The Olympic flame and torch relay

Introduction Lighting ceremony in Olympia, Greece – Transport by relay to the

host city of the Olympic Games – Role and significance of the relay:
proclamation of the Games and diffusion of a message of peace.

Symbolism of fire – Link between the Games of Antiquity and the

Origins
Modern Games – Role of the flame in the Olympics today.

The relay in A modern invention – Beginnings of the relay –

the history The relay in figures – Highlights.
of the
Olympics

Support permitting the transfer of the Olympic Flame – Technology

Torches
and aesthetics – New model for each Games.

Itinerary of Choice of the route, showcasing of the history and culture of a

the relay people or a nation – Evolution of modes of transport:
and modes from runner to diver.
of transport

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 Introduction
Starting point…

It all begins in Olympia, Greece…

A few months before the opening of the Olympic Games, a ceremony is organised on the original site
of the Games, the ancient sanctuary of Olympia.

Lighting of the flame

The flame is lit in front of the ruins of the Temple of Hera, by actresses playing the part of priestesses.
The choreography and costumes used in the ceremony are based on those of Antiquity.
The flame is lit according to an ancient method, using the sun and a concave recipient (a parabolic
mirror). The sun’s rays, concentrated at the centre of the recipient, cause an intense heat which allows a
flame to be obtained.
The high priestess responsible for this operation then passes the flame to the first runner who carries
the official torch of the Games.
The Olympic flame can only be lit in this way.
Relay

The flame is carried by relay all the way to its final destination. Although it is usually carried by runners
on foot, other modes of transport are also used- bicycle, car, train, horse, boat, canoe, etc. For air
transportation, the flame is sheltered in a security lamp, similar to a miner’s lamp. At night time, it is
kept in special cauldrons.
All along its route, the flame heralds the Olympic Games and transmits a message of peace and
fraternity amongst peoples.

Arrival in the host city of the Games, somewhere in the world

The highlight of the opening ceremony of the Olympics is the entrance of the Olympic flame into the
stadium. The identity of the final torchbearer (always a citizen of the host country of the Games) is
kept secret until the last moment. It is often a personality from the sports world or a young person
symbolising hope for the future.
The final torchbearer does a lap of the stadium before lighting the monumental cauldron with the
Olympic flame. A symbolic release of pigeons evokes the climate of peace in which the Olympic
Games should take place.
The flame remains lit for the duration of the Games and is only extinguished at the closing ceremony.

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 Origins
(Phrase for illustrations: Fire for mankind is… Ritual, Light, Warmth, Cuisine, Protection, Creation)
Fire has always played a very important role in the life of Man. The mastery and use of fire figure
amongst the most important achievements of humanity. Its place in the beliefs of most ethnic groups is
proof of this.
The Ancient Greeks, for example, explained the presence of fire on earth through the myth of
Prometheus. The divine origin of fire made it a sacred element
Prometheus stole fire from the
and the Greeks maintained perpetual fires in front of their gods to give to Man. As a
principal temples. The purity of this fire was guaranteed by the punishment, he was chained to a
rock by Zeus, father of the gods.
technique used to light it- the flame was obtained by the sun’s Every day, an eagle came to
devour his liver, which grew back
rays captured at the centre of a recipient called a skaphia (the every night.
ancestor of the parabolic mirror used today for lighting the Prometheus defied the gods with
his theft of fire but by the same
Olympic flame). act he also revealed the secrets of
knowledge and the human spirit
to Man.
Fire in Olympia
In the sanctuary of Olympia, where the Ancient Olympic Games took place, a flame burned
permanently on the alter of the goddess Hestia, situated in the Prytaneum (building used for the large
banquets held in honour of the athletes at the end of the
Glossary
Games). Also obtained using the heat of the sun’s rays, this
Hera – (Roman name Juno), sister and wife of
Zeus, she reigned with him. In Olympia, her fire was used to light the other fires of the sanctuary.
cult was probably linked to that of another,
older goddess of fertility. Hera herself was Such fires were lit on the altars of Zeus and Hera, situated in
associated with birth.
front of their temples. To honour these gods, animal
Hestia – (Roman name Vesta) goddess of the
hearth, a virgin. In the Roman religion, the sacrifices were made in the same place. Today, nothing
Vestals were the guardians of the city’s fire.
remains of the altars, but the present ceremony for the
Zeus – (Roman name Jupiter) father of the
gods of Olympia, he brought order and lighting of the Olympic flame in front of the temple of Hera
justice to the world. The Games in Olympia
and Nemea were held in his honour. acts as a reminder of these events.

