FOR I CAN DO ALL THINGS THROUGH CHRIST WHO GIVES ME STRENGTH,

PHILLIPIANS 4:13
LANDFORMS AND LANDSCAPE PROCESSES O LEVEL
The Earth
-It is shaped like a sphere and it has three layers that is the crust, mantle and core.
Structure of the earth

Crust/Lithosphere
-It is the outer layer which consist of sial and sima rocks. Sial is a combination of silica and
Aluminium, whereas sima stands for silica and magnesium. They are both solid in nature and
they form the earth’s crust.
Differences between sial and sima
Sial Sima
Lighter Heavier
Contains aluminium Contains magnesium
Made of granite rocks Made of basalt rocks
It is a discontinuous layer It is a continuous layer
Makes up the continents Makes up the Ocean
Mantle
-It is just below the crust, found between the crust and core. It is made up of olivine rocks. It
contains iron and magnesium minerals. It is semi solid in nature (molten).
-Separating the mantle and the crust is a layer of discontinuity called the Mohorovic.
- The mantle is about 2900km thick.
Core/barysphere/centrosphere
-It is made up of the inner and outer core. It is the heaviest layer found in the centre or
interior of the earth. It is made up of iron and nickel (NIFE).
-The inner core is semi solid and the outer core is more solid in nature due to pressure.
The continental drift theory
-It is the slow movement of continents continuously. It is believed that the present day
continents were once one solid structure called Pangea. This broke into larger super
continents, the northern block called Laurasia and the southern block called Gondwanaland.
-These further broke into present day continents, Laurasia produced North America and
Eurasia, Gondwanaland gave birth to South America, Australia, Africa and Asia.
-These continents drifted away from each other to present day position and are believed to be
in motion still today.
Evidence of continental drift
-Jigsaw fitting of some continents, for example, North Africa and South America, North
America and South America.
-Similarities in rock structure in different continents.
-Similarities in Flora and fauna (plants and animals).
-Polar magnetism-Using rocks to indicate the true North.
Plate tectonic theory
-It is a development of the continental drift theory. It is believed that the earth is made up of
crustal block called plates.
-The plates are in continuous slow movement due to convectional currents. The plates from
continents form continental plates and others from the oceans form oceanic plates.
-The major plates are Nazca, Pacific, Antarctica, Eurasian, North America, African, South
Arabian and Indo-Australian.
-Plates move in three ways, alongside, apart and towards each other. Plate movement result in
the formation of landforms which is accompanied by volcanic activity and earthquakes along
plate margins.
Reasons for the movement of plates
-In the core, rocks continue to be created and spread outwards or towards the centre.
Convection currents are set up in the mantle where the new material created in the core is
moved. This convection process resulted in the break-up of continents and their subsequent
movements.
-Seas are created as continents drift apart. This process is termed sea or ocean floor spreading
and causes the plates to move.
Plate boundaries/Margins
Destructive/Convergence Margin
-When plates move towards each other, they collide, crumble and fold into Fold Mountains.
This is accompanied by earthquakes. It is called the destructive plate margin because plates
are destroyed resulting in the formation of new features.
a) Continental plates Vs Continental plates
-Plates collide, crumble and fold due to compressional forces. This results in Fold Mountains.
A good example is the Chimanimani Mountains in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe. The
Atlas and Alps mountains are also a result of folding due to compressional forces hence Fold
Mountains.

b) Ocean versus Continental

-As the oceanic plate moves towards the continental plate, the oceanic plate sinks into the
mantle because it is heavy. As it sinks into the mantle, a gap remains, this forms a trench. A
good example is the Java Trench.

