Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes (NTMP)

Lecture 3 to 6: Laser Beam Manufacturing (LBM)

Dr. Poonam Sundriyal

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
31/01/2024 IIT Kharagpur 1
LASER Beam Machining
Focusing solar radiation on a paper Focusing light radiation on workpiece

Laser power density = 1.9 x 107 kW/m2

I I
Intensity of sun at earth’s surface = 1 kW/m2 • Can machine all the materials (including diamond)
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What is LASER?
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
LASER is an acronym of : Radiation
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation I

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What is Light?
What is Light?
• Electromagnetic radiation.
• Electrical and Magnetic Vectors oscillating in
two orthogonal planes
• Carries Energy in the direction of propagation
• Photons: massless packets of energy, each
travelling with wavelike properties at the
speed of light
E= hc/λ
E : energy of photon
h : plank’s constant
c : speed of light
λ : wavelength
How Light is emitted?
When an excited atom decays from the excited energy state to a lower
energy state, the difference of energy of these states emerged out as a
light wave, also known as a photon.
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Characteristics of LASER
1. Lasers are monochromatic: they have single
output wavelength or a pure color with an extremely
narrow bandwidth.
• Depending on the laser type, they can have
wavelength from ultraviolet through visible and
even in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
• Wavelength selection is important dependent on the
material being processed. Analysis of objects at a
certain energy is important for research purpose.

Red (660 & 635 nm), green (532 & 520 nm) and blue-violet (445 & 405 nm) lasers
2. Highly coherent: all waves are exactly in
phase with one another.

3. Lasers are highly directional/ low divergence LED

• Lasers have been bounced off the moon to
accurately measure the distance between moon
and earth. Monochromatic Light bulb
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Coherent Highlydivein 5
Laser interaction with an atom
• Spontaneous absorption Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

I
• Spontaneous emission
• Stimulated emission
HEL
parent
stimulated

HEL1 HEL2
LEL

A. Spontaneous B. Spontaneous C. Stimulated

absorption emission emission
LEL: Lower energy level/ Ground state, HEL: Higher energy level/ Excited state

: electron , : energy photons,

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Population inversion
• In normal condition: more population in lower energy levels than higher energy levels:
IAbsorption dominates over Stimulated Emission

• of
Stimulated Process to
Lowe High e

dominate over Absorption E2 E2

Process: More Population in
81
Excited State
Etzion higher e

T
• If a significant population
inversion exists, stimulated
low r E1 E1

emission can produce Population

I
Normal
significant light amplification. inversion
I condition:
N1> N2
N1< N2

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Components of a LASER
1. Active medium Fully reflective
• Solid: Ruby (Cr + Al2O3), Nd:YAG, mirror
Optical Fiber
* Liquid: Dye Laser
* Gas: He-Ne, CO2, Excimer Ar+ ion
Partially
* Semiconductor Diodes reflective mirror

Active medium

2. Excitation or Pump Source

DtoCproduce population inversion in lasing medium.
* Optical Pump ( Flash Lamp, Other Laser) : Solid State & Fiber Lasers
* Electrical discharge (DC, AC, RF, Pulsed) : Gas Lasers Excitation or pump
* Current injection : Diode Lasers source
3. Optical Resonator formed by a pair of parallel mirrors, one fully reflecting and other
partial reflecting.
opticalresonator
through the partial reflecting mirror.
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I
They provide feedback into the active medium and facilitates laser beam to build up. Laser beam comes out
8
Basic Laser Operation

Active
Medium

Excitation
orPumpton
to produce
sopulation
Eon

sina.fi
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Mechanism of LBM Thermal
• Mechanism: Melting and
HR
vaporization. Material
Removal
• Medium : Normal atmosphere
• Tool: Laser beam
Rumpus
Energy source Powerful
light
radiation
YER CAIeding • Machining by LBM can be achieved by
the following phases:
 Interaction of laser beam with work.
 Heat conduction and temperature rise.
 Melting, vaporization, and ablation.
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Interaction of Laser beam with Metals
1. Metals are opaque to Laser radiation, and highly reflective Incident Laser Beam
Reflected Beam
(~90%), therefore good fraction of laser power is reflected.
e
Absorption
2. Remaining laser power is absorbed at the top surface within
a thin layer (~10 nm). Workpiece

3. With rise in surface temperature, absorptivity increases. Laser Beam Laser Beam Laser Beam

4. Heat conducts from the top layer into rest of the metal. Optical
Penetration
Depth Heat conduction
Absorption Heating Surface Melting

5. Depending upon the absorbed laser power density and Laser Beam Laser Beam Laser Beam

Melt
interaction time, the top layer undergoes heating, melting, Plasma

f
Expulsion

evaporation, ablation, and plasma formation.

