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org/

A waveat a boundary:
Reflection,transmission/refraction,
and diffraction
By ENDERS ROBINSON and DEAN CLARK

“Giveme a place to stand.” of probability and the famous

Archimedes said, “a lever and principle of wavemotion which
a rock, and 1 will move the bears his name.
Earth. ” To explain Huygens’ princi-
He very likely was the first ple, let us go back to the previ-
scientistto speculateabout mov- ous article in this series (The
ing the Barth, but modern ex- wave equation July 1987) and
ploration geophysicists were recall the three-dimensional
probably the first to make such waveequation. In the caseof a
a daring idea the very underpin- homogeneousisotropicmedium
ning of their systematicinvesti- (meaningthe wavevelocityis the
gations.For, indeed,moving the same at all places and in all
Barth - admittedly on a very directions), the wave equation
small scale, nothing like what yields a particularly simple and
Archimedes had in mind - is beautiful solution: the spherical
precisely what we must do to wave.Not surprisingly,a spheri-
generate the seismic waveswe cal wave is one in which the
need to bring us information successivewavefronts of wave
about the subsurface. motion emanating from a point
The part of the wavein which source are concentric spheres
geophysicists are mostinterested centered on the source. If we
is the wavefront; i.e., a surface slice through the three-dimen-
over which the phase of the sional physical reality to pro-
traveling wavedisturbanceis the same If we know the position duce a two-dimensional cross-section,the sphereswill become
of a wavefrontat a certaintime we can find its subsequentposi- circles(Figure 1).
tion at any later time by meansof one of the most elegant and
fundamental conceptsin seismology- Huygens’ principle. H uygens’principledatesfrom 1690and thus significantlypre-
The greatDutch scientistChristiaan Huygens(16294695)was cedesthe development of the wave equation, but Huygens’
one of the most formidable intellects who followed in the insight was so profound that his principle actually makes use
immediate wake of Galileo. Huygens had first-rank, possibly of the so-calledGreen’s function in the subsequentlyconfirming
genius, talents in many disciplines- astronomy,optics, and mathematics.The basisof Huygens’ conceptis that each point
mathematicsin particular. His contributions ranged from the along a wavefront may be viewed as a point sourcethat pro-
most far-teachingtheoreticalspeculationsto extremelyimportant ducesa secondarysphericalwavelet (known as the Huygens’
advancesin contemporary technology.Among the latter were wavelet)which propagatesaway from the point in all directions.
the perfection of the pendulum clock and innovations in lens In Figure 2, curve AB representsthe instantaneousposition of
grinding (which led to his discoveryof the ringsaround Saturn). a wavefront.In order to find the location of the wavefrontafter
Among the former weresomeof the basicconceptsin the theory an interval of time (designatedby the customaryAf), we draw

38 GEOPHYSICS:THE LEADING EDGE OF EXPLORATION SEPTEMBER1987

 circles of radius v A1 (v, of course, is the wave velocity) about
a seriesof points in AB. The sum, or envelope,of these second-
ary wavelets is the new wavefront A’B’. The envelope is the
surface tangent to all of the secondary spheres.
This technique, known as Huygens’ construction, is one of
the most elegant productsof classicalphysics.But, as usual, the
physical reality is more complicated than the theory because
the logical conclusion of Huygens’ theory is that two, not just
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one, disturbanceswould be propagated - one on each side of

the wavefront and traveling in opposite directions. However, it
is common knowledge that disturbance occursonly in the “for-
ward” direction of wave propagation and that the theoretical
“backward” disturbance, predicted by Huygens’ principle and
shown by dashed line A”B” in Figure 2, does not appear. Why
not? It took nearly 200 years to obtain a completely satisfac-
tory solution to the mystery. Fresnel took a major step toward
clearing up this thorny question when he proposed, in 1826,that
the backward wave did not occur becauseof destructive inter-
ference effects; 40 years later Kirchhoff developed an integral
solution of the wave equation which shows that the secondary
waveletsfrom the point sourceson the wavefrontdo destroyeach
other by mutual interference excepton the forward propagating
wavefront A’B’.
Huygens’ principle is particularly valuable when we want a
graphical way to explain the three fundamental ways in which

Figure 1. Spherical wave.

A ;A’

Radius =’ vt

Figure 2. f&ens’ construction. Figure 3. A wave at a boundary.

