Course Overview and Classification of Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engine

In an internal combustion engine (ICE), the ignition and combustion of the fuel
occurs within the engine itself. The engine then partially converts the energy
from the combustion to work. The engine consists of a fixed cylinder and a
moving piston.

Advantages of I.C. engine

 It has overall high efficiency over E.C. engine.

 These engines are compact and required less space.
 Initial cost of I.C. engine is lower than E.C. engine.
 This engine easily starts in cold because of it uses high volatile fuel.

COMPONENTS OF IC ENGINE

1. Cylinder block
Cylinder is the main body of IC engine. Cylinder is a part in which the intake of
fuel, compression of fuel and burning of fuel take place. The main function of
cylinder is to guide the piston. It is in direct contact with the products of
combustion so it must be cooled. For cooling of cylinder, a water jacket (for
liquid cooling used in most of cars) or fin (for air cooling used in most of bikes)
are situated at the outer side of cylinder. At the upper end of cylinder, cylinder
head and at the bottom end crank case is bolted. The upper side of cylinder is
consisting a combustion chamber where fuel burns. To handle all this pressure
and temperature generated by combustion of fuel, cylinder material should
have high compressive strength. So it is made by high grade cast iron. It is
made by casting and usually cast in one piece.

2. Cylinder head
The top end of the engine cylinder is closed by means of removable cylinder
head. There are two holes or ports at the cylinder head, one for intake of fuel
and other for exhaust. Both the intake and exhaust ports are closed by the two
valves known as inlet and exhaust valve. The inlet valve, exhaust valve, spark
plug, injector etc. are bolted on the cylinder head. The main function of
cylinder head is to seal the cylinder block and not to permit entry and exit of
gases on cover head valve engine. Cylinder head is usually made by cast iron or
aluminum. It is made by casting or forging and usually in one piece.
3. Piston
A piston is fitted to each cylinder as a face to receive gas pressure and transmit
the thrust to the connecting rod. It is a prime mover in the engine. The main
function of piston is to give tight seal to the cylinder through bore and slide
freely inside the cylinder. Piston should be light and sufficient strong to handle
gas pressure generated by combustion of fuel. So the piston is made by
aluminum alloy and sometimes it is made by cast iron because light alloy
piston expands more than cast iron so they need more clearances to the bore.

4. Piston rings
A piston must be a fairly loose fit in the cylinder so it can move freely inside the
cylinder. If the piston is too tight fit, it would expand as it got hot and might
stick tight in the cylinder and if it is too loose it would leaks the vapor pressure.
To provide a good sealing fit and less friction resistance between the piston
and cylinder, pistons are equipped with piston rings. These rings are fitted in
grooves which have been cut in the piston. They are split at one end so they
can expand or slipped over the end of piston. A small two stroke engine has
two piston rings to provide good sealing but a four-stroke engine has an extra
ring which is known as oil ring. Piston rings are made of cast iron of fine grain
and high elastic material which is not affected by the working heat. Sometimes
it is made by alloy spring steel.

5. Connecting rod
Connecting rod connects the piston to crankshaft and transmits the motion
and thrust of piston to crankshaft. It converts the reciprocating motion of the
piston into rotary motion of crankshaft. There are two end of connecting rod;
one is known as big end and other as small end. Big end is connected to the
crankshaft and the small end is connected to the piston by use of piston pin.
The connecting rods are made of nickel, chrome, and chrome vanadium steels.
For small engines the material may be aluminum.

6. Crankshaft
The crankshaft of an internal combustion engine receives the efforts or thrust
supplied by piston to the connecting rod and converts the reciprocating
motion of piston into rotary motion of crankshaft. The crankshaft mounts in
bearing so it can rotate freely. The shape and size of crankshaft depends on the
number and arrangement of cylinders. It is usually made by steel forging, but
some makers use special types of cast-iron such as spheroidal graphitic or
nickel alloy castings which are cheaper to produce and have good service life.
7. Engine bearing
Everywhere there is rotary action in the engine, bearings are needed. Bearings
are used to support the moving parts. The crankshaft is supported by bearing.
The connecting rod big end is attached to the crank pin on the crank of the
crankshaft by a bearing. A piston pin at the small end is used to attach the rod
to the piston is also rides in bearings. The main function of bearings is to
reduce friction between these moving parts. In an IC engine sliding and rolling
types of bearing used. The sliding type bearing which are sometime called bush
is use to attach the connecting rod to the piston and crankshaft. They are split
in order to permit their assembly into the engine. The rolling and ball bearing is
used to support crankshaft so it can rotate freely. The typical bearing half is
made of steel or bronze back to which a lining of relatively soft bearing
material is applied.

8. Crankcase
The main body of the engine at which the cylinder are attached and which
contains the crankshaft and crankshaft bearing is called crankcase. It serves as
the lubricating system too and sometime it is called oil sump. All the oil for
lubrication is placed in it.

9. Valves
To control the inlet and exhaust of internal combustion engine, valves are
used. The number of valves in an engine depends on the number of cylinders.
Two valves are used for each cylinder one for inlet of air-fuel mixture inside the
cylinder and other for exhaust of combustion gases. The valves are fitted in the
port at the cylinder head by use of strong spring. This spring keep them closed.
Both valves usually open inwards.

10. Spark plug

It is used in spark ignition engine. The main function of a spark plug is to
conduct a high potential from the ignition system into the combustion
chamber to ignite the compressed air fuel mixture. It is fitted on cylinder head.
The spark plug consists of a metal shell having two electrodes which are
insulated from each other with an air gap. When high potential current supply
to spark plug it jumping from the supply electrode and produces the necessary
spark.

11. Injector
Injector is usually used in compression ignition engine. It sprays the fuel into
combustion chamber at the end of compression stroke. It is fitted on cylinder
head.
12. Manifold
The main function of manifold is to supply the air fuel mixture and collects the
exhaust gases equally from all cylinder. In an internal combustion engine two
manifold are used, one for intake and other for exhaust. They are usually made
by aluminum alloy.

13. Camshaft
Camshaft is used in IC engine to control the opening and closing of valves at
proper timing. For proper engine output inlet valve should open at the end of
exhaust stroke and closed at the end of intake stroke. So to regulate its timing,
a cam is use which is oval in shape and it exerts a pressure on the valve to
open and release to close. It is drive by the timing belt which drives by
crankshaft. It is placed at the top or at the bottom of cylinder.

14. Gudgeon pin or piston pin

These are hardened steel parallel spindles fitted through the piston bosses and
the small end bushes or eyes to allow the connecting rods to swivel. It
connects the piston to connecting rod. It is made hollow for lightness.

15. Pushrod
Pushrod is used when the camshaft is situated at the bottom end of cylinder. It
carries the camshaft motion to the valves which are situated at the cylinder
head.

16. Flywheel
A flywheel is secured on the crankshaft. The main function of flywheel is to
rotate the shaft during preparatory stroke. It also makes crankshaft rotation
more uniform.
 Operation of 4 – Stroke Engine
A four stroke engine completes it's cyclic operation into four strokes of piston
or two revolution of crankshaft.
These strokes are suction stroke, compression stroke, power or expansion
stroke and exhaust stroke.
Both SI and CI engines follow these four strokes to complete one cycle.

Working 4-stroke engine

1) Suction Stroke
 Piston travels from TDC to BDC
 Intake valve kept open
 Exhaust valve kept close
 Fresh air fuel mixture inducted inside the chamber
 Total crank shaft rotation at the end of the stroke is 180 degrees

2) Compression Stroke
 Piston travels from BDC to TDC
 Intake valve kept close
 Exhaust valve kept close
 Pressure inside combustion chamber increases
 Total crank shaft rotation at the end of the stroke is 360 degrees

3) Power Stroke
 Piston travels from TDC to BDC
 Intake valve kept close
 Exhaust valve kept close
 Ignition takes place in combustion chamber
 Total crank shaft rotation at the end of the stroke is 540 degrees

4) Exhaust Stroke
 Piston travels from TDC to BDC
 Intake valve kept close
 Exhaust valve kept open
 Burnt exhaust gases pushed away
 Total crank shaft rotation at the end of the stroke is 720 degrees
ADVANTAGES OF 4 STROKE ENGINE :-
More torque :- In general, 4 stroke engines always make extra torque than 2
stroke engine at low RPM. Although 2 stroked ones give higher torque at
higher RPM but it has a lot to do with fuel efficiency.
More fuel efficiency :- 4 stroke engines have greater fuel efficiency than 2
stroke ones because fuel is consumed once every 4 strokes.
Less pollution :- As power is generated once every 4 strokes & also as no oil or
lubricant is added to the fuel; 4 stroke engine produces less pollution.
More durability :- We all know that more the engine runs, quicker it wears out.
2 stroke engines are designed for high RPM. If an engine can go for 10000
rpm’s before it wears out; a 4 stroke engine with 100 rpm will run for 100
minutes than the other 2 stroke engine which has a higher rpm of 500 & will
run for only 20 minutes.
No extra addition of oil :- Only the moving parts need lubrication
intermediately. No extra oil or lubricant is added to fuel.

DISADVANTAGES OF 4 STROKE ENGINE :-

Complicated design :- A 4 stroke engine has complex valve mechanisms
operated & controlled by gears & chain. Also there are many parts to worry
about which makes it harder to troubleshoot.
Less powerful :- As power gets delivered once every 2 rotations of crankshaft(4
strokes), hence 4 stroke is less powerful.
Expensive :- A four stroke engine has much more parts than 2 stroke engine.
So they often require repairs which leads to greater expense.
 Operation of 2 – Stroke Engine
The two stroke engine only requires two piston movements (one cycle) in
order to generate power. The engine is able do produce power after one cycle
because the exhaust and intake of the gas occurs simultaneously.
There is a valve for the intake stroke that opens and closes due to changing
pressures.
In addition, due to its frequent contact with moving components, the fuel is
mixed with oil to add lubrication, allowing smoother strokes.

Working of 2-stroke engine

1) Compression stroke or upward stroke

 Piston moves from BDC to TDC
 Pushing out the burnt exhaust gases through exhaust port
 Fresh fuel-air mixture gets compressed in crankcase
 2) Power stroke or downward stroke
 Piston moves from TDC to BDC
 A high voltage spark is generated by the spark plug
 Fresh fuel-air mixture enters into crankcase
 Crankcase scavenging takes place
ADVANTAGES OF 2 STROKE ENGINE :-

Simple design & construction :- It doesn’t have valves. It simply has inlet & outlet ports

which makes it simpler.

More powerful :- In 2 stroke engine, every alternate stroke is power stroke unlike 4

stroked one in which power gets delivered once every 4 strokes. This gives a significant

power boost. Also, the acceleration will be higher & power delivery will be uniform due

to same reason.

Position doesn’t matter :- 2 stroke engine can work in any position as lubrication is done

through the means of fuel (as the fuel passes by through whole cylinder & crankcase).
DISADVANTAGES OF 2 STROKE ENGINE :-

Less fuel efficiency :- For every alternate power stroke, fuel gets consumed every

alternate stroke. This makes the engine less fuel efficient although it results in uniform

power delivery.

Oil addition could be expensive :- Two-stroke engines require a mix of oil in with the air-

fuel mixture to lubricate the crankshaft, connecting rod and cylinder walls. These oils

may empty your pockets.