Surface Ablation Shockwave Plasma
Evaporation Formation

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Physical phenomenon of increasing Laser intensity
Laser Intensity = Laser Power
Beam Area

~106 ~107
~103 ~105 W/cm2
W/cm2 W/cm2
W/cm2

Heating of Surface layer Melting Formation of Formation of

a a Keyhole Plasma
Surface Hardening, Cutting, Drilling, Ionization of Vapor & Gas
Metal Forming, Conduction Deep penetration Shock hardening
Scribing welding welding
Laser Peening
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Laser Processing Parameters for Various Material Processing
1015
Laser Power, P 102 J/cm2 104 J/cm2 106 J/cm2
1014
Phase Laser fluence (J/cm2)
1 J/cm2
1013 change

Beam Diameter, d 1012

0.01 J/cm2

Laser intensity (W/cm2)

1011 Micro-machining
Scan Speed =v  1010
Micro- drilling

Shock
Laser Power 109
Hardening
Laser Intensity = Material Drilling
Beam Area 108 removal Cutting
Vaporization
Deep Surface re-melting
107
penetration Cladding
Surface welding Alloying
Interaction time = Laser Pulse Duration or 106 glazing

105 Transformation

= Beam Diameter, d hardening

104
Scan Speed, v 10-14 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 10-0

Interaction time (s)

I am
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1144 13
Interaction of Laser beam with work
• Work material should not reflect too much of incident beam energy.

• The absorbed light propagates into the medium and its energy is transferred to the
8
lattice atoms in the form of heat.

• The absorption is described by Lambert’s law as follows:

I
I(z) = I(0)e-µz I 2 I e t
a ÉtI ponentially
where, I(z) is light intensity at a depth z, I(0) is light intensity at surface and µ is the Figure: Laser beam falling
on a surface and variation of
absorption coefficient. intensity below surface

• Most of the energy is absorbed at the top surface within a very thin layer (~ 10 nm).
I Assume
• Therefore, it can be assumed that the absorbed light energy is converted into heat at
laser Beam

IIf
the surface itself, and the laser beam may be considered to be equivalent to a heat Heat
flux.
eqr.toflux
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Heat conduction and temperature rise
Case 1: For a deep hole
• If the molten pit/ hole is deep and narrow, the major portion of heat conduction
from the molten hole takes place through the side walls.
• When the heat input rate is equal to the rate of heat loss by the molten portion, it
maintains its shape and size.
H heatflux Figure: Idealized model of melting process during
• Qin = Qloss
of laser LBM.
Heat input rate Qin =
𝟒 beam
8
• Fourier’s law of heat conduction for cylindrical coordinates:
I Z=
𝑯𝒅𝟐
𝟐𝒌 (𝜽𝒎 𝜽𝟎)
Q = -kA
H Heatinputflux
Where, H is the input heat flux, z is depth of machined hole,
K Thermalconductivity
On melting temp of
k is thermal conductivity, θm is melting temperature of material, θ0 is ambient
material
temperature, A is area of heat flux, d diameter of hole and D outer diameter of HAZ.
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A Ambient 15
 my
• Let us assume Qloss as rate of heat loss by molten portion.

