34 • C H A P T E R 2 / Wav e M echa n i c s

position in space. The phenomena like photoelectric effect, Compton effect take place due to interaction of
radiation as particle with matter which evidently has particle properties. Planck’s quantum theory quanta
successfully explain these phenomenon. On the other hand, wave concept is comparatively difficult to
understand. Unlike particle, a wave is like a disturbance which spreads out over a large region. It cannot
be located here or there. It is specified by its wavelength, frequency, amplitude, energy and momentum.
Various optical phenomenon such as interference, diffraction and polarization strongly validate the wave
character of electromagnetic radiation. Hence from the above facts it can be said that radiation some-
times behaves as particle nature and sometimes as wave and both cannot be separated. It can also be
understood that both particle and wave properties of radiation cannot appear simultaneously.

2.3 de-Broglie Hypothesis

In 1924, de-Broglie proposed that wave particle duality is not only associated with radiation, but matter
such as electron, proton, neutron, etc. also possess this dualism characteristic. Therefore, a wave is
always associated with the moving particle whether it is matter or radiation and controls the particle.
He s­uggested that if electromagnetic radiation can act as a particle at some time and a wave at other
time, then matter should also behave as particle at some time and wave at other. However, there was
no experimental proof at that time and the hypothesis was totally theoretical and was simply based on
the fact that nature loves symmetry. The occurrence of properties of wave or particle depends upon the
conditions under which the particular phenomenon takes place. But remember both particle and wave
cannot appear together.
According to de-Broglie hypothesis, a particle in motion always has a wave associated with it and
the motion of the particle is guided by that wave. These waves are called de-Broglie waves or matter waves.
The wavelength l of matter waves associated with a moving particle is given by
h h h
l= = = (2.1)
p mv 2mK
where p is the momentum, m is the mass, v is velocity and K is the kinetic energy of the particle. This rela-
tion is true when v << c. However, when v is comparable to c then relativistic effects come into the picture
and hence we cannot take m as the rest mass of the particle, but it will be the relativistic mass and will be
given as
m0
m=
1 − (v 2 / c 2 )
So, Eq. (2.1) will take the form
h h 1 − (v / c )
2 2

l= = (2.2)
p m0 v
where m0 is the rest mass and c is the velocity of light.

2.4 de-Broglie’s Wavelength

According to Planck’s hypothesis, the energy of a photon is given by
E = hn (2.3)

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where h is the Planck’s constant and n is the frequency. If mass of the particle is converted to energy, then
energy is given by
E = m c2 (2.4)
where m is the mass of photon. From Eqs. (2.3) and (2.4), we have
c æ cö h
h n = m c2 Þ h = m c2 ç∵ n = ÷ ⇒ l =
l è l ø m c
If m is the mass of the particle and v is its velocity then
h h
l= = (2.5)
p mv
This wavelength is known as de-Broglie wavelength.

de-Broglie Wavelength for a Free Particle in Terms of its Kinetic

2.5
Energy
The wavelength associated with a particle of mass m moving with velocity v can be obtained in similar
manner as of photon of momentum p and energy E. For a free particle the total energy is same as its kinetic
energy which is given by
1 m2v 2 p2
E = mv 2 = ⇒E = [∵ p = mv ]
2 2m 2m
Now
h h h
l= = = (2.6)
p mv 2 mE
If a charged particle having charge q is accelerated through a potential difference of V volts then de-Broglie wave is
h h h
l= = = [∵ E = qv ] (2.7)
p mv 2mqv
For an electron
6.62 × 10−34 J-sec 12.27 o
l= = A (2.8)
2 × 9.0 × 10−31 kg × 1.6 × 10−19 C × V V
According to kinetic theory of gases, the average kinetic energy of material particle is given by
1 3
E = mv 2 = k T
2 2
where k is Boltzmann’s constant and T is absolute temperature of the particle. Now
h h h
l= = = (2.9)
mv 2m E 3mkT
Thus, Eqs. (2.5)–(2.9) represent the de-Broglie wavelength of a wave associated with various moving particles.

