Module 3

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Brain as a CPU System:

The human brain can be thought of as a highly sophisticated and complex information
processing system, similar to a computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU). Both the brain and
CPU receive and process inputs, store information, and perform calculations to produce outputs.
However, there are significant differences between the two, such as the way they store and process
information and the fact that the human brain has the ability to learn and adapt, while a computer's
CPU does not. Additionally, the human brain is capable of performing tasks such as perception,
thought, and emotion, which are beyond the scope of a computer's CPU.
Table: Comparison Chart

Basis for Comparison Brain Computer

ICs, transistors, diodes,
Construction Neurons and synapses
capacitors, transistors, etc.
Increases each time by Increases by adding Mor
Memory growth
connecting synaptic links memory chips e
Backup system is constructed
Backup systems Built-in backup system
manually
100 teraflops (100 trillion
Memory power 100 million megabytes
calculations/seconds)
Memory density 107 circuits/cm3 1014 bits/cm3
Energy consumption 12 watts of power Gigawatts of power
Stored in electrochemical and Stored in numeric and symbolic
Information storage
electric impulses. form (i.e. in binary bits).
The brain's volume is 1500
Variable weight and size form
Size and weight cm3 and weight is around 3.3
few grams to tons.
pounds.
Transmission of Uses chemicals to fire the Communication is achieved
information action potential in the neurons. through electrical coded signals.
Information processing
Low High
power
Keyboards, mouse, Web
Input/output equipment Sensory organs
cameras, etc.
Structural organization Self-organized Pre-programmed structure
Parallelism Massive Limited
Reliability and Computers perfor a
Brain is self-organizing, self-
damageability monotonous m job and can't
maintaining and reliable.
properties correct itself.

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Architecture
The architecture of the human brain as a CPU system can be compared to that of a
parallel distributed processing system, as opposed to the Von Neumann architecture of
traditional computers.

Figure: Comparison between Brains Computing System with Conventional Von Neumann
Computing System (Ref. www.researchgate.com)
In the human brain, information is processed in a distributed manner across multiple
regions, each with specialized functions, rather than being processed sequentially in a single
centralized location.
Just like how a computer's CPU has an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) to perform
mathematical calculations, the human brain has specialized regions for processing mathematical
and logical operations. The prefrontal cortex, for example, is responsible for higher-level
cognitive functions such as decision making and problem solving.

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Figure: Schematic representation of the frontal lobes of brain

Similarly, a computer's CPU also has memory units for storing information, and the
human brain has several regions dedicated to memory storage, including the hippocampus and
amygdala.

Figure: Limbic system. Cross section of the human brain. Mammillary body, basal ganglia,
pituitary gland, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus - Illustration Credit: Designua / Shutterstock
While the comparison between the human brain and a computer's CPU can provide
useful insights, it is important to note that the human brain is a vastly more complex and
capable system, with many functions that are still not fully understood.

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Central nervous system and Periphery nervous system (CNS and PNS)
The Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) are the two
main components of the nervous system in the human body.

Figure: Representation of CNS and PNS

Central nervous system: The Central Nervous System consists of the brain and spinal cord and is
responsible for receiving, processing, and integrating sensory information and transmitting
commands to the rest of the body. The brain acts as the command center, receiving and processing
sensory inputs and generating motor outputs, while the spinal cord acts as a relay center, transmitting
information between the brain and peripheral nerves.
The CNS consists of two organs which are continuous with each other; the brain and spinal cord. They
are enveloped and protected by three layers of meninges, and encased within two bony structures;
the skull and vertebral column, respectively. The brain consists of the cerebrum, subcortical
structures, brainstem and cerebellum. The spinal cord continues inferiorly from the brainstem and
extends through the vertebral canal.
Brain: The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills,
vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body. Weighing about 3
pounds (1.3 kg) in the average adult, the brain is about 60% fat.
The remaining 40% is a combination of water, protein, carbohydrates and salts. The brain itself is a
not a muscle. It contains blood vessels and nerves, including neurons and glial cells.

• Function of brain: Thoughts and decisions.

• Memories and emotions.
• Movements (motor function), balance and coordination.
• Perception of various sensations including pain.
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• Automatic behavior such as breathing, heart rate, sleep and temperature control.
• Regulation of organ function.
• Speech and language functions.
• Fight or flight response (stress response).

Parts of brain:

Main parts of brain Picture credit: www.hopkinsmedicine.org

Brain is divided into three main parts:

1. Cerebrum
2. Brainstem
3. Cerebellum

1. Cerebrum: The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises gray matter (the cerebral cortex) and
white matter at its center. The largest part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and coordinates
movement and regulates temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum enable speech,
judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other functions
relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.

Parts of cerebrum: cerebrum divided into four main parts.

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• Frontal (at the front of your head). This lobe handles things like attention, behavior control
(your sense of what’s appropriate and what’s not), the ability to speak and certain types of
muscle movements.
• Parietal (at the top of your head). This area handles touch, temperature and pain signals. It
also helps with how you see the world around you, especially judging distance from and the
size of objects. It also plays a role in processing sound, languages you speak, your ability to
use numbers and count, and how you organize information and make decisions.
• Temporal (at the side of your head). This area helps you understand language when other
people are speaking. It also helps you recognize people and objects. This part also helps you
connect emotions with memories.
• Occipital (at the back of your head). This lobe manages much of your eyes’ sensory input,
including the ability to see movement and colors.

Cerebrum parts. Picture credit: www.scienceabc.com

Brainstem

The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. The brainstem
includes the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

• Midbrain. The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is a very complex structure with a range of
different neuron clusters (nuclei and colliculi), neural pathways and other structures. These
features facilitate various functions, from hearing and movement to calculating responses and
environmental changes. The midbrain also contains the substantia nigra, an area affected by
Parkinson’s disease that is rich in dopamine neurons and part of the basal ganglia, which
enables movement and coordination.
• Pons. The pons is the origin for four of the 12 cranial nerves, which enable a range of
activities such as tear production, chewing, blinking, focusing vision, balance, hearing and

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facial expression. Named for the Latin word for “bridge,” the pons is the connection between
the midbrain and the medulla.
• Medulla. At the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the brain meets the spinal
cord. The medulla is essential to survival. Functions of the medulla regulate many bodily
activities, including heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide
levels. The medulla produces reflexive activities such as sneezing, vomiting, coughing and
swallowing.

