BUSINESS ETHICS

UNIT II.
APPLICATION OF ETHICAL
THEORIES IN BUSINESS
 ETHICAL
THEORIES
2.1 Normativity of Ethical Theories

2.2 Traditional Ethics

2.3 Contemporary Ethics

2.1 Normativity of Ethical Theories
Ethical theories can be said either

Descriptive or Normative .
 Ethical
Theories

Descriptive Normative

Describe Provide
ethical general rules
phenomena and principles
of behaviour
 A descriptive approach to ethics
attempts to describe the moral systems

of groups or societies.

As such it involves empirical research

on individuals, groups, and societies in

order to uncover moral beliefs.

 Descriptive Ethics

• Values
• Ethical ideals
• Moral virtues
• Wrong and right actions and
behaviours
• Moral systems (relativism)…
Disciplines Related to the Study of
Descriptive Ethics

• Psychology
• Biology
• Sociology
• Anthropology
• Cultural Studies…
 Ethical theories are said to be

normative if they propose “to prescribe

the morally correct way of acting”.

(Crane & Matten, 2010)
 Normative theories of ethics or

“moral theories” are meant to help

us figure out what actions are right

and wrong.

(Gray, 2010)
 “Ethical theories are the rules and

principles that determine right and

wrong for a given situation”.

(Crane & Matten, 2010)
 Normative ethical theories attempt to

answer two main questions:

(1) What is the good life for men?

(2) How ought men to behave?

 Normative ethical theories might be
interpreted as answers to requests for

advice on how to deal with aspects of

daily living
2.2 Traditional Ethics
 Traditional ethical theories developed
mainly in Europe due to the work of

many philosophers, from ancient times

until modernity (e.g.: Aristotle, Epicurus,

Seneca, J. Locke, A. Smith,

J. Stuart-Mill…)
 “These traditional theories have their origins in

modernism, which emerged roughly during the

18th century Enlightenment era. ‘Modern’ thinkers

strove for a rational, scientific explanation of the

world and aimed at comprehensive, inclusive,

theoretically coherent theories to explain nature,

man, and society”

(Crane and Matten, 2010)

Traditional ethical theories are the
normative theories adopting an

absolutist point of view on ethics

(ethical absolutism)
 Ethical Absolutism

There are eternal, universally applicable

moral principles to concrete situations and

contexts. Right and wrong are objective

qualities we can rationally determine in

human actions, and so, as such, they exist

outside individuals.
 Traditional
Ethical Theories

Consequentialists Non-consequentialists

Deontology Virtue Ethics

Utilitarianism Egoism Hedonism (Kant, Ross) (Aristotle)
Motivation/Principles/
Duties Action Outcomes

Non-consequentialist ethics Consequentialist ethics

Consequentialist Ethical Theory
An ethical theory which bases moral

judgement on the outcomes of an

action is called Consequentialist (or

Teleological).
 General Principle

Of all the things a person might do at any

given moment, the morally right action is the
one with the best overall consequences
 Corollaries (Fact)

▪ Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the

results of that act;

▪ The more good consequences an act produces, the

better or more right that act is;

▪ A person should choose the action that maximizes good

consequences

▪ People should live so as to maximize good

consequences
 Utilitarianism

An action is morally right if it results in

the greatest amount of good/happiness for

the greatest amount of people affected by

the action

(Crane & Matten, 2010)

“After assessing as best we can expect the likely

results of each action, not just in the short

term but in the long run as well, we are to

choose the course of conduct that brings

about the greatest net happiness”

(Shaw,
2011)
 From an utilitarian point of view,

GOOD/HAPPINESS may be understood as:

▪ Freedom
▪ Knowledge
▪ Life
▪ Pleasure
▪ Political Rights
▪…
 Main Corollaries

▪ The rightness or wrongness of an action is separated from the

goodness or badness of the agent (worth of action ≠ worth of
agent)