c) Oceanic versus Oceanic

-One of the oceanic plates is forced to subduct because of speed differences. The subducted
plate encounters the hot upper mantle and partially melts, producing magma that extrudes the
other oceanic crust and begins to build volcanic mountains.
-With time, the growing volcanic mountains eventually break sea level, forming islands
called island arcs. Trenches develop seaward of the island arcs.
Constructive/Divergence Plate Margin
-Plates in this margin diverge or move apart from each other. This happens under tensional
forces causing the crust to break forming features such as the rift valley, mid oceanic ridges
and block mountains.
Rift valley
-When plates move apart beneath a continent, the crust breaks and it is displaced downward
forming an elongated depression called a rift valley. A good example is the Great East
African Rift Valley, which stretches from Mozambique to Ethiopia.
-This is the reason Mozambique experiences earthquakes because it is on the constructive
plate margin.
-Faults develop when plates move apart beneath a continent resulting in the rift valley.
Oceanic Ridge
-When plates move apart beneath an ocean, the crust breaks and magma accumulates and
solidify in the crack. This leads to the formation of an oceanic ridge. A good example is the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Transform/Conservative Plate Margin

-Plates may move alongside each other or squeeze past each other due to tensional forces.
This forms tear faults, fault scarps accompanied by earthquakes and volcanic activity.

-A good example of a conservative plate margin is found in north western USA, along the
San Andreas fault.
Folding
-It is the bending of the rocks due to compressional forces in the crust. It results in the
formation of fold mountains, block mountains with volcanic and earthquake activities.
Nature of folds
Crest
-It is the highest point or tip of an up fold.
Trough
-It is a depression or lowest point of a down fold.
Limb
-It is the side of a fold.
Anticline
-It refers to rocks folded upwards.
Syncline
-It refers to rocks being folded downwards.
Types of folds
Simple/Symmetrical fold
-It results from equal compressional forces. It has a line of symmetry and equal limbs.
-It is the initial stage of a fold.
Asymmetrical fold

-This results from unequal compressional forces. One limb is slightly steeper than the other.
Overfold

-One limb lies over the other due to continuous unequal compressional forces.
Overthrust Fold/Thrust Fold/ Recumbent Fold
-If compressional forces continue to be exerted on the overfold, one limb is thrust right over
the other.
Nappe
-It is a fold displaced along a fault line. It has enormous displacement of faulted rock
sediments along the fault line.

Pericline
-It is a fold displaced along a fault line. In the pericline, the folded sediments incline sharply
away from the fault line.

Features resulting from folding

Fold Mountains
-The main fold mountains of the world include the Atlas, Alps, Andes, Appalachians, Cape
Ranges, Himalayas and the Rockies.
-In Zimbabwe, the Chimanimani Mountains are Fold Mountains.
Formation of Fold Mountains
Stage A
-Two plates move towards each other under compressional forces and collide. The heavier
plate sinks into the mantle producing a trench which becomes the site of a sea. Deposition
takes place in the trench and eventually sedimentary rocks are formed.
Stage B
-As the continental bocks approach each other, the sedimentary rocks are folded and pushed
up.

Stage C
-As compression continues, intense folding takes place.
Stage D
-The folded, uplifted sedimentary rocks now form lofty mountains. As the fold mountains
develop further, violent volcanic eruptions occurred which made the magma to solidify
within the earth, forming batholiths.

Benefits of Fold Mountains/ Areas of folding

-They are used to attract tourists, recreational purposes such as mountain climbing.
-Mountains may result into relief rainfall.
-Volcanic activity cause rich mineral deposit for mining.
-Rich soils are formed after erosion of the mountains for agricultural purposes.
-Educational purposes.
Problems associated with fold mountains/Areas of folding
-These may result in Tsunami activity.
-Hilly areas are difficult to build on, to construct roads and to cultivate.
-Volcanic activity may result which destroys life and property.
-These are unstable and very dangerous areas.
Anticlinal Mountains
-The initial landform produced by folding is an anticline. It is short lived because they are
acted upon by denudation (Weathering, erosion and transportation.)

Anticlinal valleys
-Due to the fact that compressional forces are operating away from the fold axis, the anticline
is quickly attacked by erosion. This forms an anticlinal valley on which unique trellis
drainage may develop due to the exposure of tilted blocks.