Picture credit: www. anatomy-medicine.com

2. Cerebellum: The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a fist-sized portion of the brain located at the
back of the head, below the temporal and occipital lobes and above the brainstem. Like the
cerebral cortex, it has two hemispheres. The outer portion contains neurons, and the inner
area communicates with the cerebral cortex. Its function is to coordinate voluntary muscle
movements and to maintain posture, balance and equilibrium. New studies are exploring the
cerebellum’s roles in thought, emotions and social behavior, as well as its possible
involvement in addiction, autism and schizophrenia.

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Picture credit: www. healthiack.com

Periphery nervous system (PNS): The Peripheral Nervous System, on the other hand,
consists of all the nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for
transmitting sensory information from the periphery of the body (such as the skin, muscles,
and organs) to the CNS, and transmitting commands from the CNS to the periphery. The
PNS can be further divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous
system.

Figure: Periphery nervous system

Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system has two divisions:

i. Somatic Nervous System

ii. Autonomic Nervous System

Somatic Nervous System

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The main function of the somatic nervous system is to transfer impulses from CNS to skeletal
muscles. The somatic nervous system (SNS) plays an important role in initiating and controlling
nearly all voluntary movements of the body. The SNS is a branch of the peripheral nervous system,
along with the autonomic system (ANS), although they function in different ways.

The main function of the SNS is to control all voluntary movements. There are receptors in the
skin, sense organs (eyes, mouth, nose, and ears), and skeletal muscles which are able to detect
changes in the environment, such as temperature, light, or texture.

The somatic nervous system contains two main types of neurons (nerve cells):

Sensory neurons, also known as afferent neurons, are responsible for carrying information from the
body to the CNS.

Motor neurons, also known as efferent neurons, are responsible for carrying information from the
brain and spinal cord to muscle fibers throughout the body.

Other components of the somatic nervous system include:

Ganglia, which are large groups of nerve cells that are closely related

Glial cells, which don't actively transmit signals but, instead, support nervous system cell functions

Nuclei, or nerve cell clusters that share the same function or connections

Somatic nervous system also consists of

i. Cranial Nerves
ii. Spinal Nerves
Cranial nerves are 12 pairs and they emerge from the brain. Some of the examples of cranial
nerves are optic, olfactory, etc.

Spinal nerves have their point of emergence as the spinal cord. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
They emerge from the spinal cords into dorsal and ventral roots. At the junction of these two roots,
the sensory fibres continue into the dorsal root and the motor fibres into the ventral root.

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Somatic nervous system

The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements, while the autonomic nervous
system controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration.

Reflex Arcs

In addition to controlling voluntary muscle movements, the somatic nervous system is also associated
with involuntary movements known as reflexes (or reflex actions). These reflexes are controlled by
a neural pathway known as a reflex arc.

Reflex arcs include sensory nerves that carry signals to the spinal cord, often connect with
interneurons there, then immediately transmit signals down the motor neurons to the muscles that
triggered the reflex.5

During a reflex, muscles move involuntarily without input from the brain; you don’t have to think
about doing these things. This occurs when a nerve pathway connects directly to the spinal cord.
Examples of reflex actions include:

• Jerking your hand back after accidentally touching a hot pan

• Involuntary jerking when your doctor taps on your knee

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Reflex action

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system relays impulses from the central nervous system to the involuntary
organs and smooth muscles of the body.

Autonomic nervous system

Your autonomic nervous system has the following effects on your body’s systems:

Eyes: Your autonomic nervous system doesn’t involve your vision directly. However, it does manage
the width of your pupils (regulating how much light enters your eyes) and the muscles your eyes use
to focus.

Lacrimal (eyes), nasopharyngeal (nose) and salivary (mouth) glands: Your autonomic nervous system
controls your tear system around your eyes, how your nose runs and when your mouth waters.

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Skin: Your autonomic nervous system controls your body’s ability to sweat. It also controls the
muscles that cause hair to stand up. This reaction is commonly called “goosebumps” or “gooseflesh.”

Heart and circulatory system: The autonomic nervous system regulates how fast and hard your heart
pumps and the width of blood vessels. Those abilities are how your autonomic system helps manage
your heart rate and blood pressure.

Immune system: Your parasympathetic nervous system can trigger reactions from your immune
system. That can happen with infections, asthma attacks and allergic reactions, to name a few.

Lungs: Your autonomic nervous system manages the width of your airway and the network of
passages that carry air into and out of your lungs.

Intestines and colon: Your autonomic nervous system manages the digestion process from your
small intestine to your colon. Your autonomic nervous system also holds the muscles closed at your
rectum until you’re ready to relieve yourself and defecate (poop).

Liver and pancreas: Your autonomic nervous system regulates when your pancreas releases insulin
and other hormones, and when your liver converts different molecules that hold stored energy into
glucose that your cells can use.

Autonomic nervous system divided into two parts –

i. Sympathetic Nervous System

ii. Parasympathetic Nervous System
Sympathetic is the nervous system responsible for your “fight or flight” responses in times of
emergencies. It controls the body’s responses to stress, injuries, or perceived threats. consists of
nerves arising from the spinal cord between the neck and waist region. It prepares the body for
violent actions against abnormal conditions and is generally stimulated by adrenaline.

Parasympathetic is the nervous system responsible for your “rest and digest” responses in times of
non-emergencies. It controls the body’s responses at rest and helps your body regulate its normal
daily organ functions. is located anterior in the head and neck and posterior in the sacral region. It
is mainly involved in the re-establishment of normal conditions when violent action is over.

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Figure: Parasympathetic and Sympathetic nerves

Peripheral Nervous System Functions

Following are the important functions of the peripheral nervous system:

1. The peripheral nervous system connects the brain and the spinal cord to the rest of the body
and the external environment.
2. It regulates internal homeostasis.
3. It can regulate the strength of muscle contractility.
4. It controls the release of secretions from most exocrine glands.

Signal Transmission
Signal transmission in the brain occurs through the firing of nerve cells, or neurons.

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Figure: Representing the process of transmission of information through nerve cells (synaptic
transmission)

A neuron receives inputs from other neurons at its dendrites, integrates the information,
and then generates an electrical impulse, or action potential, that travels down its axon to the
synaptic terminals. At the synaptic terminals, the neuron releases chemical neurotransmitters,
which cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to the
initiation of another action potential in the postsynaptic neuron.
This process of transmitting information from one neuron to another is known as synaptic
transmission and forms the basis of communication within the brain.
Different types of neurotransmitters have different effects on postsynaptic neurons, and
the balance of neurotransmitter levels can influence brain function, including mood, learning,
and memory.
Signal transmission in the brain is also influenced by various forms of synaptic plasticity,
including long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), which can modify the
strength of synaptic connections and contribute to learning and memory processes.