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The relay in Antiquity

In Athens, flame races (lampadedromia) were organised to honour certain gods, including
Prometheus. These races commemorated Prometheus’s act of stealing fire, thus bringing wisdom and
knowledge to Man. The flame was transmitted by runners and
Lampadedromia – a Greek word for
the first competitor to arrive at the altar of the god had the ancient torch relays. These were part of
religious, rather than sporting,
honour of renewing its fire. ceremonies.

Heralds of the sacred truce

There was never a relay or flame race organised for the Panhellenic Games (Games organised in
Olympia, Nemea, Delphi and Isthmia). [see sheets “The Games of Antiquity”]. However, a set time before the start of
the Games, messengers wearing olive crowns left Elis to
Elis – The sanctuary of Olympia announce in other cities the exact date of competitions. They
was situated on the territory of the
city of Elis, some 50 km to the invited the citizens to come to Olympia and proclaimed the
north.
sacred truce (ekecheiria ), that is, the obligation to halt combats
during the period of the Games. In this way, the athletes and spectators could travel without fear to
Olympia.

The flame and relay today

In the context of the modern Games, the Olympic flame is a manifestation of the positive values that
Man has always associated with fire. Like the messengers who proclaimed the sacred truce, the runners
who carry the Olympic flame encourage the whole world to put down their weapons and turn towards
the Games. The choice of Olympia as a departure point emphasises the link between the Ancient and
Modern Games and underlines the profound connection between these two events.

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 The relay in the history of the Olympics
Early use of fire in an Olympic context

i Foot races with torches were organised during the “International Congress for the Restoration of
the Olympic Games” in Paris in 1894.
i A fire was lit in the tower of the stadium during the Summer Olympic Games in Amsterdam in
1928. The tower had been specially designed for this purpose by Jan Wils, the stadium architect.
i Another fire burned at the Summer Games in Los Angeles in 1932. At the closing ceremony, a
quote by Pierre de Coubertin appeared on the display board:
“May the Olympic Torch follow its course throughout the ages for the good of a humanity ever
more ardent, courageous and pure”.
i Fire was present in the stadium on two occasions during the Winter Games - Garmisch-
Partenkirchen in 1936 and St Moritz in 1948.

The first torch relay

i In 1936, Carl Diem, Secretary General of the Organising Committee of the Games of the XI
Olympiad in Berlin, proposed the inclusion of a torch relay in the programme of the Olympics. The
flame was lit in Olympia and transported to Berlin via a torch relay.
i This first relay had to overcome several practical problems:
- the site of Olympia was hard to access and roads had to be specially built
- planning of the itinerary required a lot of travelling, particularly for that period in time
- the absence of suitable products (torch, cauldron, etc.) meant that research into specialist
technology had to be undertaken, such as tests with the sun’s rays and different optical instruments

The relay and the Winter Games

i In the context of the Winter Games, the first relay took place during the 1952 Games in Oslo.
- the relay did not start in Olympia, Greece, but in the valley of Morgedal in Norway.
- the region, considered as the birthplace of skiing, was chosen as a reminder of the origins of this
sport
- the flame was lit in the hearth of the chalet belonging to Sondre Norheim, a legendary figure in
Norwegian skiing

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i At the Winter Games in Cortina d’Ampezzo in 1956, the flame was lit in front of the Capitole in
Rome, as the city had just been elected host of the Games of the XVII Olympiad. The tripod used
for the ceremony was sent from Olympia.
i At the Winter Games in Squaw Valley in 1960, the flame was once again lit in Norway, at Sondre
Norheim’s chalet. The inscription on the torch “Olympia to Squaw Valley” is a reference to an
attempt to start the relay in Olympia, which did not succeed as the time period was too restricted.
i Since the Innsbruck Games in 1964, the relay for the Winter Games has begun in Olympia.

