Matrices

Learning & Revision for the Day

u Matrix u Algebra of Matrices u Trace of a Matrix

u Types of Matrices u Transpose of a Matrix u Equivalent Matrices
u Equality of Matrices u Some Special Matrices u Invertible Matrices

Matrix
●
A matrix is an arrangement of numbers in rows and columns.
●
A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n and the
number of elements in this matrix will be mn.
 a11 a12 a13 ... a1 n 
a a22 a23 ... a2 n 
●
A matrix of order m × n is of the form A =  21 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
a 
 m1 am2 am3 ... amn 

Some important terms related to matrices

●
The element in the ith row and jth column is denoted by aij.
●
The elements a11 , a22 , a33 , ...... are called diagonal elements.
●
The line along which the diagonal elements lie is called the principal diagonal or
simply the diagonal of the matrix.

Types of Matrices
●
If all elements of a matrix are zero, then it is called a null or zero matrix and it is
denoted by O.
●
A matrix which has only one row and any number of columns is called a row matrix
and if it has only one column and any number of rows, then it is called a column
matrix.
●
If in a matrix, the number of rows and columns are equal, then it is called a square
matrix. If A = [aij]n × n , then it is known as square matrix of order n.
●
If in a matrix, the number of rows is less/greater than the number of columns, then it
is called rectangular matrix.
●
If in a square matrix, all the non-diagonal elements are zero, it is called a diagonal
matrix.
 If in a square matrix, all non-diagonal elements are zero
Transpose of a Matrix
●

and diagonal elements are equal, then it is called a

scalar matrix. Let A be m × n matrix, then the matrix obtained by interchanging
●
If in a square matrix, all non-diagonal elements are zero the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A and is
and diagonal elements are unity, then it is called an unit denoted by A′ or AC or A T .
(identity) matrix. We denote the identity matrix of order If A be m × n matrix, A′ will be n × m matrix.
n by I n and when order is clear from context then we
simply write it as I.
Important Results
●
In a square matrix, if aij = 0, ∀ i > j, then it is called an
(i) If A and B are two matrices of order m × n, then
upper triangular matrix and if aij = 0, ∀i < j , then it is ( A ± B)′ = A′ ± B ′
called a lower triangular matrix.
(ii) If k is a scalar, then (k A)′ = k A′
NOTE • The diagonal elements of diagonal matrix may or may (iii) ( A′ )′ = A
not be zero. (iv) ( AB)′ = B′ A′
(v) ( A n )′ = ( A′ )n
Equality of Matrices
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal, if they are of Some Special Matrices
same order and all the corresponding elements are equal.
●
A square matrix A is called an idempotent matrix,
if it satisfies the relation A2 = A.
Algebra of Matrices ●
A square matrix A is called nilpotent matrix of order k,
●
If A = [aij]m × n and B = [b ij] m × n be two matrices of same if it satisfies the relation A k = O, for some k ∈ N .
order, then A + B = [aij + b ij]m × n and A − B = [aij − b ij]m × n , ●
The least value of k is called the index of the nilpotent
where i = 1, 2, ..., m, j = 1, 2, ..., n. matrix A.
●
A square matrix A is called an involutary matrix,
●
If A = [aij] be an m × n matrix and k be any scalar, then, if it satisfies the relation A2 = I .
kA = [kaij]m × n . ●
A square matrix A is called an orthogonal matrix,
●
If A = [aij]m × n and B = [b ij]n × p be any two matrices such if it satisfies the relation AA′ = I or A′ A = I .
that number of columns of A is equal to the number of ●
A square matrix A is called symmetric matrix,
rows of B, then the product matrix AB = [c ij], of order if it satisfies the relation A′ = A.
n
m × p, where c ij = ∑a b kj . A square matrix A is called skew-symmetric matrix,
●
ik
k =1 if it satisfies the relation A′ = − A.

NOTE • If A and B are idempotent matrices, then A + B is idempotent

Some Important Properties iff AB = − BA.
●
A + B = B + A (Commutativity of addition)  a1 a2 a3 
• If A =  b1 b2 b3  is orthogonal, then
●
( A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (Associativity of addition)  
 c1 c 2 c 3 
●
α ( A + B) = αA + αB, where α is any scalar.
Σ ai2 = Σ bi2 = Σ c i2 = 1 and Σ ai bi = Σ bi c i = Σ ai c i = 0
●
(α + β) A = αA + βA, where α and β are any scalars.
• If A B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then
●
α (βA) = (αβ) A, where α and β are any scalars.
(i) AB is symmetric if and only if AB = BA .
●
( AB) C = A (BC) (Associativity of multiplication)
(ii) A ± B , AB + BA are also symmetric matrices.
●
AI = A = IA • If A and B are two skew-symmetric matrices, then
●
A (B + C) = AB + AC (Distributive property) (i) A ± B, AB − BA are skew-symmetric matrices.
NOTE • A2 = A ⋅ A, A3 = A ⋅ A ⋅ A = A2 ⋅ A1 , K (ii) AB + BA is a symmetric matrix.
• Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as the sum of
• If the product AB is possible, then it is not necessary that symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices.
the product BA is also possible. Also, it is not necessary
1 1 1 1
that AB = BA. i.e. A = ( A + A′ ) + ( A − A′ ), where ( A + A′ ) and ( A − A′ )
2 2 2 2
• The product of two non-zero matrices can be a zero
are symmetric and skew-symmetric respectively.
matrix.
 (iii) Addition of constant multiple of the elements of any row
Trace of a Matrix (column) to the corresponding elements of any other row
The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix A is (column), indicated as
called the trace of A and is denoted by tr( A). Ri → Ri + kR j (Ci → Ci + kC j).
(i) tr( λA) = λ tr( A) (ii) tr( A ) = tr( A ′ )
(iii) tr( AB) = tr( BA) Invertible Matrices
●
A square matrix A of order n is said to be invertible if there
exists another square matrix B of order n such that
Equivalent Matrices AB = BA = I .
Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent, if one is ●
The matrix B is called the inverse of matrix A and it is
obtained from the other by one or more elementary operations denoted by A −1 .
and we write A ~ B.
Following types of operations are called elementary
operations. Some Important Results
●
Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.
(i) Interchanging any two rows (columns).
This transformation is indicated by
●
AA −1 = I = A −1 A
Ri ↔ R j (Ci ↔ C j)
●
If A and B are invertible, then ( AB)−1 = B −1 A −1
(ii) Multiplication of the elements of any row (column) by a ●
( A − 1 )T = ( A T )− 1
non-zero scalar quantity, indicated as ●
If A is symmetric, then A −1 will also be symmetric matrix.
Ri → kRi (Ci → kCi ) ●
Every orthogonal matrix is invertible.