An Introduction to PreCalculus Trigonometry

Reading Notes and Exercises, Part I

The Unit Circle and Angles

The trigonometric functions are based on the unit circle, that is, a
circle with radius r=1. You may also recall seeing trigonometry as it
relates to right triangles, or as it relates to wave functions, we will
look at these interpretations a little later.

The equation of a circle (centered at the origin with radius r) is

x2+y2=r2. Hence the equation of the unit circle is x2+y2=1.

Further, since the circumference of a circle with radius r is C=2ðr,

the unit circle has circumference 2ð.

For any point (x,y) on the unit circle, the associated angle è can be measured in two different
ways:

1. degree measure: in this case the circumference is divided into 360 equal parts, each
part has measure one degree (written 1o). A right angle, for example, is a 90o
angle. Note: Positive angles are measured in the counter-clockwise direction.

2. radian measure: radian measure is defined as the actual length of the arc between the
points (1,0) and (x,y). Put differently, the radian measure is the distance you
would need to “travel” along the perimeter of the circle to reach your destination.
One entire revolution (i.e. 360o) hence has a radian measure equal to the entire
circumference of the circle, i.e. 2ð. Similarly, a semi-circle would have angle
180o (in degrees) or half the circumference, i.e. ð (in radians).

One can easily convert between these two measures by keeping in mind that a 180o angle (in
degrees) is equivalent to a ð angle (in radians).

Example: Consider the 45o angle.

A 45o angle is 1/8 of a full circle, or equivalently 1/4 of a semi-

circle (since 1/4 of 180o equals 45o).

To find the angle in radian measure, the distance traveled along

the perimeter is also 1/4 of a semircircle, hence 1/4 of ð. usually
written as ð/4.

Hence a 450 angle (in degrees) is equivalent to ð/4 (in radians).

More Examples:

1. A 270o angle is 3/2 times a 180o angle, hence in radian measure the angle would be denoted
3ð/2.

2. A 7ð/5 angle (in radians) would have degree measure 7/5 times 180o, i.e. 252o.

Notes:

1. Radian measure does not have a degree symbol, it is simply written ð/4, not ð/4o. The latter
would be a very different angle, roughly 3.14/4o or about 0.785o.

2. Calculus-related problems are usually denoted in radian measure, hence it is important to get
comfortable with this measurement as soon as possible.

Exercises: (Answers at back)

1. Convert each angle from degree measure to radian measure, and

indicate it’s approximate position on the unit circle.

a) 60o b) -30o c) 135o d) 200o

2. Several angles are indicated in the given unit circle. Next to each
position, write the angle measure in both degrees and
radians.

Note that two angles are related to the given 30o angle. Simplify
your answers, e.g. write 3ð/4 instead of 6ð/8.

3. You can specify the same angle in many different ways. For example, 90o (a quarter-circle
counter-clockwise) is equivalent to !270o (three quarters of a circle clockwise), as you
end up at the same position on the unit circle. For each of the given angles, find an
equivalent negative measure:

a) 45o b) 5ð/4 c) 4ð/3 d) 220o e) ð/12

4. Similarly, the same position could also be reached by adding a full revolution. For example,
90o is an equivalent angle to 90o+360o=450o. For each of the given angles, find an
equivalent measure that adds one full revolution:

a) 60o b) 5ð/3 c) 7ð/6 d) 11ð/12

The Trigonometric Functions - Definition
Turning the above discussion around, each time we choose an angle è, we can find a unique point
(x,y) on the unit circle. Hence both “x” and “y” can be considered functions of the angle è: given
an input (the angle è) they produce a unique output (“x” or “y”).

Since these particular functions are of great importance to both pure and applied mathematics,
they are given special names and symbols, and are called the trigonometric functions.

Specifically:

The vertical component “y” is called the sine of the angle

è, and is denoted by y=sin(è).

The horizontal component “x” is called the cosine of the

angle è, and is denoted by x=cos(è).

This definition of the sine and cosine is fundamentally

important, and is worth repeating:

* The sine of an angle is simply the y-position of the

associated point on the unit circle.

* The cosine of an angle is simply the x-position of the

associated point on the unit circle.

Other trigonometric functions are ratios of the sine and cosine functions.