Synaptic complex formation:

The synapse or “gap” is the place where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.
Synapses usually form between axon terminals and dendritic spines, but this is not universally true.
There are also axon-to-axon, dendrite-to-dendrite, and axon-to-cell body synapses. The neuron
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transmitting the signal is called the presynaptic neuron, and the neuron receiving the signal is called
the postsynaptic neuron. Note that these designations are relative to a particular synapse—most
neurons are both presynaptic and postsynaptic.

There are two types of synapses: chemical and electrical.

Chemical synapse and electrical synapse are two types of gaps that occur between nerve cells in
the nervous system. The main difference between chemical synapse and electrical synapse is that in
a chemical synapse, the nerve impulse passes chemically by means of neurotransmitters whereas an
electrical synapse is connected through channel proteins. Nerve impulses pass through the
membrane of the axon as an electrical signal. This electrical signal is converted into a chemical signal
at a chemical synapse. But in an electrical synapse, the impulse can be transmitted as it is by means
of ions. Therefore, electrical synapses are much faster than the chemical synapses.

The action happens at the synapse, the point of communication between two neurons or between a
neuron and a target cell, like a muscle or a gland. At the synapse, the firing of an action potential in
one neuron—the presynaptic, or sending, neuron—causes the transmission of a signal to another
neuron—the postsynaptic, or receiving, neuron—making the postsynaptic neuron either more or less
likely to fire its own action potential.

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Synapsis formation

There are two types of effects (synapsis formation) caused by neurotransmitters: excitation
and inhibition. Inhibition is when a molecule lowers the potential to create a new electrical signal
and excitation is when a molecule raises the potential to create a new electrical signal output.
Calcium is part of the system that releases the neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft. If an electric
signal reaches the synapse, membrane ports are put open and calcium is transferred into the synapse,
creating a high concentration inside. Specific proteins on the membrane of the neurotransmitter
carrier (the bubbles) react on this higher concentration and fuse with the cell membrane, releasing
the neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft.

EEG
EEG stands for electroencephalography, which is a non-invasive method for measuring
the electrical activity of the brain. An EEG records the electrical signals generated by the brain's
neurons as they communicate with each other. The signals are recorded through electrodes
placed on the scalp and the resulting EEG pattern provides information about the synchronized
electrical activity of large populations of neurons.

Figure: Representing EEG

Applications of EEG
Some of the most common applications of EEG are:
• Diagnosis of Epilepsy: EEG is a widely used tool to diagnose epilepsy and other seizure

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disorders. It can detect abnormal electrical activity in the brain, which can help to confirm
the diagnosis and determine the location of the seizure focus.
• Sleep Studies: EEG is often used in sleep studies to evaluate sleep patterns and diagnose
sleep disorders.
• Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI): EEG can be used to control external devices such as
prosthetic limbs or computer software. This is done by detecting specific brain waves
associated with a particular mental state, such as concentration or relaxation.
• Research on Brain Function: EEG is used in research to study brain function during various
activities such as reading, problem-solving, and decision-making. EEG can also be used to
investigate how the brain responds to stimuli such as light, sound, and touch.
• Diagnosis of Brain Disorders: EEG can be used to diagnose a wide range of brain disorders
including dementia, Parkinson's disease, and traumatic brain injury.
• Anesthesia Monitoring: EEG can be used to monitor the depth of anesthesia during surgery
to ensure that the patient remains in a safe and comfortable state.
• Monitoring Brain Activity during Coma: EEG is also used to monitor brain activity in patients
who are in a coma to determine the level of brain function and assess the likelihood of
recovery.

EEG Signals and Types of Brain Activity

EEG signals have unique features that correspond to different types of brain activity.
Here are some of the main types of brain activity that can be detected with EEG:
• Delta waves (0.5-4 Hz): Delta waves are low-frequency waves associated with deep sleep,
infancy, and brain disorders such as brain damage or dementia.
• Theta waves (4-8 Hz): Theta waves are also associated with sleep and relaxation, as well as
meditation and hypnosis. They are also present during memory encoding and retrieval
processes.
• Alpha waves (8-12 Hz): Alpha waves are present when the brain is relaxed and not focused
on any particular task. They are also associated with meditation and creativity.
• Beta waves (12-30 Hz): Beta waves are present when the brain is focused on a task, such as
problem-solving or decision-making. They are also associated with anxiety and stress.
• Gamma waves (30-100 Hz): Gamma waves are associated with high-level cognitive processing,
such as attention, perception, and memory. They are also involved in sensory processing and
motor control.
The analysis of EEG signals can provide valuable information about brain function and
activity, as well as offer insights into the workings of the human mind.

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Figure: Representing EEG signal and the mental state of brain

Robotic Arms for Prosthetics

Robotic arms for prosthetics are advanced prosthetic devices that use robotics technology
to restore functionality to individuals with upper limb amputations.
These devices typically use motors, actuators, and sensors to mimic the movements of a
human arm and hand, allowing the wearer to perform tasks such as reaching, grasping, and
manipulating objects.
Robotic arms for prosthetics can be controlled in a variety of ways, including direct control
through muscle signals (myoelectric control) or brain-machine interfaces, which use electrodes
implanted in the brain or placed on the scalp to detect and interpret brain activity.

Some prosthetic arms also incorporate machine learning algorithms to improve their
performance and adapt to the user's needs over time.

Osseointegration:
Osseointegration is an alternative method of attaching a prosthetic limb to an amputee’s body.
The term osseointegration refers to a direct connection between human bone and an artificial
implant. Osseointegration for amputees involves implanting a metal anchor directly to the bone
of an amputated limb that extends out of the residual limb. A prosthesis is then attached to the
metal extension (abutment). Once integrated, the implant will not easily loosen and can then be

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used as a permanent anchorage point fixed in the bone. Only titanium or titanium-containing
alloys can be integrated into the bone in this way. The prosthesis can then be fixed to the
anchorage point (for example, by using a magnet).
Working of Osseointegration:
There are two primary types of osseointegration procedures currently available for amputees.

Screw shape prosthesis (OPRA): This system uses a screw shape design and the implant length within
the body is relatively short (80mm). Patients will not be able to start wearing a prosthesis on their
abutment fully unsupported for 6-12 months.

Press fit prosthesis (ILP): This system uses an alloy rod with a 3D tripod surface structure with a
longer implant length (140-180mm). The healing process is quicker – some patients are able to start
putting full weight on their prosthesis as soon as 6 weeks.

