCIPE PAL B/G
SAMOA, AMERICAN NTSC

SAUDI ARABIA SECAM B/G, PAL B

SAMOA NTSC M
SENEGAL SECAM K

SEYCHELLES PAL B/G

SIERRA LEONE PAL B/G
SINGAPORE PAL B/G
SLOVAKIA PAL B/G

SLOVENIA PAL B/H

SOMALIA PAL B/G
SOUTH AFRICA PAL I
SPAIN PAL B/G

SRI LANKA PAL

SUDAN PAL B
SURINAME NTSC M
SWAZILAND PAL B/G

SWEDEN PAL B/G

SWITZERLAND PAL B/G
SYRIA SECAM B, PAL G

TAHITI SECAM
TAIWAN NTSC
TAJIKISTAN SECAM D/K
TANZANIA PAL B

THAILAND PAL B/M

TOGO SECAM K
TRINIDAD & TOBAGO NTSC M

TUNISIA SECAM B/G

TURKEY PAL B
TURKMENISTAN SECAM D/K

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TURKS & CAICOS ISLANDS NTSC M

UGANDA PAL B/G

UKRAINE SECAM D/K
URUGUAY PAL N

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES PAL B/G

UNITED STATES NTSC M
UNITED KINGDOM PAL I
UZBEKISTAN SECAM D/K

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VENEZUELA NTSC M
VIETNAM NTSC M,SECAM D
VIRGIN ISLANDS (US & BRITISH) NTSC M
WALLIS & FUTUNA SECAM K

YEMEN PAL B/NTSC M

YUGOSLAVIA PAL B/G
ZAMBIA PAL B/G
ZIMBABWE PAL B/G

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LESSON 24
PAKISTAN TELEVISION (PTV)

At the time of Pakistan's partition in 1947, it inherited three radio stations: Lahore, Peshawar, and
Dhaka. While black-and-white TV was already familiar in the West and the USA, Pakistan began
discussing TV broadcasting in the early 1960s. Planning faced challenges, mainly due to a lack of
technical staff rather than funding. Finally, on November 26, 1964, Pakistan's first TV station was
established in Lahore. Despite global advancements to color TV, PTV started in black and white. The
enthusiastic and determined staff quickly made the venture a success.

The Excitement
In the early days of television, owning a TV set was a luxury and a status symbol, affordable only to
the rich. Families, relatives, and neighbors would gather eagerly before broadcasts. Women finished
cooking early, and students completed their homework in anticipation. The sight of the announcer and
the start of the broadcast brought cheers and excitement, creating unforgettable moments for those
who experienced them.

Timing
In the early days, TV broadcasts were limited to five hours daily, from 6 pm to 11 pm, with Mondays
off. People eagerly gathered before the signature tune, with women finishing chores and children
completing homework early. The broadcast began with a recitation from the Holy Quran and ended
with the national anthem. Owning a TV set was a rare privilege, and neighbors often gathered to
watch, creating a mini cinema-like atmosphere at home.

Live Broadcast
In PTV's early years, live broadcasts were a key feature due to the lack of recording facilities. News,
talks, plays, and music were all aired in real time. This was a unique experience for directors,
producers, performers, and technical staff. Notably, newsreaders Kanwal Naseer and Tariq Aziz would
rush from Radio Pakistan to PTV's building across the road to deliver live news.

PTV in 1965 War

During the September 1965 war with India, PTV Lahore played a crucial role. Its OB teams captured
remarkable footage of the Pakistan Army in action at the borders, thrilling viewers with scenes of
soldiers invading and destroying Indian posts. These broadcasts, accompanied by Noor Jahan's
patriotic songs, fueled national pride and passion for defense.

1973 National Microwave Network

In 1973, Pakistan's TV stations were connected via a national microwave network, allowing for live
telecasts across the country. This development significantly saved time and money for PTV.

Lahore Islamic Summit 1974

In 1974, PTV achieved a milestone with its extensive live coverage of the Lahore Islamic Summit.
The broadcasts, linked with Karachi and Rawalpindi stations, made the nation feel involved in the
historic events. PTV covered various events, including receptions at Shalimar Gardens, prayers at
Badshahi Mosque, a public meeting at Qaddafi Stadium addressed by Libya's President Col. Qaddafi,
and business meetings at the Punjab Assembly, all in an organized manner.

Coloured Broadcast
In the mid-1970s, there were discussions about replacing black-and-white TV transmission with color,
as global TV broadcasts were transitioning to color and parts for B/W equipment were becoming
scarce. PTV, which began its services on November 26, 1964, from Lahore, eventually expanded into
a nationwide network with two program channels.