Today’s protocol

' Summer Games:

The Lighting of the Flame '
When? A few months before the opening
of the Games
Where? In Olympia, Greece, in front of
the temple of Hera
By whom? The High Priestess
How ? Using the sun and a parabolic
mirror
The flame is placed in an urn and
transported into the ancient
stadium. From there, the flame is
given to the first runner

] Winter Games ] ÛWhat if the sun isn’t shining?Û

The torch is lit in the same way as for the As a precaution, on a sunny day before the
Summer Games, with one difference- the official ceremony, a flame is lit according to
handing over of the flame to the first runner is the traditional method. In this way, even if
done near the monument to Pierre de the sun is not out on the day of the
Coubertin, situated in a copse close to the ceremony, the torch can be lit from this
stadium. flame, which is kept in a security lamp.

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 At a glance- figures and highlights
Relays of the Summer Games
Berlin 1936
Total distance : 3187 km (including special stages in Kiel and Grünau)
Distance covered on foot : 3050 km
Countries crossed : Greece, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany
Number of torchbearers : 3331
Final torchbearer : Fritz Schilgen, symbol of German sporting youth
London 1948
Total distance : 3365 km (there are discrepancies in the figures available)
Distance covered on foot : 2665 km
Countries crossed : Greece, Italy, Switzerland, France, Luxembourg, Belgium, England
Number of torchbearers : 1416
Final torchbearer : John Mark, symbol of British sporting youth
- This second relay in the history of the modern Olympic Games sought to spread a real
message of peace after the Second World War.
- The relay went through Lausanne, Switzerland. As a homage to the restorer of the Olympic
Games, a ceremony was organised at Pierre de Coubertin’s tomb in the Bois-de-Vaux
cemetery.
Helsinki 1952
Total distance : 7870 km (including air transport)
Distance covered on foot : 4725 km (including overland transport)
Countries crossed : Greece, Denmark, Sweden, Finland
Number of torchbearers : 3372
Final torchbearer : Paavo Nurmi, Olympic champion in athletics (Antwerp 1920, Paris 1924,
Amsterdam 1928)
- The flame made its first trip in an aeroplane.
- A flame lit by the midnight sun was intermingled with the Olympic Flame. This act
symbolised the union of the people of the North and those of the South under the Olympic
flag.

Melbourne 1956
Total distance : approx. 20,470 km (including air transport)
Distance covered on foot : 4912 km
Countries crossed : from Greece to Australia by aeroplane, with stopovers in Calcutta, Bangkok,
Singapore and Djakarta. In Australia, relay from Cairns to Melbourne.
Number of torchbearers : 3118
Final torchbearer : Ron Clarke, world junior champion in athletics, future Olympic medallist
- The first relay in the Southern hemisphere.
Stockholm 1956 (Equestrian Games)
Total distance : figure not available
Distance covered : approx. 350 km by foot (Olympia – Athens), distance by horse uncertain (Kastrup –
Copenhagen and Malmö – Stockholm)
Countries crossed : Greece, Denmark, Sweden
Number of torchbearers : 330 runners (Greece), approx. 160 horse riders (Denmark, Sweden)
Final torchbearer : Hans Wikne, cavalry captain

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Rome 1960
Total distance : approx. 2750 km
Distance covered on foot : 1863 km
Countries crossed : Greece, Italy
Number of torchbearers : 1529
Final torchbearer : Giancarlo Peris, best middle distance runner in Italian schools. He had Greek
ancestors
- For the first time, the relay was televised and the event closely followed by the media.
Tokyo 1964
Total distance : 26,065 km (including air transport)
Distance covered on foot : 7487 km
Number of torchbearers : 101,866 (this high number is explained by the fact that in Japan, 1km was
covered by the bearer of the flame, two reserve runners and up to 20 accompanying people)
Countries crossed : from Greece to Japan with stops in the following countries- Turkey, Lebanon, Iran,
Pakistan, India, Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Taiwan. Three routes inside Japan
Final torchbearer : Yoshinori Sakai. Born the day (of à supprimer) the atomic bomb was dropped
on his city, he was nicknamed “Baby Hiroshima”

Mexico City 1968

Total distance : approx.13,620 km (including transport by boat)
Distance covered on foot : approx. 2500 km
Countries crossed : Greece, Italy, Spain, Canary Islands, San Salvador (Bahamas), Mexico
Number of torchbearers : 2778 (excluding escort)
Final torchbearer : Enriqueta Basilio, Mexican champion in the 400m and 800m hurdles. The first
woman to light an Olympic cauldron
The Olympic flame made a stop at the Great Pyramid of the Moon in Teotihuacan. A “New
Fire” ceremony was organised which, in the Aztec tradition, was celebrated to mark the end of
a 52-year cycle. The reappearance of the sun at dawn symbolised the renewal of the world.