Synclinal Mountains
-Due to the fact that compressional forces are operating towards the centre of the fold axis,
the syncline is more resistant to erosion. It remains standing as the surrounding anticlines are
eroded.
Synclinal valleys
-It is an initial landform produced by folding. The famous Mberengwa Greenstone Belt is an
example of a synclinal valley.

Faulting
-Faulting is the fracturing or breaking or warping of the rocks in the earth’s crust due to
compressional or tensional forces mainly in the earth’s crust. It results in the formation of rift
valleys. Block mountains and escarpments.
-An escarpment is a steep slope, also known as a scarp.
-Cracks in the crustal rocks are called joints if they is no displacement but faults if they is
displacement.
Nature of faults

Heave –It is the forward horizontal displacement of layers of sediments.

Throw –It is a vertical displacement upwards or downwards.
Hade –It is the angle of a fault line.
Fault line –It is a line of fracture.
Bedding planes –These are layers of rock sediments.
Types of faults
Normal Fault
-It results from tensional forces. Rocks break and one block is displaced downwards along a
fault line.

Reverse Fault
-It results from compressional forces. The rock breaks and one block is displaced downwards
along the fault line.
-The other block can also be pushed upwards.

Tear Fault
-It results from lateral or sideway movements of forces operating within the crust. The crust
breaks and the blocks are displaced horizontally or sideways.
Landforms Resulting from Faulting
Fault Scarps
-A fault scarp is a steep slope created on the face of a block when displacement occurs along
a fault line. It is indicated by an “f” in the diagram below.

-A fault scarp is also simply referred to as a scarp or it develops into an escarpment. A good
example is the Zambezi escarpment in northern Zimbabwe, which includes Matusadonha and
Mamvuradonha scarps.
Block Mountains
-They result from compressional forces creating multiple reverse faults. The central block is
displaced upwards along the reverse fault forming a horst or block mountain.

-It is an elongated large mass of rocks.

-Block Mountains can also form due to tension creating multiple normal faults and the
outside blocks are displaced downward leaving the central block.
-Examples of Horsts are the Ruwenzori range of mountains in Uganda and the Chizarira
range of mountains to the south of Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe.
-Horst features are also characterised by flat tops and these are typical plateau landscapes of
Africa.
Benefits of the Block/Horst Mountains
-Cool climates
-Relief rainfall can result.
-Mineral deposits are exposed by fault scarps.
-Tourism is promoted, mountain climbing.
-Volcanic activity leads to rich soils which can lead to good agricultural activities taking
place.
-Tea and coffee plantations favour highlands.
Problems
-Block/Horst mountains may be areas of volcanic and earthquake activities.
-Rugged terrain leads to poor communication lines.
Graben/Rift Valleys
-A graben is the downthrow segment usually between the horst features. It results in the
formation of rift valleys such as the Great East African Rift Valley. Grabens can be formed
by tensional or compressional forces.
- A rift valley is an elongated depression formed due to tensional forces resulting in normal
faults. The central block is displaced downwards forming a depression as shown below.

-Rift valleys also result from compressional forces as shown below:

Rift valley Formation

-This can be explained by the tensional or compressional theories.
The Compression Theory
-The middle block is downthrown, resulting in a fault-bound rift valley.
-A potential weakness of this theory is that, the uplifted side blocks would be rising against
the force of gravity and would form overhanging parts.
-Thus the theory seems an unlikely cause of rift valleys.
Tension theory