During rehabilitation you will learn to use your new prosthesis with the aid of crutches. Rehabilitation
can take 3-5 weeks, depending on the patient and whether the surgery was for transfemoral or
transtibial amputation.

Once you’re able to fully support yourself with your new prosthesis, you can resume a normally-
active lifestyle with the exception of avoiding aggressive contact sports. There are no issues with
getting your abutment wet, so bathing and swimming aren’t an issue.

Robotic based Prosthetic arm

Potential Pros of the osseointegration procedure include:

i. Increased use of a prosthesis
ii. More stability in walking and standing
iii. Ability to walk longer distances
iv. Avoiding the skin problems associated with socket prosthetics
v. Easy to remove and replace a prosthesis

Potential cons of osseointegration include:

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i. Surgical procedure with a potentially long recovery time
ii. Need to regularly maintain and clean the interface between the skin and implant
iii. Risk of superficial skin infections or deep tissue infections
iv. Potential for the abutment to bend or break
v. Limitations on participation in high impact sports

Robotic Arm Prosthetic Direct Control through Muscle Signals (myoelectric control)
Myoelectric control of a robotic arm prosthetic involves using the electrical signals
generated by the wearer's remaining muscles to control the movement of the prosthetic. The
system typically involves electrodes placed on the skin over the remaining muscle that are used
to detect and interpret the electrical signals generated by the muscle contractions.

Figure: Representation of myoelectric control of an ankle exoskeleton

When the wearer contracts their muscles, the electrodes detect the electrical signals and
send them to a control unit, which interprets the signals and uses them to control the movement
of the robotic arm. Depending on the specific design, the control unit may use pattern
recognition algorithms to determine which movement the wearer is intending to perform, or the
wearer may use a combination of muscle signals to control specific degrees of freedom in the
prosthetic arm.
Myoelectric control has the advantage of being directly controlled by the user, allowing
for a more intuitive and natural interaction with the prosthetic. It can also provide a high level of
control and precision, as the electrical signals generated by the muscles are unique to each
individual and can be used to perform a wide range of movements.

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However, myoelectric control systems can be complex and may require extensive
rehabilitation and training to use effectively, as well as ongoing maintenance to ensure proper
function. Additionally, the system may not be suitable for individuals with muscle weakness or
other conditions that affect the ability to generate strong electrical signals.

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Robotic Arm Prosthetic by Brain-Machine Interfaces
Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) are a type of technology that allows a user to control a
robotic arm prosthetic directly with their brain activity. The system typically involves electrodes
placed on the scalp or implanted directly into the brain to detect and interpret the user's brain
signals.

Figure: Representing brain-machine interfaces

When the user thinks about moving the prosthetic arm, the electrodes detect the
corresponding brain activity and send the signals to a control unit, which uses algorithms to
interpret the signals and control the movement of the prosthetic. The user can then control the
movement of the prosthetic in real-time by thinking about the desired movement.
BMIs have the advantage of providing a direct and intuitive connection between the
user's brain and the prosthetic, allowing for a high level of control and precision. Additionally,
BMIs can be used to provide sensory feedback to the user, allowing them to experience the
sensation of touch through the prosthetic.
However, BMIs can be complex and invasive systems, requiring surgical implantation
and ongoing maintenance to ensure proper function. Additionally, they may not be suitable for
individuals with conditions that affect brain activity or who are unable to generate strong enough
brain signals to control the prosthetic effectively.
Ongoing research and development is aimed at improving the performance and
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accessibility of BMIs, as well as increasing their ease of use and reliability.
Parkinson’s Disease:
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative movement disorder characterized by hallmar
motor symptoms (e.g., tremor, bradykinesia, and rigidity brought about by progressive loss
of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta.
Symptoms:
Symptoms generally develop slowly over years. The progression of symptoms is often a bit
different from one person to another due to the diversity of the disease. People with PD may
experience:

i. Tremor, mainly at rest and described as pill rolling tremor in hands; other forms of tremor
are possible
ii. Slowness and paucity of movement (called bradykinesia and hypokinesia)
iii. Limb stiffness (rigidity)
iv. Gait and balance problems (postural instability)
v. Depression and other emotional changes
vi. Difficulty swallowing, chewing, and speaking

•
Causes of Parkinson’s disease:
The most prominent signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease occur when nerve cells in the
basal ganglia, an area of the brain that controls movement, become impaired and/or die.
Normally, these nerve cells, or neurons, produce an important brain chemical known as
dopamine. When the neurons die or become impaired, they produce less dopamine, which
causes the movement problems associated with the disease. Scientists still do not know what
causes the neurons to die. People with Parkinson’s disease also lose the nerve endings that
produce norepinephrine, the main chemical messenger of the sympathetic nervous system,
which controls many functions of the body, such as heart rate and blood pressure.
Many brain cells of people with Parkinson’s disease contain Lewy bodies, unusual clumps of the
protein alpha-synuclein. Some cases of Parkinson’s disease appear to be hereditary, and a
few cases can be traced to specific genetic variants.

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Basal ganglia part of brain

Treatment of Parkinson’s disease:
Medicines can help treat the symptoms of Parkinson’s by:

• Increasing the level of dopamine in the brain

• Having an effect on other brain chemicals, such as neurotransmitters, which transfer
information between brain cells
• Helping control non-movement symptoms
The main therapy for Parkinson’s is levodopa. Nerve cells use levodopa to make dopamine to
replenish the brain’s dwindling supply. Usually, people take levodopa along with another
medication called carbidopa. Carbidopa prevents or reduces some of the side effects of levodopa
therapy — such as nausea, vomiting, low blood pressure, and restlessness — and reduces the
amount of levodopa needed to improve symptoms.

Levodopa tablets
Engineering Solutions for Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement and motor
function. There are several engineering solutions aimed at improving the quality of life for
individuals with Parkinson's disease, including:
Pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs):
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In new research, Jeffrey Kordower and his colleagues describe a method for converting
non-neuronal cells into functioning neurons able to take up residence in the brain, send out their
fibrous branches across neural tissue, form synapses, dispense dopamine and restore capacities
compromised by Parkinson’s destruction of dopaminergic cells. The new research describes the
implantation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to replace dopamine-producing neurons
destroyed by Parkinson’s disease. Such cells not only survive the grafting procedure and
manufacture dopamine, but send out their branching fibers through the neural tissue to make
distant connections in the brain, just like their naturally-occurring counterparts.

• Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): DBS involves the implantation of electrodes into specific
regions of the brain to deliver electrical stimulation, which can help to relieve symptoms
such as tremors, stiffness, and difficulty with movement.
• Exoskeletons: Exoskeletons are wearable devices that provide support and assistance for
individuals with mobility issues. Some exoskeletons have been developed specifically for
people with Parkinson's disease, and can help to improve balance, reduce tremors, and
increase overall mobility.
• Telerehabilitation: Telerehabilitation involves the use of telecommunication technology to
provide physical therapy and rehabilitation services to individuals with Parkinson's disease,
without the need for in-person visits to a therapist.
• Smartwatch Applications: Smartwatch applications can be used to monitor symptoms of
Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, and provide reminders and prompts for medication and
exercise.
These engineering solutions have the potential to significantly improve the quality of life
for individuals with Parkinson's disease, and ongoing research and development is aimed at
improving their effectiveness and accessibility. However, it is important to note that these
technologies are not a cure for Parkinson's disease and should be used in conjunction with other
forms of treatment and care.

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Figure: Representing typical appearance of Parkinson’s disease

Artificial Brain
An artificial brain, also known as an artificial general intelligence (AGI) or a synthetic brain,
refers to a hypothetical machine that could possess cognitive abilities similar to those of a human
brain. The idea behind artificial brains is to create a machine that can learn, reason, and solve
problems in the same way that humans do. However, the development of artificial brains is still
in the early stages and there are many technical, ethical, and philosophical challenges that need
to be addressed.

Figure: Representing the idea of AGI

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Currently, artificial intelligence (AI) systems are designed to perform specific tasks, such
as image recognition, speech recognition, or decision making, but they are not capable of general
intelligence. This is because AI systems are designed to operate within a narrow domain and lack
the ability to learn from new experiences, generalize from past experiences, or reason about the
world in the same way that humans do.
The development of artificial brains requires a deep understanding of the human
brain and its functions, as well as advanced computer science and engineering skills. Researchers
are working on creating artificial brain models that can simulate the complex processes of human
cognition and adapt to new situations.
Despite the significant challenges, some experts believe that artificial brains are a
realistic possibility and that they have the potential to revolutionize the field of AI and bring
about new technological advancements. However, others argue that it is unlikely that we will
ever be able to recreate the human brain in a machine, due to the complexity and intricacy of the
brain's structure and functions.
In conclusion, the development of artificial brains is an exciting and rapidly advancing
field of research that has the potential to change the world in many ways. However, it is
important to approach this research with caution and to consider the ethical and philosophical
implications of creating a machine that can think like a human.

Eye as a Camera System:

The human eye can be analogized to a camera system, as both the eye and a camera
capture light and convert it into an image.
The main components of the eye that correspond to a camera system include:

Eye structure and its parts

• The Cornea: This dome-shaped layer protects your eye from elements that could cause
damage to the inner parts of the eye. There are several layers of the cornea, creating a tough
layer that provides additional protection.This transparent outer layer of the eye functions
like a camera lens, bending light to focus it onto the retina. The cornea also allows the eye
to properly focus on light more effectively.

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• The Iris: The iris is the area of the eye that contains the pigment which gives the eye its color.
This area surrounds the pupil, and uses the dilator pupillae muscles to widen or close the
pupil. This allows the eye to take in more or less light depending on how bright it is around
you. If it is too bright, the iris will shrink the pupil so that they eye can focus more effectively.
• Sclera: The sclera is commonly referred to as the “whites” of the eye. This is a smooth, white
layer on the outside, but the inside is brown and contains grooves that help the tendons of
the eye attach properly. The sclera provides structure and safety for the inner workings of the
eye, but is also flexible so that the eye can move to seek out objects as necessary.
• The Pupil: The pupil appears as a black dot in the middle of the eye. This black area is
actually a hole that takes in light so the eye can focus on the objects in front of it.The pupil
functions like the aperture in a camera, adjusting the size to control the amount of light
entering the eye.
• Conjunctiva gland: These are layers of mucus which help keep the outside of the eye moist.
If the eye dries out it can become itchy and painful. It can also become more susceptible to
damage or infection. If the conjunctiva glands become infected the patient will develop “pink
eye.”
• Lens: The lens sits directly behind the pupil. This is a clear layer that focuses the light the
pupil takes in. It is held in place by the ciliary muscles, which allow the lens to change shape
depending on the amount of light that hits it so it can be properly focused.
• The Retina: The retina functions like the camera film or sensor, capturing the light and
converting it into electrical signals that are sent to the brain.
• The Optic Nerve: The optic nerve functions like the cable connecting the camera to
a computer, transmitting the electrical signals from the retina to the brain.
• Vitreous humor (gel): The vitreous humor is the gel located in the back of the eye which
helps it hold its shape. This gel takes in nutrients from the ciliary body, aqueous humor and
the retinal vessels so the eye can remain healthy. When debris finds its way into the vitreous
humor, it causes the eye to perceive “floaters,” or spots that move across the vision area that
cannot be attributed to objects in the environment.

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Figure: Comparing camera and anatomy of eye

In both the eye and a camera, the captured light is transformed into an image by the lens
and the light-sensitive component. The eye processes the image further, allowing for visual
perception, while a camera stores the image for later use.
It's important to note that the eye is much more complex than a camera and has several
additional functions, such as adjusting for different levels of light and adjusting focus, that are
not found in a camera. The eye also has the ability to perceive depth and color, as well as adjust
to movements and provide a continuous, real-time image to the brain.

Architecture of Rod and Cone Cells

Figure: Representation of photoreceptor cells (Rods and Cones)

Rod Cells
Rod cells are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that are responsible for detecting
light and transmitting signals to the brain for the perception of vision, especially in low light
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conditions. They contain a protein called rhodopsin that absorbs light and triggers a chain of
events leading to the activation of neural signals. Rods are more sensitive to light than cone cells
but do not distinguish color as well.