More pollution :- 2 stroke engine produces a lot of pollution. The combustion of oil

added in the mixture creates a lot of smoke which leads to air pollution.

Wastage of fuel :- Sometimes the fresh charge which is going to undergo combustion

gets out along with the exhaust gases. This leads to wastage of fuel & also power

delivery of the engine gets effected.

Improper combustion :- The exhaust gases often get trapped inside the combustion

chamber. This makes the fresh charge impure. Therefore maximum power doesn’t get

delivered because of improper incomplete combustion.

 Two Strokes Four Strokes

It has one revolution of the crankshaft It has two revolutions of the crankshaft during one
during one power stroke power stroke

It generates high torque It generates less torque

Its uses port for fuel’s outlet and inlet It uses valves for outlet and inlet of a fuel

Its engines result in lesser thermal Its engines result in higher thermal efficiency
efficiency

It has a larger ratio in terms of power to It has a lesser ratio in terms of power to weight
weight

It generates more smoke and shows less It generates less smoke and shows more efficiency
efficiency

Requires more lubricating oil as some oil Requires less lubricating oil
burns with the fuel

Due to poor lubrication, more wear and tear Less wear and tear occurs
occurs

Engines are cheaper and are simple for Engines are expensive due to lubrication and valves
manufacturing and are tough to manufacture

Engines are basically lighter and are noisy Engines are basically heavier because its flywheel is
heavy and are less noisy
 Diesel Cycle vs Otto Cycle
Today we will discuss about difference between Diesel cycle vs Otto Cycle. Both these cycle are
air standard cycles of automobile engines. Otto cycle is used for petrol or spark ignition engine
while diesel cycle is used for diesel or compression ignition engine.

The main difference between Otto cycle and Diesel cycle is that in Otto cycle heat addition takes
place at constant volume and in diesel cycle heat addition takes places at constant pressure.
This is the major difference between Otto cycle and diesel cycle. There are many other
differences which are described below.

S.No.

Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle

1. Otto cycle is given by the Nicolas Otto in 1876. It was given by Dr. Rudolph Diesel in 1897.

2. It is ideal cycle for petrol engine. It is ideal cycle for diesel engine.

3. Otto cycle has higher thermal efficiency. It has lower thermal efficiency.

This cycle has comparatively low compression Diesel cycle has high compression ratio. It
4. ratio. It compresses the mixture up to 11:1 ratio. compresses the mixture up to 22.1 ratios.

Otto cycle engine used spark plunge to ignite the Fuel automatically ignites due to high
5. air fuel mixture. temperature of compressed gas.

6. Heat addition takes place at constant volume. Heat addition takes place at constant pressure.

Air fuel mixture drawn into the cylinder during Once air is drawn into intake stroke. Fuel is
intake injected after end or compression stroke by an
7. stroke. injector.
 Otto Cycle
The Otto Cycle, describes how heat engines turn gasoline into motion. Like
other thermodynamic cycles, this cycle turns chemical energy into thermal energy and
then into motion. The Otto cycle describes how internal combustion engines (that use
gasoline) work, like automobiles and lawn mowers.
Application

The Otto Cycle provides the energy for most transportation and was essential for the
modern world. Specifically, the vast majority of automobiles seen on the road today
use the Otto Cycle to convert gasoline into motion. Any machine (the list[1] would go
on and on) that uses gasoline will be divided into two categories of engines as seen
below.

Types of engines that use the Otto Cycle

Figure 1. A two stroke engine[2] Figure 2. A four stroke engine[3]

The PV diagram (pressure-volume diagram) of the ideal Otto cycle is show above fig. This
diagram models how the changes in pressure and volume of the working fluid (gasoline and
air fuel) change due to the combustion of hydrocarbons which powers the movements of a
piston, creating heat, to provide motion for a vehicle. There are expansion (increased volume
chamber) piston motions—caused when the thermal energy is released from combustion—
inducing work being done by the gas and on the piston. In contrast, when the piston
does work on the gas, the engine chamber is being compressed (decreasing in volume).

It is important to note that Figure, depicts an ideal process for any engine using the Otto cycle.
It describes the basic working steps in a gasoline engine. The slight modification which depicts
a more realistic situation of the Otto Cycle's PV diagram for a two stroke and four stroke
engine is explained on their respective pages. The work done by the engine can be calculated
by solving the area of the closed cycle.

The following describes what occurs during each step on the PV diagram, in which the
combustion of the working fluid—gasoline and air (oxygen), changes the motion in the piston:

Green line: Referred to as the intake phase, the piston is drawn down to the bottom to allow
the volume in the chamber to increase so it can "intake" a fuel-air mixture. In terms of
thermodynamics, this is referred to as an isobaric process.

Process 1 to 2: During this phase the piston will be drawn up, so it can compress the fuel-air
mixture that entered the chamber. The compression causes the mixture to increase slightly
in pressure and temperature—however, no heat is exchanged. In terms of thermodynamics,
this is referred to as an adiabatic process. When the cycle reaches point 2, that is when the
fuel is met by the spark plug to be ignited.

Process 2 to 3: This is where combustion occurs due to the ignition of fuel by the spark plug.
The combustion of the gas is complete at point 3, which results in a highly pressurized
chamber that has a lot of heat (thermal energy). In terms of thermodynamics, this is referred
to as an isochoric process.

Process 3 to 4: The thermal energy in the chamber as a result of combustion is used to do

work on the piston—which pushes the piston down—increasing the volume of the chamber.
This is also known as the power stoke because it is when the thermal energy is turned into
motion to power the machine or vehicle.
Purple line (Process 4 to 1 and exhaust phase): From process 4 to 1, all waste heat is expelled
from the engine chamber. As the heat leaves the gas, the molecules lose kinetic
energy causing the decrease in pressure.[6] Then the exhaust phase occurs when the
remaining mixture in the chamber is compressed by the piston to be "exhausted" out, without
changing the pressure.
 Diesel Cycle
The Diesel cycle is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal combustion
engine. In it, fuel is ignited by heat generated during the compression of air in
the combustion chamber, into which fuel is then injected.

Diesel Cycle PV and TS Diagram:

Now we will study PV and TS Diagram:

 Process 1-2: Reversible Adiabatic Compression Process

 Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat addition
 Process 3-4: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion Process
 Process 4-1: Constant volume Heat rejection

Process 1-2: Reversible Adiabatic Compression Process:

The cylinder contains full of air which is entered through the inlet port as we
studied above. Here P1, V1, and T1 are the corresponding Pressure, Volume,
and Temperature.
After the adiabatic compression process in which entropy remains constant
and the air is compressed by the piston. The P2, V2, and T2 are corresponding
Pressure, Volume, and Temperature after the compression process.
Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat addition:
Now the heat is added at a constant pressure of the system. So only temperature increases
from T2 to T3 and pressure remains constant P2=P3.
And the volume varies v2 to v3.

Heat Addition formula is,

Qadd = mCp(T3-T2)

Process 3-4: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion Process:

Here in this process the fuel get expanded that means the work is being out and
temperature is decreasing from point 3 to point 4. Entropy remians constant.
At point 3 there is maximum temperature and the temperature is decreasing to point 4.

Process 4-1: Constant volume Heat Rejection Process:

Here the heat is being rejected at a constant volume process that means the pressure is
decreasing P4 to P1 but volume remains constant V1=V4.

Heat rejected formula is,

Qrej = mCv(T4-T1)

Diesel Cycle Derivation:

We can calculate efficiency of diesel cycle from the derivation. So lets start,
So here we find out the efficiency of diesel engine.

Diesel Cycle Efficiency:

The efficiency of the diesel cycle is more efficient than the Otto cycle but not more than the
Carnot cycle which is having 75 Percent. The diesel cycle efficiency can be calculated from
the formulas which are, (Net Work)/
(Heat supplied).
Diesel cycle Application:

 Diesel Cycle is used in two-stroke and four-stroke diesel engine. The diesel cycle
produces more amount of power compared with less fuel to the Otto cycle.
 The diesel engine is used in heavy vehicles like Car, Trucks, Generator, and Buses
extra.
 The fuel system is larger here but where in Otto cycle has smaller.
 Diesel Engine has the lowest Specific fuel consumption.
 Duel Cycle
Dual cycle, or limited pressure cycle, is a thermodynamic cycle that combines
the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle. In the dual cycle, combustion occurs partly
at constant volume and partly at constant pressure. It can be used to describe
internal combustion engines.

Dual Cycle – Processes

In a dual cycle, the system executing the cycle undergoes a series of five
processes: two isentropic (reversible adiabatic) processes alternated with two
isochoric processes and one isobaric process:

Isentropic compression (compression stroke) – The gas is compressed

adiabatically from state 1 to state 2, as the piston moves from intake valve
closing point (1) to top dead center. The surroundings do work on the gas,
increasing its internal energy (temperature) and compressing it. On the other
hand, the entropy remains unchanged. The changes in volumes and their ratio
(V1 / V2) are known as the compression ratio. The compression ratio is smaller
than the expansion ratio.
Isochoric compression (ignition phase) – In this phase (between state 2 and
state 3), there is a constant volume (the piston is at rest ) heat transfer to the
air from an external source while the piston is at rest at the top dead center.
This process is similar to the isochoric process in the Otto cycle. It is intended
to represent the ignition of the fuel-air mixture injected into the chamber and
the subsequent rapid burning. The pressure rises, and the ratio (P3 / P2) is
known as the “explosion ratio”.

Isobaric expansion (power stroke) – In this phase (between state 3 and state
4), there is a constant pressure (idealized model) heat transfer to the air from
an external source (combustion of the fuel) while the piston is moving toward
the V4. During the constant pressure process, energy enters the system as heat
Qadd, and a part of the work is done by moving pistons.

Isentropic expansion (power stroke) – The gas expands adiabatically from

state 4 to state 5 as the piston moves from V3 to the bottom dead center. The
gas works on the surroundings (piston) and loses an amount of internal energy
equal to the work that leaves the system. Again the entropy remains
unchanged.

Isochoric decompression (exhaust stroke) – In this phase, the cycle completes

by a constant-volume process in which heat is rejected from the air while the
piston is at the bottom dead center. The working gas pressure drops
instantaneously from point 5 to point 1. The exhaust valve opens at point 5.
The exhaust stroke is directly after this decompression. As the piston moves
from the bottom dead center (point 1) to the top dead center (point 0) with
the exhaust valve opened, the gaseous mixture is vented to the atmosphere,
and the process starts anew.

Thermal Efficiency for Dual Cycle

In general, the thermal efficiency, ηth, of any heat engine is defined as the ratio
of the work it does, W, to the heat input at the high temperature, QH.

The thermal efficiency, ηth, represents the fraction of heat, QH, converted to
work. Since energy is conserved according to the first law of
thermodynamics and energy cannot be converted to work completely, the
heat input, QH, must equal the work done, W, plus the heat that must be
dissipated as waste heat QC into the environment. Therefore we can rewrite
the formula for thermal efficiency as:

Therefore the heat added and rejected are given by:

Qadd-1 = mcv (T3 – T2)

Qadd-2 = mcp (T4 – T3)
Qout = mcv (T5 – T1)
Therefore the thermal efficiency for a dual cycle is:
 Engine Performance
Engine performance is often characterized by the engine operating behavior in the
speed–load domain, for example, the behavior of emissions, fuel consumption,
noise, mechanical and thermal loading.

