Case Studies in Engineering Failure Analysis 8 (2017) 36–48

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Case Studies in Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/csefa

Short communication

Overheated pipe due to scale: Field failure investigation and finite MARK
element analysis
⁎
H. Sunandrioa, H.A. Suhartonoa, Y. Prawotob,
a
Technology Center for Strength of Structures, The Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology, Building #220, Region Puspiptek
Serpong, Banten, Indonesia
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, South Ural State University (National Research University), 76 Lenin Ave., Chelyabinsk, 454080, Russia

AR TI CLE I NF O AB S T R A CT

Keywords: Through a field failure investigation and finite element analysis, a study on overheated pipe due
Fin tube coil to scale was performed. The field failure samples were collected from primary reformer
Failure analysis convection tube made of material based on ASTM A 335 grad P91 modified specification. The
Finite element analysis type of the object was a fin tube coil. The tube shows rupture with the shape of fish mouth
Heat transfer analysis
accompanied by bulging. The analysis performed using finite element mimics the actual field
conditions. It was discovered that long term overheating due to scale both at the outside and in
the inside of the tube hinders the smooth heat transfer process. This consequently leads to poor
heat transfer and violates the original design philosophy. Metallurgical evaluation proves this
verdict. Furthermore, the finite element analysis also supports the conclusion.

1. Introduction

A fin convection tube of a primary reformer convection section exploded in a high pressure steam super heater coil, the flue gas
inlet and outlet temperature is 356 °C and 492 °C and the pressure 123 kg/cm2 ≈ 12,1 Mpa. The outer diameter is 120 mm, with
11 mm thickness. Cases of failure in piping used in high temperature and high pressure are still reported even until recently [1–3].
Kaewkumsai reported the degradation of AISI 310 austenitic stainless steel pipe, which was used at high temperature in carbonaceous
reducing atmosphere used various techniques including on-site investigation, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy,
energy dispersive spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, metallography, and micro-hardness measurement. He discovered that growth of
carbide precipitates and disintegration of alloys into dusts of coke and particles suggested carburization and metal dusting failure.
Chen uses finite element analysis (FEA) of cyclic accumulation of plastic deformation, occurs when the structures are subjected to a
primary load with a secondary cyclic load if the applied loads are high enough to make the structures yield. Almost all researchers
quoted here agreed that most of the causes were due to not sufficient maintenance.
Learning from Fukushima-nuclear power plant accident, Kasahara et al. [4,5] map out the possible failure modes which should be
assumed for extreme loadings such as very high temperature, high pressure and great earthquakes. Failure modes of main
components under design extension conditions according three categories of loading modes as combination of high temperature,
internal pressure. and external pressure loading mode are investigated. Kasahara et al. [6] studied relations between failure modes
and extreme loadings by the numerical simulation using the cylindrical model. Liang and Zhao [7] explore the failure of spiral finned
tube on a newly designed and retrofitted low pressure economizer in a 300 MW pulverized-coal-fired power plant. In the works it
were emphasized the important of understanding the failure mode and the loading in order to find out the cause of failures.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Prawoto).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.csefa.2017.04.003
Received 6 March 2017; Received in revised form 14 April 2017; Accepted 24 April 2017
Available online 29 April 2017
2213-2902/ © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
H. Sunandrio et al. Case Studies in Engineering Failure Analysis 8 (2017) 36–48

Fig. 1. Appearance of the failed sample within the system used.

It is true that engineers in the field often underestimate on the effect of the scale in damaging their equipments, especially the
passive units such as piping. It is true that as parts of routine maintenance, cleaning the scale is mandatory to be performed yearly or
every two years. However, the implementation in the field is not usually done too seriously. The effect of scales and deposits is often
underestimated. The issue is typically considered less important than other issues and therefore less strict rule is being used as
compared to other inspections such as corrosion or wall thinning of piping.
In this paper, we clarify that maintaining scale on the piping is as important as other subjects is. Through an investigation of the
field failure instance and finite element analysis, a study on overheated pipe due to scale was performed. The field failure samples
were collected from a fertilizer manufacturing company in Indonesia on August 2014. primary reformer convection tube, which has
the material to meet ASTM A 335 grad P91 modified specification. The type of the tube was a fin tube coil. The tube shows rupture
with the shape of fish mouth accompanied by bulging. The analysis was performed using finite element method to mimic the actual
field conditions. Commercial code Abaqus™ was used to implement the modeling and analysis.

