ARCH DAMS

MODULE 5
 SYLLABUS
Arch dams-types, methods for design (list only)-Thin
cylinder theory. Earth dams-types, causes for failure
and design criteria.
Spillways-Types. Effective length of spillway- Ogee
type spillway-profile. Energy dissipation below
spillways - Stilling basins- Indian standard Type I
and Type II (design not necessary).
 An arch dam may be defined as a solid wall, curved in plan, standing
across the entire width of the river valley, in a single span. This dam
body is usually made of cement concrete. This wall will structurally
behave partly as a cantilever retaining wall standing up from its base,
and partly, the load will be transferred to two ends of arch span by
horizontal arch action. Depending upon the shape considerations,
simple arch dams may be classified into 3 types;
1. Constant radius arch dams
2. Variable radius arch dams
3. Constant angle arch dams
Constant Radius Arch Dam: is that, in which, the radii of the outside curved
surface are equal at all elevations, from top to bottom. Centres of all such circular
arcs, called extrodos, will therefore, evidently lie on one vertical line. However, the
introdos has gradually decreasing radius from top to bottom, so as provide increased
concrete thickness towards the base for accounting the proportionally increasing
hydrostatic water pressure of reservoir. The dam body will, therefore, be triangular in
cross section with u/s face vertical, and a minimum thickness at top. Evidently, it is
only the radius of introdos, which decrease with depth; while the centres of all such
circular arcs continue to lie on the same vertical line, on which lie the centres of the
extrodos. Such a dam is, therefore, sometimes called a constant centre arch dam.
Variable Radius Arch Dam: is the one in which radii of extrados curves and of
introdos curves vary at various elevations, being maximum at top, and a certain
minimum at its bottom. This makes the central angle as large as possible. They have
often vertical or even overhanging faces at the u/s side near the abutments and d/s
side near the crown. Centres of the horizontal arch rings at various elevation donot
lie on the single vertical line. Hence it is also known as variable centre arch dam.
They have greater arch efficiency, resulting in saving of concrete. Hence it is
preferred in comparison to other.
Constant Angle Arch Dam: it is a special type of variable radius arch dam in which
the central angle of the horizontal arch rings is of same magnitude at all elevations.
Volume of concrete is minimum when the central angle is 133°34’. Constant angle
arch dam requires about 42.6% of concrete required in constant radius arch dam.
Hence a constant angle arch dam is the most economical.
 Design Methods for Arch Dams

Following are some of the theories for design of arch dams

1. The thin cylinder theory
2. The elastic theory
3. The trial load analysis
 Thin Cylinder Theory
In the thin cylinder theory, stresses in the arch are assumed to be approximately the same as in a thin
cylinder of equal outside radius. Figure shows the section of a thin arch, having average radius r, angle
subtended at the centre of arch equal to Ɵ, and thickness t.
Intensity of hydrostatic pressure, p, at any depth h is given by
p = wh; w is unit weight of water.
This horizontal pressure, p acts in radial direction. Total downstream component of the horizontal
force(Ph) acting along the axis of the river is given by
Ph = intensity of pressure x projected area
= wh 2r sin(Ɵ/2)
If R is the reaction at each abutment, its upward component is equal to 2R sin(Ɵ/2)
Equating this to Ph, for equilibrium, we get
2R sin(Ɵ/2) = 2whr sin(Ɵ/2) ===🡺 R = whr
If σ is the compressive stress introduced in the arch, at the abutments, we get,
σ = R/t = whr/t
If f is the allowable compressive stress for the material, we get
t = whr/f -------(1)=====🡺 this is the expression for the thickness of arch
Central Angle for minimum concrete: from eq(1); t is proportional to both radius
of curvature, r, and water depth, h.
now, volume of the concrete, per unit height is given by
V = r. Ɵ. A; A---CS area of arch
A is proportional to t===🡺 proportional to r===🡺 A = k.r
So V = r. Ɵ. k. r ==🡺 V = k Ɵ r²
 Limitations of Thin Cylinder
Theory
Arch sections are not thin cylinders. They are also not free at
abutments.
There is no provision for considering shearing as well as bending
stress in arch.
Analysis is based on only water pressure. Temperature stress and ice
thrust have not been considered.
Plastic flow of concrete and shrinkage in concrete have also not
been accounted for.
Stress due to rib shortening and due to yielding of the abutments
have also not been taken into account.
 EARTH DAMS
Earth dams are made up of soil that is pounded down solidly. They are
built in areas where the foundation is not strong enough to bear the
weight of a concrete dam, and where earth is more easily available as a
building material compared to concrete or stone or rock. They are most
common type of dams used upto moderate heights.
 Types of Earth Dams

