Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology MISBP 2023

Volume 74 (2023)

The study of structure and function of human cell

Run Hu*
Rabun Gap Nacoochee School, Atlanta, the United States
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract. Biological structure and function is the core field of life sciences, covering the complex
organizational structure and various functions it undertakes. Cells are a very important structure and
the basic unit of life activities, which means that without cells, all life activities cannot continue. So
on this basis, we studied the function and structure of cells. The findings suggest that each organelle
has a specific functional structure and that changes or mutations in the structure of these proteins
or the arrangement of membrane proteins on the surface can lead to the development of related
diseases, such as abnormalities in the Golgi apparatus leading to Alzheimer's disease Abnormalities
in mitochondria can lead to lesions in muscles or the nervous system or even cancer, and mutations
in the nucleus can cause babies to be born with various defects. Cells are the unit of life activities.
Once the organelles are abnormal, different diseases will occur.
Keywords: human cell; structure; function.

1. Introduction
The fundamental structural and operational components of life are cells. As we all know, all
organisms except viruses, including humans, animals, plants, and even some microorganisms, are
composed of cells. However, the life activities of viruses must also depend on living cells. This
undoubtedly proves that cells are the basis of all life activities. Generally speaking, most
microorganisms, such as bacteria, paramecium, Escherichia coli, Etc., are composed of single cells;
at the same time, higher-level animals and plants are multicellular organisms, such as human beings,
which are composed of 34 trillion cells. Cells are so small that they can only be seen under a
microscope and come in many shapes and structures [1].
Cells can be divided into animal cells, plant cells, and bacteria. Animal cells include the
endoplasmic reticulum, which can undertake the role of intracellular material transport and synthesize
proteins and some lipids; mitochondria, the central place for respiration, provide energy for the
activities of organisms; Golgi apparatus, which carries out the protein synthesis of cells Processing
and transportation to some specific locations; ribosome, which is the site of protein synthesis in the
cell, can convert the genetic information contained in RNA into the sequence information of amino
acids in protein to synthesize protein; lysosome, is a kind of protein in animal cells Organelles used
to decompose biological macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides; cell
membranes, substances that control the movement of cells into and out of cells, and maintain the
stability of the internal environment of cells; nuclei, which include a large amount of genetic material,
which control the genetics and feature. From the color of our skin and hair to some genetic diseases
that cannot be cured by medicine, it is determined by it. Compared with plant cells, they have many
similarities, such as cell membranes, nuclei, and other structures. Nevertheless, there are also many
special structures. Plant cells have a unique cell wall that keeps the plant its shape and firmness;
chloroplasts, which play an integral role in plant photosynthesis and maintaining plant life; vacuoles,
mainly found in plant cells, which not only store organic Metabolites are involved in the biochemical
cycle of substances in cells, and vacuoles regulate the environment in cells; protoplasmic filaments
are essential channels for material transport and information transmission between cells. These are
not found in animal cells. The structure of bacteria is quite different from that of animals. Bacteria,
for example, have flagella, a slender, curved structure found only on bacteria that also help them
move (fig 1).

448
Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology MISBP 2023
Volume 74 (2023)

So if something goes wrong with a cell, the consequences can be catastrophic—for example, cells
proliferate abnormally, leading to cancer. In the United States, 1 in 5 deaths per year is caused by
cancer [2], compared to 100-350 per 100,000 globally [3]. The overall incidence of cancer worldwide
is on the rise. Also included is AIDS, which attacks the body's immune cells, causing patients to die
from complications of immunocompromise. 630,000 individuals will pass away by 2022 from HIV-
related causes, and 1.3 million people will contract the virus [4-6]. Each case illustrates the
importance of the proper functioning of each cell and its organelles in our body. However, although
a large number of scientists and scholars have continued to research and explore related fields in the
past few decades, there are still many unsolved problems. For example, the causes of many genetic
diseases, or the cancers and AIDS mentioned above, have not yet been well treated.
Therefore, on the one hand, this paper studies and organizes the structure of human cells for the
development of related research fields in the future; on the other hand, it summarizes and discusses
the structure of cells.

Fig. 1 Organelles that are membrane-bound, such as a separate nucleus, are found in both plant and
animal cells. Organelles are absent from bacterial cells, in contrast [7].