Munich 1972
Total distance : 5532 km
Distance covered on foot : almost all of the total distance
Countries crossed : Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria
Number of torchbearers : approx. 6000
Final torchbearer : Günther Zahn, winner at the German junior athletics championships. He was
accompanied by an escort of four athletes. Together, they represented the five continents, just like
the five rings in the Olympic symbol

Montreal 1976
Total distance : 775 km
Distance covered on foot : 775 km
Countries crossed : Greece, Canada
Number of torchbearers : approx. 1214
Final torchbearers : Sandra Henderson, an English speaker, and Stéphane Préfontaine, a French
speaker. For the very first time, two people lit the cauldron together. The two teenagers
symbolised Canadian youth and the two founding peoples of Canada. Contrary to certain
rumours, the young “couple” did not subsequently get married!

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Moscow 1980
Total distance : 4915 km
Distance covered on foot : almost all
Countries crossed : Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, USSR (Ukraine, Moldavia, Russia)
Number of torchbearers : approx. 5000
Final torchbearer : Serguey Belov, Olympic basketball champion of the 1972 Munich Games and four-
time medal winner
Los Angeles 1984
Total distance : 15,000 km
Distance covered on foot : 15,000 km
Countries crossed : exceptionally, no relay in Greece. Only in the USA
Number of torchbearers : 3636 (of which a team of 200 runners from the sponsor company AT & T)
Final torchbearer : Rafer Johnson, medallist in athletics in 1956 and Olympic champion (Rome 1960)
Seoul 1988
Total distance : 15,250 km (including air transport)
Distance covered on foot : approx. 4714 km
Countries crossed : Greece, Korea
Number of torchbearers : 20,899 (including escorts)
Final torchbearers : three students who represented respectively sport, the sciences and the arts
- The runner who brought the flame into the stadium was Sohn Kee-Chung, Olympic
champion of the marathon in Berlin in 1936, under the name of Kitei Son. At the time, his
medal was awarded to Japan, as Korea was under Japanese rule. It was thus very moving
for the Koreans to have this opportunity to “reclaim” their Olympic hero.
Barcelona 1992
Total distance : 6307 km (including transport by boat)
Distance covered on foot : 4450 km (1490 on bike)
Countries crossed : Greece, Spain
Number of torchbearers : 10,448 (9849 runners, 599 cyclists)
Final torchbearer : Antonio Rebollo, Paralympic archer
- Antonio Rebollo used a flaming arrow to light the cauldron.
Atlanta 1996*
Total distance : 2141 km (Greece), 25,749 km (USA)
Countries crossed : Greece, United States, with visits to the Olympic cities (Los Angeles, St Louis)
Number of torchbearers : 800+ (Greece), 12,467 (USA)
Final torchbearer : Muhammed Ali (Cassius Clay), Olympic champion in boxing (Rome 1960)
Sydney 2000*
Total distance : 27,000 km (Australia)
Countries crossed : Greece, Guam, Palau, Micronesia, Salomon Islands, Samoa, Cook Islands, Fiji, New
Zealand, Australia
Number of torchbearers : 800 (Greece), 1500 (Oceania), 11,000 (Australia)
Final torchbearer : Cathy Freeman, Aboriginal athlete, medallist in athletics in 1996 and future Olympic
champion (Sydney 2000)
- The enthusiasm of the crowd along the relay route grew bigger and bigger. One million
spectators welcomed the arrival of the flame in Sydney.
- In a ceremony which recalled the elements used in the design of the torch (fire, water,
earth), Cathy Freeman “walked on water” before lighting a circle of fire which revealed
itself to be the monumental cauldron.