▪ The right moral action is the one that maximizes the good

▪ The general principle of utility does not provide a rule to

decide on the moral worth of an action in face of actual
consequences and foreseen consequences, except that we
should do what we have most reason to believe will bring
about the best consequences of the known available
alternatives
 Act Utilitarianism
“The measure of the value of an act is the amount by which it
increases general utility or happiness. An act is to be preferred to its
alternatives according to the extent of the increase it achieves,
compared to the extent the alternatives would achieve. An action is
thus good or bad in proportion to the amount it increases (or
diminishes) general happiness, compared to the amount that could
have been achieved by acting differently. Act utilitarianism is
distinctive not only in the stress on utility, but in the fact that each
individual action is the primary object of ethical evaluation.”
 Rule Utilitarianism

“It maintains that the correct principles of right and

wrong are those that would maximize happiness if society

adopted them. Rule utilitarianism applies the utilitarian standard

not directly to individual actions but rather to the choice of the

moral principles that are to guide individual action.”

(Shaw,
2011)
 Prominent Proponents

J. Bentham
(1748-1832)

J. Stuart-Mill
(1806-1873)
 Egoism

The doctrine according to which the

correct moral action is the one that meets

the self-interest of individuals.

 Main Corollary

The most important moral principle is the

principle of self-interest, personal advantage

or gain
▪ Moral egoism is based on psychological
egoism, according to whichall human by
behaviour is motivated self-interest

(=welfare, well-being).
▪ Self-interest is understood as either:
• one’s desire (self-regarding/ not self- or regarding)
• possession of states independently of being desired
(virtue, knowledge, peace…)
 Moral egoists do not necessarily claim:
▪ that all people should be egoists and act
egoistically (=every individual should pursue

self-interest)

▪ that seeking pleasure, doing harm to others, behaving

disonestly and so on are good things in themselves but
only as far as doing so brings us any kind of personal
advantage
Prominent Proponents

H. Sidgwick
(1838 -1900)

A. Rand
(1905-1982)

F. Nietzsche
(1844 -1900)
 Hedonism
The doctrine that pleasure is the sole good. (…)

Men not only in fact seek pleasure, but further

they ought to do so since pleasure alone is good.

(…)

(Popkin & Stroll, 1956)

 Main Corollaries
▪ To say "all pleasure is intrinsically good" is not to say "all
pleasure is good, simply."
▪ Though pleasure is the only intrinsically and ultimate
good, it is not the only thing desirable, other things are
desirable at least as a means to something (peace, money,
education…)
▪ Some pleasures are not good because they lead to pain
instead of pleasure (taking drugs, getting drunk, making
fun of other people…)
Prominent Proponents

Epicurus
(341BC - 270BC)

Aristippus of Cyrene
(435BC – 356 BC)
 Non-consequentialist Ethical Theory

Any ethical theory which bases moral judgement not

on the outcomes (consequences) of an action but on

its principle (intrinsic properties) or on the agent’s

character.
 Non-
consequentialist

Deontology Agent’s
(Kant, Virtue
Ross) (Aristotle)
 Deontology

An ethical theory which bases moral

judgement on the moral principle (duty) underlying

the action, and thus the action’s intrinsic features, is

called Deontological.
 Main Corollaries

▪Morality is a matter of duty, compliance to a

moral law
▪Whether something is right or wrong doesn’t depend
on its consequences

▪Actions are right or wrong in themselves

▪We have duties regarding our own actions

 The ethical theories proposed by I. Kant and W. D.

Ross are called a deontological philosophies because

they assume the moral value of an action to depend on

the agent’s intention relative to it (namely, complying

to the moral principle) rather than its consequences.

 Prominent Proponents

W. D. Ross
I. Kant (1877-1971)
(1784-1804)
 “Kant believed that moral reasoning is not based on
factual knowledge and that the results of our actions do
not determine whether they are right or wrong.”

