Assignment 2

a) Explain factors affecting semiconductors.

Ans - Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductivity between that of conductors
(such as metals) and insulators (such as plastics). They are the fundamental building blocks of
modern electronics, including microprocessors, memory chips, and solar cells. The properties of
semiconductors are affected by a variety of factors, including:
1. Temperature: Semiconductors become more conductive at higher temperatures, but
their performance can be affected if the temperature is too high or too low. Extreme
temperatures can cause the material to break down or become permanently damaged.
2. Doping: Doping is the process of adding impurities to a semiconductor to modify its
electrical properties. The type and concentration of dopants can affect the conductivity,
mobility, and other characteristics of the material.
3. Crystal structure: The crystal structure of a semiconductor determines its electronic
properties, such as band gap, which is the energy required to excite an electron from the
valence band to the conduction band. Different crystal structures have different band
gaps, which affect the material's ability to conduct electricity.
4. Electric field: The behavior of a semiconductor can be affected by an external electric
field. For example, a semiconductor can be made to conduct electricity more efficiently
by applying a voltage across it.
5. Light: Some semiconductors can be designed to absorb or emit light, making them
useful in applications such as solar cells, LEDs, and photodiodes. The efficiency of these
devices is affected by the semiconductor's ability to absorb or emit light.
6. Mechanical stress: Semiconductors can be affected by mechanical stress, which can
change their electronic properties. This is particularly important in microelectronics,
where the size of the semiconductor devices is small and stresses can cause significant
changes in their behavior.

b) Explain thermocouple and its working principle.

Ans - A thermocouple is a temperature sensor that works based on the principle of Seebeck
effect. It consists of two dissimilar metal wires or thermoelements joined together at one end,
which is called the measuring junction. The other end of each wire is connected to a measuring
instrument, such as a voltmeter or thermocouple meter.
When the measuring junction of a thermocouple is exposed to a temperature gradient, a voltage
is generated between the two thermoelements due to the difference in their
temperature-dependent electromotive force (EMF) values. This voltage is proportional to the
temperature difference between the measuring junction and the other end of the wires.
The working principle of a thermocouple can be explained in the following steps:
1. Two dissimilar metals, such as copper and iron, are joined together to form a
thermoelement.
2. The two ends of the thermoelement are connected to a measuring instrument, which can
detect and measure the voltage generated between them.
3. When the measuring junction of the thermocouple is exposed to a temperature gradient,
a voltage is generated due to the difference in the thermoelectric properties of the two
metals.
4. The voltage generated by the thermocouple can be measured and used to calculate the
temperature of the measuring junction using a reference table or equation that relates
the voltage to the temperature.

c) Explain desirable properties of fuse materials.

Ans - Fuses are important safety devices used to protect electrical equipment and circuits from
overcurrent and short circuits. The fuse material is an essential component of a fuse, and its
properties directly affect the performance and reliability of the device. Some of the desirable
properties of fuse materials are:
1. High melting point: The fuse material should have a high melting point to prevent the
fuse from melting or vaporizing under normal operating conditions. This ensures that the
fuse remains intact and does not break or fail prematurely.
2. Low thermal expansion: The fuse material should have a low thermal expansion
coefficient to minimize the risk of cracking or breaking due to thermal stress. This
property ensures that the fuse remains stable and reliable under different operating
conditions.
3. High electrical conductivity: The fuse material should have high electrical conductivity to
ensure that it can carry the required current without excessive heating or voltage drop.
This property ensures that the fuse operates efficiently and reliably.
4. Low toxicity: The fuse material should be non-toxic and non-hazardous to human health
and the environment. This property is important because fuses are often used in
residential, commercial, and industrial settings where people may come into contact
with them.
5. Good mechanical properties: The fuse material should have good mechanical properties,
such as strength, toughness, and ductility, to withstand the stresses and strains of
normal use and handling. This property ensures that the fuse remains intact and does
not break or fail prematurely.
6. Availability: The fuse material should be readily available and cost-effective to produce.
This ensures that the fuse can be produced in large quantities at a reasonable cost,
making it a viable and accessible solution for circuit protection.

d) Explain the difference between valence band conduction bands.