Specifically:

* the tangent of è is defined as tan(è)=sin(è)/cos(è) (or y/x)

* the secant of è is defined as sec(è)=1/cos(è)

* the cosecant of è is defined as csc(è)=1/sin(è)

* the cotangent of è is defined as cot(è)=cos(è)/sin(è).

Calculating Trigonometric Functions for the Special Angles
The first question that arises is how to calculate the sine or cosine of a given angle. In other
words, how do we find the lengths “x” (the cosine) and “y” (the sine) on the unit circle associated
with a given angle.

To begin, let’s consider the angle 0o. First, draw the unit circle, and indicate the zero angle. The
associated point has coordinates (x,y)=(1,0). Remember that the radius of the circle is r=1.

Since the sine and cosine are the vertical and horizontal
components of that point, respectively, we immediately can say
that
sin(0) = 0
and
cos(0) = 1

Similarly, consider the angle 90o (or ð/2). The associated point has coordinates (0,1).

Hence

sin(90o) = 1
and
cos(90o) = 0

Let’s examine the angle è=ð/4 (or 45o) next. Here the argument is a little more complex.

Note that a right-angle triangle is formed, with a hypotenuse

of length 1, and two adjacent sides of equal length, that is
x=y. Let’s denote that length “a”. By the Pythagorean
theorem, we have
a2+a2=12

This can be solved for a=/½ or equivalently a=/2/2.

Hence both “x” and “y” are equal to /2/2, and we have found
that both
sin(ð/4)=/2/2
and
cos(ð/4)=/2/2.
You can use similar geometric arguments to also find the trigonometric values for the angles
è=ð/6 (or 30o) and è=ð/3 (or 60o). This set of angles is sometimes called the “special” angles, and
their associated sine and cosine values are listed in the table below:

è (radian) sin(è) cos(è)

0 0 1
ð/6 1/2 /3/2
ð/4 /2/2 /2/2
ð/3 /3/2 1/2
ð/2 1 0

The values are important and come up often. You should know this table off by heart (or be able
to reproduce it on an exam).

We can also use the values of sine and cosine to calculate other trigonometric functions for these
special angles.

Examples:

1. Recall that the tangent is the ratio of the sine and cosine. In other words, tan(è)=sin(è)/cos(è).
To find, for example, the tangent of ð/3, we simply divide:

2. Similarly,

Note that not all trigonometric functions are defined for all angles. For example, the tangent of
è=ð/2 does not exist, since the denominator (the sine of ð/2) is equal to zero. Hence tan(ð/2) is
simply not defined.
Exercises: (Answers at back)

1. Fill in the entire table for the trigonometric values of the special angle. Much of this was
already discussed on the previous page - don’t just copy but try to recreate from memory.

è (deg) è (rad) sin(è) cos(è) tan(è) sec(è) csc(è) cot(è)

0o
30o
45o
60o
90o

2. Fill in the blanks. Again, try to do this as much as possible from memory (without refering to
the table) to practice your recall of these function values.

cos (0) = tan (45o) = sin (ð/3) = cos (ð/3) =

sec (60o) = csc (0) = sin (ð/6) = cos (ð/4) =

3. We used a simple trigonometric argument based on right angles to show that sin(45o)=/2/2.

Using the given diagram as a starting point, show how you can calculate the value of
sin(30o) and cos(30o) in a similar fashion. Hint: start by splitting the triangle in two.
Calculating Trigonometric Functions for Other Angles
Using the Special Angles

Now that you know how to find the trigonometric functions for the special angles, it is important
to learn how to extend your knowledge to any angle that is based on one of 0, ð/6, ð/4, ð/3 or ð/2,
such as for example 2ð/3, -ð/6, 7ð/4, -5ð/2, and others.

Let’s examine the angle è=-ð/3. Clearly, it is somehow related to the angle ð/3. Let’s draw a unit
circle for both angles side-by-side, and indicate the sine and cosine on them:

Clearly, the right-angle triangles that are formed are simply mirror images of each other. The
cosine (“x”) in both cases is the same, hence we know that cos(-ð/3) is identical to cos(ð/3), that
is cos(-ð/3)=½. The sine (“y”) is the same length, but has opposite sign (it is negative). Since
sin(ð/3)=/3/2, then sin(-ð/3)=-/3/2.

In each of the examples below, we proceed with the same method. It is imperative that you draw
the unit circle(s) each time until you become comfortable with these types of questions.