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1976 Coloured Transmission S

Regular Color transmission started from Feb. 18, 1982.

More Developments
Key developments in PTV:
 1987: Federal TV Centre in Islamabad commissioned.
 1992: Second TV channel for education launched.
 1996: Local area transmission started from four stations, later expanded to three more.
 1998: PTV World programs began transmission.
 By 1998: Six production centers (Lahore, Karachi, Quetta, Peshawar, Islamabad-I & II) and 35
rebroadcast stations for PTV-1, and 16 for PTV-2.
o PTV-1 coverage: 38% area, 86.48% population.
o PTV-2 coverage: 24.19% area, 55.83% population.

Dramas – the source of strength to PTV

PTV excelled in broadcasting various programs but what earned it extraordinary glory have been its
dramas. To mention a few;
 Parchhaian
 Aik muhabat sua afsanay
 Shama
 Waris
 Alpha bravo Charlie
 Tanhayian
 Alif noon
 Sona chandi
 Khuda ki basti
 Dhoop kinaray

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LESSON 25
BROADCASTING LAWS

Absolute freedom of expression in mass communication can lead to societal distortion rather than
welfare. Such freedom can also challenge governments, a concern especially noted by colonial powers
during the development of mass media. Therefore, it was deemed necessary to implement checks and
balances on media that communicate with the masses to prevent exploitation. Initially, in the early
days of print media, laws were established requiring a license from a suitable authority for mass
communication ventures, with regular oversight to address any misuse.

Laws
Strict laws governed the press, with some restrictions so severe that basic communication became
challenging. Similar laws were extended to electronic media, including radio and TV. While many
laws aimed to regulate mass communication, some were criticized for their draconian nature.
Implementation and interpretation of these laws often sparked debates on issues like freedom of
expression. Today, various organizations oversee mass communication, with laws regulating
broadcasting and other forms of media.

Laws in the 19th century:

The Registration of books and newspaper act,1867
The Press (emergency power)act 1931
The States (protection against disaffection) act, 1922
The Foreign Relations act 1932
The Criminal law amendment act 1932
The States Protection act, 1934
The Post office act 1898
The Official Secret act
The Press and Publication Act of 1963

Constitution of 1973
Article 19
This article reads as follows:
“Every citizen shall have the right of freedom of speech and expression, and there shall be freedom of
the press, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interest of the glory of Islam or
the integrity, security, or defense of Pakistan or any part thereof, friendly relations with foreign states,
public order, decency or morality or in relation to the contempt of court, defamation or incitement to
an office.”

Press Council of Pakistan

The Press Council of Pakistan ensures journalists adhere to a code covering issues like morality,
accuracy, and privacy. It promotes professional conduct and freedom while serving the public interest.
The Council operates independently with its own staff, secretariat, and budget, funded by
governmental grants and fees from registered newspapers and agencies. However, some view it as a
form of censorship.

Freedom of Information Ordinance 2002

The 2002 Freedom of Information Ordinance acknowledges citizens' right to know but has flaws.
While it includes positive features, like a timeframe for information release, it falls short due to
exemptions for courts and tribunals and a limited list of public records subject to disclosure. This
undermines the public's right to information.

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PEMRA
In the late 1990s, Pakistan realized the need to counter the influence of Hindi channels via satellite by
encouraging private TV networks. An ordinance in 1997 established the Regulatory Authority for
Media Broadcast Organizations (RAMBO), later renamed PEMRA. Formally approved by the federal
cabinet in January 2002, PEMRA became responsible for regulating electronic media, setting technical
standards, and scrutinizing broadcasting feasibility. Established on March 1, 2002, PEMRA aimed to
facilitate the private sector's entry into electronic media.

Under the PEMRA Ordinance 2002, PEMRA is mandated to:

1) Improve information, education, and entertainment standards.
2) Expand media choices for the people of Pakistan.
3) Enhance grassroots access to mass media at the local and community level.
4) Ensure accountability, transparency, and good governance by promoting the free flow of
information.
Additionally, PEMRA provides project management guidelines and action plans to assist the private
sector in establishing radio, television, and cable TV stations in the country.

The Authority has been empowered to issue licenses for broadcast and CTV stations in the following
categories:
1) International scale stations
2) National scale stations
3) Provincial scale stations
4) Local Area or Community based stations
5) Specific and specialized subject stations
6) Cable television network stations.