Why engine performance is important ?

1) Efficient and reliable operation of the engine.
2) Helps in saving fuel and optimizing SFOC( Specific Fuel Oil Consumption.
3) Helps in predicting the necessary repairs and preventing engine failure.
4) Helps in reducing spare parts cost and increasing time between overhauls.

How engine performance is measured?

The most common method for measuring torque and power of an engine is through
a dynamometer, or “dyno” test. This test works usually by connecting the output
shaft of an engine to a set-up that applies a resistive load

What improves engine performance?

Increasing compression is the most productive way to increase horsepower. Build
compression into your engine and you build in power. In more than a century of
internal combustion, there has never been a more common sense way to make
power. But be careful about how you raise compression

What can affect engine performance?

Factors Affecting the Engine Performance (Automobile)
 Heat Transfer. The heat is exchanged in both directions between the gases
and engine cylinder walls and. ...
 Residual Gas. ...
 Valve Resistance. ...
 Valve Timing. ...
 Combustion Time. ...
 Incomplete Combustion. ...
 Atmospheric Conditions
 Supercharger

Superchargers are pressure boosting devices (compressors) which increase the

pressure of the air before inletting it get into cylinder of the internal combustion
engine, and the process of increasing the pressure OR forcing more air to get into
engine is called as supercharging.

What is turbocharger and supercharger?

Turbochargers use the vehicle's exhaust gas; two fans – a turbine fan and a
compressor fan – rotate from exhaust gas.
Conversely, superchargers are powered directly by the engine; a belt pulley drives
gears that cause a compressor fan to rotate
 Combustion in SI Engines
The combustion process of SI engines can be divided into three broad regions:
(1) ignition and flame development
(2) flame propagation
(3) flame termination.
Flame development is generally considered the consumption of the first 5% of
the air-fuel mixture (some sources use the first 10%).

Stages of combustion in SI engine:

1. Preparation Phase

The preparation phase is also called a period of ignition lag. This is the first stage in
the combustion stages in SI engines. According to the experiment, there is some time
interval between the first spark given to the mixture (at point A) and the first flame
appears out of the mixture. This time interval is known as ignition lag and it is
represented on the above map as period AB. Due to this combustion, there is a clear
rise in cylinder pressure.

This ignition lag represents the preflame reaction. According to the chain reaction
theory of combustion, in preflame reactions chain carriers are produced.
During the AB period, the angle changed by the crank between points A and B is
known as the ignition delay angle.
This first phase or preparation phase in stages of combustion in SI engines depends
upon the different factors such as the temperature of fuel, pressure, molecular
structure of fuel, density and air-fuel ratio in the combustion chamber.

2. Flame Propagation Phase

When the first flame appears after the spark at point B, this flame travels
surrounding and burns the fuel in different layers. This fuel burning rate and flame
speed are noticeably low and there is a small but steady pressure rise in the
combustion chamber.

This burning of air and fuel in the combustion chamber continues further and it
causes a continuous rise in pressure and temperature. It releases heat energy in the
combustion chamber which is transferred from burned to unburned charge. The
speed of flame propagation is becoming very high in the range of 15 to 35 m/s.
Differentiating between the first and second phase i.e. Preparation phase and flame
propagation phase is quite a difficult task. But you can distinguish between these two
phases by observing ( P – θ ) diagram given above. The second phase i.e. flame
propagation phase starts when the pressure in the combustion chamber starts rising
at point B and the phase ends when the highest pressure is achieved in the cylinder
at point C on ( P – θ ) diagram.

Curve BC on the diagram represents the rate of pressure rise. The rate of heat
transfer to the cylinder walls is very low at the beginning of the flame propagation
phase. This stage is one the most important stage in the stages of combustion in SI
engine.

3. After Burning
We attained point C in the second stage of the combustion. But, it does not
represent the completion of the combustion of the mixture. Because of the
continuous burning of the remaining fuels in the cylinder and reassociation of
dissociated gases in the combustion chamber.

During the expansion stroke, the combustion of air and fuel mixture continues after
point C. This phase is called after burning. After burning represents the third stage of
combustion in SI engine up to point D on ( P – θ ) diagram.
During after burning phase, flame velocity reduces to a certain level. This was the last
phase of the stages of combustion in SI engine.
Comparison of Knock in S.I and C.I Engines
Knocking in CI engines:

 In spark ignition engines (SI engines), at the end part of the gas, if flame
speed and delay period are low in the combustion chamber, produce
detonation in SI engine. In the case of the CI engine, it was the first part
of the gas which causes the Knocking in CI engine and rough running of
the engine.
 In CI engines, when fuel is injected in the combustion chamber and
combustion occurs by the way of the autoignition system. When the
period of injection of fuel is long, an excess amount of fuel starts to
inject in the combustion chamber. Then there is a large amount of fuel
accumulate in the combustion chamber due to longer injection of fuel
or delay period.
 When there is uncontrolled combustion, the amount of fuel
accumulated in the combustion chamber suddenly explodes. It
increases the rate of pressure rise in the combustion chamber and
ultimately high pressure. This high rate of pressure rise in the internal
combustion engine is equivalent to a sudden increase in load on the
engine.
 Also high and increasing pressure of gases in the chamber affects the
whole engine structure during the pressure equalization process. Due
to this, you will hear a thudding sound from the engine, the same
sound is called Knock or Knocking in CI engine.
 From the above explanation, we can conclude that the knocking in CI
engines occurs if the delay period of injection is longer than the usual
condition.

Knocking in SI engines:
 In the normal combustion of the CI engine, air is sucked and then compressed
by the piston. At the end of compression, the fuel injector sprays the fuel into
the high-temperature compressed air. The fuel gets ignited and flames
smoothly propagate throughout the cylinder with consuming the air-fuel
mixture.
 While In the case of detonation in the CI engine, at the end compression (BDC
to TDC) of air, the fuel injector sprays the fuel into the air. But due to the high
ignition lag, more unburnt fuel accumulates inside the chamber.
 When this lot of fuel accumulated inside the chamber reaches to self-ignition
temperature, it gets ignited, a large explosion takes place inside the chamber
which applies the opposite force to the piston movement from BDC to TDC.
 Therefore, this phenomenon creates a high pinging sound and pressure pulses
which has a bad effect on the engine.
 In the CI engine, the detonation process is observed at the starting of the
combustion process.
What causes detonation/knocking in engine?

The factors responsible for detonation in an SI engine are as follows:-

 High compression ratio.
 Autoignition
 Less ingition lag.
 High self ignition temperature of fuel.
 High temperature of inlet air-fuel mixture.
 More quantity of inlet air-fuel mixture.
 Hot spots (Overheated area inside chamber)
 Due to used of low octane fuel.

The factors responsible for detonation in a CI engine are as follows:-

 High ignition lag

 High ignition lag
 High engine speed
 Due to used of low cetane fuel
 Less temperature and pressure of intake fuel and air
Therefore, these are different factors that cause the detonation in both kinds of
engines.

What is effect knocking in engine?

The effects of the detonation on the engine are as follows:

 Bending of connecting rod.

 Scuffing of cylinder bore.
 Breaking of piston head and piston rings.
 Erosion of cylinder head
 Loss of engine power.
 Produces the high intensity sound waves.
 Causes pre-ignition due to high comustion temperature.
 Damage to spark plug.
 Melting of valves.
How to prevent engine knocking/denotation?

The detonation in an SI engine can be controlled by the following ways:

 Decreasing intake manifold pressure.

 Retarding spark timing.
 Reducing the compression ratio.
 Using the high octane fuel.
 Reducing the intake temperature of air.
 Reducing peak cylinder pressure.
 Reducing the engine size.
 Increasing the amount of intake fuel.

The detonation in the CI engine can be controlled by the following ways:

 Using the high cetane fuel helps to reduce the ignition lag.
 Increasing engine size.
 Increasing the intake fuel and air temperature.
 Using the supercharging or turbocharging.

Combustion in CI Engines

In CI or compression ignition engine, in the compression stroke, only air is

compressed at very high pressure and temperature. The compression ratio used is in
the range of 12 to 120.
The temperature of the air becomes higher than the temperature of the fuel which is
diesel in the CI engine. Then diesel fuel is injected in the combustion chamber under
very high pressure about 120 to 210 bar. The temperature of this fuel is around 20°
to 35° before TDC (Top Dead Center).

Point A on the above graph shows the time at which diesel fuel injection starts. Then,
the process of combustion in the CI engine starts. This combustion takes place in four
stages as discussed below.

Stages of Combustion in CI engine:

There are four different stages of combustion in CI engine where proper combustion
of air and fuel takes place as follows:
1. Ignition Delay Period
2. Period of Uncontrolled Combustion
3. Period of Controlled Combustion
4. After Burning

1. Ignition Delay Period

At this first stage of combustion in the CI engine, the fuel from the injection system
sprayed in the combustion chamber in the form of a jet. Due to atomization and
vaporization, this fuel disintegrates at the core which is surrounded by a spray of air
and fuel particles.

In this vaporization process, the fuel gets heat from the compressed and hot
surrounding air. It causes some pressure drop in the cylinder. You can see this
pressure drop (curve AB) in the above figure.

After completion of the vaporization process, the preflame reaction of the mixture in
the combustion chamber starts. During the preflame reaction, pressure into the
cylinder starts increasing with the release of energy at a slow rate.

This preflame reaction starts slowly and then speeds up until the ignition of the fuel
takes place. You can see this process at point C on the diagram.

This time interval between the starting of the fuel injection and the beginning of the
combustion is called the delay period. This delay period can further be divided into
two parts – Physical delay and chemical delay.

The period between the time of injection of the fuel and its achievement of self-
ignition temperature during vaporization is called physical delay. When physical
delay completes, the time interval up to the fuel ignites and the flame of the
combustion appears is called chemical delay.

2. Period of Uncontrolled Combustion

This is the second stage of combustion in the CI engine. After the above-mentioned
delay period is over, the air and fuel mixture will auto-ignite as they have achieved
their self-ignition temperature.

The mixture of air and fuel in CI engines is heterogeneous unlike homogeneous in the
SI engines. Due to this heterogeneous mixture, flames appear at more than one
location where the concentration of the mixture is high.

When the flame formed the mixture in the other low concentration starts burning by
the propagation of flames or due to auto-ignition, because of the process of heat
transfer.

The accumulated fuel during the delay is now started burning at an extremely rapid
rate. It causes a rise in in-cylinder pressure and temperature. So, the higher the delay
period, the higher would be the rate of pressure rise.
During this stage, you can’t control the amount of fuel burning, that’s why this period
is called a period of uncontrolled combustion. This period is represented by the curve
CD in the above figure.

3. Period of Controlled Combustion

When the accumulated fuel during the delay period completely burned in the period
uncontrolled combustion, the temperature and pressure of the mixture in the
cylinder are so high that new injected fuel from the nozzle will burn rapidly due to
the presence of sufficient oxygen in the combustion chamber.
That’s the reason we can control the rise of pressure into the cylinder by controlling
the fuel injection rate. Therefore, this period of combustion is called a period of
controlled combustion.