Ans - The valence band and the conduction band are two of the energy bands that exist in
materials. They are important in determining the electrical and optical properties of materials.
The valence band is the highest energy band in a solid material that is fully occupied by
electrons. It represents the electrons that are tightly bound to the atoms in the material and are
not free to move around. These electrons are involved in chemical bonding and determine the
chemical properties of the material.
The conduction band is the lowest energy band in a solid material that is not fully occupied by
electrons. Electrons in the conduction band are not bound to any particular atom and are free to
move throughout the material. These electrons are responsible for electrical conduction in the
material.
The energy difference between the valence band and the conduction band is known as the
bandgap. In insulators, the band gap is large, which means that it is difficult for electrons to
move from the valence band to the conduction band, and the material does not conduct
electricity easily. In conductors, the valence band and conduction band overlap, which means
that electrons can easily move from the valence band to the conduction band, and the material
conducts electricity well. In semiconductors, the band gap is small, which allows electrons to
move from the valence band to the conduction band more easily than in an insulator but not as
easily as in a conductor. This makes them useful in electronic devices such as transistors and
solar cells.

e) Explain the following:

(i) Intrinsic semiconductor - An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor
material that has no impurities added intentionally. It is characterized by the
presence of an equal number of free electrons and holes, which means that its
electrical conductivity is relatively low. Examples of intrinsic semiconductors
include pure silicon and germanium.

(ii) Extrinsic semiconductor - And extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor

material that has impurities added intentionally to modify its electrical properties.
This process is called doping. By doping, the concentration of free electrons or
holes can be increased, leading to a significant increase in the electrical
conductivity of the material. Extrinsic semiconductors are commonly used in
electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits.

(iii) N-type semiconductor - An N-type semiconductor is an extrinsic semiconductor

that has been doped with impurities that increase the concentration of free
electrons in the material. The impurity atoms used for N-type doping, such as
phosphorus or arsenic, have one more valence electron than the semiconductor
atoms, creating an excess of negatively charged electrons. This excess of
electrons makes the material a good conductor of electricity.
 (iv) P-type semiconductor - A P-type semiconductor is an extrinsic semiconductor
that has been doped with impurities that create an excess of holes in the
material. The impurity atoms used for P-type doping, such as boron or aluminum,
have one less valence electron than the semiconductor atoms, creating a
deficiency of negatively charged electrons. This deficiency of electrons creates a
vacancy called a hole, which behaves like a positive charge and can move
through the material.

(v) Doping - Doping is the process of intentionally adding impurities to a

semiconductor material to modify its electrical properties. The impurities, called
dopants, are atoms of elements such as phosphorus, boron, arsenic, or
aluminum, which have different numbers of valence electrons than the
semiconductor atoms. By adding dopants, the concentration of free electrons or
holes can be increased, resulting in a significant change in the electrical
conductivity of the material. The type of doping used determines whether the
semiconductor becomes an N-type or P-type semiconductor. The amount of
dopant added also affects the properties of the material, such as its carrier
concentration and mobility. Doping is an essential process in the fabrication of
electronic devices using semiconductor materials.

f) Draw the B-H curve for magnetic material used in electrical machines and explain the
following:
(i)hysteresis loss, (ii) coercive force (iii) eddy current loss
Ans - The B-H curve, also known as the magnetization curve, represents the relationship
between magnetic flux density (B) and magnetic field strength (H) in a magnetic material. The
B-H curve for a magnetic material used in electrical machines is shown below:
(i) Hysteresis loss: The area enclosed by the B-H curve represents the energy stored in the
magnetic material. As the magnetic field strength is varied, the magnetic material undergoes a
process called hysteresis, where some of the energy is lost in the form of heat due to the
internal friction between the magnetic domains. This energy loss is called hysteresis loss and is
represented by the shaded area inside the loop in the B-H curve. Hysteresis loss is an important
factor to consider in the design of electrical machines as it can lead to overheating and reduced
efficiency.