The law sets strict eligibility criteria for license issuance:

1) Respect Pakistan's sovereignty, security, and integrity.
2) Respect national, cultural, social, and religious values as per the Constitution.
3) Ensure programs and ads don't promote violence, terrorism, discrimination, extremism, or
offensive content.

The ordinance outlined the appointment of a chairman and six members, including retired Supreme
Court judges, information and communication secretaries, and representatives from media and public
service sectors. However, critics argue that the ordinance lacks clarity and violates international
standards for free flow of information. They view the authority's mandate as a tool for official
propaganda and criticize its failure to address demands for freeing state-owned broadcasting
corporations. Initially under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, PEMRA later fell under
the Establishment Division. However, it still does not regulate PTV and PBC, raising concerns about
its neutrality.

PEMRA has been mandated to:-

1) Enhance the quality of information, education, and entertainment standards.
2) Expand media choices for Pakistani citizens, covering news, current affairs, religion, art,
culture, technology, science, economy, social issues, music, sports, drama, and other topics of
public and national interest.

The PEMRA Ordinance 2002 allows for the creation of a regulatory body to issue licenses to
broadcasters, enhancing transparency and accountability. This facilitates media access at local,
provincial, national, and international levels, fostering competition with state-controlled channels and
foreign broadcasters.

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LESSON 26
REPLICAS OF RADIO BROADCAST

In its early days, TV resembled an advanced visual form of radio, with similar program formats. In
Pakistan, popular radio programs like dramas, talk shows, news, and music set the stage for TV
broadcasting, which began in November 1964 from Lahore. The TV station was initially located near
the Lahore radio station, facilitating a transfer of techniques and staff. Many radio personnel worked
in TV, giving early TV broadcasts a distinctly radio-like feel.

The Staff
In the early days, Pakistan's TV stations struggled with a lack of trained programming staff and relied
on personnel trained in radio. While technical staff like cameramen and set designers were available,
managing TV programs was challenging. To address this, an academy was established in Islamabad in
the early seventies, training staff in all aspects of TV broadcasting. The academy also offers ongoing
training in new TV production techniques, managed by foreign-trained and locally experienced
professionals.

News Reading
In the early days of TV broadcasting, newsreading was challenging due to the lack of visually trained
newscasters. Radio newscasters were brought in, rushing from the radio station to the TV studio for
makeup—a new experience for them. News reading on TV was almost identical to radio, with little
footage available. Viewers could now see the broadcaster, which led to discussions about their
appearance and gestures, making it harder to maintain the same focus as when listening to radio news.

Discussion / Talk Shows

Talk shows and discussion programs on early TV were similar to radio. An anchor guided the
conversation, and participants sat around a table. Since modern microphones weren't available, a
single microphone was passed from speaker to speaker to ensure clear recording. If someone spoke out
of turn, viewers could see but not hear them. Today, advancements in technology allow even the
smallest comments to be heard, enhancing understanding of the discussion and participants' reactions.

Programming
The replica problem was not limit to current affair shows; the issue was very much the same with the
programming side of the TV broadcast.

Dramas
Early TV dramas sounded much like radio dramas. This was because the sequence, dialogue, and
speech techniques were carried over from radio. Radio drama producers and directors, who
transitioned to TV due to a lack of trained TV professionals, brought their expertise with them. They
were unfamiliar with TV-specific equipment like microphones, amplifiers, and recording panels. As a
result, early TV dramas had similar musical effects and overall production styles to radio dramas.

Musical Evenings
Music programs have always been popular in electronic media. Radio brought music into households
through various shows, from solo performances to concerts. When TV began broadcasting music, it
mimicked radio's style. Early TV broadcasts awkwardly mixed visual and non-visual elements,
making it seem like viewers were just watching what happened at a radio station.

Children’s Show
Children's shows on early TV closely resembled radio programs. The format, with an adult interacting
with children, remained unchanged. It felt like watching a radio show being recorded. This similarity
extended to programs aimed at women, farmers, and others. Often, the same person who hosted radio

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shows would conduct similar programs on TV.

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LESSON 27
NEW SCRIPT WRITING AND DIRECTION TECHNIQUES

Initially, TV programs closely mirrored radio broadcasts, prompting criticism. In response, TV

managers worked to distinguish TV from radio. This required creativity and resourcefulness due to
limited equipment, funds, and expertise. Transitioning from radio to TV required new techniques in
scriptwriting and directing, given TV's visual nature. Despite challenges, some producers successfully
elevated TV programming in a relatively short time.