4. After Burning
This is the last stage out of the four stages of combustion in CI engine.
Naturally, the combustion process is completed at the point when the maximum
pressure is obtained in the combustion chamber at point E as shown in the figure.
Practically, the burning of the fuel in the combustion chamber remains to continue
during the expansion stroke. The main reason behind it is the reassociation of
dissociated gases and unburnt fuel.
Therefore, this last phase of combustion is called After Burning.
These are the four different stages of combustion in CI engine.
 Carburetion

What is meant by carburation?

Carburation is defined as the process of mixing of combustible fuel with the proper
amount of air before it enters the engine cylinder. The purpose carburation is to
provide an air-fuel mixture in required quantity and quality for the efficient
operation of engine. The correct air-fuel ratio is important in performance of spark
ignition engine under various condition. The process of carburation not required in
compression ignition engine because in CI engine, fuel directly injected into the
compressed air in the cylinder at the end of compression stroke. The device which
mix air and fuel in the required ratio is known as a carburetor.

What are the factors affecting carburetion?

Various Factors that affect the carburation process are listed below

 Engine speed
 Temperature of incoming air
 Vaporization characteristics of the fuel
 Design of carburetor

Engine speed
Modern engine run at a very high speed that reduces the time for carburation. For
example, the engine running at 3000 rpm get approximately only 10 millisecond for
the carburation. In this scenario in order to get high-quality air-fuel mixture, the
velocity air should be increased. This high velocity is achieved by introducing
a venturi section in the path of air.

Temperature of incoming air

Temperature and pressure play a major role in producing a homogeneous air-fuel
mixture. High air temperature increases the vaporization of the fuel. Temperature
can be increased by heating the intake manifold but the higher temperature of input
air decreases output power and volumetric efficiency.
Vaporization characteristics of the fuel
The presence of highly volatile hydrocarbons in the fuel plays a big role in good
quality carburation, especially at high engine speed. Fuels that vaporize easily at
normal temperature give good carburation.

Design of carburetor
There are different types of carburetor based on the design. Carburetor must be
designed for quality carburation at various operating conditions (idling condition to
maximum power requirement).

Advantages of simple carburetor

 Simple carburetors are inexpensive compared to Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI)
 Fine adjustment according to the environment very easy.
 Simple carburetor is a mechanical device and it will respond uniquely in every
possible adjustment.
 There is no restriction on the amount of fuel drawn to the cylinder from the
float chamber. It can provide a denser mixture at high speed for great power.
 Easy and affordable carburetor repair maintenance.
 Carburetor vehicle shows more power and precision in the road test.

Disadvantages of simple carburetor

 At low speed, the amount of fuel in air-fuel mixture is very low. This too lean mixture
will not ignite properly. At that conditions, some arrangement is required for the
proper running of engine.
 It gives stoichiometric mixture only at one specific speed and load. Simple carburetor
is more suitable for engine running at constant speed. Several modifications have
made to overcome this drawback of simple carburetor.
 Fuel economy is very low. It consumes more fuel than the fuel injectors.
 The working of simple carburetor will be affected by the atmospheric pressure. The
setting for carburetor varies with varying altitude.
 The working of simple carburetor will be affected by the change in atmospheric
temperature. It happens because of the change in density of air with a change in
temperature. The cold starting of the engine is a big issue. If the carburetor tune up
is done in winter, it will give a richer mixture at summer season.
 The mixture quality will be affected by the inertia of fuel. Sudden opening of throttle
leads to the supply of too lean mixture to the cylinder because the inertia effect
prevents the immediate flow of fuel (sudden acceleration and starting time).
 Fuel System

What is A Fuel System?

The fuel system in a vehicle consists of a few components that help transfer fuel
from the tank to the engine for combustion. Since fuel delivery to the engine is
essential for smooth driving; your fuel system must always be in efficient working
condition. If there is a lapse in the system you will feel a loss in power and
performance.

Let’s take a look at the components in a fuel system in detail to get a better
understanding of how the fuel system works and how each component plays a part
in the fuel system.

The Fuel Tank

The tank is where all your fuel is stored. It is also the starting point of the entire fuel
system. Fuel tanks in older cars are usually situated at the back-end, right between
the rear seat and the trunk. However, modern requirements for trunk space and leg
space have led designers to shift the fuel tank under the rear seat in many newer
vehicles.

The Fuel Pump

Once you have gas in your tank, it needs to go from the tank through to the engine.
The distance between the tank and the engine is just too much that gravity or even
momentum could help. This is where a fuel pump comes in. The pump injects fuel
into the fuel lines with extreme pressure so that the engine gets the right amount of
fuel at the right time. If the fuel pump is not doing its job properly you are bound to
lose power. Also, the fuel pump is the most vulnerable part of the entire fuel system
so there are more chances for it needing replacement.
The Fuel Rail

The component that receives the fuel before it enters the engine’s combustion
chamber is the fuel rail. This component has several sensors that measure the fuel
pressure received from the pump and the amount of fuel required by the engine. By
calculating the requirement of the engine the fuel rail releases fuel to perhaps the
most important part of the fuel system – the fuel injectors.

The Fuel Injectors

The final piece in the fuel system puzzle is fuel injectors. As their name suggests,
injectors ‘inject’ fuel into the engine cylinders. The process of fuel injection happens
thousands of times while you are driving and that makes the injectors susceptible to
wear. Fuel injectors are the second most vulnerable component in the fuel system
and while they don’t need to be replaced that often, they need to be cleaned every
once in a while for them to perform at their best. A fuel system cleaner is what is
needed.

Analysis of Carburetor
What is a Carburetor?

A carburetor is a component in an automobile engine that is designed to take in

exact air and fuel needed for proper combustion. The part has been the heart of a
vehicle’s engine makes it run smoothly and give better horse-power.

Carburettors are so perfect that even at cold starting or running hot at high speed,
getting the exact fuel/air mixture is the job of the mechanical gadget.

The working of this component is quite complex in car engine but let me explain. If
you have enough atoms of oxygen to burn all your atoms of fuel, that is known as
a stochiometric mixture.
Functions of Carburetor

 As earlier mentioned, the primary function of a carburetor is to allow a

suitable amount of air and fuel needed to produce power. It’s done at
the correct strength under all conditions of load and speed of the engine.

 It regulates the air-fuel ratio and also mixes the fuels.

 Controls the engine speed.

 According to the engine speed and load changing, carburettors increase

or decrease the amount of mixture.

 It vaporizes the fuel and mixes the air to a homogeneous air-fuel mixture.

 Also, help to keep a certain head of fuel in the float chamber all the time.

 Helps the fuel to burn smoothly and properly without any problem.

Functional Parts of Carburetors

Below are the major parts of a carburetor:

Throttle Valve:

The function of a throttle valve in a carburetor is to controls the air/fuel mixture

(charge) that enters the engine cylinder. This throttle valve is opened when the
accelerating pedal is pressed.

Metering system:

This part controls the flow of fuel into the nozzle making it responsible for the exact
mixture of air-fuel. It consists of metering orifice and a fuel discharge nozzle.

When air passes through the venturi, the low-pressure field is produced across the
throat because of the pressure difference between air and fuel. The fuel is then
discharged into the air stream. The metering orifice and a discharge hole at the exit
of the fuel discharge nozzle control the quantity of the fuel.

Idling system:

The passage from the float chamber to the venturi tube is called an idling system. It
offers a rich mixture during idling and at low speed. it works when the throttle is
open below 15% or during idling.
Strainer:

A strainer is a device that filters the fuel before entering the float chamber. It is
made of a fine wire mesh which filters the fuel from dust and other suspended
particles. Nozzles get block if particles are not removed from the surface of the
strainer.

Venturi:

A venturi is a cross-sectional hollow which gradually decreases to reduce the air

pressure of the chamber. From it, fuel comes out from the fuel pipe to mix.

Choke Valve:

A choke valve is another part in the carburetor that controls the mixture of air/fuel.
Its purpose is to control the quantity of the air inside the mixing chamber.

It is a valve that normally stays at semi-open condition, but when a rich mixture is
required the valve is operated. The inlet of the air within the chamber is closed so
the rich mixture can be obtained. This as a result of the quantity of fuel in the
mixture is more because of less air in the chamber.

This valve is also helpful in winter season when engines hardly start. It is used to
supply the mixture of rich air-fuel to the engine cylinder.

Float Chamber:

Float chambers are storage tank for fuel that aid the continuous supply of fuel. It
features a floating valve that maintains the level of fuel in the float chamber.

When the fuel level increases, the float moves upward which close and stop the fuel
supply. Also, when the level of fuel decreases in the float chamber the float moves
downward. This opens the fuel supply valve and allows more flow of fuel into the
float chamber.

Mixing Chamber:

The mixing chamber is where air and fuel mixture takes place, which is then
transferred to the engine cylinder.

Idle and transfer port:

In the carburettor’s venturi, there are two nozzles or ports that help to deliver fuel to
the engine cylinder.

In modern automobile engines, there are some additional parts that featured their
carburettors to improve efficiency. These parts include:
Throttle Return Check:

Due to the fact that the total throttle on an engine running at a very high speed
causes a very high intake manifold vacuum. This will draw exhaust into the engine
intake during v/v overlap. The intake chart will be diluted causing misfiring or stall.

In modern engines, a throttle return check v/v is connected to the throttle linkage to
avoid this issue.

Automatic Mixture Control:

There is a plunger shaped valve in a carburetor which is controlled by a solenoid and

spring. It operates the separate jet in the float chamber. The solenoid is turned on
and the v/v is lifted to increase the amount of fuel supply to the jet. When the
solenoid is turned off the spring pushes the valve down to decrease fuel supplied.

This solenoid is a computer control system which received signals from the engine’s
speed, coolant temperature. carburetor with this feature is also called feedback-
controlled calculators.

Anti-dieseling Solenoid:

Because modern emission control engine usually runs hotter, resulting in some hot
spots on the combustion chamber. These hot spots cause pre-ignition in the
chamber. Carburettors are designed with an anti-dieseling solenoid in modern
engines to prevent the pre-ignition.
Types of Carburetors

Below are the various types of carburettors which are considered according to the
direction of airflow:

Up-draft carburetor:

In the up-draft types of carburetor air enters through the bottom side and leaves
through the top. This is to let the direction of its flow upward. The fuel comes from
the float chamber and the pressure difference within the two-chamber is achieved
by venturi.

Fuel comes out from the fuel pipe and mixes with the inlet air to make the fuel/air
mixture. The fuel pass through the throttle valve which is directly connected directly
to the accelerator. This mixture then goes into the engine cylinder to perform the
combustion.

There is a limitation with this type of carburetor that makes other more preferred
which is that the sprayed fuel droplet must be lifted by air friction.

Down-draft Carburetor:
Down-draft carburetor is the most used and common because of its advantages. It
supplies air from the top portion of the mixing chamber. Some of its advantages
include:
 The gravity assists the flow of the mixture, making the engine pulls better
at lower speeds under load.
 The position of the carburetor is easily accessible.
 A higher value of volumetric efficiency can be achieved with an engine
with such a part.

Horizontal Carburetor:

The horizontal carburetor is third types which are known when a down-draft
carburetor is in a horizontal direction. Its working principle is very simple. The
carburetor stays in a horizontal position where the air is coming in through one end
of it. it mixes the fuel before going into the engine cylinder for combustion
Advantages:
 Carburetor parts are less expensive when compared to that of a fuel
injector.
 Air and fuel mixture is perfectly done with the component.
 It has more power and precision of the air/fuel mixture.
 The engine component is not restricted by the amount of gas pumped
from the fuel tank. This is to say; the cylinders may pull more fuel
through the carburetor leading to greater power and denser mixture in
the chamber.