Examples:

1. Find sin(5ð/6).

The triangle formed by è=5ð/6 is identical to that

formed by è=ð/6, except that it is reflected across the
y-axis. The sine of 5ð/6 is hence the same length, and
has the same sign, as the sine of ð/6. Therefore
sin(5ð/6)=½.
2. Find sec(!11ð/4).

To find the secant of an angle, remember to find the cosine first and take its reciprocal.

The first thing to realize is that the angle !11ð/4 is at the same position as !3ð/4 or +5ð/4. For
example, the angle !11ð/4 is reached by completing one entire clockwise revolution (which
equals !2ð, or !8ð/4) and then adding another !3ð/4.

Now let’s compare the angle !11ð/4 (the one we want) to

ð/4 (the one we know, from the table of special angles).

Draw the unit circle and indicate both angles. We see that
the cosine is the same length in each case, but has opposite
sign.

Since cos(ð/4) = /2/2,

then cos(!11ð/4) = !/2/2,

and hence sec(!11ð/4) = !2//2 = !/2.

Using the Calculator

If you need to calculate the sine or cosine of an angle that does not share its denominator with a
special angle, you may need to use your calculator. Consult your calculator manual, if necessary,
on how to use the trigonometric functions.

You should be aware of two facts:

1. In most cases, your calculator will not give you exact answers, but rather decimal
approximations. For example, your calculator will tell you that the sine of a 45o angle is
approximately .70710678, rather than giving you the exact answer /2/2.

2. If you enter SIN(ð) on your calculator, the calculator does not “know” if you meant to
take the sine of ð in radian mode, i.e. sin(ð)=0, or if you meant to take the sine of “ð
degrees”, i.e. roughly 3.1415 degrees, which is sin(ðo).0.0548.

Obviously, the two answer are very different, so you need to set your calculator to the
appropriate angle measure, degrees or radians.

The current mode is usually indicated by a “D” or “R”, or perhaps a “DEG” or “RAD”.
Consult your calculator manual on how to switch.
Exercises: (Answers at back)

1. Calculate the following values without the use of a calculator. Instead, draw the appropriate
unit circle and compare your wanted value to that of a known value from the special
angles table.

a) sin(-ð/4) b) cos(-ð/4) c) sin(2ð/3)

d) cos(5ð/6) e) sin(-5ð/6) f) cos(4ð/3)

g) tan(3ð/4) f) tan(13ð/3) h) sec(13ð/4)

2. Calculate the following values with a calculator. Round to three decimal places.

a) sin(36o) b) cos(-ð/7) c) tan(88o)

d) cos(-512o) e) sin(4ð/9) f) csc(2ð/5)

Right-Triangle Applications
We’ve already seen that there is a clear connection between the
values of sine and cosine in the unit circle and the sides of a right
triangle with hypotenuse of length one.

In order to apply the trigonometric functions to right triangles of any size, it is important to
understand the concept of similar triangles. Two triangles are said to be similar if the ratio of any
two sides of one triangle is the same as the ratio of the equivalent two sides in the other triangle.
As a result, similar triangles have the same “shape”, but might differ in size. For example, the
sides in the triangles below have the same ratios to each other.

Consider the right triangle inscribed in the unit circle associated with an angle è. We can
calculate the length of the side adjacent to the angle è (in other words, cos(è)) and the length of
the side opposite the angle è (in other words, sin(è)). Since the unit circle has radius one, the
hypotenuse of these triangles is always equal to one.

If we were given a triangle with identical angle è but with a hypotenuse twice the length, each of
the other sides would be twice the length as well, as the triangles are similar. We can use this fact
to now compute side-lengths of any right triangle, if the angle è and one side-length are known.

In general, we have

sin(è) = opposite / hypotenuse and cos(è) = adjacent / hypotenuse

and since tan(è)=sin(è)/cos(è), we have

tan(è) = opposite / adjacent.

Examples:

1. Find all missing sides and angles in the given triangle:

Answer: First, given that the sum of all angles in any triangle must equal 180o (or ð), the missing
angle measures 30o. We know the length of the opposite side of angle è, hence we can use the
sine to find the length of the hypotenuse. Since

sin(60o) = /3/2 and sin(è) = opposite / hypotenuse

we have /3/2 = 4 / c, which we can solve for c = 8//3

or in rational form c = 8/3 / 3.

Finally we use the Pythagorean theorem to find that the third side is b = 4/3 / 3.