(ii) Coercive force: The coercive force is the measure of the magnetic field strength required to
reduce the residual magnetism in the material to zero. It is the negative value of the magnetic
field strength at which the B-H curve intersects the H-axis. The coercive force determines the
ability of the magnetic material to resist demagnetization and is an important parameter in the
design of permanent magnets and magnetic cores.

(iii) Eddy current loss: Eddy current loss is a type of energy loss that occurs in the magnetic core
of electrical machines due to the induced currents flowing in the core. As the magnetic flux in
the core changes with time, it creates a voltage that induces eddy currents to flow in the core
material. These eddy currents create heat, which results in energy loss and reduced efficiency.
The magnitude of the eddy current loss depends on the material's conductivity, the thickness of
the core, and the frequency of the alternating magnetic field. Eddy current loss can be
minimized by using laminated magnetic cores with insulated layers between them to reduce the
eddy currents' flow path.

g) State the advantages for ferrites compared to hard and soft magnetic materials.
Ans - Ferrites are a type of ceramic material that has unique magnetic properties, which make
them useful in various applications. The advantages of ferrites over hard and soft magnetic
materials include:
1. High resistivity: Ferrites have high electrical resistivity, which means that they generate
less heat and are more efficient in high-frequency applications. This is because the
electrical resistance of the material reduces the eddy current loss, which can result in
significant energy loss in other magnetic materials.
2. Low eddy current loss: Due to their high resistivity, ferrites generate less eddy current
loss than soft magnetic materials. This property makes them ideal for use in
high-frequency transformers and other magnetic components where reducing energy
losses is critical.
3. Good thermal stability: Ferrites can operate at high temperatures without experiencing
significant changes in their magnetic properties. This property makes them suitable for
use in applications that require high-temperature stability, such as in high-frequency
power supplies, where heat is generated.
4. Corrosion resistance: Ferrites are resistant to corrosion, making them useful in
environments where other magnetic materials may degrade due to corrosion. This
property makes ferrites suitable for use in marine environments and other harsh
conditions.
5. Low cost: Ferrites are relatively inexpensive compared to other magnetic materials, such
as rare-earth magnets. This property makes them suitable for use in high-volume
applications where cost is a significant consideration.

h) Describe the solders and fluxes to be used for joining an aluminum cable.
And - When joining an aluminum cable, it is essential to use appropriate solders and fluxes to
ensure a reliable and strong joint. Aluminum has a high thermal conductivity and a tenacious
oxide layer that can make it challenging to create a strong bond with other materials. Therefore,
specialized solders and fluxes are used to help overcome these challenges.
Soldiers:
Aluminum cables are usually joined using aluminum solder or brazing alloys, which are made up
of a combination of aluminum, silicon, and other metals. The aluminum-silicon combination
creates a eutectic alloy with a low melting point that is ideal for joining aluminum parts.
Aluminum solder can be applied using a variety of techniques, including torch, furnace, or
induction heating.
Fluxes:
Fluxes are used in the soldering process to help clean the surface of the aluminum and remove
the oxide layer that can interfere with the bonding process. Fluxes also help to prevent the
reformation of the oxide layer during the soldering process. Fluxes can be classified as active or
inert. Active fluxes contain chemicals that react with the oxide layer, while inert fluxes work by
displacing the oxide layer. Active fluxes are usually preferred for soldering aluminum cables due
to their ability to remove oxide layers effectively. Borax-based fluxes are commonly used for
aluminum soldering applications.

i) Explain photovoltaic cells and their applications.

Ans - A photovoltaic (PV) cell, also known as a solar cell, is a semiconductor device that
converts sunlight directly into electrical energy. The process of converting light into electricity is
known as the photovoltaic effect, which occurs when photons (light particles) strike the PV
cell's surface and release electrons from the cell's semiconductor material. These electrons are
then collected by electrodes within the cell, creating a flow of electrical current.
Photovoltaic cells have numerous applications, including:

1. Residential and commercial solar power systems: PV cells are used to produce
electricity from sunlight in both residential and commercial solar power systems. These
systems typically include an array of PV cells mounted on rooftops or in open areas,
which are connected to an inverter that converts the DC electricity produced by the cells
into AC electricity that can be used to power homes and businesses.