Cone Cells
Cone cells are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that are responsible for color
vision and visual acuity (sharpness of vision). There are three types of cone cells, each
containing a different photopigment sensitive to different wavelengths of light (red, green, and
blue), which allow for the perception of color. Cones are less sensitive to light than rod cells but
provide better visual acuity and color discrimination. They are concentrated in the fovea, the
central part of the retina responsible for detailed and sharp vision.
Difference between Rodes and Cones:

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Optical Corrections
Optical corrections refer to devices or techniques used to improve or correct vision
problems caused by a refractive error in the eye.
Refractive errors occur when light entering the eye is not properly focused on the retina,
leading to blurred vision. There are several types of refractive errors, including:
• Myopia (nearsightedness): Light is focused in front of the retina, making distant objects
appear blurry.
• Hyperopia (farsightedness): Light is focused behind the retina, making near objects
appear blurry.
• Astigmatism: Light is not focused evenly on the retina, leading to blurred or distorted
vision.
The most common optical corrections include:
• Eyeglasses: Glasses with corrective lenses can be used to refocus light onto the retina,
improving vision.
• Contact lenses: Corrective lenses in the form of contacts sit directly on the cornea and
work similarly to eyeglasses.
• Refractive surgery: Surgical procedures, such as LASIK and PRK, can reshape the cornea
to correct refractive errors.
Optical corrections can greatly improve visual acuity and quality of life for people with
refractive errors. However, it is important to have regular eye exams to determine the appropriate
correction and monitor eye health.

Cataract

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Figure: Representing cataract

A cataract is a clouding of the lens of the eye that affects vision. The lens, located behind
the iris and pupil, normally allows light to pass through to the retina and produces clear, sharp
images. However, as we age or due to other factors, the proteins in the lens can clump together
and cause the lens to become opaque, leading to vision problems.
Symptoms
Symptoms of a cataract include blurred or hazy vision, increased sensitivity to glare and bright
lights, faded or yellowed colors, and double vision in one eye. Cataracts can also cause frequent
changes in prescription for eyeglasses or contacts.
i. Other symptoms of cataract are:
ii. Blurred or cloudy vision
iii. Trouble distinguishing colors
iv. Sensitive to bright lights
v. Halos around lights
vi. Double vision
vii. Blurred vision during driving
viii. Frequent eyeglass or contact prescription changes
ix. Cloud or yellowish hue on the lens
Cataract surgery is a common and safe procedure to remove the cloudy lens and replace
it with an artificial lens. The surgery is typically performed on an outpatient basis and most people
experience improved vision within a few days after the procedure.
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In conclusion, cataracts can significantly affect vision, but surgical removal and
replacement with an artificial lens can restore clear vision and improve quality of life. Regular
eye exams can help detect cataracts early and prevent vision loss.

Types of cataracts:

Nuclear cataract:

A nuclear cataract, also called a nuclear sclerotic cataract, is the clouding and hardening of the central
part of the eye’s lens. Nuclear cataracts progress slowly over time and are age-related. They can
develop in one or both eyes.

Traumatic cataracts

Serious eye injuries can damage your lens and cause a cataract. The cataract could form soon after
the injury — or it could form many years later.

Radiation cataracts

Some types of radiation can cause cataracts. This includes ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun and
radiation treatment for cancer.

Pediatric cataracts

Children can get cataracts, too. They can be born with cataracts (congenital cataracts) or develop
them later on.

Cataracts in children are rare, and they’re usually genetic — meaning they run in families. They can
also happen because of serious problems during pregnancy or because of illnesses during childhood,
like uveitis or tumors in the eye.

Secondary cataracts:

After cataract surgery, it’s possible to develop scar tissue in the eye — which can make your vision
cloudy again. This is called a secondary cataract. Other names for it are after-cataract or posterior
capsule opacification. Secondary cataracts are common.

Radiation cataract:

Radiation cataracts can form after a person undergoes radiation treatment for cancer.

Treatment of cataracts: Three main types of cataract treatments.

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Phacoemulsification

Phacoemulsification (phaco) is the most common type of cataract removal procedure performed
today. An ultrasonic device vibrating at a very high speed is inserted into the eye through a very tiny
incision.

This device emits ultrasound waves to soften and break up the lens carefully, allowing it to be
removed by suction.

The surgeon then inserts an artificial lens into the eye. Depending on the type of incision used,
only one stitch (or none at all) may be required to close the wound. This cataract treatment is also
called "small incision cataract surgery."

Phacoemulsification surgery

Intracapsular Cataract Surgery

During this rare procedure, the entire lens and its capsule are removed through a large incision.
Surgeons may reserve this method for extremely advanced cataract formation or trauma.

Laser cataract surgery:

Laser cataract surgery is an outpatient surgical procedure, meaning you can go home the same day.
Steps in the procedure include:

• Incision: A femtosecond laser is used to make an incision in the eye with the assistance of
built-in optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging, which produces a magnified, high-
resolution image of your eye.
• Cataract fragmentation: A femtosecond laser may be used to "soften" the cataract by
breaking it into small pieces prior to the use of ultrasound vibration. This is helpful for
dense cataracts to reduce the amount of ultrasound vibration needed.

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• Phacoemulsification: Ultrasound vibration is delivered at a high speed to dissolve the
cataract into tiny fragments that are gently suctioned out of the eye.
• Capsulotomy: A circular opening is created within the capsule (that holds the lens) to allow
access to the cataract. When this step is completed with the femtosecond laser it allows for
a precise circular shape, size, and centering over the cataract and precise placement of the
new lens.2
• Replacement: A new lens is inserted into the existing capsule.

Incision, cataract fragmentation, and capsulotomy are done with a laser device.

Lens Materials
The artificial lenses used in cataract surgery or for vision correction can be made of a
variety of materials, each with its own unique properties and benefits. The most common lens
materials include:
• Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA): PMMA is a type of plastic that has been used for many
years in artificial lenses. It is a durable and affordable material, but does not have the
ability to flex and adjust focus like the natural lens.
• Silicone: Silicone is a soft, flexible material that is resistant to cracking and breaking. It is
often used in phakic intraocular lenses (IOLs), which are implanted in front of the natural
lens.
• Acrylic: Acrylic is a lightweight, clear material that is similar in properties to PMMA. It
is often used in foldable IOLs, which can be inserted through a smaller incision.
• Hydrophobic acrylic: Hydrophobic acrylic is a type of acrylic material that has a special
surface treatment that helps to reduce glare and halos around lights.
• Hydrophilic acrylic: Hydrophilic acrylic is a type of acrylic material that is designed to be
more compatible with the natural fluid in the eye, reducing the risk of vision-threatening
complications.
The choice of lens material will depend on several factors, including the patient's
individual needs, the surgeon's preference, and the potential risks and benefits of each material.
Your eye doctor can provide guidance on which lens material may be best for you.

Bionic Eye or Artificial Eye

A bionic eye, also known as a retinal implant, is a type of prosthetic device that is surgically
implanted into the eye to help restore vision to people who have lost their sight due to certain
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conditions such as retinitis pigmentosa or age-related macular degeneration.