(Shaw,
2011)
▪ According to Kant, human action is motivated either by

reason or happiness

▪ So morality depends either on reason or happiness

▪ Happiness is conditional because it differs from

individual to individual and it can be either good or bad

▪ Reason alone is universal, thus unconditional, so

morality must be based on reason in order to become

truly universal

▪ Kant named this moral universal reason “the Good

Will” (= the power of rational moral choice)

▪ The Good Will is good because it motivates us to
act out of duty, not of inclination, desire or
personal interest/gain.

▪ The Good Will makes us act according to the

moral law, and in order to know it we must check
if it conforms to the Categorical Imperative.
▪ The CI is imperative because it is a command. It
commands us to exercise our wills in a particular
way, not to perform some action or other.
▪ The CI is categorical in virtue of applying to us
unconditionally, or simply because we possess
rational wills, without reference to any ends that we
might or might not have. It does not apply to us on
the condition that we have antecedently adopted some
goal for ourselves.
 Kant’s Categorical Imperative

Formula of Universal Law: "Act as if the maxim of your action

were to secure through your will a universal law of nature"

Formula of Humanity: "Act so that you treat humanity,

whether in your own person or that of another, always as an
end and never as a means only"

Formula of Autonomy: “Act as if you were your

through maxims a law making member of a kingdom of
ends."
▪ According to W. D. Ross, there are several
prima facie duties that we can use to
determine what, concretely, we ought to do.

▪ A prima facie duty is a duty that is obligatory

other things equal, that is, unless it is
overridden by another duty or duties. Where
there is a prima facie duty to do something,
there is at least a fairly strong moral reason in
favor of doing it.
▪ An example of a prima facie duty is the duty to
keep promises. "Unless stronger moral
considerations override, one ought to keep a
promise made.“

▪ By contrast with prima facie duties, our actual or

concrete duty is the duty we should perform in
the particular situation of choice. Whatever
one's actual duty is, one is morally bound to
perform it.
 Ross’s Prima Facie Duties
▪ Fidelity: obligation to keep a promise

▪ Reparation: obligation to repair the harm

▪ Gratitude: obligation to recognize a granted benefit & express it

▪ Justice: obligation to fairly distribute the good

▪ Beneficence: obligation to do good to someone

▪ Self-improvement: obligation to make yourself a better person

▪ Non-maleficence: obligation to not harm anyone

 The Agent’s Virtue

According to a Virtue Theory, the central moral

concept is that of the morally good character or
morally good disposition. It analyzes the rightness
or wrongness of individual choices indirectly in
terms of the character or dispositions of the agent
making the choices
“Virtue ethics contends that morally correct
actions are those undertaken by actors with
virtuous characters. Therefore, the formation
of a virtuous character is the first step
towards morally correct behaviour.”
(Crane & Matten, 2010)
 Main Corollaries
▪ Moral virtue is simply a matter of performing well
in the function of being human

▪ Practice is very important to achieve excellence

▪ The motivation for being good is not based in a
divine legislator or a set of moral laws but rather
in the same kind of perception of excellence that
might be found in anything else that exists to
perform a function
▪ We can only be held responsible for actions we
perform voluntarily and not for cases involving
physical compulsion or ignorance.
▪ The best measure of moral judgment is choice,
because choice is made voluntarily by means
of rational deliberation.
▪ People always choose to aim at the good, but
they’re often ignorant of what is good and so
aim at some apparent good instead, which is in
fact a vice.
 Aristotle
(384 BCE – 322 BCE)

"So it follows, since virtue of character itself is a

mean state and always concerned with pleasures
and pains, while vice lies in excess and deficiency,
and has to do with the same things as virtue, that
virtue is the state of the character which chooses
the mean, relative to us in things pleasant and
unpleasant…"
(Eudemian Ethics, Book II, Chapter 10)
▪ Virtue is, in a moral sense, a product of habit
▪ Virtue is mean state or a middle ground between
two other states, one involving excess and the
other deficiency
▪The middle ground that virtue encompasses is
representative of an individual's ideas of pleasure
and pain
▪A portion of this is inherited naturally and another
portion is expectation towards punishment.
 “According to Aristotle's ethical theory, the
virtuous person exhibits the joint excellence of
reason and of character. The virtuous person not
only knows what the good thing to do is, she is
also emotionally attached to it. In addition, these
two excellences, or virtues, are intimately
connected, so that the one cannot be had without
the other.”
 Five Theories
⚫ Egoism
⚫ the self and its needs