2. Cell membrane
The cell membrane is a semipermeable structure composed of bilayer phospholipid molecules in
the outer layer of human cells. Phospholipid molecules have a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic
tail. Both layers have the head on the outside and the tail on the inside, that is to say, the two heads
face the outside and inside of the cell respectively. Such a structure makes it difficult for
macromolecular substances and polar molecules to enter and exit. But there are also some channels
on the cell membrane that are controlled by the membrane potential, allowing the corresponding
molecules to enter. The cell membrane plays an extremely important physiological function in the
cell structure. Not only does it regulate and select the movement of substances into and out of the cell,
but the cell maintains a stable internal environment.
Pyroptosis is inseparable from the cell membrane. The constant swelling of the cells causes the
cell membranes to rupture, which in turn stimulates massive inflammation in the body. However,
excessive inflammation can lead to disorders of insulin metabolism pathways and even lead to
diabetes. More studies have shown that pyroptosis drives cell consumption and inflammation through
human immunodeficiency virus, promotes the development of HIV disease into AIDS [4], destroys
human immune cells, and leads to a large number of complications and huge fatal risks.

449
Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology MISBP 2023
Volume 74 (2023)

3. Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance of the cell that surrounds the cell membrane and fills the
entire interior of the cell. It has several key functions and is also one of the important sites of many
cellular diseases. First, let's look at the structure of the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is mainly composed
of water, ions, organic molecules (such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids), and organelles (such
as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, etc.). This intracellular jelly-like substance
provides support for the cell's internal structure, allows the cell to maintain its shape, and aids in the
transport of substances. The water in the cytoplasm acts as a solvent, enabling chemical reactions to
take place within it.
The functions of the cytoplasm are diverse. First, it is the site of many biochemical reactions. Many
enzymes and metabolic pathways within cells require the cytoplasm to occur. In addition, the
cytoplasm is also the site of intracellular molecular transport. This includes the transport of substances
via vesicles that can move through the cytoplasm, delivering substances from one organelle to another.
The cytoplasm also plays a role in supporting the organelles so that they can function properly.
However, when abnormalities occur in the cytoplasm, serious diseases can result. For example,
certain genetic diseases are associated with defects in specific proteins within the cytoplasm. The
cytoplasm can also be affected by viral infection. Certain viruses require access to the cytoplasm in
order to replicate and spread. They may promote their own growth by altering the cytoplasmic
environment, leading to cellular dysfunction and ultimately disease.

4. Cell nucleus
4.1. Karyotheca
The nuclear envelope is a key component. The nuclear envelope is the outer covering of the
nucleus, which plays multiple important roles within the cell. This will introduce the structure and
function of the nuclear membrane, and some diseases that may be caused by nuclear membrane
lesions. The inner nuclear membrane and the outer nuclear membrane, which make up the nuclear
membrane gap between them, are two phospholipid bilayers that make up the nuclear membrane.
This structure separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm, protecting and isolating the genetic material
within the nucleus. In addition, there are nuclear pores on the nuclear membrane, which allow
molecules such as RNA and ribonucleoprotein to pass through the nuclear membrane and enter or
leave the nucleus for gene expression and ribosome synthesis. Second, the function of the nuclear
envelope is very important. First, it maintains a stable environment in the nucleus, preventing
molecules in the cytoplasm from entering the nucleus directly, thus protecting the genetic material
from damage. Second, the nuclear pores on the nuclear envelope regulate the transport of substances,
ensuring orderly exchange of molecules inside and outside the nucleus, which is essential for
maintaining normal cellular functions. Finally, the nuclear envelope is also involved in the process
of cell division, since during cell division the nuclear envelope must disassemble to allow
chromosomes to segregate properly and reassemble after division.
However, the nuclear envelope is also susceptible to some lesions that can lead to serious disease.
A common nuclear membrane lesion is the mutation of nuclear membrane proteins, which may lead
to abnormal morphology and function of the nuclear membrane, which in turn affects the stability of
the nucleus. These mutations are associated with genetic disorders such as Emrick muscular
dystrophy and Lipmann-Sachs syndrome [8]. In addition, some viruses can also use nuclear pores to
enter the nucleus, thereby causing infectious diseases. To sum up, the nuclear membrane is a crucial
structure in the cell, which plays an important role in maintaining a stable environment in the nucleus,
regulating material transport, and participating in cell division.