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 At a glance- figures and highlights
Relays of the Winter Games
Oslo 1952
Departure : from Morgedal, valley in the Telemark region, Oslo
Total distance : approx. 225 km
Countries crossed : Norway
Number of torchbearers : 94 (skiers)
Final torchbearer : Eigil Nansen, grandson of the explorer, savant and politician Fridtjof Nansen, who
received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922
Cortina d’Ampezzo 1956
Departure : flame lit in front of the Capitole in Rome, air transport to Venice
Total distance : figures not available
Countries crossed : Italy (from Venice to Cortina d’Ampezzo)
Number of torchbearers : figures not available
Final torchbearer : Guido Caroli, Italian speed skating champion
Squaw Valley 1960
Departure : Morgedal, Norway
Total distance : figures not available
Countries crossed : Norway, United States
Number of torchbearers : figures not available
Final torchbearer : Kenneth Henry, Olympic speed skating champion (Oslo 1952)
Innsbruck 1964
Total distance : figures not available
Countries crossed : Greece, Austria (from Vienna to Innsbruck)
Number of torchbearers : figures not available
Final torchbearer : Josef Rieder, World slalom champion in 1958
Grenoble 1968
Total distance : approx. 7222 km
Countries crossed : Greece, France
Number of torchbearers : approx. 5000
Final torchbearer : Alain Calmat, medallist in figure skating (Innsbruck 1964)
- The ceremony for the lighting of the flame in Olympia was almost compromised by a coup
d’état in Greece.
Sapporo 1972
Total distance : 18,741 km (of which 4753.5 km in Japan)
Countries crossed : Greece, Okinawa Island, Japan.
Number of torchbearers : 16,300 (aged from 11-20)
Final torchbearer : Hideki Takada, student from Sapporo

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Innsbruck 1976
Total distance : 1590 km
Countries crossed : Greece, Austria : two routes (one in the north – 865 km, one in the south – 725
km)
Number of torchbearers : figure not available
Final torchbearers : Josef Feistmantl (luge) and Christl Haas (skiing)
- As a reminder of the Winter Olympics already held in Innsbruck, two flames were lit
simultaneously by two Olympic champions of the 1964 Games.
Lake Placid 1980
Total distance : 12,824 km (of which 1600 km in the USA)
Countries crossed : Greece, USA (from Langley, Virginia to Lake Placid, New York State)
Number of torchbearers : 52 (26 men a nd 26 women from each state in America)
Final torchbearer : Dr Charles Morgan Kerr, psychologist from the University of Arizona
Sarajevo 1984
Total distance : 5289 km (plus 2879 km of local routes)
Countries crossed : Greece, Yugoslavia. Two itineraries in Yugoslavia, one in the west (2602 km), the
other in the east (2687 km)
Number of torchbearers : 1600
Final torchbearer : Sanda Dubravcic, figure skating finalist (Lake Placid 1980, Sarajevo 1984)
Calgary 1988
Total distance : 18,000 km in Canada, figures not provided for Greece
Countries crossed : Greece, Canada
Number of torchbearers : approx. 7342
Final torchbearer : Robyn Perry, 12 years old, future Olympic hope in figure skating
Albertville 1992
Total distance : figures not available
Countries crossed : Greece, France
Number of torchbearers : figures not available
Final torchbearers : a young boy from the Savoy region accompanied by the well-known footballer,
Michel Platini
Lillehammer 1994
Total distance : approx. 5500 km
Countries crossed : Greece, Germany, Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Norway, where a local relay was
also organised, using a flame lit in Morgedal
Number of torchbearers : 55,500
Final torchbearer : HRH Prince Haakon Magnus of Norway
- The flame flew into the stadium, carried by a ski jumper!
Nagano 1998*
Total distance : figure not available
Countries crossed : Greece, Japan (three different relays went through all the prefectures in Japan)
Number of torchbearers : 6901
Final torchbearer : Midori Ito, medallist in figure skating (Albertville 1992)

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Salt Lake City 2002*
Total distance : over 21,500 km
Number of torchbearers : approx. 11,500
Countries crossed : Greece, United States (from Atlanta, Georgia, to Salt Lake City, Utah)
Final torchbearers : USA ice hockey team, Olympic champions in Lake Placid in 1980

NB : Figures concerning the relays are in accordance with those cited in Olympic Torch Relays by Walter
Borgers :
- Total Distance refers to the route of the relay, from Olympia to the host city of the Games.
- Countries Crossed are those countries which organised welcome ceremonies or relays on their
territory.
- The Final Torchbearer is the person who lights the cauldron during the opening ceremony of the
Games.
Exceptions are marked with an asterisk :
*Atlanta 1996, the figures come from the Official Report of the Olympic Organising Committee.
*Sydney 2000, the figures come from the official website of the Olympic Organising Committee.
*Nagano 1998, the figures come from the Official Report of the Olympic Organising Committee.
*Salt Lake City 2002, the figures come from the official website of the Olympic Organising Committee.