-The tensional forces are responsible for pulling apart blocks of rock and the middle block is
downthrown to result in a rift valley.
-Recent evidence shows that the Great East African Rift Valley resulted from tensional forces
being initiated by the divergence of plates at the constructive plate margin.
The Great Rift Valley of Africa
-The Rift Valley extends from Mozambique to the Jordan River some 7000km in distance. It
is about 40-50km wide.
-It is associated with steep sides (fault scarps).
-Horsts such as Ruwenzori in the DRC and Uganda, Rift Lakes such as Lake Tanganyika,
volcanoes like Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and a number of other volcanoes are found along the
rift valley.
-Honde valley in Zimbabwe is a mini rift valley, which is an offset of the Great Rift Valley.
-The Zambezi valley can be considered as part of the Great East Africa Rift Valley system
since it is bound by faults.
VOLCANOES
-Volcanicity is the movement of magma into or onto the earth’s surface. It occurs mostly at
plate boundaries such as mid-oceanic ridges, island arch areas, ocean deeps and regions of
folding, faulting and earthquakes.
-The map below shows the distribution of volcanic activities and the boundaries of major
plate tectonics:
Volcanic Activity
-Molten rock is called magma and when it reaches the surface it is known as lava. It forms
landforms in the crust (intrusive) and on the crust (extrusive).
-Volcanoes pass through stages of activity.
Active Volcano
-It is the early stage of frequent eruptions. The volcano shows signs of activity, it might have
recently erupted or maybe erupting.
Dormant Volcano
-The volcano is resting or sleeping. It is passive or quiet.
Extinct Volcano
-It shows features of a volcano but has never erupted.
Intrusive volcanic features
-These are landforms formed inside the earth’s crust.
Cross section showing intrusive features
Batholith
-It is a deep seated granite rock which is dome shaped. It is formed from molten magma that
accumulates and solidify within the crust. When exposed by erosion it forms dwalas/ruware.

-A good example is Domboshava Hill.

Sill
-It is an igneous intrusion caused by magma squeezing horizontally between the bedding
planes of the crustal rocks. It is formed along bedding planes. When exposed by erosion, they
form escarpments, waterfalls and rapids. They protect the surface against erosion.

Laccolith
-It is an arch-like igneous intrusion injected in between sediments. It is moon shaped or dome
shaped. It has a pipe-like feeder coming from the magma pool very deep down. Mt Mlanje in
Malawi is an example.
Lopolith
-It is a saucer shaped igneous intrusion along bedding planes. The Great Dyke of Zimbabwe
is a good example of a lopolith.

Dyke
-It is an igneous intrusion across bedding planes. It can be vertical or inclined. When eroded,
it becomes a dome shaped plug. It can form rapids, escarpments and waterfalls.

Benefits of intrusive landforms

-They are resistant to erosion hence, protects the surface from erosion.
-Where they form rapids, waterfalls and inselbergs, these attract tourists.
-Inselbergs can be quarried for quarry stone which is used in the construction industry.
Extrusive Volcanic Features
-These are landforms that are formed on the earth’s surface built from layers of liquid, red hot
magma.
Composite cone
-It is made up of alternating ash and lava layers. It is formed due to violent and non-violent
eruptions. Violent eruptions throw up lava and it burns in the air and falls back on the cone to
make an ash layer. Non-violent eruptions pour out lava quietly forming a lava layer.
-The composite cone consist of the following features:
Conelet/Parasitic Cone
-It is a small cone on top of the main volcano.
Lava Flow
-It is lava that comes out and spreads over the cone.
Dyke
-It is the lava cutting across lava and ash layers feeding the conelet.
Crater
-It is the opening on top of the volcano at the end of the pipe.
Vent
-It is the crack on the earth’s surface through which lava comes out. It is the channel used by
lava to come out through the cone.
Ash and cinder cone

-Lava is blown to great heights when it is violently ejected, and it breaks into small fragments
which fall back to build up a cone.
Basic Lava Cone/Fluid Lava/Shield Cone
-It is made from basic lava which is fluid. Lava flows over large distances away from the
vent.
-It has a wide base, low dome with gentler sides.
Acid/Viscous or dome volcanoes

-It is made up of thick lava which quickly solidifies and as a result, produces steep sided
cones. The lava can solidify in the pipe to produce a spine as in Mount Pelée in West Indies.