Disadvantages:
 Mixture supplied at a very low speed is weak making the engine not to
perfectly ignite.
 The engine part can be affected by changes in atmospheric pressure.
 More fuel is consumed more fuel when compared with fuel injectors.
 More air emissions than fuel injectors.
 Higher maintenance than fuel injectors.

Emission Control System

emission control system, in automobiles, means employed to limit the
discharge of noxious gases from the internal-combustion engine and other
components. There are three main sources of these gases: the engine exhaust,
the crankcase, and the fuel tank and carburetor. The exhaust pipe discharges
burned and unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, oxides
of nitrogen and sulfur, and traces of various acids, alcohols, and phenols.
The crankcase is a secondary source of unburned hydrocarbons and, to a lesser
extent, carbon monoxide. In the fuel tank and (in older automobiles)
the carburetor, hydrocarbons that are continually evaporating
from gasoline constitute a minor but not insignificant contributing factor in
pollution. A variety of systems for controlling emissions from all these sources
have been developed.

In the crankcase—the portion of the engine block below the cylinders where
the crankshaft is located—leaked combustion gases are combined with
ventilating air and returned to the intake manifold for reburning in the
combustion chamber. The device that performs this function is known as the
positive crankcase ventilation valve, or PCV valve.
 Automotive Powertrain

What is automotive powertrain?

A powertrain is an assembly of every component that pushes your vehicle forward.
Your car's powertrain creates power from the engine and delivers it to the wheels on
the ground. The key components of a powertrain include an engine, transmission,
driveshaft, axles, and differential

Engine: As the heart of your vehicle, an engine generates power to drive the car. An
engine consists of pistons that move up and down inside cylinders and a crankshaft
that translates the reciprocating motion into a rotating motion.

Transmission: A transmission is a basic component in your car that makes sure the
proper amount of power is transmitted to the wheels. Like a car's gearbox, the
transmission takes the power from the engine and adjusts it according to driving
conditions, ultimately transferring it to the wheels.

Driveshaft: A driveshaft is a component that transfers the torque from the

transmission to the wheels. To perform this task, it has to work through various
angles and change its length to adjust to movement in the suspension.
Axles: Axles are an important member of a powertrain. It lies between the wheels
and mainly performs two functions: first, it puts up with the weight of the vehicle
and it also rotates and transmits the power of the engine to the wheels.

Differential: A differential is a part of the rear axle. It allows each rear wheel to turn
at a different speed. For instance, the differential is important when turning a corner,
as the outside wheel needs to rotate faster than the inside wheel.
The powertrain is crucial because without the system working properly, your vehicle
cannot move forward. To sum up, it's a group of parts that generate, convert, and
consume energy to thrust your vehicle into motion.

The Difference Between a Powertrain and Drivetrain

The words “powertrain” and “drivetrain” are often used interchangeably, but they
are a little bit different. Simply put, a drivetrain transmits power to the wheels. A
powertrain consists of an engine (or a motor) and a drivetrain. The drivetrain, like
the powertrain, is not a single component of your vehicle. The drivetrain is made of
the transmission, driveshaft, axles, differential, and wheels

Automotive Clutch
What is an Automotive Clutch?
The meaning of clutch is to hold on to or grab or grip something. The automotive
clutch is a device that engages and disengages the drive between two moving
mechanisms or assemblies, such as a gearbox. One of them consists of the driving
gears while the other has driven gears.

However, the driving gears get the engine’s rotating motion while the driven gears
rotate the wheels. An automotive clutch connects/disconnects the engine with the
gearbox that spins at different speeds than the engine. It allows the smooth shifting
of gears by disengaging and re-engaging the engine from the gearbox when the
vehicle is in motion.

Function:
The clutch ‘engages’ when it connects the two rotating shafts to lock together. Thus,
they become one unit and spin at the same speed. It ‘disengages’ when the shafts
are unlocked (not locked) and spin at different speeds. However, the clutch is said to
be ‘slipping’ when the shafts are still locked together, but they rotate at different
speeds.

In other words, the automotive clutch engages and disengages

the power transmission to the gearbox while shifting the gears either accelerates or
slows down the vehicle. Thus, it avoids the friction between the driving and driven
gears being engaged/disengaged. It also prevents any damage to the gears.
Generally, vehicles with manual gearboxes have a single clutch. However, automatic
transmission vehicles could have more than one clutch.

Characteristics of automotive clutch:

The automotive clutch must possess the following qualities:
1. Transmission of torque – It should be capable of transmitting the
maximum engine torque.
2. Gradual engagement – It should engage/disengage gradually and
positively without any jerks/shocks.
3. Dissipation of heat – Operation of clutch generates a large amount of
heat. Hence, the clutch should ensure sufficient heat dissipation.
4. Dynamically balanced – It must be dynamically balanced, especially in
high-speed vehicles.
5. Damping of vibrations – It must have a suitable mechanism for
damping the vibrations and eliminating noise during transmission.
6. Compact size – It must be of the smallest size and occupy a minimum
amount of space.
7. Free pedal play – It must have provision for the pedal play to reduce
the effective clamping load on the thrust bearing and also its wear &
tear.
Components:
Typically, the basic clutch mechanism consists of a driven plate (or clutch plate),
which has a splined hub at the center. It slides onto the gearbox’s driveshaft and
presses against the engine’s flywheel. The clutch pedal performs the clutch operation
with the help of a set of levers. First, it releases the driven plate, which gets pushed
away from the flywheel. It occurs when the engine connects to the wheels. On the
other hand, the pressure plate presses the driven plate against the flywheel. It
consists of either several coil springs or a cone-shaped single diaphragm spring.

Types of automotive clutch:

There are different types of clutches depending upon their application. However, the
manufacturers use the following types in the automotive drive transmission:

1. Friction – Most common type and basic clutch. It uses friction to

synchronize the speeds and/or to transmit power.
2. Mechanically operated – Operates using mechanical linkages, typically
used in old trucks. However, it needs more force to operate.
3. Hydraulically operated – Operates using hydraulic cylinders, typically
used in cars. Thus, very light to operate.
4. Dry-type – This is the most common type of automotive clutch which
most vehicles employ. The dry clutch system uses only friction to
engage.
5. Wet type – This clutch is immersed in the lubricating oil, typically used
in motorcycles.
6. Pull type – The pressing of the pedal pulls the release bearing, pulls the
diaphragm spring, and disengages the drive.
7. Push type – The pedal pressing pushes the thrust bearing on the clutch
and disengages the drive.
8. Single plate – Uses only one friction plate.
9. Dual-clutch – It uses two separate clutches – one for odd and the other
for even gears.
10. Multi-plate – Uses multiple friction plates.
11. Slipper clutch – Used to eliminate the effects of engine braking.
12. Overrunning clutch – It automatically disengages if the driven member
rotates faster than the driving member.
13. Lock-up clutch – Above a certain speed, it locks up the torque
converter. This minimizes the power loss and improves fuel efficiency.
 Transmission

What is Automobile Transmission System?

The internal combustion engine generates power which is transmitted to the road
wheels.

The output from the engine is available in the form of rotation of the crankshaft. This
rotary motion is transmitted to the road wheels.
The friction between the road and the surface of the wheel makes possible the
movement of the automobile. Transmission system performs this function.

The automobile transmission system consists of several components. These

components work together to transmit the rotary motion at the crankshaft smoothly
and efficiently to the road wheels.

A sudden change of state, from rest to motion or vice versa is not desirable. It may
be uncomfortable, or even dangerous, to the occupants of the automobile.

Therefore, the rotary motion of crankshaft should be transmitted gradually and not
suddenly. Another aspect of transmission is that the motion from the crankshaft
should not be transmitted as soon as the engine starts.
Requirements of Transmission System.
The transmission system, therefore, should fulfill the following requirements:

1. Enable the engine to keep disconnected from the road wheels. These should be
connected only ‘when desired.’
2. Enable the engine, when running, to be connected smoothly and gradually without
jerk to the road wheels.
3. Enable the leverage between the engine and the road wheels. This leverage should
be variable to cope with the different conditions such as starting from the rest,
moving at uniform speed or climbing a hill.
4. Enable the reduction in the engine speed.
5. Turn the drive through 90 degrees.
6. It should enable the running of inner and outer road wheels at different speeds
when the vehicle moves on a curved path.
7. It should provide the relative motion between the engine and the road wheels
when they move up and down due to the uneven road surface.

Components of Transmission System

The transmission system consists of the following components:

1. Clutch.
2. Gearbox.
3. Propeller shaft.
4. Differential.
5. Live Axle.

1. Clutch:
This component enables the engine to keep disconnected from road wheels.

The rotary motion available at the crankshaft is not transferred to road wheels. It
allows the transfer of motion when desired by the driver of the automobile.

Clutch also allows the transfer of motion gradually so that the vehicle starts moving
gradually. It works on the principle of friction.
2. Gearbox:
It consists of some pairs of gear wheels. These transmit the motion available from
the crankshaft, through the clutch, at different speeds.

This provides required leverage between the engine and the road wheels. This
leverage is variable to cope up the different conditions encountered during the
movement of the vehicle.

3. Propeller shaft:
The third component of the automobile transmission system, which transfers motion
from the gearbox end to the differential end. The distance between the two can be
large, and therefore, it is a shaft which is thin and long to connect the two.

4. Differential:
One of the requirements of the transmission system is to turn the motion through 90
degrees as the axis of the propeller shaft and live axle are at a right angle to each
other. This is performed by the differential through wheel and pinion arrangement.

Another function performed by the differential is the variation in the speeds of inner
and outer wheels when the vehicle is taking a turn.

5. Live axle:
The axle where motion from the crankshaft of the engine is transferred is known as a
live axle. The other axle takes up only the load of the vehicle and therefore is termed
as dead axle or simply the axle.

The motion is generally transferred to the rear axle, but it can be transferred to the
front axle or both the axles. When the motion is transferred to both the axles, it is
known as four-wheel drive.

Finally, motion is transferred to the road wheels at the two ends of the live axle.

The wheels rotate, and friction between their surface and road surface makes
possible the movements of the vehicle on the road.
 Brake System
What is a brake system?
A brake is a mechanical device designed to restrain motion by absorbing energy from
a moving system usually by the means of friction. It is used to slow or stop a moving
vehicle, wheels, axle, etc. The braking system is a complication device with a lot of
parts, but its working seems very easy. After all, pressing a single pedal will activate
all brakes on the four wheels. The slowing down is achieved by hydraulic fluid, which
is often bleed to get the best performance of the breaking. Air is not allowed in the
system else the component won’t work well.

Most brakes are designed to use friction between two surfaces, they’re pressed to
convert the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat. Though several methods
of energy conversion are now employed. In an automobile, friction brakes store
braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake which then gradually converts into the
air.

On modern vehicles, the brake pedal is pushed against the master cylinder. There is a
piston that pushes the brake pad against the brake disc, which slows the wheel
down. On the brake drum, the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum to
slow down the wheel.