2. Methodology

The works consisted of some significant features. The background information is collected to recognize the operational conditions
that might have caused the failures. The object of the study was chosen from several tube coils failed on the steam super heater. Since
all the failed tubes exhibit similar failure appearances, only one tube was taken for detailed evaluation.
Subsequently the fractography based on ASTM E340, Metallography based on ASTM E407, and SEM/EDX of pipes was instigated
on the segment and its adjacent failure area. The chemical composition analyses based on ASTM E751 is conducted to characterize

Fig. 2. Appearance of the failed sample evaluated in the lab.

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Table 1
Technical data of the sample retrieved from the field.

Design Data
Maximum Temperature 559 °C
1038 °F
Maximum Pressure 139.7 kg/cm2
13.7 MPa

Operational Data
Inlet Temperature of the liquid 356 °C
672 °F
Outlet Temperature of the liquid 492 °C
917 °F
Outside the piping Gas flame
∼1950 °C
∼3542 °F

Other Data
Unit name Primary reformer convection section
Type Fin tube coil
Outside diameter 120 mm
Inside diameter 98 mm
Material specification ASTM A335 Grade P91 modified

the type of the broken pipe. The strength of the part was examined by mean of comparison between the tensile and hardness testing of
the sound area and the failed area. Therefore, the affected location and weakness area can be identified. The simulation of thermal
conduction is performed by finite element analysis that is able to provide a simulation of thermal conduction graphically, for
understanding the factors which contributed to the cause of the failure.

3. Result

3.1. Fractography and dimensional analysis

Fig. 1 shows the appearance of the failed tube while was still in the system. The sample was then sectioned along with sample that
showed normal appearance. Fig. 2 shows its appearance of the sample after being sectioned and brought to the laboratory. Along with
the failed section, three normal samples were also evaluated for various tests (Table 1).
Fig. 3 shows the dimensional analysis results. The tube fractured at the 12:00 position along the axis. The fractured was
accompanied by thinning at outside surface. This was proved by the sectioning near the final failure area A and B. The inner diameter
remains the same. Fig. 4 shows the detailed of the failed sample that has the typical fish mouth shape. The failure was accompanied
by bulging, while the fractograph shows ductile fracture.
The surface evaluation of the outer diameter and inside diameter is shown in Fig. 5. One can see clearly that cracks along the axis
are visible with light magnification. The fin shows no thickness reduction nor significant thinning. This means that the failure was not
related to the process other than overheat. Similar failures were also reported [8,9].

3.2. Metallography

Fig. 6 shows the map of the locations, where the metallographic evaluation was performed. Its results is shown in Fig. 7. The
microstructure is ferritic steel with chromium carbide precipitation. Creep voids are also visible near the failure. The deposit of scale
is also visible clearly in Fig. 8. The possibility was that the pressure stress in this case is less dominant than that of temperature
[10,11,12]. Fig. 9 shows metallographic evaluation results of locations 3. It shows some decarburization near the surface. The same
case also applies to other normal sample as it can be seen in Fig. 10.

3.3. Microhardness

Evaluation of the microhardness was performed both on failed sample and normal samples. The results are shown in Table 2.
Apart from some decarburized layer that shows some hardness reduction, the hardness was normal. This proves that no significant
chemical composition change on the samples or other chemical attack found.

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Fig. 3. Dimensional Analysis of the failed sample.

3.4. Chemical composition analysis

Chemical composition analysis was also performed on both failed and normal samples. On both samples, the chemical
composition shows no different. Table 3 shows the results.