Qloss= -kA

Qloss
• -k =

Qloss
• -k∫ 𝑑θ = ∫

Qloss
• -k(θ0 − θ𝑚) = 𝑙

using Qloss = 2π𝒛𝒌

( )

Bin
(𝑫/𝒅)
Figure: Idealized model of melting process during LBM.
𝑙 (𝑫/𝒅) =4 ( as D = 55d from experiments)
floss 22k 0m
Qloss = π𝒛𝒌
( ) floss
en Dld
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• Equating heat input rate to heat loss rate:
loss AZKE 0

• Qin = Qloss

( ) d ñzk Om do
= π𝒛𝒌 𝟐
𝟒
2
• Finally, the depth of molten pit, which can approximately represent the depth of the hole machined with a medium
intensity beam, is given by:

it
𝑯𝒅𝟐

Etf
Z=
𝟐𝒌 (𝜽𝒎 𝜽𝟎)

Note: When the beam intensity is very high (≥107 W/cm2), heating is very rapid and incident beam heats up the surface
quickly and vaporize it. Above mechanism is invalid.
Rate of heat input
The rate of heat input required to vaporize the material is: H ≈ 𝒗𝑳
I fovapourizethe material
where, v is the velocity with which the surface recedes, and L is the amount of energy to vaporize a unit volume of
1
material.
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Heat flex input over a
circle of diameter d

Jin HALF
Heat conduction and temperature rise
• Reradiation from the surface at 3000 K ~ 600 W/cm2
• Input flux ~ 105 to 107 W/cm2 Figure:
Idealized heat flux for
solving heat transfer
Assumptions: case de problem
 The diameter of the beam spot is larger than the depth of penetration.
 Thermal properties (such as conductivity and specific heat) are constant at different temperatures.

The equivalent heat conduction problem can be represented by a uniform heat flux H(t) at the surface of a
semi-infinite body.

Heat conduction equation for the region z > 0 is as follows:

( , )
- . =0

where, α is thermal diffusivity and θ is temperature. α = k/ρCp

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Heat conduction and temperature rise Figure:
• At the surface (z = 0) Idealized heat flux for
solving heat transfer
= - 𝐻(𝑡) problem
where, 𝑘 is thermal conductivity.
Case 2: At t = 0, i.e., when the heat flux just started. Assuming temperature of the body is zero. Solution of the
equation:
On meltingtemp
Im I
θ (0, t) = √( ) Thermal
conductivity
I Thermal
𝝅 (kθ𝒎)𝟐
time regd to tm =
𝜶 (𝟐𝑯)𝟐 diffusivity
reach
melting temp H Input heat flux
where tm is the time required for the surface to reach melting temperature and θ𝑚 is the melting
8 temperature.

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Heat conduction and temperature rise d E
Case 3: Considering heat flux to be on a circular spot with a diameter equal to that of the focused beam.
• If the beam diameter is d and the heat flux is uniform, both in space and time.
I
• Minimum value of H to attain the melting temperature is given by:
Figure: Idealized heat
flux, uniform both in
space and time.

Minm value
𝟐𝒌𝜽𝒎
Hcr =
𝒅
of H to
reach
melting
temperature Her minimum
2kg1 value of H
attain melting
regd to
temp
2k0gr
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 2nd
CaseI
Jun Gloss 2 Hd2
2K Om Oo
TZ Om
HEY medium
intensity
4
High intensity
Rate of Heat segd vel of
71 Latent Heat

to the
of Vapourisation
vap surface
material
case I

E
m

time
req to reach
melting point on
surface
 Caself d Z

Minm Her 21 1
value
H to
of reach
melting temp
Numerical 103 w 11100cm
Q1: A laser beam with a power intensity of 103 W/mm2 falls on a Tungsten sheet. Find the time required for
I 3
the surface to reach the melting temperature. The given thermal properties of tungsten are melting
temperature = 3400 ºC, thermal conductivity = 2.15 W/cm- ºC, and volume specific heat = 2.71 J/cm3- ºC.
Assume that 10% of the beam is absorbed.
Solution: I 1035mm
𝝅 (kθ𝒎)𝟐 2.15W c
tm =
𝜶 (𝟐𝑯)𝟐
Om 3400 C K em

Given data: θm = 3400 ºC, k= 2.15 W/cm- ºC, volume specific heat = 2.71 J/cm3- ºC

0.79cm see
KE
α = k/Qv = 2.15/2.71 cm2/sec = 0.79 cm2/sec

104m
H = 0.1 *
get
103 * 100 W/ cm2

tm = 0.53 sec

I P p
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y Ice 21
Numerical
Q2: A laser beam with a power intensity of 107 W/cm2 is used to drill holes in a tungsten sheet of 0.5 mm
8
thickness. The drill diameter is 200 µm. If 30000 joules/cm 3 are required to vaporize tungsten, estimate the
time required to drill a through hole. The efficiency may be taken to be 10 %.