⚫ Utilitarianism
⚫ overall pleasure and pain for all concerned

⚫ Deontology
⚫ duty

⚫ Care Ethics
⚫ relationships, vulnerability, and empathy

⚫ Virtue Ethics
⚫ character
2.3 Contemporary Ethics
Contemporary ethical theories and
approaches developed mainly in the

western world from early 20th century

on
These new approaches to ethical thinking
and theorizing mirror changes in how

people think about societies and their

relations with cultural/intellectual

achievements, such as philosophical

thinking…..
Since scientists and philosophers started
criticizing modernist views on

knowledge, scientific, universal truths,

and human progress based on reason,

the path was open to alternative ways of

thinking about ethics…

 Traditional ethics have been considered:

▪ Too abstract, objective and impersonal

▪ Too rational

▪ Too reductionist

▪ Too imperialist
 Contemporary
Ethical Theories

Ethical Postmodern Analytical Others

Relativism Ethics Ethics …
 Ethical Relativism

▪ “The theory according to which right and wrong are

determined by what one’s society says is right and
wrong. (…)
▪ For the ethical relativist there is no absolute ethical
standard independent of cultural context, no criterion of
right and wrong by which to judge other than that of
particular societies. In short, what morality requires is
relative to society.”
(Shaw, 2011)
▪ “Ethical relativism is the theory that holds that morality is
relative to the norms of one's culture. That is, whether an
action is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the
society in which it is practiced. The same action may be
morally right in one society but be morally wrong in
another. (…) The only moral standards against which a
society's practices can be judged are its own. If ethical
relativism is correct, there can be no common framework
for resolving moral disputes or for reaching agreement on
ethical matters among members of different societies.”
 Some problems with ethical relativism:
▪ It undermines any moral criticism of the practices of other
societies as long as their actions conform to their own
standards;
▪ There is no such thing as ethical progress: although
moralities can change, they cannot get better or worse;
▪ It makes no sense for people to criticize principles or
practices accepted by their own society; whatever a society
takes to be right really is right for it; reformers or minorities
can never be right in moral matters
(Shaw, 2011)
 Postmodern Ethics

“Postmodern ethics is an approach that locates

morality beyond the sphere of rationality in an
emotional ‘moral impulse’ towards others. It
encourages individual actors to question
everyday practices and rules, and to listen to and
follow their emotions, inner convictions, and ‘gut
feelings’ about what they think is right and wrong
in a particular situation”. (Crane & Matten, 2010)
 Postmodern ethics emphasize the following in terms
of ethical reasoning and analysis:
▪ Holistic approach: in ethical judgement and decision making,
there is no separation between private and professional
realms
▪ Examples rather than principles: ethical reasoning is not
embodied in rules and principles but in people’s experiences,
narratives and inner convictions
▪ Think local, act local: ethics is about local rules applicable to
single issues and contexts
▪ Preliminary character: since ethical decisions go far beyond
rationality, ethical reasoning is a constant learning process
 Analytical Ethics