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2.6 Analysis of Matter Wave or de-Broglie Wave

de-Broglie’s suggestion that with any moving material particle there is a wave associated with it brings the
problem of reconciliation of the two seemingly different manifestation of energy, that is, particle having mass
which is localized in space and time while waves being massless are de-localized in space and time. The two
possible solutions are either to de-localize the particle (no existing theory suggest it) or to localize a wave
which is quite plausible using Principle of Superposition which suggests that it is possible to create waves of
almost any shape (wave packet) by adding sine waves with properly chosen wave numbers (k), amplitudes
and phases.
Further, while deriving the expression for velocity of de-Broglie wave, we will show a contradiction and
thus led towards the idea that material particle cannot be equivalent to a single wave.
Let m be the mass of the particle and v be its velocity. Then

h h
l= =
p mv

Also we have
E = mc2 and E = hu ⇒ u = mc2/h

Matter wave or de-Broglie wave velocity is

u = n l = (mc2/h)(h/mv) = c2/v
Clearly for any material particle if v < c, then u > c which is highly unexpected. Physically it means
de-Broglie wave associated with a particle would travel faster than the particle itself, which indicates that
material particle cannot be equivalent to a single wave.
Utilizing these above facts, one can visualize how a wave (not a single wave but a wave packet) resembles
a particle. In other words, material particle (de-Broglie wave) in motion is equivalent to a wave packet rather
than a single wave.
Wave packets have two velocities:
1. Phase velocity, vp = w/k, by which individual wave constituting the packet moves.
2. Group velocity, vg = d w/dk , by which the packet itself moves.
Clearly since phase velocity vp (earlier u) is always greater than c, it is group velocity by which the
particle moves.
To show vg = v we have angular frequency

2p mc 2
w = 2pn =
h
and propagation constant
2p 2p mv
k= =
l h
of de-Broglie wave associated with a particle of rest mass m0 and moving with velocity v. We also have
m0
m=
1 − (v 2 / c 2 )

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 2 . 7   Dav i s s o n a n d Germer E x per i me n t  • 37

Hence,
2p m0 c 2 2p m0 v
w= and k=
h 1 − (v / c )
2 2
h 1 − (v 2 / c 2 )

Now
dw 2p m0 v dk 2p m0
= 3/ 2
and = 3/ 2
dv  v2  dv  v2 
h 1 − 2  h 1 − 2 
 c   c 

The group velocity is given as

3/ 2
 v2 
2p m0 v h 1 − 2 
d w d w /dv  c 
vg = = = 3/ 2
=v
dk dk /dv  v2 
2p m0 h 1 − 2 
 c 

Thus, a moving particle can be represented by a ‘wave group’ or ‘wave packet’. Finally, the phase velocity vp
of the de-Broglie wave associated with a moving particle is given as
w E  E
vp = = = (2.10)
k p  p
The total relativistic energy ‘E ’ of a particle is given by

E= p 2 c 2 + m02 c 4 (2.11)

Substituting this value in Eq. (2.10), we have

m02 c 2
pc 1 +
p c +m c
2 2 2 4
p2
vp = 0
=
p p

But p = h/l. Therefore,

2
 m cl 
vp = c 1 +  0  (2.12)
 h 

This equation shows that the phase velocity of a wave associated with a moving particle is always greater
than c and even in free space it is a function of l.

2.7 Davisson and Germer Experiment

In order to confirm the de-Broglie hypothesis, Davisson and Germer performed an experiment in 1927
to observe the diffraction of electrons. From this experiment the wavelength of the diffracted electrons

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calculated from the diffraction pattern is nearly same as the value calculated from the de-Broglie hypothesis.
This confirmed the de-Broglie hypothesis of matter waves.

_
V
+
Ionization
chamber
G
Electron gun (G)

Primary electron beam

S

f Diffracted
beam
q
q

Bragg’s plane

Nickel single crystal (C)

Figure 1 Davisson and Germer experiment.

2.7.1 Experimental Setup

The Davisson and Germer apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. Electrons from a heated filament are acceler-
ated through a variable potential ‘V’ and emerge from the electron gun ‘G’ (variable electron energy).
The electron beam falls normally on a nickel crystal ‘C’ (variable angle of incidence). The electrons are
diffracted (read scattered) from the crystal in all directions. The intensity of the diffracted beam (read
collection of electrons) in different directions is measured by a Faraday cylinder ‘F’ which is connected to
a galvanometer and can move on a circular scale ‘S’ (variable detector position). The crystal can be turned
about an axis parallel to the incident beam. The whole apparatus is enclosed in an evacuated chamber.