Functions of the automotive braking system

Below are the functions braking system used in the automotive engine:

 A brake system helps to stop vehicles within the smallest possible

distance. This is achieved by converting the kinetic energy of the vehicle
into heat energy.
 It also functions on a mechanical device where motion occurs, the brake
is applied to stop it within a short period of time.
Characteristics of Brake System
The characteristic of a brake system includes peak force, continuous power
dissipation, fade, smoothness, power, pedal feel, drag, durability, weight, and noise.
Some other factors that are listed may be considered as the characteristic of a brake
system. Continue reading to get to know them.
 Components of the braking system

Below are the components used in the braking system:

Brake pedal: the component of a brake system is used to activate the brake by
pressing it down by foot. It’s located in the middle of the accelerator and clutch
pedal inside the vehicle.
Fluid reservoir: The fluid reservoir is the housing where the brake fluid or brake oil is
store.
Fluid lines: The fluid lines are the pipes through which the brake fluid flows in the
vehicle.
Brake pads: The brake pad is a steel backing plate employed on disc brakes. It’s often
made of ceramic, metal, or other hard-wearing composite materials.
Brake shoes: Brake shoes are two pieces of sheet steel joined together so it can carry
the brake lining.
Brake drum: The brake drum is a rotating drum-shaped component used in the drum
brake system.
Rotor: The rotor is a cast-iron brake disc connected to a wheel or axle, sometimes
made of reinforced carbon-carbon, ceramic matric, or some other composite.
Brake lining: A brake lining is a heat-resistant, soft but also tough material with high
friction characteristics. It’s enclosed inside the brake shoe.
Caliper: The caliper carries the brake pads and pistons.
Floating caliper or sliding caliper: the part moves relatively with the rotor as it uses a
piston on a single side of the disc to push the inner brake pad into the braking
surface. It then pulls the caliper body in to apply pressure on the opposite side of the
disc.
Fixed calipers: the fixed caliper does not move in relative to the rotor, which works
sensitive to imperfections. It uses one or more single pairs of opposing pistons to
clamp from each side of the rotor.
Master cylinder: the master cylinder converts the non-hydraulic pressure from the
driver’s foot into hydraulic pressure. it then controls the slave cylinders at the
opposite end of the hydraulic system.
Vacuum booster: this braking system component is used to improve the master
cylinder and increase pressure to which the driver foot supply through the use of a
vacuum in the engine intake. This is effective while the vehicle’s engine is running.
 Drum Brake
Drum Brakes
Drum brakes have brake drums that rotate with the wheels.

Brake shoes fitted with brake linings (friction material) which press against the drums
from the inside to generate braking force (decelerate and stop) are set inside of the
drums.
With this system, friction is generated by pressing the brake linings against the inside
surfaces of the drums. This friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy.
Drum rotation helps to press the shoes and the lining against the drum with more
force, offering superior braking force in comparison with disc brakes. On the other
hand, it is very important to design the components so that the heat from the
thermal energy is dissipated efficiently into the atmosphere.
There are three types of drum brakes depending on how the brake shoes are pressed
on to the drums

1) leading/trailing shoe type

2) twin leading shoe type
3) duo-servo type

Structure of drum brakes

Drum brakes are a brake system with brake drums (rotor) which rotate with the
wheels. Inside each drum are brake shoes fitted with brake linings (friction material).
Pistons (pressure mechanism) press against the drums from the inside to generate
braking force, thus making is possible to decelerate and stop the vehicle.
How drum brakes work

When the driver steps on the brake pedal, the power is amplified by the brake
booster (servo system) and changed into hydraulic pressure (oil-pressure) by the
master cylinder. The pressure reaches the brakes on the wheels via tubing filled with
brake oil (brake fluid). The delivered pressure pushes the pistons on the brakes of the
four wheels. The pistons press the brake linings, which are friction materials, against
the inside surfaces of the brake drums which rotate with the wheels. The linings are
pressed on the rotating drums, which in turn decelerate the wheels, thereby slowing
down and stopping the vehicle.

Main components of Drum brake

 Disc Brake
Disc Brakes

Brake rotors of disc brakes rotate with the wheels, and brake pads, which are fitted
to the brake calipers, clamp on these rotors to stop or decelerate the wheels. The
brake pads pushing against the rotors generate friction, which transforms kinetic
energy into a thermal energy.

Disc brakes are generally used in passenger cars, but due to their stable performance
at higher speeds and resistance to brake fade, they are gradually spreading into the
commercial vehicle segment, where drum brakes were traditionally chosen for their
longer service life. There is increasing demand from customers for longer service life
and higher quality, and Akebono is committed to meeting them through further
development of the disc brake’s reliability. There are two types of disc brakes.

The "opposed piston type disc brake" has pistons on both sides of the disc rotor,
while the "floating type disc brake" has a piston on only one side. Floating caliper
type disc brakes are also called sliding pin type disc brakes.

Disc brake construction

The brake rotor (disc) which rotates with the wheel, is clamped by brake pads
(friction material) fitted to the caliper from both sides with pressure from the
piston(s) (pressure mechanism) and decelerates the disc rotation, thereby slowing
down and stopping the vehicle.
How disc brakes work

When the driver steps on the brake pedal, the power is amplified by the brake
booster (servo system) and changed into a hydraulic pressure (oil-pressure) by the
master cylinder. The pressure reaches the brakes on the wheels via tubing filled with
brake oil (brake fluid). The delivered pressure pushes the pistons on the brakes of the
four wheels. The pistons in turn press the brake pads, which are friction material,
against the brake rotors which rotate with the wheels. The pads clamp on the rotors
from both sides and decelerate the wheels, thereby slowing down and stopping the
vehicle.

Main components of floating type disc brakes

 Hydraulic Brake System
What Is Hydraulic Braking System?
A hydraulic brakes system is a braking mechanism that uses brake fluid to transmit
force into the system. The fluid transfers pressure from the control mechanism to
the braking mechanism. Hydraulic braking systems are widely used in low-speed
four-wheelers such as the Tata Ace. It works with the drum type, while the disc type
is used in almost all cars.

It is also used on some bikes. Single-acting hydraulic sacks are used in some Pulsar
front-wheel brakes, while dual-acting hydraulic brakes are used in almost all
situations described above.

In thises type of braking system, the mechanical forces transmitted by the driver on
the brake pedal are converted to hydraulic pressure by a device known as a master
cylinder (see article on the master cylinder), and then this hydraulic pressure is sent
to the final drum or disc. It goes to stop or accelerate the caliper vehicle.

The hydraulic brakes are a type of braking system widely used in automobiles with
the application of hydraulic fluid. The working principle of hydraulic braking systems
is based entirely on Pascal’s law, which states that the intensity of pressure inside a
system closed by a liquid is always the same in all directions.
Construction of Hydraulic Braking System:
The construction of hydraulic braking systems involves the following part
arrangement. Brake pedal or level, a wreath, also known as an actuating rod, a
master cylinder assembly is carrying a piston assembly. It is composed of one or two
pistons, a return spring, a series of gasket or O rings, and a fluid reservoir.
The construction of hydraulic braking systems consists of reinforced hydraulic lines,
& the brake caliper assembly consists of one or two hollows aluminum or chrome-
plated steels piston. This is known as the caliper piston.

A thermally conductive brake is a set of pads and rotors, also known as a brake disc
or drum attached to an axle. A glycol-ether-based brake fluid filled the system to
force the four wheels. However, other liquids may also be employed. Suddenly,
manufacturers start designing passenger vehicles with drum brakes on four wheels.
Traditionally, disc brakes are used in the front wheel, while drum brakes are
employed for the rear wheel. Disc brakes have better heat dissipation & greater
resistance to fading and are safer than drum brakes. This is why four-wheel disc
brakes have increased significantly over the year. In addition, hydraulic brake pedals
provide faster and more consistent pad return upon release.

Parts of Hydraulic Braking System:

1. Master Cylinder
It is the main part of the entire assembly. It acts as a hydraulic actuator with a piston-
cylinder arrangement. It is responsible for converting mechanical force into hydraulic
force.
Fluid is compressed and pressurized into the master cylinder as a brake pedal that is
transmitted to the brake assembly via hydraulic lines.

2. Brake Pedal and Mechanical Linkage

The brake pedal acts as the input of the master cylinder, or we can say that the
entire assembly will start working when the brake pedal is pressed. It is manually
pressed when we have to stop or slow down the running body.
It is connected with a small mechanical contact such as a spring that helps retract the
pedal and further connects to the master cylinder. After the execution of the brake
pedal, the master cylinder comes in handy.

3. Hydraulic/Brake Fluid Reservoir

It is like a small tank for braking fluid. It is directly connected to the master cylinder
for proper handling of hydraulic braking. It is necessary to maintain the exact amount
of braking fluid throughout the assembly.
4. Hydraulic Lines
Hydraulic lines are the relationships between the various components of a braking
system. Braking fluid passes through these lines from the master cylinder to the
brake.
These are small diameter pipes that replace various types of mechanical linkage in
the case of mechanical brakes.

5. Brake Calipers
In the case of brake brakes, brake calipers are parts of the braking system that
performs the brakes. Inside the brake calipers, pistons are placed, which are
responsible for braking. Brake pads are also attached to pistons.
Calipers are placed on the circumference of the disc. The disc brake is an externally
applied braking system. A disc is placed between the calipers.

6. Drum Cylinder
A drum cylinder is a type of small cylinder that is used in drum brakes, and the brake
is located inside the drum and is connected to both brake shoes. The drum brake is
an internally applied brake

Working of Hydraulic Braking System:

The work of the hydraulic braking system is very simple. To execute the brakes, we
have two types of components: a disc brake and a drum brake. The initial work is the
same for both types, but the execution technique is different. Disc brakes are
externally applied brakes through the brake calipers and discs, while drum brakes are
applied internally through brake shoes and brake drums.

The working of both the types is as follows:-

1. Drum Hydraulic Brake
The following process occurs when the driver applies a brake in a vehicle equipped
with hydraulic brakes mounted on the drum. The speed or activation of the brake
pedal causes a master cylinder to move a rod connected between the pedal and the
piston, which in turn pushes the piston of the master cylinder inside the master
cylinder like a medical syringe.

This movement of the pistons inside the master cylinders causes compression of the
brake fluid inside the master cylinder, which in turn converts mechanical energy to
hydraulic pressure. Thises highly compressed brake fluid from the master cylinders
moves inside the brake, and this hydraulic pressure transfers from the master
cylinder to the brake drum.

When this high-pressure brake fluid o enters the wheel cylinder or drum cylinder due
to its high pressure, there is movement in the cylinder piston, which in turn expands
the static brake shoe attached to it.

Due to the expansion of the brake shoe, a friction contact is formed between the
brake shoes and the drum lining (rotating drum part), which in turn converts the
kinetic energy of the vehicle into heat energy & finally braking.
Single-acting drum-type braking – Single-acting drum type hydraulic brakes work
exactly as stated above; this type of braking provides braking force in the single
wheel or single pair.

Double Acting Drum Type Braking – High-pressure brake fluid from the master
cylinder in double-acting hydraulic brakes is divided into two directions, i.e., all
wheels of bikes and all wheels of cars, due to the use of tandems master cylinders
(article on master cylinder).