2. Portable electronic devices: PV cells are used in a variety of portable electronic devices,
such as calculators, watches, and remote controls, to provide a small amount of
electrical power.

3. Transportation: PV cells are used in some vehicles, such as solar-powered cars, to

provide electrical power to the vehicle's motor and electrical systems.

4. Aerospace: PV cells are used in satellites and other space vehicles to provide electrical
power for communications, scientific experiments, and other activities.

5. Remote power applications: PV cells are used in remote locations where it is not
practical to connect to a power grid, such as in rural areas or on offshore oil rigs.

j) Explain strain gauge principle using semiconductor materials.

Ans - A strain gauge is a device that measures the deformation or strain in a material caused by
an applied force or stress. The principle of a strain gauge is based on the resistance change of a
conducting material when it undergoes strain. Semiconductor materials can be used as strain
gauges by taking advantage of their piezoresistive properties, which means their electrical
resistance changes when subjected to mechanical stress or strain.

When a semiconductor material is subjected to strain, the spacing between its atoms changes,
causing a change in its crystal structure. This, in turn, affects the flow of electric current through
the material, resulting in a change in its resistance. The magnitude of this resistance change is
proportional to the amount of strain applied to the material.

A typical semiconductor strain gauge consists of a thin, rectangular-shaped piece of

semiconductor material, such as silicon or germanium, with a thin metallic wire (usually made
of gold) attached to its surface. The semiconductor material is placed on a substrate, and the
metallic wire is connected to an electrical circuit. When a force is applied to the semiconductor
material, it deforms and causes a change in its electrical resistance, which can be measured
using the electrical circuit.

One of the advantages of using semiconductor materials as strain gauges is their high
sensitivity to strain, which allows for accurate measurement of small strains. They are also
highly stable and reliable, with a low temperature coefficient of resistance, making them suitable
for use in a wide range of applications.

k) Explain bi-metallic strips and its applications.

Ans - A bi-metallic strip is a mechanical device that is made up of two metal strips with different
coefficients of thermal expansion, bonded together. The strip bends when subjected to a
temperature change, due to the unequal expansion and contraction of the two metals.
The principle behind the bi-metallic strip is that when two metals with different coefficients of
thermal expansion are bonded together, the resulting strip will bend when heated or cooled. The
amount of bending is proportional to the temperature change and can be used to control various
types of mechanical devices.

One common application of bi-metallic strips is in thermostats, which are used to control
heating and cooling systems. In a thermostat, a bi-metallic strip is used to open or close a
circuit when the temperature changes. As the temperature increases, the strip bends and opens
the circuit, shutting off the heating system. As the temperature decreases, the strip bends in the
opposite direction, closing the circuit and turning on the heating system.

Bi-metallic strips are also used in various other applications, such as in fire safety devices,
where they are used to activate a mechanism that extinguishes a fire when the temperature
reaches a certain level. They are also used in electrical devices, such as circuit breakers, where
they are used to trip a switch when a current overload is detected.
 l) Explain magnetostriction. Give any five applications of semiconductors of material.
Ans - Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic materials in which they undergo a change
in shape or dimensions when subjected to a magnetic field. When a ferromagnetic material is
magnetized, its crystal structure changes slightly, causing the material to expand or contract
along the direction of the magnetic field.
The degree of magnetostriction depends on the properties of the ferromagnetic material, the
strength of the magnetic field, and the direction of the magnetic field. This property has various
practical applications, including:

1. Magnetic sensors: Magnetostrictive materials can be used to create sensors that detect
magnetic fields. These sensors are used in various applications, such as position
sensing, navigation systems, and non-destructive testing.

2. Acoustic transducers: Magnetostrictive materials can be used to create acoustic

transducers that convert electrical signals into mechanical vibrations. These transducers
are used in various applications, such as ultrasonic cleaning, medical imaging, and
industrial process control.