GEOPHYSICS:THE LEADING EDGE OF EXPLORATION SEPTEMBER 1987 39

 S
7 Source
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’ Image source
k, Figure 6a. Snell’s law of refraction.

Figure 4. Reflection of a spherical wave.

Figure 5. Law of reflection. Figure 6b.

the direction of a propagating wave can change: reflection, his study of light, which propelled Einstein to the theory of
refraction, and diffraction (Figure 3). relativity.)
LRt us initially apply Huygens’ principle to a wavefront that
I n most cases,when a wave arrives at a boundary between two is completely reflected from a plane surface and see how it
different media, part of the wave’s energy is reflected back into specifiesthe direction and curvature of the reflected wavefront.
the original medium and part of it is transmitted into the new Figure 4 illustratesthe reflection of a sphericalwave. The surface
medium but at a different direction (i.e., refracted). The study ABC representsthe hypothetical position of the wavefront if
of reflection and refraction is facilitated by the use of rays. In the plane reflecting surface were not present. When the wave
an isotropic medium, a ray is a line that is everywhere perpen- reachesP (the nearestpoint of the reflecting plane to the source
dicular to the successivewavefronts. While seismicenergy does S), the point P becomes the origin of a secondary wavelet. At
not travel only along raypaths, the greater part of the energy immediately succeedinginstants, the adjacent points to the left
does indeed follow them. (Some seismic energy would reach a and right of point P are struck by the incident wavefront, and
point by diffraction even if the raypaths between the point and they in turn also become sourcesof secondary wavelets. The
the energy source were blocked.) Raypaths therefore constitute totality of the secondarywaveletsemitted by the successive points
a very useful method of studying wave propagation. This on the reflecting plane has the spherical surface AB’C for its
disciplineis called geometrical seismicsor geometrical acoustics. envelope.We notice that the reflectedwavefront appearsto come
It is the geophysical counterpart of the well known subject of from some point S’ behind the reflecting plane; in fact, it’s a
geometrical optics. simple matter to show that S’ is the mirror image of the source
(There is an interesting facet of geometrical seismicswhich point S.
does not appear in the textbooks on geometrical optics. Because
light occurs at such high frequencies and travels at such a high N ow let’s use Huygens’ principle to derive the direction of a
speed, the waveforms of light are not measured as a function reflected ray that is not perpendicular to the reflecting surface.
of time As a result,geometricaloptics dealsonly with the spatial In Figure 5,O is the angle of incidence(by definition, the angle
paths of light rays. However, in seismic work, we do routinely that the incident ray makes with the normal to the reflecting
measurewaveformsand the seismicsectionis the resultingspace- interface). The corresponding angle of reflection is denoted 0’.
time representation.In geometrical seismics,therefore, we must The incident wavefront falls along the line AB, which is shown
consider space-time paths in addition to purely spatial paths. in Figure 6 at the instant point B strikes the reflecting surface.
As we will see in these articles, this space-time feature adds a Some of the energy in the incident wave at point B will reflect
whole new dimension to the classicray theory as found in books toward point D. As the incident wavefront continues toward the
on geometrical optics and it was a decisive factor, via interface, each point between B and C will successivelyserve

40 GEOPHYSICS: THE LEADING EDGE OF EXPLORATION SEPTEMBER 1987

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Source
Interface
High velocity v2
medium -v--/so;

Interface
High velocity medium

Figure 7. Critical angle. Figure 8. Head wave in a refraction survey.