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 Torches
For each edition of the Games, a new model of torch is created. It must conform to exacting technical
standards.

During the relay, the flame must never go out. The torch must be able to stand up to difficult weather
conditions (such as wind, rain, snow and extreme heat) and the most unusual modes of transport,
under water or in the air, for example. It must also be capable of burning longer than the amount of
time reserved for the relay leg, in case the runner has any problems on route. In 1936, when the first
relay was organised, there were no models available that met all of these criteria. Experiments were
necessary to determine the best shape for the torch and the most suitable combustible.

Magnesium, gunpowder, resin, olive oil… all these products (and many others!) have been used to fuel
the Olympic Flame. These days, a gas cartridge in the body of the torch is the most popular solution
chosen. The type of gas used can influence the colour of the flame (from white to yellowy-red) and its
intensity.

In the early days of the relay, the torch models were more or less the same. With the evolution of the
Olympic Games, the shapes, colours and materials used have become more and more varied. This
diversity shows not only the will to differentiate editions of the Games, but also a desire to present,
through the object, the particularities of the host country. The Nagano (1998) torch, for example, takes
its inspiration from the traditional Japanese “taimatsu” torch, whereas the Sydney (2000) torch is
reminiscent of the Opera House and the curved shape of a boomerang.

Nowadays, torches are produced in great quantities. Each runner thus has the possibility of keeping
their torch after their participation in the relay.

On the occasion of the opening ceremony of the Games, a torch of a different design or material from
the one used in the rest of the relay may be used. A smoke apparatus is sometimes added so that the
public can see the arrival of the flame in the stadium and easily follow its route through the crowd right
up until the moment the cauldron is lit.

Illustration: (1) How the torch works, (2) gas cartridge

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 The itinerary of the relay and modes of transport
Choosing a route for a relay is not as easy as drawing a straight line between Olympia and the host city
of the Games! Each relay has its own “flavour” and allows for the discovery of a new part of the world.
An essential- the journey from Olympia to Athens… the organisation of the lighting of the flame in
Olympia is always handled by the Greek Olympic Committee. This Committee also takes charge of the
transport of the flame by runners to Athens or, more precisely, to the stadium which hosted the 1896
Games. Illustration: (1) Olympia, (2) Athens
Then from Athens to the host city… the rest of the relay to the host city of the Games is handled by
the Olympic Games Organising Committee (OCOG). This Committee chooses the theme of the relay,
which then helps them determine the regions to be crossed, the stops planned and the different types
of transport.
The following are some examples of themes which have influenced the itineraries of the flame:
The relay of peace – in a Europe sorely afflicted by the war, the 1948 relay carried a welcome message
of peace. The first runner, Corporal Dimitrelis, took off his military uniform before carrying the flame,
commemorating the sacred truce observed in Ancient Greece. The planned route highlighted border
crossings, where festivities were organised to celebrate the return of peace. (London 1948)
The ancient relay – the relay shone the spotlight on the two poles of classical civilisation : Athens and
Rome. Lesser-known ancient sites in Greece and Italy were thus brought to the public’s attention.
(Rome 1960)

The relay to the New World – the relay retraced the steps of Christopher Columbus to the New
World. The idea was to underline the link between Mediterranean and Latin-American civilisations and
between ancient (Greco-Latin) and Pre-Hispanic civilisations. A direct descendant of the great
navigator, Cristóbal Colón de Carbajal, was the last runner on Spanish soil. (Mexico City 1968)

The oriental relay – the relay showcased the traditions of Korea. Its route, which was a zigzag from
east to west, symbolised the harmony to be found in the balance between two opposite poles. The
torchbearers did not wear the official uniform provided by the Games Organising Committee, but
instead wore regional or traditional costumes. (Seoul 1988)

The “Down Under” relay – the relay had a twofold goal : to situate Australia within Oceania and to
promote the culture and heritage of the different regions in the country. The start of the relay on the
Australian continent was in the “red centre” at Uluru (Ayer’s Rock), a sacred site for the indigenous
population. The Aboriginal athlete Nova Peris-Kneebone, Olympic field hockey champion, was the
first runner in the relay. (Sydney 2000)