450
Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology MISBP 2023
Volume 74 (2023)

4.2. Chromatin
Chromatin is the intricate and dynamic structure found within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells,
primarily composed of DNA and associated proteins. Its primary function is to package and organize
genetic material efficiently. The chromatin structure can be divided into two states: euchromatin,
which is loosely packed and allows for gene expression, and heterochromatin, which is densely
packed and represses gene expression. If chromatin becomes damaged, it can have profound
consequences. DNA repair mechanisms might be compromised, leading to mutations or genomic
instability. Additionally, gene expression can be disrupted, potentially causing various diseases or
developmental issues. Proper chromatin maintenance is crucial for the accurate transmission of
genetic information and the overall health of cells and organisms.
4.3. Nucleolus
The nucleolus is a small organ inside the nucleus. Although it is called a small organ in cytology,
its role in cell biology is extremely important. Nucleoli are located primarily within the nucleus, and
each nucleus usually contains one or more nucleoli. Here's what the nucleolus is, its function, and the
diseases they can cause. The nucleolus is a complex structure composed of proteins and ribonucleic
acid. It usually consists of three main parts: particle region, fiber region and particle-fiber region. The
granule region is rich in rRNA, which is an important component for the synthesis of cellular
ribosomes. The fiber region contains precursors of rRNAs, where they are further processed and
modified. The granule-fiber region is the transition region between the granule region and the fiber
region, which contains some key proteins for maintaining the structure and function of the nucleolus.
The nucleolus has several important functions in the cell. One of its main functions is to synthesize
and assemble cellular ribosomes. Cellular ribosomes are the protein synthesis factories inside the cell,
they are composed of rRNA and protein. In the nucleolus, rRNA is further processed and bound to
proteins to form the mature ribosomal subunit. These subunits then leave the nucleolus and converge
to form fully functional ribosomes in the cytoplasm to complete the protein synthesis process. In
addition, the nucleolus is also involved in the regulation of the cell cycle. It is disassembled during
cell division and reformed at other stages of the cell cycle. This is closely related to the cell's DNA
replication and cell division, ensuring that each new cell receives enough ribosomes to support its
protein synthesis needs.
Abnormal function or structural abnormalities of the nucleolus may lead to a variety of diseases.
For example, several studies have shown that the nucleolus is closely related to the development of
cancer. Abnormalities in the nucleolus may contribute to the formation of tumors by causing cells to
lose normal control over growth and division. In addition, some rare genetic disorders, such as
Treacher Collins syndrome [9], are associated with nucleolar dysfunction. The disorder causes facial
deformities and other physical deformities, in part due to abnormal function of the nucleolus in
embryonic development. In summary, the nucleolus, although tiny, plays an integral role in cell
biology. They are involved in the synthesis and maintenance of cellular ribosomes, and are also
closely related to the development of some diseases

5. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

In eukaryotic cells, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), an essential organelle, takes part in several
cellular activities. This vast network of membranes is composed of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER) and the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). Each of these sections carries out certain
functions for the cell. A group of flattened sacs called cisternae that are joined by a web of tubules
define the endoplasmic reticulum's structure. The RER has a rough look because it is covered in
ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface. Protein synthesis is carried out by these ribosomes. On the other
side, the SER doesn't have ribosomes and seems smooth. Since the two types of ER are physically
linked to one another, lipids and other molecules can be transferred between them.

451
Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology MISBP 2023
Volume 74 (2023)

One of the primary functions of the endoplasmic reticulum is protein synthesis and processing.
The RER ribosomes synthesize proteins destined for secretion, membrane insertion, or use within the
cell. These newly synthesized proteins enter the ER lumen, undergoing various modifications, such
as folding and glycosylation, to ensure their proper structure and function. The smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, in contrast, is involved in lipid metabolism and detoxification processes. It plays a crucial
role in synthesizing lipids, including phospholipids and steroids. Additionally, the SER is responsible
for detoxifying drugs and toxins by enzymatic reactions, making it essential for the overall health and
functioning of the cell. When the endoplasmic reticulum experiences stress or malfunctions, it can
lead to various diseases and health problems. One well-known condition associated with ER stress is
protein misfolding, which can result in a group of disorders collectively known as ER storage diseases.
These conditions include cystic fibrosis and certain types of diabetes. In these cases, misfolded
proteins accumulate in the ER, causing cellular dysfunction and often leading to severe health issues.
Another notable disease linked to the ER is Alzheimer's disease [10]. Research suggests that the
buildup of abnormal proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum contributes to the progression of this
neurodegenerative disorder. Furthermore, disturbances in ER calcium regulation have been
implicated in various neurodegenerative diseases and cardiac disorders.