2.7.2 Method
The accelerating potential V is given a small value and the crystal is turned at any arbitrary azimuth.
The Faraday cylinder is moved to various positions on a scale ‘S’ and the galvanometer current is noted at
each position (see Fig. 1). The current is a measure of intensity of diffracted beam (read amount of electron
collected). The current is then plotted against the angle f (angle between incident beam and the bean enter-
ing the cylinder). The observations are repeated for different accelerating potential and the corresponding
curves are plotted. One such curve for V = 54 V between current and angle f is shown in Fig. 2 (see and
verify the similarity between this and the figure in Bragg’s spectrometer (crystal-structure).

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 2 . 8    B o hr ’ s Q u a n t i z at i o n C o n d i t i o n  • 39

V = 54 volts

Current

0 30° 50° 60° 90°

f

Figure 2 The intensity of the diffracted beam plotted against the diffracting angle f for V = 54 V.

2.7.3 Observations and Calculations

It has been observed that intensity of scattered beam is maximum at f = 50° with the original beam but incident
and scattered beam makes an angle of q = 65° (180° - 50° = 130°, 130°/2 = 65°) with Bragg’s plane when
the accelerating voltage V = 54 V. Therefore, the theoretical value of l is given by de-Broglie hypothesis

12.28 12.28
l= Å ⇒l = Å = 1.67 Å (2.13)
V 54

The experimental value of l as calculated using Bragg’s law

2d sin q = nl (2.14)
where q is angle of diffraction (as mentioned and measured in Bragg’s Law) and d is the interplanar spacing
which is 0.91 Å in this case (measured independently by x-ray diffraction).
For 1st order, n = 1,
l = 2 × 0.91 Å × sin 65° = 1.65 Å (2.15)

which is very nearly equal to the value of l calculated from de-Broglie relation. This shows that electrons
behave like wave in certain circumstances.
Davisson–Germer experiment, thus, provides direct verification of de-Broglie hypothesis.

2.8 Bohr’s Quantization Condition

Another remarkable feature of de-Broglie hypothesis is that it beautifully fits in the Bohr’s atomic model
and the famous Bohr’s quantization can easily be established. The wave character of electron can account 
for the limited number of permissible orbits in an atom and also for the quantized angular momentum L
of an electron in an atom.
According to Bohr’s theory of Hydrogen atom, the electron revolves in non-radiating circular orbits
around the nucleus. Since the electron does not radiate energy while moving in its orbit, the wave associated
with it must be a stationary wave in which there is no transference of energy (Fig. 3).

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Figure 3 Interpretation of Bohr’s quantization rule on the basis of de-Broglie wave.

Using Bohr’s theory of Hydrogen atom, the velocity of electron in the 1st Bohr’s orbit is given by
e
v=
4pe 0mr
1 e 2 mv 2
that is =
4pe 0 r 2 r
Now the de-Broglie wavelength associated with this electron is
h h 4pe 0 r
l= =
mv e m
Substituting the values of h, e, m, e0 and r = 5.3 × 10-11 m (radius of 1st Bohr’s orbit) we get l = 33 × 10-11m.
Now the circumference of 1st Bohr’s orbit is
2pr = 2 × 3.14 × 5.3 × 10-11 = 33 × 10-11m
which is same as the wavelength of de-Broglie wavelength associated with the electron moving in 1st Bohr’s
orbit. Hence, it can be concluded that the electron wave can be adjusted around an orbit only when the
circumference of its orbit is an integral multiple of the wavelength. This means that only those orbits are
permitted for which
nh nh
2pr = nl = ⇒ mvr = (2.16)
mv 2p
But angular momentum is given by
L = mvr (2.17)
From Eqs. (2.16) and (2.17)
nh
L= (2.18)
2p
which is the famous Bohr’s quantization condition.

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 2 . 9   P ha s e Ve l o c i t y a n d Gr o u p Ve l o c i t y  • 41

2.9 Phase Velocity and Group Velocity

When plane waves of different wavelengths travel simultaneously in the same direction along a straight line
through a dispersive medium (a medium in which the phase velocity of a wave depends on its wavelength),
successive groups of the waves are produced. These wave groups are called ‘wave packet’. The velocity of each
individual wave of a wave packet is known as phase velocity. The phase velocity is also called ‘wave velocity’ or
‘velocity of propagation’. It is denoted by vp and defined as
w
vp =
k
where w is the angular velocity and k is the propagation constant of the wave.
The average velocity through which the wave packet propagates in the medium is called group velocity (vg).
The group velocity may also be defined as the velocity with which the energy in the group is transmitted.
However, the individual waves travel inside the group with their own velocities. Mathematically, group
velocity is given by
dw
vg =
dk
2.9.1 Expression for Phase Velocity
A plane harmonic wave travelling along the positive x-direction is given by
y = a sin(wt – kx) (2.19)
where a is the amplitude, w = 2pn is the angular frequency and k = 2p/l is the propagation constant.
By definition, the ratio of angular frequency w to propagation constant k is wave velocity. Thus
w
vp = (2.20)
k
In Eq. (2.19), (wt – kx) is the phase of wave motion. Then the planes of constant phase (wave front) are
defined as
wt – kx = constant (2.21)
Differentiating w.r.t. t, we get
dx dx w
w −k =0 ⇒ =
dt dt k
but
dx w
= vp ⇒ vp = (2.22)
dt k
Equation (2.22) is the required expression for phase velocity.