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 Modes of transport
Traditionally, relays have been carried out on foot (for Berlin ’36, London ’48 and Moscow ’80 the
relays were entirely run in this way). Although, at the beginning, runners were mainly selected from
amongst athletes, gradually the general public, including children, old people and people with
disabilities, began to participate as well.
With the celebration of the Olympic Games throughout the world, the flame had to travel by plane.
The modes of transport have slowly become more and more diversified, not only for practical reasons,
but also to showcase the particularities of the regions crossed.
The flame in the snow! Legendary Norwegian skiers (or their descendants) carried out the entirety of
the transport of the flame. (Oslo 1952)
The flame went into the Arctic Circle at Inuvik, with stages carried out by snow-bike and skidoo.
(Calgary 1988)

The flame on horseback! A completely equestrian relay was organised for these Games. (Stockholm
1956)

…And on a camel ! This is how the flame crossed the Australian desert. (Sydney 2000)

The flame in the Wild West! The modes of transport used bring to mind great moments in American
history. For example, the flame travelled in an Indian canoe, by Pony Express, on a Mississippi
steamboat, and on a wagon of the Union Pacific (the first transcontinental railroad). (Atlanta 1996)

The flame in the water, under water and on the water! In the sea off Veracruz, Mexico, swimmers
carried the flame from the boat Durango to the shore. (Mexico City 1968)
A diver swam across the port of Marseilles holding the flame out of the water. (Grenoble 1968)
A diver carried the flame under water at the Great Barrier Reef. (Sydney 2000)
The flame travelled on the frigate Cataluña for the passage between Greece and Spain and arrived on
Spanish soil in Empuries, the gateway to Greek civilisation on the Iberian peninsular (circa 600 B.C.)
(Barcelona 1992)

The flame in space! To show the world the technological competence of their country, the Canadians
organised the transmission of the flame by satellite between Athens and Ottawa. (Montreal 1976)

The flame faster than the speed of sound! The journey from Athens to Paris took place at
supersonic speed – on Concorde! (Albertville 1992)
The flame in the sky! For the first time in the history of the Olympics, the flame made a parachute
jump. (Lillehammer 1994)
The maternal flame! Twelve mothers with babies born in 1988 took part in the relay on the stage
from Chungju to Kangnung. (Seoul 1988)

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 Explore a little further…
Imagine the organisation of a torch relay. What is the message conveyed by the flame?
What is the route of the relay? What are the places or monuments to be showcased and used as stops
for the flame in your region? How would you choose the modes of transport? What criteria would you
use to select the runners?

Study the symbolism of the more recent Olympic torches. Look for the relationship
between the shape, materials and colours used in the torch and the culture of the city or country where
the Games took place.

Compare the role of the Olympic Flame in the Games with the role of fire in other
ceremonies you know about. What do fire and light bring to these ceremonies?

Discover the history of fire. How do you explain the importance given to this element in
all the civilisations of the world?

Selective Bibliography
Principal works used in the creation of these factsheets.
Books particularly suitable for young readers are marked with an asterisk (*).
Official Reports of the Olympic Games
Borgers, Walter. Olympic Torch Relays
Diem-Archives / IOC
Kassel : Agon Sportverlag, 1996.
* Dufresne, Didier. Le feu
[Paris] : Castor Doc Flammarion, 2001. (in French)
Durantez, Conrado « Le flambeau olympique » in Olympic Review XXVI – 33 Juin – Juillet 2000 (in
French)
Marandi, Anna. (trans. Chrissi Narantzi and Adam Frank) Olympia, Olympic Games
Athens : Editions M. Toubis SA, 1999.
Skiadas, Elefterios G. The Olympic Flame, the torch of centuries
Athens 2004 Bid Committee
Athens : Mikros Romios Ltd, 1997.
* Swaddling, Judith. The Ancient Olympic Games
London : British Museums Publications Ltd, 1987.
Yalouris, N., Andronicos, M. et al. The Olympic Games in Ancient Greece
Athens : Ekdotike Athenon, 1982.

Film Following the Flame

Olympic Studies Centre Lausanne, 2002

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