3.5. Tensile test

Tensile test was performed also performed on both failed and normal samples. On both samples, the tensile test result shows no

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H. Sunandrio et al. Case Studies in Engineering Failure Analysis 8 (2017) 36–48

Fig. 4. The failed sample has the typical fish mouth shape with the length of ± 335 mm and width of ± 157 mm. The fracture surface is relatively thick although it
underwent bulge. The fractograph shows ductile fracture.

different. Table 4 shows the results. Referring to the table, although one of the samples was labeled “failed sample” it was actually
retrieved near the failed area, since the failed area cannot be made into tensile specimen. From the test, the only different was the
failed sample has higher yield strength, this probably indicates some kind of plastic deformation.

3.6. Finite Element Modeling in heat transfer problem

The basic equation of heat transfer is as follow [13]:

⎛ ∂q ∂qy ∂q ⎞ ∂T
−⎜ x + + z ⎟ + Q = ρc
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ∂t (1)

where qx, qy and qz are components of heat flow through the unit area; Q is the inner heat generation rate per unit volume; ρ is

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Fig. 5. Appearance of the external and internal surfaces. On both surfaces, the hair cracks along the tube axis are visible.

Fig. 6. Metallographic evaluation location map.

material density; c is heat capacity; T is temperature and t is time. Meanwhile, according to the Fourier’s law the components of heat
flow can be expressed as follows:

qx = k ∂x ⎫
∂T
⎪
∂T ⎪
qy = k ∂y ⎬
⎪
qz = k ∂z ⎪
∂T
⎭ (2)

where k is the thermal conductivity coefficient of the media. Therefore, Eq. (1) becomes

⎛ ∂T ⎞ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
∂T ∂ ⎜k ∂y ⎟ ∂ ⎜k ∂z ⎟
∂(k ∂x ) ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ∂T
+ + + Q = ρc
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t (3)

In using the finite element the shape function Ni are used for interpolation of the temperature inside the elements, which in tensor
notation is

T = [N ]{T} (4)

Differentiation of the temperature interpolation equation gives the following interpolation relation for temperature gradients:

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Fig. 7. Metallographic evaluation results. The microstructure is ferritic steel with chromium carbide precipitation. Creep voids are also visible near the failure.

⎧ ∂T ⎫
⎪ ∂x ⎪ ⎡ ∂N1/∂x ∂N2 /∂x L ⎤
⎪ ∂T ⎪ ⎢
⎨ ∂y ⎬ = ⎢ ∂N1/∂y ∂N2 /∂y L ⎥⎥ {T} = [B]{T}
⎪ ⎪ ⎢⎣ ∂N /∂z ∂N /∂z L ⎥⎦
⎪ ∂T ⎪ 1 2
⎩ ∂z ⎭ (5)
Here T is a vector of temperatures at nodes; N is a matrix of shape functions and B is a matrix for temperature gradients interpolation.
Eq. (5) was used to solve our problem. The simulation was to mimic the influence of the scale on the heat transfer. The object was
descritized and subsequently using Eq. (5), the model was calculated.
The implementation of the finite element was performed two steps, the first step was discretization of the metallographic picture
using the mesher Amira™. This commercial package enables the users to discretize almost any shape, including scale, or human shape.
It is typically used in biomedical engineering field. The second step is to write a script readable on the solver Abaqus™. The element
type used was DC2D4 element, which can solve Eq. (5) without considerable error.
Fig. 11 highlights the calculation results. The computation was based on the following assumptions:

• Flame side temperature 1950 °C.

• Fluid inside the tube has temperature of 490 °C.

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Fig. 8. Metallographic evaluation results of location 2. The scale is clearly visible.

• Transient analysis with heat conductivity of amorphous being half of steel heat conductivity.
It is clear from the analysis that while for pipe that has no scale, the heat transfer was smooth. Therefore the transient heat
distribution is fine-looking (see the left side of the figure). However, when the amorphous scale was present, the distribution becomes
hideous. Localized heat at the pipe thickness was visible at the location where the scale was present (see the left side of the figure).

4. Discussion

The case study of pipe burst was used in studying the influence of the amorphous deposit/scale on the temperature distribution of
the pipe. The sample was taken from primary reformer convection tube. Standard metallographic analysis was performed on both

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Fig. 9. Metallographic evaluation results of locations 3. Showing some decarburization near the surface.

burst sample and normal sample.