6. Mitochondria
The food including carbohydrates, proteins and fats, is converted into energy through aerobic
digestion and metabolism in the body. The operation of various functions of the body comes directly
from the energy provided by the hydrolysis of ATP. The human body needs about 100 to 150 moles
of ATP every day to provide energy, but in fact, there is only about 0.2 moles of ATP in the body.
That is, ATP is constantly charging and discharging like a battery in body every day. This whole
process takes place in the mitochondria. Therefore, mitochondria are called "the power station of
cells". Mitochondria also contain their own unique DNA, so each mitochondria is unique.
Mitochondrial disorders may be brought on by mutations in these genes. Although disease symptoms
can vary, they frequently impact energy-demanding organs like the heart, muscles, and brain. In
addition to giving cells energy, mitochondria are also engaged in functions like cell differentiation,
information transfer within cells, and apoptosis. They can also control cell development and the cell
cycle.
The results of mitochondrial mutation are also unthinkable. such as Kaiser syndrome or mobility
problems (exercise intolerance). While the second is more dangerous, the former will result in a major
loss in the patient's ability to exercise, which might significantly result in psychological issues for the
patient. It can result in hearing loss, ataxia, minor skeletal muscular weakness, heart block (heart
conduction disorder), low stature, hearing loss, and even diminished cognitive function. Even lung
cancer, which has an average five-year survival rate of only 18.6%, has been linked to mitochondrial
DNA in research [11].

7. Ribosome
Ribosomes are fundamental cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis, a critical process
in all living organisms. These tiny molecular machines consist of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and
proteins, working together to assemble amino acids into proteins based on the instructions provided
by messenger RNA (mRNA). Understanding the structure, function, and mutations of ribosomes
offers valuable insights into the machinery of life and its implications for health and disease.
Ribosomes are composed of two subunits: a smaller subunit and a larger subunit. These subunits
combine to form the functional ribosome during protein synthesis. The small subunit reads the mRNA
sequence, while the large subunit catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids,
creating a polypeptide chain.

452
Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology MISBP 2023
Volume 74 (2023)

Ribosomes' main purpose is to convert the genetic data present in mRNA into useful proteins.
Initiation, elongation, and termination are the three main stages of this translation process. The
ribosome forms around the mRNA's start codon during initiation. In elongation, the ribosome binds
to tRNA molecules carrying certain amino acids, and the ribosome helps the amino acids create
peptide bonds to produce a lengthening polypeptide chain. When the ribosome comes across a stop
codon on the messenger RNA, the process is terminated, resulting in the release of the finished protein.
Mutations in ribosomal RNA and protein genes can have profound effects. One example is
Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA), a rare genetic disorder characterized by a deficiency in red blood
cell production [12]. Mutations in ribosomal protein genes disrupt normal ribosome assembly and
function, leading to inefficient protein synthesis and impaired cell proliferation. Another
ribosomopathy is Shwachman-Diamond syndrome (SDS), which affects bone marrow function,
leading to reduced production of blood cells and impaired digestive function due to defective
ribosome biogenesis. Understanding ribosomal mutations also has broader implications for cancer
research. Mutations in ribosomal protein genes have been found in several types of cancers,
suggesting a potential link between ribosome dysfunction and uncontrolled cell growth. These
mutations can alter the balance between protein synthesis and other cellular processes, contributing
to cancer development and progression.

8. Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus, often referred to as the Golgi complex or Golgi body, is a crucial organelle
found in eukaryotic cells. Named after its discoverer, Camillo Golgi, this cellular structure plays a
central role in processing, modifying, and transporting proteins and lipids within the cell. The Golgi
apparatus is a stack of flattened, membranous sacs known as cisternae. These cisternae are typically
organized in a series of stacks, with each stack containing several layers. The Golgi apparatus has
two distinct faces: the cis face, which is the receiving end, and the trans face, which is the shipping
end. Vesicles transport materials from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the cis face of the Golgi
apparatus for processing and modification
First is Protein Modification: One of its primary roles is to modify proteins synthesized in the
endoplasmic reticulum. These modifications can include adding carbohydrates (glycosylation),
phosphorylation, and sulfation, which are essential for the proper functioning of proteins. The second
is Sorting and Packaging. After modification, the Golgi apparatus sorts proteins and lipids and
packages them into vesicles for transport to their final destinations. These vesicles can either be
transported within the cell or exported outside the cell. Also include Lipid Metabolism: In addition
to processing proteins, the Golgi apparatus also plays a role in lipid metabolism, synthesizing various
lipids required for the cell membrane and other cellular functions. When the Golgi apparatus
malfunctions, it can lead to various diseases and cellular dysfunctions. Some notable examples
include:
Golgi Storage Diseases are a group of rare genetic disorders characterized by the abnormal
accumulation of macromolecules within the Golgi apparatus. One example is sialidosis, which leads
to the buildup of sialic acid within the Golgi and causes a range of neurological and systemic
symptoms. Research suggests that dysfunction in the Golgi apparatus may contribute to the
development of Alzheimer's disease. Disruptions in protein processing and trafficking within neurons
can lead to the accumulation of toxic protein aggregates. In the meantime, Golgi apparatus
dysfunction has also been implicated in various neurological disorders, including some types of
hereditary spastic paraplegia, which affect the long nerve fibers in the legs, causing muscle weakness
and stiffness.