Figure: Photo of a bionic eye

The device typically consists of a camera, a processor, and an electrode array that is
attached to the retina. The camera captures images and sends signals to the processor, which then
transmits electrical stimulation to the electrodes in the retina to stimulate the remaining healthy
cells and restore vision. The restored vision is not perfect, but it can help people with vision loss
to perform daily tasks more easily and safely.

Materials Used in Bionic Eye

The materials used in a bionic eye can vary depending on the specific device and
manufacturer. However, some of the common materials used in bionic eye technology include:
• Silicon or other semiconducting materials for the camera and the electrode array.
• Biocompatible materials for the casing of the device and the electrode array, such as
titanium or titanium alloys, to minimize the risk of infection and rejection by the body.
• Conductive materials, such as platinum, iridium, or gold, for the electrodes in the array to
provide efficient electrical stimulation to the retina.
• Polymers, such as silicone or polyimide, for insulation and protection of the electrodes
and other components.
• Optical materials, such as glass or acrylic, for the lens of the camera.
• Biocompatible and flexible materials for the electrical connections between the camera
and the processing unit and between the processing unit and the electrode array.
In addition to these materials, advanced computer algorithms and machine learning
techniques are also used to improve the accuracy and reliability of the bionic eye technology.

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Working of Bionic Eye

Figure: Representing working of a bionic eye

A bionic eye typically works by capturing images with a small camera and transmitting the
information to a processing unit that is attached to the eye. The processing unit then converts the
visual information into electrical signals and sends them to an electrode array that is surgically
implanted onto the retina. The electrodes stimulate the remaining healthy cells in the retina, which
then sends signals to the brain to create the perception of vision.
The restored vision is not perfect, but it can help people with vision loss to perform daily
tasks more easily and safely. The amount and quality of vision that can be restored varies
depending on the individual and the type of bionic eye being used. Some bionic eyes only restore
basic visual shapes and patterns, while others can provide more detailed vision.
The bionic eye is powered by a battery that is typically implanted behind the ear. The
battery is recharged through a device that is held near the eye, which transmits power wirelessly
to the battery. The device is typically rechargeable and can be used for several years before it
needs to be replaced.

Heart as a Pump System:

Architecture
The heart is a complex pump system that circulates blood throughout the body.

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Figure: Representing the chambers of heart. Image courtesy: biologybrain.com

It consists of four chambers: the right atrium, the left atrium, the right ventricle, and the
left ventricle. Blood enters the right atrium from the body and is pumped into the right ventricle,
which then pumps the blood to the lungs for oxygenation. Oxygenated blood returns to the heart
and enters the left atrium, which pumps the blood into the left ventricle. The left ventricle then
pumps the oxygenated blood out to the rest of the body.
Between each chamber, there are one-way valves that ensure the blood flows in the
correct direction and prevent backflow. The heart is also surrounded by the pericardium, a sac
that contains a small amount of fluid and helps to protect and lubricate the heart as it beats.

Figure: Representing circulation of blood

The Heart Beat
The heart's pumping action is controlled by a complex network of electrical and chemical
signals, which generate the rhythm of the heartbeat.

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Figure: Representation of electrical system of the heart

An electrical stimulus is generated in a special part of the heart muscle called the sinus
node. It's also called the sinoatrial node (SA node). The sinus node is a small mass of special
tissue in the right upper chamber of the heart (right atrium). In an adult, the sinus node sends
out a regular electrical pulse 60 to 100 times per minute. This electrical pulse travels down
through the conduction pathways and causes the heart's lower chambers (ventricles) to contract
and pump out blood. The right and left atria are stimulated first and contract to push blood
from the atria into the ventricles. The ventricles then contract to push blood out into the blood
vessels of the body.

Electrical Signalling – ECG Monitoring and Heart Related Issues

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Figure: ECG waves and their relation to heart nodes

The heart's pumping action is controlled by electrical signaling, which generates the
rhythm of the heartbeat. This electrical signaling can be monitored using an electrocardiogram
(ECG), which records the electrical activity of the heart and provides important information
about the heart's function.
An ECG measures the electrical signals produced by the heart as it beats and generates a
trace or waveform that reflects the electrical activity of the heart. This trace can be used to diagnose
heart conditions and monitor the heart's function.

Some common heart-related issues that can be diagnosed or monitored using an ECG
include:
i. Arrhythmias: Abnormalities in the heart's rhythm or rate can be detected using an ECG.
ii. Heart disease: Changes in the heart's electrical activity can indicate the presence of heart
disease, such as coronary artery disease or heart attacks.
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iii. Heart attack: An ECG can help diagnose a heart attack by detecting changes in the heart's
electrical activity that indicate a lack of blood flow to the heart.
Overall, the ECG is a useful tool for diagnosing and monitoring heart-related issues and
helps to provide important information about the heart's function and health.

Reasons for Blockages of Blood Vessels

Figure: (A) shows damage (dead heart muscle) caused by a heart attack, (B) shows the coronary
artery with plaque buildup and a blood clot.
Image Courtesy: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/heart-attack/causes
Blockages in blood vessels, also known as arterial blockages or atherosclerosis, can occur
for several reasons:
i. High cholesterol levels: Excessive amounts of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in
the blood can lead to the formation of plaque in the blood vessels, which can narrow or
block them.
ii. High blood pressure: Over time, high blood pressure can cause damage to the blood
vessels, leading to the formation of plaque and blockages.
iii. Smoking: Smoking can damage the inner walls of blood vessels and promote the buildup
of plaque, leading to blockages.
iv. Diabetes: People with uncontrolled diabetes are at a higher risk of developing blockages
in their blood vessels, due to damage to the blood vessels from high levels of glucose.
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v. Age: As people age, the blood vessels can become stiff and less flexible, increasing the
risk of blockages.
vi. Genetics: Some people may be predisposed to developing blockages in their blood
vessels due to genetic factors.
vii. Poor diet: A diet high in saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol can increase the risk of
developing blockages in the blood vessels.
The blockages in blood vessels can have serious health consequences, such as heart
attacks and stroke. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including eating a healthy diet, exercising
regularly, and avoiding smoking, can help reduce the risk of developing blockages in blood vessels.

Design of Stents
Stents are small, metal mesh devices that are used to treat blockages in blood vessels.
They are typically used in procedures such as angioplasty, where a balloon catheter is used to
open up a blocked blood vessel and a stent is placed to keep it open.