2. Disc Hydraulic Brakes

The process involved is similar to that of a drum drum when the driver brakes a
vehicle equipped with a disc-type hydraulic brake when the high-pressure brake fluid
enters the brake lines but is slightly different thereafter – High-pressure brake fluid
from the brake lines enters the disc caliper cylinder of the disc brake system.

This high-pressure brake fluid causes motion in the piston of the caliper cylinder,
which in turn causes the speed of the brake pads attached to the piston inside the
caliper

Single Acting Disc Type Braking – The function of single-acting disc type hydraulic
braking is exactly the same as mentioned above; this type of braking provides a
single braking force in the single wheel or single pair wheels.

Double-acting disc type braking – In a double-acting disc type hydraulic brake, high-
pressure brake fluid is delivered in 2 directions from the master cylinder, that is, due
to the use of tandem master cylinders in both wheels and bikes in all wheels.

Application of Hydraulic Braking System:

 Drum type hydraulic brakes – They are used in some low-speed four-
wheel vehicles such as Tata Ace.
 Disc Type Hydraulic Brakes – They are used in almost all cars like Maruti
Suzuki Swift, Hyundai i20, etc., & also in bikes like Bajaj Pulsar 180, KTM
Duke 390, etc.
 Single-acting hydraulic brake – Pulsar 180 front brakes are of single-
acting type.
 Dual Acting Hydraulic Brakes – All of the above cars.

Advantages of Hydraulic Braking System :

o Equal braking action on all wheels.
o Increased braking force.
o Simple in construction.
o The low wear rate of brake linings.
o The flexibility of brake linings.
o Increased mechanical advantage.

Disadvantages of Hydraulic Braking System :

o The whole braking system fails due to leakage of fluid from brake
linings.
o The presence of air inside the tubings ruins the whole system
o Maintenance is more than other braking systems.
o Construction is complex.
 Air Brake System

What Is Air Brake Systems?

Air brake systems are commonly used in heavy commercial vehicles and trucks. They
require a heavy braking effort that can be applied by the driver’s leg alone. You apply
compressed air pressure to operate the air brake instead of just the foot pressure
acting against the flexible diaphragm in the brake chamber.

Today we will learn about the air brake system. The air braking system is a high-
power braking system. It is commonly used on heavy vehicles, such as trucks, buses,
etc. In my previous posts, we have discussed several types of brakes, and we know
that there are only two types of braking systems.

The first one is known as the disc brake, and the second one is the drum brake. These
brakes are driven by humans or some other power source. According to the power
source, these brakes can be classified into other types such as hydraulic brakes, air
brakes, vacuum brakes, etc. When driving a heavy load vehicle, it is impossible for
humans to generate braking force.

Working of Air Brake Systems:

When the brake pedals are pressed, the exhaust passage closes, and the air intake
route opens, and the compressed air moves back into the chamber. During the
return stroke, the exhaust passage opens while the intake is closed and the air used
goes into the atmosphere.

The system is equipped with an emergency mechanical brake, which can be used
when the air supply fails the air brake system, known as the air-assisted hydraulic
braking system.

When the driver of the vehicle presses the brake pedal to stop or stop the vehicle,
the following procedures take place – When the driver starts the engine, the brake
compressor starts because it is powered by the engine, which in turn starts
compressing atmospheric air and the compressed air is sent to the compressed air
reservoir with this optimal air through the compressor governor Which always
contains some amount of air stored from the previous cycle.

With this friction contact between the brake pads and the rotation, drum line brakes
are applied to the wheels to stop or stop the vehicle. When the driver presses the
brake pedals, the outlet valve of the triple valves closes, and the inlet valve opens,
which in turn passes the compressed air from the reservoir to pass through the brake
lines of the system.
Part of Air Brake Systems:

1. Air Compressor
The air compressor is the main part of any air brake system that is driven by the
engine using a belt drive. It compresses atmospheric air to the desired pressure and
transfers it to the storage tank.

2. Storage Tank
It stores compressed atmospheric air at high pressure. Also, an essential part of the
air brake systems as compressed air is responsible for the entire operation. The
brakes can be applied several times while the automobile is running, so the
compressor is not capable of performing these tasks alone, which requires aerial
storage.

3. Brake Pedal
The brake pedal is an input to the brake mechanisms. It is operated by the drivers
inside the automobiles. The brake pedal is a type of mechanical linkage that transfers
the input motion to the forward mechanism and initiates the brake application.

4. Brake Actuator
A brake actuator is a piston-cylinder arrangement that is directly connected with the
brake pedal. When the brake pedals are pressed, it creates pressure throughout the
assembly.
5. Safety Valve
The safety valve is a safety component that attaches to the air storage tank. This
prevents the bursting of the tank due to excessive pressure because the air
compressor works continuously and supplies the compressed air in the tank. Air is
released by the safety valves when the air pressure reaches certain values.

6. Dirt Collector
A dirt collector is a small device used before the triplet valve. It is used to collect dirt
particles separated by air filters.

7. Brake Drum
The brake drum is the part that performs the brake. This is the last part of the brake
assembly. It is mounted on automobile tires.

8. Braking Lines
Braking lines are also known as supply lines. The transfers of compressed air from
the reservoir to the brake drum are done by simply breaking the lines.

9. Triple Valve
The triple brake is responsible for the entire operation of the air brake. Applying and
releasing the brakes requires a continuously applied and releasing mechanism that is
performed by the triple valve. When the brake pedals are pressed, it applies pressure
while it releases the pressure immediately when the pedal is released.

10. Air Filter and Dryer

Air filters and dryers are the two major components that are used before entering
the air compressor. As the name suggests, air filters are used to remove dust mites
from atmospheric air, while a dryer inlet removes moisture and humidity from the
air.
It is necessary that only dry air enter the air compressor because the moisture
content will cause the failure of the braking system due to the condensation of water
particles.
Construction of Air Brakes Systems:

Air brake systems consist of a two-stage air compressor powered by a crankshaft or

gearbox shafts. It takes air from the atmosphere, compressed it, & sends it to the air
reservoir through an un-loader valve. Where the reservoir pressure reaches the
maximum degree, the unloader valve opens.

The compressed air is then directed directly into the atmosphere. Each of the four
wheels fitted with brake chambers has a diaphragm, and air pressure is applied and
pushed. This force operates the cam actuating lever and applies the brakes.
Each of the brake chambers is attached to the brake pedal, and the air filter is also
fitted between the brake valve and the reservoir.

Working Principle of Air Brakes Systems:

As shown in the figure, compressed air (about 700 kPa) is used in the air brake to
activate the brake mechanism. The figure shows the complete layout of the air brake
systems. It consists of an air filter, unloading valve, air compressor, air reservoir,
brake valve, and 4 number brake chamber.

The compressors take atmospheric air through the air filter & compress the air. This
air is stored under pressure in air reservoirs. From this reservoir, air travels to the
various goods of the vehicle, which operate on compressed air.

A portion of the air goes into the brake valve. The brake valve is controlled by a
driver who controls the intensities of braking according to an emergency.
Pedal Depressed:- When the brake pedals are depressed, compressed air from a
reservoir is transmitted uniformly in all directions to the brake chambers through the
brake valve through a pipe that applies the brake.

Pedal Released:- When the drivers release the brake pedals, the master cylinder
returns to its original position due to the piston return spring, and the pressure is
dropped. It releases brake shoes from the brake drum: the original position and the
brakes are released.

Advantages of Air Braking Systems:

 It is more effective than other brakes.

 The air brake parts are conveniently located where the chassis design is
simple to make.
 Compressed air can be used for tire inflation wipers, horns, and other
accessories.
 It employs only air as a working medium that is readily available.
 It is used in railways.
 Today, all the trucks and buses on the road, some of them use air brake
systems.
 It is easy to store air at highs pressures.
 It provides heavy braking effects used in heavy vehicles & trucks.
 This provides better control.
 This reduces the stopping distance.
 This mainly allows for less wear and tear of parts.
 It has a flexible hose connection.

Disadvantages of Air Braking Systems:

 Air brakes generally cost more.

 Air-brake systems compress air, which results in moisture that requires air
dryers to remove, which also increases the price for air-brake systems and
can contribute to higher maintenance and repair costs, particularly in the
first five years.
 Noise pollution
 Antilock Brake System

Antilock Braking System (ABS): Construction And Working

Antilock Braking System (ABS) is a type of vehicle’s active safety system. It is also
known as the anti-skid braking system. This system comes into action when the
driver suddenly applies the brakes during an emergency. Employing the antilock
braking system on cars and bikes is now mandatory in most parts of the world.

The need for Anti-lock Brakes:

Whenever the driver suddenly applies the brakes to a high-speed vehicle, there is
always a chance of the ‘wheel-lock.’ The wheel-lock means that the respective wheel
stops suddenly instead of slowly coming to a halt. Due to the wheel-lock, the driver
loses control over the vehicle, and the vehicle skids off the road. Thus, a fatal
accident takes place. In order to avoid such situations, the manufacturers employ the
ABS.

Components:
The ABS has the following components:
1. Wheel speed sensors
2. ABS control module
3. Brake control unit
4. Valves
5. Pump
Wheel speed sensors continuously monitor the speed of each wheel. As long as all
the wheels have comparable speed, the system does not interfere with their
operation. However, if the speed sensors find that any of the wheels’ speed is
reducing drastically, it means that the particular wheel is going to lock.

However, the locked wheel hampers vehicle stability. Thus, the vehicle stops
responding to the steering input given by the driver. At this moment, the vehicle also
starts to skid, thereby causing a fatal accident. To avoid such a mishap, the ABS
comes into action.

This is how the ABS detects a problem.

How does the ABS work?

After receiving the signal of very low speed from the wheel speed sensor, the ABS
module orders the brake control unit to reduce that wheel’s braking force. Reducing
the braking force means reducing the hydraulic pressure in the brake line acting on
that wheel. The Brake Control Unit reduces the line pressure with the help of valves
in the system. The wheel starts rotating faster when the braking force reduces,
thereby avoiding the wheel-lock. As the wheel doesn’t lock, the vehicle’s steerability
remains intact. Thus, it means that the vehicle moves according to the driver’s input
without skidding. Once the Brake Control Unit restores the regular operation, it also
restores the brake line’s hydraulic pressure with the help of a pump.
This is how ABS takes corrective action.

Advantages of Antilock braking system:

1. ABS maintains the vehicle’s steerability and stability during panic

braking.
2. It reduces the braking distance by up to 10% or more, especially on wet
surfaces.

Disadvantages:

Perhaps the only disadvantage of the Antilock Braking System is its higher cost. In
recent times, purchasing the Antilock Braking System installed bike or car costs
significantly to the customer. However, this higher cost entirely offsets the
improved safety this system provides. Also, the auto industry is working on
developing a low-cost version of the antilock braking system.
 Steering System
Steering System, in automobiles, steering wheel, gears, linkages, and other
components used to control the direction of a vehicle's motion.

The car steering system or just steering system is the most important part in
automobile vehicle steering control, respond so well to the driver while driving.
Steering control makes you feel safe while driving.

The car steering system in the automobile is the process of running the vehicle in the
desired direction by turning, usually the front wheels. For effective control of the
vehicle throughout its speed range with safety, proper steering is necessary.

The system allows a driver to use only light forces to steer a heavy car.