Feather
Solution:

required to vaphmaterial
H ≈ 𝒗𝑳 I
H
P A
0.1 107
Uh
w cm

Where, v is the velocity with which the surface recedes and L is the amount of energy to vaporize a unit volume of material.
Given data: H = 10 % of 107 W/cm2, z = 0.5 mm, d = 200 µm, L = 30000 joules/cm3

which
velocity with surface
v = H/L = 333 mm/sec
recedes
So, the time required to drill a hole:

Time legd to t = z/v = 0.0015 sec = 1.5 ms Distance of hole 2

e of surface
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drilla hole 22
 ng
Laser Cutting
Laser cutting dominants the industrial laser applications & has more than 75% of share of all LM
applications.
• Fast cutting with higher quality than other competing processes.

Mechanism: Melting with a focused laser beam and molten material ejection by a high-pressure gas jet.

• CO2 Laser (10.6 m), NdYAG & Fiber Lasers (1.06 m)
• Laser Power = 500 - 5000W
• Focal spot size ~ 0.1 – 0.3 mm
• Power density of 1 kW power at focal spot of 0.3 mm ~ 1.4 *106 W/cm2
• Effect on material
* Melting
* Vaporization
Thrifty
• Pressurized co-axial gas jet ejects the molten / vaporized material Figure: Schematic of laser cutting

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Energy balance in Laser Cutting Energy required for cutting = Energy required
for (reaching to melting temperature from
ambient temp + phase change from solid to
v liquid + phase change from liquid to vapour)

(mass flow rate (ṁ) = density * area * velocity)

w Moving laser for cutting
where,
t  = (1-R) Laser efficiency,
P = Laser power,
Energy balance equation: No conduction loss t = Sheet thickness,
w = cut or kerf width,
P = ṁ (Cp.Tm + Lf + mˈLv) v = cutting speed,
P = w.t.v. (Cp.Tm + Lf + mˈLv) Lf = latent heat of fusion,
Lv = latent heat of vaporization,
In through cutting, mˈ =0 m’=Fraction of metal evaporated,
Cutting speed, v = P / {w.t. (Cp.Tm + Lf )}  = density,
T = Temperature raise,
P/v.t = w. (Cp.Tm + Lf ) /  = S, Cp = Specific Heat,
m = mass of material removed
8S is constant for a constantEnergy”
w & a given material Called as
in (J/mm ) 2
“Severance
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2 Through cuttin 24
 Energy Balance in laser
cutting
up in Cp Tm Lu
Lf M

Energy wit Lu
f Cp Tm If m

legd for 0
cutting Full cutting m

gwIG.tn
severance
I wy lp.TmtLf
2 Energy
P v t
 g
Laser Cutting
Process Capability:
• Allmost all materials e.g. metal, non-metals like ceramics, glass, concrete, rubber, fiber-glass, plastics, textile,
lather etc. can be cut by lasers.

• Steel sheets of thickness 25 mm can be cut at 1-2 m/min speed with high power (2-4 kW) CO2, Nd:YAG and
Fiber lasers and O2 gas assist.

• Integrated with CNC machine it can cut any complex contour.

r
Practical Applications:

• Automobile industries, Rail-coach factory, Ordnance factory, Textile, Leather, Furniture, Ship-building,
Nuclear and Aerospace industries, and many mechanical & metallurgical engineering job shops are using lasers
in their production line to cut variety of materials.
• Cutting of diamonds is one of the most popular applications in India.

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Laser Drilling Material Removal Mechanism:
Vaporization & Melt ejection by recoil pressure of vapour
• Laser drilling was the first industrial application by Western Electric, using a ruby laser in 1965 to drill holes in
diamond dies for wire extrusion. (Cutting in 1970)

• The importance of laser drilling as an industrial process has led to many variations
on how to achieve quick, high-quality holes with good repeatability.
• Single shot drilling: One pulse makes and finishes the hole.
I
• Percussion: Single or multiple shot with no movement of the workpiece/beam.
• Trepanning: Rotating the beam around the perimeter of the hole, a form of cutting.
Type of holes:
1) Normal to the surface.
2) At an angle to the surface.
3) Blind holes

Single shot
Percussion
31/01/2024 Recast layer formation Trespanning
28
Drilling with Long and Ultra-short Laser Pulses
• Longer pulses continuously heat the material during
the pulse duration.
• Heat conduction: HAZ, recast layer, microcracks.