“Analytical approaches to ethics have concentrated on

meta-ethics. They tend (…) not to answer moral
questions or to address substantive moral problems
directly but rather to be concerned with the status of
ethical judgements and the character of moral
reasoning.”
“A term for any analysis of moral concepts, but as
a distinct approach it starts with G. E. Moore 's
Principia Ethica (1913). It claims that the
fundamental task of ethics is not to discuss
substantive moral questions and to seek solutions
for them, but rather to examine the meaning of
moral terms such as “good”, “ duty”, “right”, “ought
” and to make them as clear and precise as
possible.”
“It then evolved into the linguistic analysis of moral
judgments, their types and their functions. This
development was represented by Ayer 's account of
morality, Stevenson 's emotivism , and Hare 's
prescriptivism…”
“Another dimension of analytic ethics is to examine moral
reasoning and the basis for distinguishing moral
judgments from other value judgments. This is
represented especially in the work of Stephen Toulmin.
Analytic ethics can be viewed as synonymous with meta-
ethics . In the 1960s, as the distinction between meta-
ethics and normative ethics came into question, analytic
ethics as a distinctive approach also lost favor. Many
moral philosophers now believe that ethics should
investigate both moral terms and moral questions.”
JUSTICE
 JUSTICE

• Justice is the ideal, morally correct state of things and persons.

• It is based on individual moral rights.

• Justice can be handled in three subcategories which are

distributive justice, retributive justice, and compensatory

justice.
 JUSTICE

DISTRIBUTIVE RETRIBUTIVE COMPENSATORY

JUSTICE JUSTICE JUSTICE
 DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE

• It is interested in the fair distribution of society’s benefits and

burdens.

• The main principle of distributive justice is; “If individuals are

similar in the relevant aspects, they should be given similar

benefits and burdens; if they are not, they should be treated

dissimilarly in proportion to their dissimilarity.”

 DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE VİEWS

• Justice as Equality: Egalitarianism

• Justice Based on Contribution: Capitalist Justice

• Justice Based on Needs and Abilities: Socialism

• Justice as Freedom: Libertarianism

• Justice as Fairness: Rawls

 Justice as Equality: Egalitarianism
• Each individual in the society or group should be given exactly

the equal shares of benefits and burdens.

• There are objections to this view claiming that people do not

have the same degree in a single aspect and some

characteristics are disregarded like need, ability, and effort.

 Justice Based on Contribution:
Capitalist Justice
• What should be the basis of an individual’s share of benefits

must be the contribution to the society or group.

• Work effort, productivity, and market forces of supply and

demand are the terms argued by critics to measure the value of

contribution.
 Justice Based on Needs and Abilities: Socialism

• People’s abilities should be the determiner of work burdens

and their needs should be the determiner of benefits.
• Potential, which is a value, can only be realized by exercising
ability so burdens should be distributed considering abilities.

• There is an opposing argument claiming that if needs, not

effort, determine benefits, there will be no motivation to strive
which will decline productivity in return.
 Justice as Freedom: Libertarianism
• Free individual choices are the cornerstone of the libertarian
view of justice according to Robert Nozick, a famous
libertarian.
• Freedom from coercion is the right of every individual. If an
individual is forced to do something, it is unjust.

• This argument completely disregards people needs counting

freedom from coercion supreme over anything.
 Justice as Fairness: Rawls
• According to John Rawls, two principles should be used to
distribute the benefits and burdens of a society justly.
• First principle, called as principle of equal liberty, states that
each individual has a right to protect his/her liberties from
invasion by others.
• Second principle consists of two parts. First part, called as
difference principle, says that although there will be inequalities
in the society, most needy people should be given special
importance unless this causes everyone get worse than before.
Second part, called as principle of fair equality of opportunity,
argues that every individual be given an equal opportunity to
qualify for the more privileged positions in society’s institutions.
 RETRIBUTIVE JUSTICE

• All, and only, guilty people deserve appropriate punishment.

• In order to maintain justice while punishing the person, some

criteria should be taken into account. First, ignorant or unable

people should not be punished. Second, there must be evidence

of guilt. Finally, punishment system must be consistent and

proportionate
 COMPENSATORY JUSTICE

• It deals with just offsetting the loss of a person who is wronged

by others.