Steering is also possible by the turning of the rear wheels, which is used generally in
low-speed slow-floor vehicles, for lifting and transporting heavy parts to a short
distance for example forklift.

If you’d like to know all about the car steering system. Like how it works, What are
the types of the steering system, How it supports handling, and road holding and
driveability, then please continue reading.
Automobiles are always equipped with front-wheel steering. A simple sketch of a car
steering system is shown in the figure.

The Basic of Steering System

Steering a vehicle is pretty easy stuff right, but do you know how it works it seems so
simple but it’s really not. Let’s take a look at what your vehicle’s moving parts are
actually doing.

As you turn the steering wheel the steering shaft rotates the pinion gear. The teeth
of the pinion gear and the steering rack interlock as the pinion rotate. This rotation
will push the rack when the rack moves the attached rods and steering knuckles act
as pivot points and turn the front tyres.

For example, rotating the steering wheel to the left will push the rack to the right
pivoting the front tyres to the left.

The more you turn the steering wheel the more rack is pushed and the sharper the
turn will be a little confusing well don’t worry you don’t have to be a mechanic to
steer a vehicle but we wanted you to have a visual of exactly that is occurring when
you make that turn of the wheel.

Although there are many moving parts and words you have never heard of with little
effort and the help of your steering system it’s easy to steer your vehicle.

The Purpose of a Steering System

For effective control of the vehicle throughout its speed range with safety and
without much effort to the driver on different types of road surfaces, proper steering
is necessary.
For proper performance and useful service of the automobile, it is necessary that the
moving vehicle should be under the perfect control of the driver. Thus the control of
the automobile is done by means of a steering system that provides directional
changes to the moving automobile.

Function of Steering System

The important function of the steering system is as follows:
1. With the help of the steering system, the driver can control the vehicle
however he wants
2. The steering provides stability to the vehicle on the road.
3. It minimizes tyre wear and tear.
4. It prevents road shocks from reaching to the driver.
5. The steering provides self-rightening effect after taking a turn.
 Power Steering Manual Steering
Definition Power steering is a system that helps Manual steering is a system in which manual
in steering the wheels using some force is used for steering.
source of power.

Mechanism Hydraulic : rack and pinion, A manual steering rack uses a rack and
recirculating ball and nut, worm and pinion, worm and roller and recirculation ball
roller, hydrostatic and nut.

Electrical: Rack and pinion, column

driven EPS, pinion driven EPS, Rack
driven EPS

Response Comparatively quick Comparatively slow

Resistance to Less More

wheel
movement

Preferred Comparatively heavy weight vehicles Low weight vehicles

Elements A hydraulic pump, fluid reservoir, Steering wheel and column, a manual
hoses, lines; and either a power gearbox and pitman arm or a rack and pinion
assist unit mounted on, or integral assembly, linkages; steering knuckles and ball
with, a power steering gear assembly joints, and the wheel spindle assemblies

Advantages Absorbs road shocks, minimum mechanical connection between the steering
efforts, greater safety and wheel and the wheel and all the components
controllability under critical situations continues to be maintained without the help of
the auxiliary power and preferred in race cars
 Wheel Alignment
What is a Wheel Alignment?
Wheel alignment refers to the angle of your wheels in comparison to each other and
the body of your vehicle. Wheel alignment is adjusted by altering the vehicle’s
suspension. Using state of the art technology, Tyre Specialists at Tyres and More are
able to accurately determine exactly how much adjustment is required and apply
accordingly. We recommend that you get your wheel alignment checked at least
every 10000km as well as any time you experience a change in the driving or
handling of your vehicle.

Wheel alignment refers to the angle of your wheels in comparison to each other and
the body of your vehicle. Wheel alignment is adjusted by altering the vehicle's
suspension.

What are the Warning Signs of Misaligned Wheels?

The angle of your wheels can become skewed over time causing various
changes to your driving experience. Warning signs that it is time to get
your wheel alignment checked:
● Uneven tread wear
● A steering wheel that is off-centre when driving straight
● Vehicle pulling off to the left or right

Why is Wheel Alignment Important?

Maintaining proper wheel alignment is essential to avoid unnecessary
wear on your tyres, steering, suspension and brakes. Accurate wheel
alignment optimises driving stability, maximises tyre life and improves
your vehicle's overall handling performance.
Wheel balancing—also known as tire balancing—is the process of
equalizing the weight of the combined tire and wheel assembly so that it
spins smoothly at high speed. Balancing involves putting the wheel/tire
assembly on a balancer, which centers the wheel and spins it to determine
where the weights should go.

Introduction of Suspension System

Introduction to Suspension System:
Basically, suspension refers to the use of front and rear springs to suspend a vehicles
frame, body, engine and power train above the wheels. These relatively heavy
assemblies constitute what is known as Sprung weight. Unsprung weight, on the other
hand, includes wheels and tire, break assemblies and other structural members not
supported by the springs.

The springs used in today’s cars and trucks are engineered in a wide variety of types,
shapes, sizes, rates and capacities. Types include leaf springs, coil springs, air springs
and torsion bars.

These are used in sets of four per vehicle, or they are paired off in various
combinations and are attached to the vehicle by a number of different mounting
techniques.

The automobile frame and body are mounted on the front and rear axle not directly
but through the springs and shock absorbent. The assembly of parts, which perform
the isolation of parts from the road shocks, may be in the forms of bounce, pitch and
roll is called suspension system.

Suspension system of an automobile separates the wheel and axle assembly of the
automobile from its body. Main function of the suspension system is to isolate the
body of the vehicle from shocks and vibrations generated due to irregularities on the
surface of roads. Shock absorbers are provided in the vehicles for this purpose. It is in
the form of spring and damper. The suspension system is provided both on front end
and rear end of the vehicle.

A suspension system also maintains the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling
when vehicle is in motion.
Functions of suspension system:
1. It prevents the vehicle body and frame from road shocks.
2. It gives stability of the vehicle.
3. It safeguards the passengers and goods from road shocks.
4. It gives the good road holding while driving, cornering and braking.
5. It gives cushioning effect.
6. It provides comfort.

Requirements of suspension system:

1. There should be minimum deflection.
2. It should be of low initial cost.
3. It should be of minimum weight.
4. It should have low maintenance and low operating cost.
5. It should have minimum tyre wear.

Components of Suspension system:

Coil springs, Leaf springs, shock absorbers, Spring shackles, stabilizer

Shock Absorbers

A shock absorber or damper is a mechanical or hydraulic device designed to absorb

and damp shock impulses. It does this by converting the kinetic energy of the shock
into another form of energy (typically heat) which is then dissipated. Most shock
absorbers are a form of dashpot (a damper which resists motion via viscous friction).
Independent suspension system in automobile
Independent suspension is any automobile suspension system that allows each
wheel on the same axle to move vertically (i.e. reacting to a bump on the road)
independently of the others.

Dependent suspension system in automobile

A dependent suspension system connotes that there is a beam or axle that connects
the left wheel to the right so they work in tandem with each other. This classification
of suspension can be sprung by either a combination of leaf springs and shock
absorbers or coil springs and shock absorbers.

Dependent suspension system advantages:

The left and right wheels bounce mutually implicated, the tire angle changes in the
amount of small tire wear.

The decrease of the body height is not easy to change the angle of the wheel, so that
steering feeling is consistent.
Simple structure, low manufacturing cost, and easy maintenance.
Take up less space, can reduce the height of the car floor.
Dependent suspension system disadvantages:

Left and right wheels bounce mutually implicated, and reduce ride comfort and
control stability.
Simple structure design freedom, manipulation of the stability is poor
 Introduction to Electric and Hybrid Powertrain

Introduction
With the growth in environmental awareness, the use of electric and hybrid vehicles
(E&HVs) is increasing. The recovery, repair, and maintenance of these vehicles
outside the manufacturers and franchised dealership networks is increasing. This
webpage is aimed at people working with these vehicles in the motor vehicle repair
and roadside recovery industries and also the emergency services.

Types of vehicle

Electric vehicles
Electric vehicles use a large capacity battery and electric motor(s) to drive the
vehicle. The battery needs to be charged from the electricity supply network when
the vehicle is not in use although some energy may be recovered during braking.

Hybrid vehicles
Hybrid vehicles typically have two sources of energy, an internal combustion engine
using either diesel or petrol for fuel and a battery. Hybrid vehicles will use the two
sources of power automatically and may use both simultaneously. The internal
combustion engine and energy recovered from the vehicle braking systems are used
to charge the battery.

A plug-in hybrid vehicle can have its battery charged directly from the electrical
supply network.

Risks of working with E&HVs

E&HVs introduce hazards into the workplace in addition to those normally associated
with the repair and maintenance of vehicles, roadside recovery and other vehicle
related activities.
These include:

 the presence of high voltage components and cabling capable of

delivering a fatal electric shock.
 the storage of electrical energy with the potential to cause explosion or
fire.
 components that may retain a dangerous voltage even when a vehicle is
switched off.
 electric motors or the vehicle itself that may move unexpectedly due to
magnetic forces within the motors.
  manual handling risks associated with battery replacement.
 the potential for the release of explosive gases and harmful liquids if
batteries are damaged or incorrectly modified.
 the possibility of people being unaware of vehicles moving as when
electrically driven they are silent in operation.
 the potential for the electrical systems on the vehicle to affect medical
devices such as pacemakers.

Safe Working with E&HVs

Additional skills and training will be necessary to allow people to work safely with
E&HVs. The levels of competency required will vary greatly and are dependent on
the type of work that people are expected to do. For example, an awareness of the
additional risks is likely to be all that is required for people who undertake vehicle
sales or valeting. People involved in vehicle repair and maintenance however, are
likely to need a much greater level of competence in order to work on these types of
vehicle safely. Specific training with qualifications awarded by organisations such as
IMI Awards is available.

Four categories of work have been identified. These are:

 Valeting, sales and other lower risk activities

 Incident response including emergency services and vehicle recovery
 Maintenance and repair excluding high voltage electrical systems
 Working on high voltage electrical systems
 Tyres
A tyre (or tire) is a circular and ring-like part of a vehicle that comes in contact with
the ground. Tyres are fitted on rims and filled with compressed air. Since their
invention, natural rubber has been the most widely used material in the
manufacturing of tyres. However, modern tyres also employ materials like synthetic
rubber, fabric, steel wires, carbon black, and some more compounds. As a result,
tyres find a place in a wide range of locomotives, from bicycles to aeroplanes.
Classification of tyres:

Radial tyre construction (Courtesy: Bridgestone)

In general, there are two major classes of tyres, according to the presence or
absence of tubes in them. Thus, they are called ‘tubed tyres’ and ‘tubeless tyres,’
respectively. Furthermore, based on the construction or skeleton of tyres known as
carcass, tyres are classified into the following main types:

1. Cross-ply or bias-ply: In these tyres, ply cords are at an angle of 30°-40° to the tire
axis.
2. Radial ply: Ply cords run in the radial direction in these tires.
3. Belted-bias ply: This is a combination of the aforementioned types.
However, most of the tyres used nowadays belong to the class of radial tubeless
tyres.

Functions of a tyre:

1. To maintain contact between vehicle and ground by providing the desired traction.
2. To support the load of the vehicle.
3. Dealing with various forces acting on the vehicle during its motion.
4. Providing cushions against shocks and damping them.