453
Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology MISBP 2023
Volume 74 (2023)

9. Conclusion
In conclusion, the intricate structure and functions of human cells play a pivotal role in the
foundation of life and the maintenance of our physiological processes. Our understanding of cell
biology has advanced significantly, uncovering the intricate networks of organelles, proteins, and
genetic material that orchestrate life itself. This knowledge has not only revolutionized medical
science but also holds immense potential for the future. As we delve deeper into the complexities of
cellular biology, we can anticipate breakthroughs in disease treatment, regenerative medicine, and
biotechnology. The structure and function of human cells are at the forefront of scientific exploration,
offering a promising pathway toward unlocking the mysteries of health, disease, and the advancement
of human well-being. The future promises exciting discoveries that will continue to shape our
understanding of life at its most fundamental level. In conclusion, the intricate structure and functions
of human cells play a pivotal role in the foundation of life and the maintenance of our physiological
processes. Our understanding of cell biology has advanced significantly, uncovering the intricate
networks of organelles, proteins, and genetic material that orchestrate life itself. This knowledge has
not only revolutionized medical science but also holds immense potential for the future. As we delve
deeper into the complexities of cellular biology, we can anticipate breakthroughs in disease treatment,
regenerative medicine, and biotechnology. The structure and function of human cells are at the
forefront of scientific exploration, offering a promising pathway toward unlocking the mysteries of
health, disease, and the advancement of human well-being. The future promises exciting discoveries
that will continue to shape our understanding of life at its most fundamental level.

References
[1] Zimmer, Carl. “How Many Cells Are in Your Body?”, National geographic, 23 Oct. 2013,
www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/how-many-cells-are-in-your-
body#:~:text=Adding%20up%20all%20their%20numbers.
[2] Lodish, Harvey F. Molecular Cell Biology. Scientific American Library, 2000.
[3] Jemal, Ahmedin, et al. “Global Cancer Statistics.” CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, vol. 61, no. 2,
2011, pp. 69–90
[4] WHO, “HIV and AIDS.” ,12 July 2023, www.who.int/zh/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hiv-
aids#:~:text=
[5] Doitsh, Gilad; et al. Cell death by pyroptosis drives CD4 T-cell depletion in HIV-1 infection. Nature.
2014, 505 (7484): 509–14.
[6] Monroe, K. M.; et al.IFI16 DNA sensor is required for death of lymphoid CD4 T cells abortively infected
with HIV. Science. 2014, 343 (6169): 428–32.
[7] Cooper, John A. “Cell | Definition, Types, & Functions.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 6 Feb. 2019,
www.britannica.com/science/cell-biology.
[8] Heller, Scott A et al. “Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy.” Muscle & nerve vol. 61,4 (2020): 436-448.
[9] Marszałek-Kruk, Bożena Anna et al. “Treacher Collins Syndrome: Genetics, Clinical Features and
Management.” Genes vol. 12,9 1392. 9 Sep. 2021
[10] Ajoolabady, Amir et al. “ER stress and UPR in Alzheimer's disease: mechanisms, pathogenesis,
treatments.” Cell death & disease vol. 13,8 706. 15 Aug. 2022
[11] Deng, Haibin et al. “Targeting lactate dehydrogenase B-dependent mitochondrial metabolism affects
tumor initiating cells and inhibits tumorigenesis of non-small cell lung cancer by inducing mtDNA
damage.” Cellular and molecular life sciences : CMLS vol. 79,8 445. 25 Jul. 2022
[12] Da Costa, Lydie et al. “Diamond-Blackfan anemia.” Blood vol. 136,11 (2020): 1262-1273.

454