Figure: Representing the working of balloon stent and self-expanding stent

The design of stents can vary depending on the type of stent and the specific medical
condition it is used to treat. Some common design features of stents include:

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i. Shape: Stents can be designed in a variety of shapes, including cylindrical, helical, and
spiraled, to match the shape of the blood vessel and provide adequate support.
ii. Material: Stents can be made of different materials, including stainless steel, cobalt-
chromium, and nitinol (a type of metal that is flexible and can return to its original shape after
being expanded).
iii. Coating: Stents can be coated with different materials to prevent blood clots from forming
and reduce the risk of restenosis (recurrent blockage of the blood vessel).
iv. Expansion mechanism: Stents can be designed to expand in different ways, such as by balloon
inflation or self-expansion, depending on the type of stent and the specific medical
condition it is used to treat.
Overall, the design of stents plays an important role in their effectiveness and safety. Stents
must be designed to provide adequate support to the blood vessel, prevent restenosis, and
minimize the risk of complications such as blood clots.

Pace Makers
A pacemaker is a small device that is surgically implanted in the chest to regulate the
heartbeat. It is used to treat heart rhythm disorders, such as bradycardia (a slow heartbeat) or
arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms), by delivering electrical impulses to the heart to regulate
its rhythm.

Figure: Pacemaker

The basic design of a pacemaker consists of:

i. Generator: The generator is the main component of the pacemaker and contains a battery
and electronic circuitry to generate and control the electrical impulses.
ii. Leads: Leads are thin wires that connect the generator to the heart and carry the electrical
impulses from the generator to the heart.

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iii. Electrodes: The electrodes are located at the end of the leads and are used to deliver the
electrical impulses to the heart.

Pacemakers can be designed to work in different ways, including:

• Single-chamber pacemaker: A single-chamber pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to
either the right atrium or the right ventricle of the heart to regulate its rhythm.
• Dual-chamber pacemaker: A dual-chamber pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to
both the right atrium and the right ventricle of the heart to regulate its rhythm.
• Biventricular pacemaker: A biventricular pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to both
ventricles of the heart to coordinate their contractions and improve heart function in
people with heart failure.

Figure: Representing the different types of pacemakers

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Construction of a Pacemaker
The construction of a pacemaker involves the use of high-quality materials and
specialized manufacturing processes to ensure their safety and reliability. Materials used in the
construction of pacemakers include:
i. Medical-grade plastics: Medical-grade plastics, such as polycarbonate, are used to construct
the exterior of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal
components.
ii. Metals: Metals, such as stainless steel and titanium, are used in the construction of the leads
and electrodes to ensure their durability and long-lasting performance.
iii. Electronic components: Electronic components, such as microprocessors, batteries, and
capacitors, are used to control the delivery of the electrical impulses and to provide
power to the device.
iv. Adhesives: Adhesives, such as cyanoacrylate and epoxy, are used to secure the components
of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal components.
The manufacturing process for pacemakers includes multiple quality control measures to
ensure their safety and reliability. This includes testing of individual components and final
assembly testing to verify the proper operation of the device before it is released for use.

Defibrillators

Figure: Representing defibrillator

A defibrillator is a medical device that delivers an electric shock to the heart to restore its
normal rhythm in cases of cardiac arrest or other life-threatening heart rhythm disorders.
Defibrillators can be external (placed on the chest) or internal (implanted within the body).

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The basic design of a defibrillator consists of:
• Power source: The power source, typically a battery, provides energy to deliver the
electric shock to the heart.
• Electrodes: The electrodes are placed on the chest and deliver the electric shock to
the heart.
• Circuitry: The circuitry in the defibrillator controls the delivery of the electric shock,
including the timing, strength, and duration of the shock.
• Display: A display on the defibrillator provides information about the heart rhythm,
battery life, and other relevant information.
Automated External Defibrillators
External defibrillators, also known as automated external defibrillators (AEDs), are
designed for use by laypeople and are commonly found in public places such as airports,
shopping centers, and schools. They are relatively simple in design and typically have voice
prompts and visual cues to guide the user through the process of delivering the electric shock.
Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators
Internal defibrillators, also known as implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs), are
surgically implanted within the body and are used to treat people with a high risk of sudden
cardiac arrest. They are typically more complex in design, including features such as continuous
monitoring of the heart rhythm, and automatic delivery of shocks when necessary.

Construction of defibrillators
The construction of defibrillators involves the use of high-quality materials and specialized
manufacturing processes to ensure their safety and reliability.
Materials Used
Materials used in the construction of defibrillators include:
i. Medical-grade plastics: Medical-grade plastics, such as polycarbonate, are used to construct
the exterior of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal
components.
ii. Metals: Metals, such as stainless steel and titanium, are used in the construction of the leads
and electrodes to ensure their durability and long-lasting performance.
iii. Electronic components: Electronic components, such as microprocessors, batteries,
capacitors, and high-voltage transformers, are used to control the delivery of the electrical
impulses and to provide power to the device.
iv. Adhesives: Adhesives, such as cyanoacrylate and epoxy, are used to secure the components
of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal components.

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Biology for engineers
The manufacturing process for defibrillators includes multiple quality control measures to
ensure their safety and reliability. This includes testing of individual components and final
assembly testing to verify the proper operation of the device before it is released for use.
Basic Design
The basic design of a defibrillator consists of:
i. Power source: The power source, typically a battery, provides energy to deliver the
electrical impulses to the heart.
ii. Electrodes: The electrodes are placed on the chest and deliver the electrical impulses to
the heart to restore normal rhythm.
iii. Circuitry: The circuitry in the defibrillator controls the delivery of the electrical impulses,
including the timing, strength, and duration of the impulses.
iv. Display: A display on the defibrillator provides information about the heart rhythm,
battery life, and other relevant information.

Artificial Heart
An artificial heart is a device that is designed to replace the functions of a damaged or
failing heart. It can be used as a temporary measure to support a patient while they are waiting
for a heart transplant, or as a permanent solution for people who are not eligible for a heart
transplant.

Figure: Schematic representation of artificial heart

There are two main types of artificial hearts: total artificial hearts and heart assist devices.
A total artificial heart is a self-contained device that completely replaces the functions of the natural
heart. It is used as a bridge to transplant, meaning it provides temporary support to a patient while
they are waiting for a heart transplant. Heart assist devices, on the other hand, are devices that
are surgically implanted into the heart and work alongside the natural heart to support its
functions.
While these devices are still in the early stages of development, they have the potential to
greatly improve the survival and well-being of people with heart disease.
Biology for engineers
 Module 3
ADAPTATION OF ANATOMICAL PRINCIPLES FOR
BIOENGINEERING DESIGNS
Biology for engineers

Biology for engineers