as a point source for secondary wavelets which will propagate respectively contain angles 8, and B,, we see that
back into the original medium. When the incident wavefront
sin 8, = AC/BC and sin 0, = BD/BC.
reaches point C, the reflected wavefront will be on line DC.
The speed of the reflected wave is the same as that of the Substituting for AC and BD, respectively,we get
incident wave, making the length of line AB equal to that sin 0, :m v, At/BC and sin 0, 7 y Al/BC.
of line CD. Trigonometry can then be used to establish one of
the cornerstonesof seismictheory; i.e., that 8 = 8’, or the angle Ehminating At:BC we get
of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.This is called <in fl,:‘v, = sin H2/\b,
the law of reflection. which is known as the law of refractionor Snell’s law.
Of course,in most cases,all of the energywill not be reflected
(Although this proof of Snell’s law seemsremarkably simple
from the interface but some will be transmitted into the second
to modern eyes, it somehow eluded mathematicians - unlike
medium. When the wave(not at verticalincidence)entersanother
the related law of reflection which was known at least as far
medium with a different speed, it will change direction -- or back as the Greeks - until relatively recent times. Science
undergo refraction. Figure 6a illustrates Huygens’ construction
labored for about 1500 years under a false theory, offered by
of a refracted wave.
the famous Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria, that the anglesof
We supposethat the velocity ~2in the lower medium is greater incidence and refraction, and not their respective sines, were
than velocity y in the upper medium. When the incident wave mathematically joined. The first publication, a slightly incor-
reachesthe interface at B, the wavelet radiating from B into the
rect one, of the modern law did not come until 1637. Surpris-
lower medium travels faster than the wavelet moving from A ingly, the author was not Willebrord Snell but RenCDescartes.
toward C. Wavelets from successiveportions of the wavefront Snell, reportedly after yearsof work, discoveredthe correct ver-
entering the lower medium will have longer radii in a given time sion of the law in 1621but did not publish it. Fellow Dutchman
interval than those traveling in the “slower” upper medium. Huygens, born three years after Snell’s death, saw this work -
Thus the refractedray will bend away from the vertical; the angle which subsequentlydisappeared - and it was due to Huygens’
of refraction I!&will be greater than the angle of incidence. efforts that Snell wa$ given his deservedscientific immortality.
This concept is further illustrated in Figure 6b which shows Snell had a second profound effect on geophysicalexploration
the refraction construction from Figure 6a overlain by the because he developed a method of determining distances by
hypothetical propagation of wavefront AB as it would have trigonometric triangulation and thus was one of the most
occurred in the absence of interface BC. Figure 6b makes it important pioneers of scientificmapmaking. Snell’s law can atso
apparent that, if the lower medium is faster, the angle of refrac- be derived, even more easily in fact, via differential calculusand
tion must be greater than the angle of incidence. Indeed, one that derivation is a prime example of the astounding analytical
of the basic theorems of Euclidean geometry makes it apparent power of that mathematical tool. See Fermat and the principle
that 0, could equal & only if wavefront AB maintained an iden- sf least time TLE, December 1986.)
tical direction of propagation as it passedthrough interface BC. In refraction from a slower medium to a faster medium (the
Huygens’ constructionfor refraction leadsto an obviousques- usual case in seismicexploration), the rays turn away from the
tion. What is the mathematical relation between the incident
normal. What happens when sin 8, y > y? Snell’s law predicts
and refracted angles?(Geophysicists,of course, know that one that sin 0, > 1, an impossibility. However, the theory does not
exists . becauseif it didn’t, seismic investigations would be predict an impossibility. Instead, it predicts that suchrefraction
much, much harder.) ir; impossible. In fact, when o1 = 8, with 0, defined by sin 0,
._ v,115,Snell’s law says that sin 02 = 1 and therefore 02 =

R efer back to Figure 6a. In the time At, that it takesa wavelet
90 degrees: such an angle of incidence 0, is called the critical
angle and the refracted ray grazes the interface. See Figure 7.
to travel from point A to point C, a waveletin the lower medium
For angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, there
will travel from point B to point D. Sincedistanceequalsvelocity
is total internal reflection; i.e., all of the energy is reflected at
times time we immediately see that
the boundary back into the slower medium. The exploration
AC = v, At and BD = b At. technique called “amplitude with offset” makes use of this
Since triangles ABC and BCD are borh right triangles and property. Since total reflection occurs at anglesgreater than the

GEOPHYSICS: THF I f,AIIIN(; EDGE OF EXPLORATION SEPTEMBER 1987 41

 OIOO-

0 200 -

03w-

04CQ-

0 500 -

06M)-
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0 700 -

om-

0 900 -

1 000 -

1 loo-

Irn-

1 300 -

1 400 -

15m-

1.600 -

1700-

lrn-

t 900 -

2000-

2100-

2200- Figure10.Huygens’construction of a diffracted wavefront show-

2.340 - ing how the wavefront A’B’ curls in behind the obstacle.
2.400 -
obstaclehasa lengthapproximatelyequalto X, then the amount
2.5w -