2. To find the height of a building, a person walks to a

spot 130m away from the base of the building and
measures the angle between the base and the top of the
building. The angle is found to be 51.2o.

How tall is the building?

Answer: We know the length of the adjacent side of the right triangle that is formed, and wish to
find the length of the opposite side. The quickest method to do so is to use the tangent, since
tan è = opposite / adjacent.

Hence the heigh of our building is opposite = adjacent × tan è

Using the calculator, tan(51.2o).1.2437.

Hence the height of the building is

h = 130 × tan(51.2o) . 161.7 metres.

[Note that we needed to use the calculator here, since the angle was not based on one of the
special angles.]
Exercises: (Answers at back)

1.
A ladder is leaning against the side of the building, forming an angle of 60o with the ground. If
the foot of the ladder is 10m from the base of the building, how far up does the ladder reach, and
how long is the ladder?

2. A person stationed on a 40m tall observation tower spots a bear in the distance. If the angle of
depression (that is, the angle between the horizontal and the line of sight) is 30o, how far away is
the bear, assuming that the land surrounding the tower is flat?

3. A 12m tall antenna sits on top of a building. A person is standing some distance away from the
building. If the angle of elevation between the person and the top of the antenna is 60o, and the
angle of elevation between the person and the top of the building is 45o, how tall is the building
and how far away is the person standing?
The Unit Circle and Angles
Answers to Exercises
1.

2.

3. a) !315o b) !3ð/4 c) !2ð/3 d) !140o e) -11ð/12

4. a) 420o b) 11ð/3 c) 19ð/6 d) 35ð/12

Calculating Trigonometric Functions for the Special Angles
Answers to Exercises
1. (Remember to rationalize your final answers)

è (deg) è (rad) sin(è) cos(è) tan(è) sec(è) csc(è) cot(è)

0o 0 0 1 0 1 undefined undefined

30o ð/6 1/2 /3/2 /3/3 2/3 / 3 2 /3

45o ð/4 /2/2 /2/2 1 /2 /2 1
60o ð/3 /3/2 1/2 /3 2 2/3 / 3 /3/3
90o ð/2 1 0 undefined undefined 1 0

2.
cos (0) = 1 tan (45o) = 1 sin (ð/3) = /3/2 cos (ð/3) = 1/2

sec (60o) = 2 csc (0) = undefined sin (ð/6) = 1/2 cos (ð/4) = /2/2

3.
Start by splitting the triangle in half. Look at the top half: it is a right triangle with 30-60-90
degree angles.

The value of sine (the vertical component) is immediately visible as ½.

To find the value of the cosine (x, the horizontal component), use the Pythagorean theorem:
x2 + (½)2 = 12
and solve for x2 = 3/4 i.e. x = /3/2.

Hence, sin(30o)=½ and cos(30o)=/3/2.

Note: turning the triangle allows you to do easily get the answers for 60o as well.
Calculating Trigonometric Functions for Other Angles
Answers to Exercises
1. (In each, make sure to sketch the unit circle in order to visually determine your answer).

a) sin(-ð/4) = -/2/2 b) cos(-ð/4) = /2/2 c) sin(2ð/3) = /3/2

d) cos(5ð/6) = -/3/2 e) sin(-5ð/6) = - 1/2 f) cos(4ð/3) = - 1/2

g) tan(3ð/4) = 1 f) tan(13ð/3) = /3 h) sec(13ð/4) = -/2

2.

a) sin(36o) . .588 b) cos(-ð/7) . .901 c) tan(88o) . 28.636

d) cos(-512o) . -.883 e) sin(4ð/9) . .985 f) csc(2ð/5) . 1.051

Right-Triangle Applications
Answers to Exercises
1.

Answer: The ladder is 20m long and reaches up approximately 17.32m.

2.

Use tan(60o) = Distance / 40.

Answer: The bear is approximately 69.28m away.

3.
Since we have two angles, we end up with two triangles.

From the smaller triangle (to the top of the building), we see that
the height of the building and the distance of the observer are both
equal (given the 45o angle), let’s call them both “x”.

Now look at he larger triangle (to the top of the antenna). Use
tan(60o) = opposite / adjacent = (12+x) / (x)

i.e. /3 = (12+x) / (x)

Solve for x = 12 / (/3 - 1) . 16.4 m.

Answer: The height of the building and the distance of the observer are both about 16.4m.