On the sample, the evidence of the existence of the scale was obvious. The EDS analysis performed on the scale indicated that it
was an amorphous with the following content: Carbon, Oxide, Aluminum, Sodium, Sulphur, Chlorine and Iron. This was probably due
to flange impingement caused by gas burner. Over an extended period of time, volatile alkali and sulphur compounds condense on fly
ash and react to form complex alkali sulfate, such as KAl (SO4), and Na3Fe(SO4)3 at boundary between the metal and deposit. The
deposit consists of three distinct layers:

• The porous, outermost layer comprises the bulk of the deposit and is composed essentially of the same compounds found in fly
ash,

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Fig. 10. Metallographic evaluation results of normal sample. It also shows severe decarburization. No creep void was visible.

• The inner most layer is a thin, glassy substance composed primarily of corrosion products of iron,
• The middle layer known as white layer is whitish or yellowish in colour and is water soluble, producing acid solution.
The scale was also present inside the tube. For this one the amorphous consists of corrosion product, Fe3O4. Chlorine and Sulphur
also were found on the scale. This internal scale was suspected to be classified as under deposit corrosion, which is usually occur in
high temperature. At elevated temperature water vapor causes the formation of oxide scale at various operating conditions. The main
causes of the metallurgical failure of the tubes in water tube boiler are due to tube temperature higher than expected in the original

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Table 2
Microhardness measurement results of normal and failed samples.

Table 3
Chemical composition analysis results of normal and failed samples.

Composition Result (wt %) Standard ASTM A 335 Grade P91

Tube No. 1 (normal) Tube No. 2 (Failed)

C 0.0894 0.0820 0.08–0.12

Si 0.219 0.211 0.20–0.50
Mn 0.424 0.429 0.30–0.60
P < 0.0050 < 0.0050 0.020 (max.)
S < 0.0030 < 0.0030 0.010 (max.)
Cr 8.89 9.38 8.00–9.50
Mo 0.915 0.920 0.85–1.05
Al < 0.0010 < 0.0010 0.04 max.
V 0.221 0.222 0.18–0.25

Table 4
Tensile test results of normal and failed samples.

Sample Tensile Stress u (N/mm2) Yield Strength y (N/mm2) Elongation (%)

Failed sample 627.0 443.0 44.0

Normal sample 1 615.0 413.0 36.0
Normal Sample 2 645.0 443.0 40.0
Spec. 585 N/mm2 415 N/mm2 20.0%

design. Internal oxide scale formation or deposit formation usually results in long term overheating that gradually increases the
temperature. At high temperatures, water vapor will react with the iron in the steel to form magnetite and hydrogen according to the
formula

3 Fe + 4 H2O ® Fe3O4 + 4 H2 (6)

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Fig. 11. FEA modeling of the pipe with and without amorphous scale/deposit.

The speed of this reaction increases with temperature. Oxygen atoms will spread inward through the oxide layer, and iron atoms
will diffuse outward, so the scale continues to grow even after the tube surface is completely covered. Oxide scale acts as thermal
barrier on the pipe and reduces the heat transfer from the hot flue gas into the steam within the tube.
Furthermore, both side scales also degrade the material strength. Microstructurally the evidence of the degradation was also
obvious by carbide dispersion as well as the creep void formation. In such situation, the pipe loses its capability to withstand the
pressure. The result was a pipe bulging. This problem is not a unique and has been documented elsewhere [14].
Fig. 12 shows the illustration of the temperature distribution changes due to scale [15]. Similar observation was also found by
other researchers [16]. Schematically, the heat transfer from the flame side to the liquid side is shown. The existence of the scale
hindrances the heat transfer and subsequently increases the temperature of the tube. This was also proved by finite element analysis
result, see Fig. 11. Basic heat transformation shown in Eq. (1) was capable in describing the phenomena conveniently using the
computational approach.

5. Conclusion

Through the investigation, the following was concluded:

• The pipe underwent the failure due to long term overheating with the failure shape of fish mouth type.
• The long term overheating was caused by both internal and external deposit of amorphous due to oxidation. This could have been
avoided by stricter routine maintenance.
• Finite element analysis supports the diagnosis.

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Fig. 12. Illustration of the temperature distribution changes due to scale.

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