TV Script
The type of script needed depends on the medium used to convey the message. Print scripts provide
detailed descriptions for readers, while radio scripts must paint a picture with words for listeners. TV
scripts differ because viewers can see visuals, reducing the need for detailed descriptions. Early TV
scriptwriters, often from radio backgrounds, faced challenges in adapting to this visual medium.
Unlike radio, where everything must be described verbally, TV can show emotions and objects
visually, simplifying the script.

News Script
News scripts for TV quickly diverged from those for radio. On TV, newsreaders may remain silent for
extended periods while footage explains events, a practice unheard of in radio, where even brief
silences can cause concern. While TV news aims for objectivity, emotions often creep in. News
anchors may smile lightly to convey positive news, like a sports victory or a drop in petrol prices. This
departure from radio norms reflects the unique demands and capabilities of television broadcasting.

Drama Script
TV drama scripts differ significantly from radio scripts because they rely heavily on visual elements
that don't require verbal explanation. This simplifies matters for scriptwriters, but disagreements can
arise when set designers insist on including props not originally intended by the playwright. This
dynamic sometimes leads to conflicts among the production team.

Running Commentary
While comparing radio and TV, one often overlooks the differences in sports commentary, such as for
hockey or cricket. On radio, commentators must provide detailed descriptions of the game, even
during pauses. However, on TV, commentary is more nuanced. Commentators offer insights that
viewers might miss, without oversaturating the commentary or stating the obvious. It's crucial to avoid
contradicting what viewers can clearly see on screen. For example, there's no need to insist on a LBW
call when it's clearly debatable.

Gestures replace words in Talk Shows

In both radio and TV talk shows, the format is similar, but the scripts differ. On radio, the host
verbally prompts speakers to contribute, whereas on TV, gestures are often used. For example, a TV
host may use hand gestures to signal to a speaker to talk. Additionally, TV hosts can rely on visual
cues, while radio hosts need to verbally describe the surroundings, especially for remote broadcasts.

Direction
The arrival of TV broadcast revolutionized the direction process. In radio, directors focus on speech
and sound effects, ensuring their timing and impact. In contrast, TV directors prioritize performers'
entry, facial expressions, body language, and hand movements while delivering dialogue. Lighting
becomes crucial, with different effects needed for various moods. The director must ensure balanced
lighting to avoid spoiling scenes, considering color schemes and contrast ratios. Managing shadows
under artificial lights presents challenges. This highlights the complexity of communicating in a visual
medium compared to radio.

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LESSON 28
SETS

The arrangement of objects and props seen by viewers in a TV program is called the set. This term is
widely used in TV productions and is one of the first considerations for any program, whether live or
recorded. Every scene is created with a specific setting to match the program's nature. Even natural
events, like war zones, accidents, or tourist spots, have their own inherent settings.

Permanent Sets
TV broadcasts use two types of sets: permanent and variable. Permanent sets are used for programs
with consistent formats but varying content, such as news broadcasts, where the table, chair,
background, and color scheme remain the same. Regular talk shows and long-running programs, like
the "Tariq Aziz Show" (formerly "Nilam Ghar" on PTV), also use permanent sets. These familiar
settings help viewers recognize the program even without sound. Children's programs, comic shows,
and interview segments often use permanent sets as well.

New Sets
Some TV broadcasts, particularly dramas, require frequent set changes, even for short programs. Each
new scene in a drama needs a new setting, making set design a critical and challenging task. Designers
must create sets that match the story, from children's plays to complex dramas, often involving
significant imagination, discussions, and brainstorming, especially for pivotal story moments.

Hot & Cover Sets

In outdoor shootings, the actual sets used for recording are called hot sets. If unforeseen factors
prevent recording on these sets, alternate indoor sets, known as cover sets, are prepared for use.

Special Sets
In TV broadcasting, special occasions like award ceremonies, Independence Day, or major sports
tournaments require special sets. These sets are designed to reflect the significance of the event and
are not tied to permanent or regularly changed sets. Creating these sets involves extensive discussion
among the production team to ensure they appropriately convey the event's spirit and message.

Essentials of Set Designing:

1. Understand the Program: The set designer must fully grasp the program's theme, whether
it's serious, comic, or a mix of both.
2. Determine Set Size: The set's size depends on the show's format, whether it's a solo
performance, a talk show with several people, or an event with a larger audience.
3. Debate Color Scheme: Choosing colors for curtains, carpets, backgrounds, and props is
challenging and must suit the program's mood. Deciding on a color scheme for a TV play is
especially difficult.
4. Coordinate with Lighting: The color scheme must align with the lighting setup. Lighting
directors are typically less flexible, so set designers often adjust colors to ensure compatibility
with the lighting, considering light absorption and reflection.