3. Vibration dampers: Magnetostrictive materials can be used to create vibration dampers

that reduce the amount of mechanical vibration in a system. These dampers are used in
various applications, such as in motors, turbines, and automotive engines.

4. Energy harvesting: Magnetostrictive materials can be used to convert mechanical energy

into electrical energy. This property is used in various applications, such as in sensors,
wireless communication systems, and power generation.

5. Actuators: Magnetostrictive materials can be used to create actuators that convert

electrical signals into mechanical motion. These actuators are used in various
applications, such as in robotics, aerospace, and automotive systems.

Semiconductor materials have a wide range of applications, including:

1. Electronics: Semiconductors are used in electronic devices, such as transistors, diodes,
and integrated circuits.
2. Optoelectronics: Semiconductors are used in optoelectronic devices, such as LEDs,
photovoltaic cells, and lasers.
3. Sensing: Semiconductors are used in sensors for measuring various physical and
chemical properties, such as temperature, pressure, humidity, and gas concentration.
4. Communication: Semiconductors are used in communication systems, such as radios,
televisions, and cell phones.
5. Computing: Semiconductors are used in computing systems, such as computers,
smartphones, and tablets.
m) What are the application of mineral insulating oils in electrical engineering
Ans - Mineral insulating oils are widely used in electrical engineering as an insulating material in
transformers, switchgear, capacitors, and other electrical equipment. Some of the common
applications of mineral insulating oils in electrical engineering are:

1. Transformer insulation: Mineral insulating oils are used as a coolant and insulating
material in power transformers. The oil helps to dissipate the heat generated in the
transformer, and also acts as a dielectric medium for the insulation of the transformer
windings.
2. Circuit breaker insulation: Mineral insulating oils are used as an arc-quenching and
insulating medium in high-voltage circuit breakers. The oil helps to cool the arc
generated during the interruption of the electrical current, and also acts as an insulator
to prevent electrical breakdown.
3. Cable insulation: Mineral insulating oils are used as an insulating material in high-voltage
power cables. The oil helps to prevent electrical breakdown and also provides a coolant
for the cable.
4. Capacitor insulation: Mineral insulating oils are used as an insulating material in
high-voltage capacitors. The oil helps to provide electrical insulation between the
capacitor plates, and also acts as a coolant for the capacitor.
5. Switchgear insulation: Mineral insulating oils are used as an insulating material in
high-voltage switchgear. The oil helps to prevent electrical breakdown and also acts as a
coolant for the switchgear.

n) Explain the application of ferrite and soft magnetic material:

Ans - Ferrites and soft magnetic materials have a wide range of applications in electrical
engineering, some of which are:

1. Magnetic cores: Ferrites and soft magnetic materials are used as magnetic cores in
transformers, inductors, and other electrical devices. They help to guide and concentrate
magnetic flux, improving the efficiency and performance of the device.
2. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) suppression: Ferrites are used as EMI suppression
materials in electronic circuits. They help to reduce electromagnetic noise generated by
electronic components, improving the performance and reliability of the circuit.
3. Microwave devices: Ferrites are used in microwave devices, such as circulators,
isolators, and phase shifters. They help to control the direction and phase of microwave
signals, improving the performance and efficiency of the device.
4. Magnetic recording: Soft magnetic materials are used in magnetic recording devices,
such as hard disk drives and magnetic tapes. They help to store and retrieve data by
allowing the recording and erasing of magnetic fields.
 5. Motors and generators: Soft magnetic materials are used in the construction of motors
and generators. They help to improve the efficiency and performance of the device by
reducing energy losses due to magnetic hysteresis and eddy currents.

o) Explain with examples and application the meaning of soft magnetic materials
And - Soft magnetic materials are a class of magnetic materials that exhibit low coercivity, high
permeability, and low hysteresis losses. These materials are easily magnetized and
demagnetized, making them ideal for applications where magnetic fields need to be rapidly and
repeatedly switched on and off. Examples of soft magnetic materials include iron, nickel, cobalt,
and their alloys.
Some of the common applications of soft magnetic materials are:

1. Transformers and inductors: Soft magnetic materials are used as the core material in
transformers and inductors. They help to guide and concentrate magnetic flux, improving
the efficiency and performance of the device.
2. Electrical motors and generators: Soft magnetic materials are used in the construction
of motors and generators. They help to improve the efficiency and performance of the
device by reducing energy losses due to magnetic hysteresis and eddy currents.
3. Magnetic shielding: Soft magnetic materials are used in magnetic shielding applications
to protect sensitive electronic equipment from external magnetic fields. They help to
reduce the magnetic field strength and prevent interference with the operation of the
electronic device.
4. Magnetic sensors: Soft magnetic materials are used in magnetic sensor applications,
such as magnetic field sensors, magnetometers, and magnetic encoders. They help to
detect and measure magnetic fields with high accuracy and sensitivity.
5. Data storage: Soft magnetic materials are used in data storage applications, such as
magnetic tapes and hard disk drives. They help to store and retrieve data by allowing the
recording and erasing of magnetic fields

p) Write two applications of the following materials in electrical engineering:

(i) Soft magnet:
1. Transformers and inductors: Soft magnetic materials are commonly used as the core
material in transformers and inductors to guide and concentrate magnetic flux,
improving the efficiency and performance of the device.
2. Magnetic sensors: Soft magnetic materials are also used in magnetic sensor
applications, such as magnetic field sensors, magnetometers, and magnetic encoders,
to detect and measure magnetic fields with high accuracy and sensitivity.

(ii) Hard magnet:

 1. Electric motors and generators: Hard magnetic materials are used in the construction of
permanent magnets in electric motors and generators to produce a strong magnetic
field that can generate electricity.
2. Magnetic data storage: Hard magnetic materials are used in magnetic data storage
devices, such as hard disk drives and magnetic tapes, to store and retrieve data by
allowing the recording and erasing of magnetic fields.

(iii) Silicon steel:

1. Electrical transformers: Silicon steel is commonly used in the construction of electrical
transformers to reduce energy losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents.
2. Electric motors: Silicon steel is also used in the construction of electric motors to
improve their efficiency and performance.

(iv) Bimetals:
1. Temperature control: Bimetals are used in temperature control applications, such as
thermostats and thermal switches, to control the temperature of a system by bending in
response to temperature changes.
2. Electrical contacts: Bimetals are also used as electrical contacts in switches and relays,
as they can bend and move in response to electrical currents.

(v) Alnico:
1. Electric guitar pickups: Alnico magnets are commonly used in electric guitar pickups to
produce a strong magnetic field that can convert the motion of the guitar strings into an
electrical signal.
2. Loudspeakers: Alnico magnets are also used in the construction of loudspeakers to
produce a strong and uniform magnetic field that can vibrate the speaker cone and
produce sound.

q) Why is the material used for fused wire not made from copper or steel?
Ans - Fused wire is typically made from materials with lower melting points than copper or steel,
such as tin or lead. This is because the purpose of a fuse is to protect electrical equipment from
overcurrent or short circuits by melting and breaking the circuit when the current exceeds a
certain limit. If the fuse were made from copper or steel, it would not melt at the desired current
level and would not provide the necessary protection. Additionally, copper and steel are not as
easily fusible as materials like tin or lead, which would make it more difficult to manufacture a
reliable fuse.

r) Explain the difference between valence band and conduction band.

Ans - In a solid material, the electrons are distributed in energy levels or bands. Two important
bands that are often discussed in the context of solid-state physics are the valence band and
the conduction band.
 The valence band is the highest energy band that is fully occupied by electrons in a solid
material. The electrons in the valence band are tightly bound to the atoms and do not have
enough energy to move freely through the material. These electrons are involved in chemical
bonding and determine the electrical conductivity of the material.