• The rationale behind this theory is that the person who

damages someone else by doing a wrong must compensate that

person’s loss.
 Economic Justice
• Economic justice, which touches the individual person as well
as the social order, encompasses the moral principles which
guide us in designing our economic institutions.
• These institutions determine how each person earns a living,
enters into contracts, exchanges goods and services with others
and otherwise produces an independent material foundation for
his or her economic sustenance.
• The ultimate purpose of economic justice is to free each person
to engage creatively in the unlimited work beyond economics,
that of the mind and the spirit.
 Principles of Economic Justice
• Participative Justice (the input principle) describes how each
of us makes an “input” to the economic process in order to
earn a living. It requires equal access to the means (through
social institutions such as our money and credit system) of
acquiring private property in productive assets, as well as equal
opportunity to engage in productive work.
• Distributive Justice (the out-take principle), and

• Social Justice (the feedback and corrective principle).

ETHICS OF CARE
 ETHICS OF CARE
• People have an obligation to exercise special care
toward those particular persons with whom we have
worthy close relationships. This theory is known as
“ethics of care”.
• Feminist ethicists, Carol Gilligan mostly, have
developed this theory. She claim that women
approach ethical issues from a non individualistic
focus on relationships and caring.
 ETHICS OF CARE

• Sometimes care and justice contradicts with

each other.
RIGHTS
 RIGHTS
• A right is an individual’s entitlement to
something.
• If this entitlement may be derived from a legal
system that allows the person to behave in a
certain way, it is called a legal right.
• Rights can also be the consequences of moral
standards. In this case, they are called as moral
rights or human rights.
 RIGHTS

• Rights can be understood in several ways. They

can be interpreted as absence of prohibitions,
authority, or existence of prohibitions.
 RIGHTS
• MORAL RIGHTS
– They are tightly correlated with duties because
what is one’s right is another’s duty.
– Moral rights enable individuals in the free trace of
their interests.
– Moral rights constitute a basis for justifying one’s
actions and for invoking the protection or
assistance of others
 THE BASIS OF RIGHTS

• Utilitarians argue that moral rights exist because

their existence maximizes utility. However, right
is an entitlement and it should be regardless of
utility maximization so there should be another
source of moral rights
 THE BASIS OF RIGHTS

• Immanuel Kant (Categorical Imperative)