Ultra short Pulse

• Ultrashort laser pulses : a few ps or below
5
• Due to the extremely short pulse duration, only
electrons are heated at first.
• Energy transfer to the lattice takes place on a
timescale longer than the pulse itself. - Heat
conduction is limited.

8
• This finally leads to ablation within a well-defined
region with minimum thermal and mechanical
damage to the surrounding
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Energy balance consideration in Laser Beam Drilling
Energy required for drilling = Energy
z
a required for (reaching to vaporization

I
temperature from ambient temp + phase
change from solid to liquid + phase change 4m
regd todrill from liquid to vapour)
a hole (mass = density * volume)
Laser position - fixed

_a
V

given
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Benefits of Laser Beam Drilling
• Non-contact drilling (no tool wear or breakage, no material distortion)
• Highly accurate and consistent results Applications
• Precise control of heat input • Cooling holes in military engines
• Hard materials like diamonds can be easily drilled

É
• Electronic package
• Ability to produce small holes with high aspect ratios
• Ease of programming and adaptability to automation • Inkjet nozzles
• Increased production rates with faster setup times and less tooling
I • Surgical tooling
• Versatility (the same tool can also be used for cutting and welding)
• Ability to process a wide range of materials • Cooling holes in turbine blades and
combustion chamber
Limitations of Laser Beam Drilling
• Laser holes are tapered to some extent (approximately 1% of the drill depth) • Irrigation pipes
• Cannot drill a blind hole to a precise depth

E
• Not efficient for heat sensitive material
• Slower processing of large holes due to trepanning
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Laser Surface Treatment Need for Surface Treatment
Ex:
• Laser Surface Transformation Hardening. To improve
• Titanium: Surface
alloying with N2 –  Hardness,
• Laser Melting & Re-solidification. wear resistance  Strength,
• Laser Surface Alloying. IEEE
• Cast Iron: Surface
 Wear resistance,
alloying with Cr, Si or
• Laser Surface Cladding. C  Corrosion resistance and
• Steel: Alloying Fe with  Fatigue life
Cr, Mo, B , Ni, etc.
 To reduce friction

Laser Surface Alloying: A thin layer along with appropriate

alloying elements are melted by the laser beam to form an
alloyed layer Good Metallurgical Bond
A+B B
Laser Cladding deposition of a new material to the existing A A
surface with excellent metallurgical bonding with the Surface Alloying Surface Cladding
substrate and with minimum dilution of substrate material.
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Applications of Laser in Manufacturing
 Laser Cutting of Metal Sheets, Glass, Wood, Plastics,  Laser Surface Cladding

Textiles, Rubber, Ceramic, Marble etc.

Laser Cladding
 Laser Rapid Manufacturing
Laser Cutting
 Laser Welding of Similar & Dissimilar metals & Alloys.

 Laser polymerization
Laser Rapid Prototyping

 Laser Surface Hardening

Laser Welding
 Laser Metal Forming

 Laser scribing, marking, engraving

Laser Scribing Laser Forming
 Laser Surface Alloying
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Summary of Laser Beam Machining
• Mechanism: Melting , vaporization, and ablation material removal mechanism
• Medium : Normal atmosphere
• Tool: Laser beam
• Material application: All materials I PA 0m
8
• Critical parameters: Laser beam diameter, laser intensity, melting temperature.
I
• Applications: wide variety of applications (drilling, cutting, welding, surface treatment,
additive manufacturing, etc.)
• Advantages: Rapidity, Accuracy, High production rate, Complex shape/size machining,
machining of all materials irrespective of their mechanical properties, etc.
• Limitations: High power consumption, Less efficiency, Unsuitable for cutting -high thermal
conductivity and high reflectivity materials
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 thank you!

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