The conduction band, on the other hand, is the band above the valence band that is not
occupied by any electrons at zero temperature. The electrons in the conduction band have
higher energy levels than those in the valence band, and they are free to move through the
material. The presence of electrons in the conduction band leads to electrical conductivity in the
material.

s) What is meant by each of the following:

a. Diamagnetic Material: A diamagnetic material is a material that does not have a permanent
magnetic moment and is not attracted to a magnetic field. When placed in a magnetic field,
diamagnetic materials are weakly repelled by the field, and the magnetic field lines are
slightly distorted.

b. Paramagnetic Material: A paramagnetic material is a material that has a permanent

magnetic moment and is attracted to a magnetic field. When placed in a magnetic field,
paramagnetic materials align themselves with the field and become weakly magnetized.

c. Ferromagnetic Material: A ferromagnetic material is a material that has a permanent

magnetic moment and is strongly attracted to a magnetic field. When placed in a magnetic
field, ferromagnetic materials align themselves with the field and become strongly
magnetized. Ferromagnetic materials also exhibit hysteresis, which means that their
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t) Mention the use of semiconductors in industrial applications.
Ans - Semiconductors have a wide range of industrial applications, some of which include:
1. Microelectronics: Semiconductors are the basis for the production of microelectronic
devices such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits. These devices are used in a
 wide range of applications, including computers, telecommunications, consumer
electronics, and automotive electronics.

2. Solar Cells: Semiconductors are used in the production of solar cells, which convert
sunlight into electricity. Solar cells are used in a variety of applications, including
residential and commercial power generation, portable power systems, and spacecraft
power systems.

3. Lighting: Semiconductors are used in the production of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and
organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), which are used for lighting in a wide range of
applications, including indoor and outdoor lighting, automotive lighting, and displays.

4. Sensors: Semiconductors are used in the production of sensors that are used in a wide
range of applications, including automotive, aerospace, and industrial control systems.
Examples of semiconductor sensors include temperature sensors, pressure sensors,
and motion sensors.

5. Power Electronics: Semiconductors are used in the production of power electronic

devices such as power transistors, thyristors, and rectifiers. These devices are used in a
wide range of applications, including power generation, transmission, and distribution, as
well as in motor control, renewable energy systems, and electric vehicles.

u) With the help of energy band concepts explain the difference among semiconductors,
conductors and insulators.
And - The energy band concept explains the difference among semiconductors, conductors, and
insulators based on the number and position of energy bands that electrons can occupy.
In an insulator, the valence band is completely filled with electrons, and there is a large energy
gap between the valence band and the conduction band. Therefore, it is difficult for electrons to
move from the valence band to the conduction band, and the material does not conduct
electricity easily.

In a conductor, the valence band is only partially filled with electrons, and the conduction band is
partially filled as well. This means that electrons can easily move from the valence band to the
conduction band, and the material conducts electricity well.
In a semiconductor, the valence band is completely filled with electrons, but the conduction
band is only partially filled. The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band
is smaller than in an insulator, which allows electrons to move from the valence band to the
conduction band more easily than in an insulator but not as easily as in a conductor. The
conductivity of a semiconductor can be increased by doping the material with impurities that
either donate or accept electrons, which can increase the number of charge carriers in the
material.
v) What are bimetals? Where are these used?
Ans - Bimetals are made up of two different metals that are bonded together. The two metals
have different coefficients of thermal expansion, which means that they expand and contract at
different rates when subjected to changes in temperature. This causes the bimetal to bend,
which makes it useful for a variety of applications.

Bimetals are commonly used in thermostats, where they are used to open and close a circuit as
the temperature changes. As the bimetal heats up, it bends and opens the circuit, which turns
off the heat source. As the bimetal cools down, it straightens out and closes the circuit, which
turns on the heat source again. Bimetals are also used in some types of electrical switches,
where they are used to control the flow of current.

Bimetals are also used in some types of mechanical devices, such as safety switches or
overload relays, where they are used to break a circuit if a certain level of current or temperature
is exceeded. They are also used in some types of thermometers, where the bending of the
bimetal is used to indicate the temperature. Bimetals can also be used as sensors to detect
changes in temperature, pressure, or other physical properties.

NAME=OM
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