• Everyone has a moral right to such treatment
and everyone has again the correlative duty to
treat others in this way.
 KANT’S CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
1) An action is morally right for a person if that
person is absolutely sure that s/he will
approve the same action of another person.
2) An action is morally right if a person does not
use other people as means to attain his/her
interest but respects them.
 SCOPE / AREAS OF BUSINESS ETHICS
ETHICS IN COMPLIANCE
• High level oversight
• Written policies and procedures
• Education and training programs
• Monitoring and auditing
• Investigating and reporting
• Response and prevention
• Enforcement and discipline
• Program effectiveness
 ETHICS IN FINANCE
⚫ To act with honesty and integrity, avoiding real or clear conflicts
of interest in personal and professional relationships.
⚫ To provide information which is full, fair, accurate, complete,
objective, relevant, timely and understandable with regard to
reports and documents of the company to be submitted to the
public.
⚫ To act in accordance with all applicable laws, rules and
regulations of governments and other appropriate private and
public regulatory agencies.
⚫ To act in good faith, responsibly, with due care, competence and
carefulness without misrepresenting material facts or allowing
any independent judgment to be subordinated.
⚫ To respect the confidentiality of information acquired in the
course of business except when authorized or otherwise legally
obligated to disclose the information.It should not be used for
personal advantage.
⚫ To promote ethical behavior among the other associates.
 ETHICS IN HUMAN RESOURCES
⚫ The HR executives are accountable for faithfully carrying out
their responsibilities to the benefit of all the employees in the
organization.
⚫ The HR professionals should give fair and equitable treatment
to all the employees.
⚫ It is the duty of HR executives to keep the company
information in the strictest confidence and protect the
integrity of the company proprietary information while dealing
with employees or individuals outside the company.
⚫ Human resource professionals are responsible for learning and
understanding the entire body of knowledge required to carry
out their duties and responsibilities. They are also responsible
for continuing education to remain experts in their field.
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⚫ HR professionals must maintain competence in carrying out
professional responsibilities and provide services in an honest
and diligent manner.
⚫ It is the duty of the HR executives to adhere to any statutory
acts, regulation or by-laws which relate to the field of human
resource management, as well as all civil and criminal laws,
regulations and statutes that apply in one’s jurisdiction.
⚫ The HR executives should support, promote and apply the
principles of human rights, equity, dignity and respect in the
workplace within the profession and in the society as a whole.
⚫ The HR executives should strive to balance organizational and
employee needs and interests.
 Ethics in Marketing
• A shared standard of truth in marketing communications.
• A clear distinction between advertising and sensationalism.
• Endorsements (a public or official statement of support or
approval) should be clear and transparent.
• Consumers’ privacy should be maintained at all times.
• Government standards and regulations must be adhered to
and practiced by marketers.
 ETHICS IN PRODUCTION
⚫ No forced labour should be employed in the process of production.
Manufacturers shall acknowledge the right of their employees to leave
their employer after reasonable notice.
⚫ Manufacturers and suppliers shall not employ minors i.e. children below
the age of 14. Young workers shall not work during night hours or in
hazardous conditions.
⚫ Manufacturers and suppliers shall not apply any type of discriminatory
practice with regard to the recruitment, compensation, access to training,
promotion, termination of the employment agreement or retirement,
based on race, caste, creed, nationality, religion, age, gender, marital
status, etc.
⚫ Manufacturers and suppliers shall ensure that their employees, without
distinction, have the right of association, union membership and collective
bargaining.
⚫ Manufacturers and suppliers shall treat their employees with dignity and
respect.
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⚫ Manufacturers and suppliers shall provide a safe and healthy workplace
to their employees, ensuring minimum conditions of light, ventilation,
hygiene, fire prevention, safety measures and access to a drinking water
supply.
⚫ Manufacturers and suppliers shall ensure that wages should always be
enough to meet at least the basic needs of workers and their families and
any other which might be considered as reasonable additional needs.
⚫ Manufacturers and suppliers shall not require their employees to work,
as a rule of thumb, in excess of 48 hours a week and workers shall be
granted at least one day off in a week. Overtime shall be voluntary, not
exceeding 12 hours per week and shall always be compensated.
⚫ Manufacturers and suppliers must ensure the production of safe and
good quality products.
⚫ Manufacturers and suppliers shall be duly committed at all times to
protect the environment and shall comply with the standards and
requirements of the applicable laws and regulations.
 ETHICS IN RESEARCH
⚫ Honesty –To Strive for honesty in reporting data, results, methods and
procedures, and publication status.
⚫ Objectivity–To avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data
interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions and other aspects of
research where objectivity is expected or required.
⚫ Integrity –To Keep the promises and agreements, act with sincerity,
strive for consistency of thought and action.
⚫ Carefulness–To avoid careless errors and negligence, carefully and
critically examining the work and the work of the peers. To keep good
records of research activities such as data collection, research design
and correspondence with agencies or journals.
⚫ Openness - To share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. To be open
to criticism and new ideas.
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⚫ Respect for Intellectual Property –To honor patents, copyrights, and
other forms of intellectual property by not using unpublished data,
methods, or results without permission.
⚫ Confidentiality – To protect confidential communications such as
papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade
or military secrets and patient records.
⚫ Social Responsibility – To strive to promote social good and prevent
or minimize social harms through research, public education and
advocacy. It includes:
⚫ Competence - To maintain and improve the professional competence
and expertise through lifelong education and learning and to take
steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
⚫ Legality - To know and obey relevant laws and institutional and
governmental policies.
 Principles Of Business Ethics
• Honesty
• Integrity
• Accountability
• Loyalty
• Fairness
• Concern for others
• Respect for others
• Law abiding
• Leadership
• Commitment to excellence
• Reputation and morale
• Promise-keeping & trustworthiness