2.9.2 Expression for Group Velocity

Let us consider a wave group which consists of two components of equal amplitude ‘a’ and slightly different
angular frequencies w1 and w2 and propagation constants k1 and k2, respectively. Their separate displace-
ment are given by
y1 = asin(w1t – k1x) (2.23)
y2 = asin(w2t – k2x) (2.24)

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Using principle of superposition we have

y = y1 + y2 = a [sin(w1t – k1x) + sin(w2t – k2x)]
æ w t - k1 x + w 2t - k2 x ö æ w1t - k1 x - w 2t + k2 x ö
= 2a sinç 1 ÷ cos ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
 (w + w 2 )t (k1 + k2 )x   (w1 − w 2 )t (k1 − k2 )x 
= 2a sin  1 −  cos  − 
 2 2 2 2
 (w − w 2 )t (k1 − k2 )x   (w + w 2 )t (k1 + k2 )x 
= 2a cos  1 −  sin  1 −  (2.25)
 2 2   2 2
Equation (2.25) represents a wave group of frequency (w1 + w2)/2 and amplitude

 (w − w 2 )t (k1 − k2 )x 
A = 2a cos  1 −  (2.26)
 2 2
Thus, the amplitude of the wave group is modulated both in space and time by a very slowly varying enve-
lope of frequency (w1 − w2)/2 and propagation constant (k1 – k2)/2. The maximum value of amplitude is 2a.
This envelope is represented by the dotted curve as shown in Fig. 4.

λ1= 2π
y1 k

λ 2 = 2π
y2 k+δk

O
P Q
x1

Figure 4 Modulation of wave.

The velocity with which this envelope advances, that is, the velocity of maximum amplitude of the group
is given by
w1 − w 2 ∆w
vg = = (2.27)
k1 − k2 ∆k
For infinitesimally small frequency interval, we can write

dw
vg = (2.28)
dk
Equation (2.28) is the expression for group velocity.

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2.9.3 Relation between Phase Velocity (vp ) and Group Velocity (vg )
The group velocity is given by
dw
vg = (2.29)
dk
and the phase velocity is given by
w
vp = (2.30)
k
or w = kvp (2.31)
Substituting the value of w in Eq. (2.29), we have
d (kvp ) dvp
vg = =k + vp
dk dk
But k = 2p/l. This implies
2p
dk = − dl
l2
Therefore,
2p l 2 dvp dvp
vg = v p − ⇒ vg = v p − l (2.32)
l 2p d l dl
Equation (2.32) is the required expression. Equation (2.32) shows that v g < v p when the medium is
dispersive, that is, when vp is the function of l. If there is no dispersive medium, that is, waves of all the
wavelengths travel with same speed then dvp /d l = 0. So, Eq. (2.32) gives vg = vp. This result holds for elastic
waves in homogeneous medium and electromagnetic waves in vacuum.

2.10 Phase Velocity of de-Broglie Waves

Let w be the angular frequency and k be the propagation constant of de-Broglie wave. Then the phase veloc-
ity vp of this wave is given by
w
vp = (2.33)
k
According to de-Broglie hypothesis, the energy E and momentum p of a particle is given by
E = w and p = k
So,
E/p = w/k or vp = E/p (2.34)
Let m be the relativistic mass of the particle and v be its velocity. Then
E = mc2 and p = mv
So,
vp = mc2/mv or vp = c2/v (2.35)
But the particle velocity v is always less than c. Therefore, the phase velocity vp is always greater than c.
This is an unexpected result. According to this result, the wave associated with the moving particle would
travel much faster than the particle itself and would leave the particle far behind. This is nothing but
the failure of wave description of the particle. Therefore, the phase velocity has no physical meaning and
the particle in motion is always associated with a wave packet.

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