Earthen dam can be of the following three

types:
1. Homogeneous embankment type
2. Zoned embankment type
3. Diaphragm type
 Homogeneous Embankment Type
The simplest type of an earthen embankment consists of a single material and is homogeneous
throughout. Sometimes, a blanket of relatively impervious material may be placed on the
upstream face. A purely homogeneous section is used, when only one type of material is
economically or locally available. Such a section is used for low to moderately high dams and
for levees. Large dams are seldom designed as homogeneous embankments. A purely
homogeneous section possess the problems of seepage, and huge sections are required to make it
safe against piping, stability etc. Due to this, a homogeneous section is generally added with an
internal drainage system.
 Zoned Embankment Type
These are usually provided with a central impervious core, covered by a comparatively pervious
transition zone, which is finally surrounded by a much more pervious outer zone. The central
core checks the seepage. Transition zone prevents piping through cracks which may develop in
the core. Outer zone gives stability to central impervious fill and also distribute the load over a
large area of foundations. This type of embankments are widely constructed and the materials of
the zones are selected depending upon their availabilities.
 Diaphragm Type Embankments
They have a thin impervious core, which is surrounded by earth or rock fill. The impervious
core, called diaphragm, is made of impervious soil, concrete, steel, timber or any other material.
It acts as a water barrier to prevent seepage through the dam. The diaphragm may be placed
either at centre as a central vertical core or at the upstream face as a blanket. The diaphragm
must also be tied to bed rock or to a very impervious foundation material, if excessive under
seepage through the existing pervious foundations has to be avoided. The diaphragm type of
embankments are differentiated from zoned embankments, depending upon the thickness of the
core. If the thickness of any diaphragm at any elevation is less than 10 metres or less than height
of the embankment above the corresponding elevation , dam embankment is considered to be of
Diaphragm type. But if the thickness equals or exceeds these limits, it is considered to be zoned
embankment type.
Causes of Failure of Earthen Dams

Different causes of failure of earthen

dam are as follow:
1. Hydraulic Failure
2. Seepage Failure
3. Structural Failure
 Hydraulic Failures(about 40%)

Cracking due to Frost action: frost in the upper portion of the

dam may cause heaving and cracking of the soil with
dangerous seepage and consequent failure. An additional
freeboard allowance upto a maximum of 1.5m should
therefore be provided to dams in areas of low temperature.
Erosion of Upstream face: waves developed near the top
water surface due to winds, try to notch out the soils
from upstream face and may even, sometimes, cause the
slip of the upstream slope. Upstream stone pitching or
riprap should therefore be provided to avoid such
failures.
Erosion of the Downstream toe: due to 2 reasons; 1.
erosion due to cross currents that may come from
the spillway buckets and 2. erosion due to tail
water. Can be avoided by providing d/s slope
pitching. To prevent cross currents from spillway,
sidewalls of spillway should be constructed with
adequate height and length.
By Overtopping: water may overtop the dam, if the
design flood is under estimated or if the spillway is of
insufficient capacity or of the spillway gates are not
properly operated. Sufficient freeboard should,
therefore, be provided as an additional safety measure.
Erosion of Downstream face by Gully Formation: heavy
rains falling directly over the downstream face and erosive
action of the moving water, may lead to the formation of
gullies on the downstream face, ultimately leading to the
dam failure. Can be avoided by proper maintenance, filling
the cuts from time to time especially during rainy season,
by grassing the slopes and by providing proper berms at
suitable heights, so that the water has not to flow for
considerable distances.
 Seepage Failures

Seepage through earthen dam is casual but it is

considered as harmless when it is limited or controllable.
If it is uncontrollable or concentrated seepage, then there
occurs problems such as piping and sloughing. 1 out of
every 3 failed dam cases have seepage failures.
 Piping through Foundations
Sometimes, when highly permeable cavities or
fissures or strata of coarse sand or gravel are present
in the foundation of dam, water may start seeping at
a huge rate through them. This concentrated flow at
a high gradient, may erode the soil. This leads to
increased flow of water and soil, ultimately resulting
in a rush of water and soil, thereby creating hollows
below the foundation. The dam may sink down into
the hollow so formed, causing its failure.
 Piping through the Dam body
When the concentrated flow channels get developed in
the body of the dam, soil may be removed in the same
manner as was explained in foundation piping, leading
to the formation of hollows in the dam body, and
subsequent subsidence of the dam. These flow channels
may develop due to faulty construction, insufficient
compaction, cracks developed in embankment due to
foundation settlement, shrinkage cracks, animal
burrows, etc.,
 Sloughing of D/S Toe
Process behind sloughing of toe is somewhat similar to that
of piping. Process of failure due to sloughing starts when the
d/s toe becomes saturated and get eroded, producing a small
slump or a miniature slide. Miniature slide leaves a relatively
steep face which becomes saturated by seepage from the
reservoir and slumps again, forming a more unstable surface.
Process continues till the remaining portion of the dam is too
thin to withstand the horizontal water pressure, leading to the
sudden failure of the dam.
Structural Failure (about 25%)

A. Foundation Slide

B. Slide in Embankment
 Foundation Slide

When the foundation of the earth dams are made of

soft soils, such as fine silt, soft clay, etc., entire dam
may slide over the foundation. In this type of failure,
top of embankment gets cracked and subsides, lower
slope moves outward forming large mud waves near
heel.
 Slides in Embankments

When the embankment slopes are too steep for strength

of soil they may slide causing dam failure. Most critical
condition of the slide of the u/s slope is sudden
drawdown of reservoir, and the d/s slope is most likely
to slide, when the reservoir is full. These failures
generally occur due to development of excessive
unaccounted pore pressures which may reduce the
shearing strength of the soil.
 Design Criteria for Earth Dams
1. A fill of sufficiently low permeability should be developed out of
the available materials, so as to best serve the intended purpose
with minimum cost.
2. Borrow pits should be as close to the dam site as possible, so as
to reduce the leads.
3. Sufficient spillway and outlets capacities should be provided so
as to avoid possibility of overtopping during design flood.
4. Sufficient freeboard must be provided for wind setup, wave
action, frost action and earthquake motions
5. Seepage line should remain well within the d/s face of dam,
so that no sloughing of face occurs.
6. There should be no possibility of free flow of water from the
u/s to the d/s face.
7. u/s face should be properly protected against wave action,
and d/s face against rains and against waves upto tail water.
8. The u/s and d/s slopes should be so designed as to stable
under worst conditions of loading.
9. u/s and d/s slope should be flat enough, as to provide
sufficient base width at the foundation level.