Be strong to bear the load

A TV set must be sturdy enough to handle the activities it will support. It would be embarrassing if the
set collapsed during an event, such as a chief guest awarding trophies. For performances involving
dancing or similar acts, improperly fitted planks could lead to accidents and injuries. Since building
strong sets is costly, the set designer and producer must ensure that the number of people on the set
does not exceed its capacity.

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Economical
TV sets need to be economical because they are frequently built, rebuilt, and demolished. Expensive
sets are unsuitable for TV production but are more feasible for feature films, which typically have
larger budgets.

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LESSON 29
CAMERA SHOTS – THE VISUAL LANGUAGE

In TV broadcasting, communication shifts from verbal to non-verbal through camera work. This blend
allows effective communication even without words, relying on visual footage. Camera language, like
verbal communication, has its own elements: shots, sequencing, editing, and other techniques.

Understanding basic camera shots is crucial for non-verbal communication in TV production. This
lesson will explore how these shots function to make TV broadcasts possible.

Shot
A camera shot refers to what the camera records between opening and closing its shutter, ranging from
a fraction of a second to several seconds or more. There are about 40 well-defined and commonly used
camera shots, though innovative shots are often created depending on the situation to effectively report
events visually.

The Standard Shots:

Basic shots are discussed under this title.

Big Close up from head to chin

Close up slight headroom to shoulder-line
X-close up one part of body like eyes Medium close up with little head room to chest line
Medium shot with more headroom to the waist-line
Medium long ample headroom with lower line cutting below knees
Long shot with adequate headroom to a slight foreground- covering whole body
Very long shot giving enough details of the surroundings of an individual/ object

Each camera shot serves a specific purpose. A close-up shot captures facial details or expressions,
showcasing beauty or conveying emotions. A long shot shows the full body or surroundings,
providing context. A very long shot establishes the setting, such as a desert. These shots help viewers
understand the location and enhance storytelling by providing context and detail.

Angle Shots:
High angle when looking down from high point
Low angle when looking up from eye level

Two important camera shots are angular shots, which mimic everyday angles like looking up or down,
and high and low angle shots, which convey different perspectives. A high angle shot portrays a
person as weak or in distress, while a low angle shot conveys power or grandeur. These shots mirror
common perspectives and evoke specific emotions or impressions in the audience.

Movement shots:
Pan moving camera on horizontal lines
Tilt up/ down moving camera on vertical lines
Dolly/ track shot moving camera to and fro from an object
Crane shot camera movement at crane

These shots create a sense of movement despite the action being stationary. For example, when the
camera pans across spectators applauding during a cricket match, viewers perceive movement from
left to right or vice versa. However, the camera itself remains stationary, with only its axis moving.
This technique gives the impression of movement and adds dynamism to the scene.

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Some other important shots:

 Composite (also nose room/looking room)
 Wide angle
 Master/establishing
 O/S
 Cut-in
 Cut-away

An establishing shot sets the scene for where the action will take place. It's typically shown at the
beginning of a scene or film but can also be used later on, in which case it's called a re-establishing
shot.

The Sequence
Understanding camera shots is like learning the alphabet of TV language. However, just as
constructing words and sentences is crucial for effective communication, arranging camera shots in a
sequence is essential to convey a message properly. In TV broadcasts, we often see a series of shots
arranged in a specific order. If the sequence is not well-constructed, it can lead to criticism as the
message may not be effectively communicated.

Support Elements
Camera shots receive support from other non-verbal elements, such as sound effects, which greatly
enhance their meaning. For example, in a documentary about a river in Swat valley, combining shots
with specific musical notes creates an immersive viewing experience.

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LESSON 30
LIGHTS IN VISUAL BROADCASTING

Transitioning from audio to visual broadcasting, the presence of light is crucial for viewers to see
objects in visual communication. Visual broadcasting, synonymous with photography, uses cameras to
capture images on a sensitized surface with light.

This lesson explores studio lighting arrangements that facilitate image capture and discusses outdoor
lighting for broadcasts. Lighting provides perspective, mood, and texture in visual communication.

The Nature of Light

Light, a form of energy, can be converted into other forms, such as electrical energy, and vice versa.
Sunlight, appearing white, actually comprises numerous colors, including primary, secondary, and
tertiary shades. Red, green, and blue (RGB) mix to form all other colors. Unlike sound waves, light
waves travel in straight lines, enabling the formation of shadows and facilitating visual
communication.

Light Temperature

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