2.6M) -
of diffraction is large(i.e., many waveseasilybend aroundthe
2.7w -
obstacle),so that the notion of a shadowzone becomesmean-
2.8W -
ingless. For example, a note at middle C (264 Hz) has a
2.9w - wavelengthof 1.3m. That is comparableto room dimensions,
3cco-
so a sound from around a corner is audible. However,if the
obstaclehasdimensionsvery muchgreaterthan X, the diffrac-
tion into the hiddenregionbecomesnegligibleand the shadow
Figure 9. Diffractions generatedby termination of three flat of the obstacleis relativelysharp.Geophysicists are confronted
reflectors.
The diffractioncurvaturebecomes smallerwith depth. with diffracted eventseveryday. A textbookseismicexample
The diffraction bnach under the reflection (the backward wouldbe the caseof a sharpgeologicdiscontinuitysuchasthe
branch)is the inverseof the bmnch which extqds beyondthe abrupt termination of a reflectorat a fault plane.We can see
reflection(theforwardbranch).The cmstof the diffractioncurve the hyperbolicdiffraction curvegeneratedby the discontinuity
locates the diffracting point and the diffraction curvature on the seismicsection,but the seismicdatais still sharpenough
dependson the depth and the velocity abovethe diffracting to allow delineationof the fault plane (Figure 9).
point.The &l&ion ampMudedecmases to one-halfat the point Diffraction allowsus to accountfor the penetrationof wave
where the reflection is tangent to the diffraction curve, and motion into regionsforbiddenby geometricalseismics. The law
diffraction-curveamplitudeis antisymmetricabout this point of reflectionand Snell’s law are not requiredto hold for dif-
of tangency.Amplitudesand waveshape are continuousat the fractedrays.However,Huygens’principledoesremainin force.
point of tangency.(CourtesyChevron Oil Co.) Its explanationof the movementof diffractedwavesaroundan
obstacleis shownin Figure 10.
criticalangle,reflectedwavesthat originatedfrom distantsources In fact, this use of Huygens’ principle, in particular in its
will havegreateramplitude than thosefrom sourcesthat are embodimentin Kirchhoff’ssolutionof thewaveequation,might
“inside” the critical angle. be interpretedasbasic In thissense,a reflectionmay be thought
of as the interferenceresultof diffraction from pointslying on
T he wavewhich travelsalong the interface,after the incident the reflector.In otherwords,eachsourceof a secondarywavelet
wavestrikesat the criticalangle,is knownasthe headwave.See may be considereda diffractionsource. . . and Huygens’con-
Figure 8. As the headwavetravelsalong the interface,it con- structionrepresents the resultinginterferencepattern.Although
tinuously feedsenergyback up into the slowermedium. This eachindividual diffractionpoint on the reflectingsurfacedoes
escaping energyleavestheinterfaceat the sameangle,thecritical not obey the law of reflection(sincethe diffractedraysgo in
angle. Naturally this escapingenergycan be detectedat the all directions),the resultingenvelopdoesyield a wavefrontobey-
surfaceby geophonesand this is the fundamentalprincipleof ing the law of reflection.
seismicrefractionprospecting,the most important methodof
geophysical explorationfor petroleumin the 1920s.It is still used I n conclusion,we hesitantlyoffer a conjectureaboutHuygens’
but long agoyieldedits dominantpositionin explorationto the principle. . . hesitantlybecausesomeseismologists might con-
refledtionmethod. siderit anathema.Huygens’abilitieswerenot limitedto science.
When wavespassaroundan obstacleor throughan aperture, He wasalso an accomplishedartist and examplesof his work
they tend to curl around the edgesso that the shadowof the are reproducedat the beginningof this article; they appeared
obstacleon the downstreamside is not sharplydefined. This in the original publicationof Huygens’Thift?deIa lumith and
aspectof wavebehavioris calleddiffraction. Diffractedsound representhis own graphicalconceptionof Huygens’principle.
wavescan be heardaround corners,and water wavesentering Could it possiblybe that suchan elegantlybeautiful explana-
a harborspreadinto theareabehindthe breakwater. The amount tion for an ever-presentnaturalphenomenonresultedmorefrom
of diffraction can be qualitativelydeterminedby the ratio of Huygens’ artistic sensibilitiesthan from rigorous scientific
thelinear dimensionsof the obstacleto the wavelengthX. If the analysis? g

42 GEOPHYSICS:
THE LEADING EDGE OF exploration SEPTEMBER1987