Lava Plateau
-It is formed when magma emerges on the surface and accumulate around a fissure or vent
and solidify forming a flat topped high land.
Lava plain
-It occurs when lava flows in a valley.
Calderas
-Are large craters that form at the top of a volcano usually two or more kilometres in
diameter. They are deep and can extend downwards for some hundred meters with lakes as in
active volcanoes, for example, Lake Bosuntwi in Ghana.
Formation of Calderas
Block Subsidence

-When an eruption occurs, magma leaves a vacuum space in the mantle. This will cause the
suspended solidified cone to crack and some blocks of the cone sink to cover the space,
leaving a large depression called a caldera.
Violent eruptions
-Due to pressure in the mantle, a volcano may erupt violently, blowing off the top of the cone
forming a caldera. The stages are shown in the diagram below:
Mountain collapse
-A mountain may collapse if it has a large mass floating on a wetter surface resulting in a
caldera. A good example is Napak in Uganda.

Meteor theory
-This suggests that solid objects from space fall by gravity and have an impact with the
volcanic cone.
Other minor extrusive volcanic features
Fumaroles
-These are formed by superheated water turning into steam as it cools on its ejection from the
ground.
Geyser
-These are formed when water in the earth’s crust is heated by hot volcanic rocks to produce
steam. The production of steam form some cavities or openings and then creates pressure,
resulting in steam and water exploding onto the surface.
-The diagrams below shows two ways in which a geyser maybe formed, (a) based on
underground cavern, (b) based on underground cavern and sump.
-A good example of a geyser is Old Faithful in the Yellow National Park in the USA.
Hot Springs
-These are formed by superheated water flowing out quietly from the ground. The water is
heated when it comes into contact with molten hot rocks below the earth’s surface.
-Thus a geyser differs from a hot spring in that its water is ejected explosively.
-In Zimbabwe, these are found in the Nyanyadzi Hot Spring area and in Binga in the Zambezi
Valley.
Cases of volcanic eruptions
-On 13 November 1985, 23000 people died as the volcano Nevada del Ruiz Bolga, gave rise
to a huge mudflow of hot ash, ice and water called lahar.
-Mt Pinatubo located in the Phillipines erupted on the 12th of June in 1991, and was the
second largest volcainic eruption of the 20th century. 1.2 million people lost their homes and
about 722 people died due to collapsing roofs, diseases that broke out in the evacuation
camps and the continuing mud flows.
-Mount Nyiragongo, located in DRC, erupted in May 2021, ejecting a large cloud of smoke
and ash. Hundreds of thousands of people experienced the aftershocks, including
contaminated water and structural damage. This led to about 32 deaths and thousands of
displacements. 92 aftershock earthquakes and tremors occurred.
Volcanoes as hazards
A hazard is an occurrence or event that threatens life and has the potential to destroy property
and cause deaths.
Examples of volcanoes as hazards include:
-Hot lava which destroys vegetation, roads, bridges and houses.
-Volcanic eruptions can trigger heavy rainfall by providing condensation nuclei. The heavy
rains and falling ash produce mud flows (lahars) which can reach speeds of 90km/hr and
these can wipe out villages and towns.
-Small hot rocks are thrown up destroying vegetation, injuring people, kill people and bury
settlements.
-Dangerous gases such as sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide can be released in the
atmosphere. These gases are harmful to people and animals. A good example is that of a large
volume of carbondioxide released by Lake Nyos in Cameroon in August 1986.
-Volcanic eruptions can produce huge clouds of very hot gases with temperatures of up to
1000ºC, mixed with volcanic dust, which moves down slopes at speeds of 100km/hr and
destroy everything in the way.
-Landslides can be triggered.
-Tsunami can also be triggered as in the case of the eruption of Krakatoa in South East Asia
in 1883, when 30 000 people drowned.
Measures to reduce effects of volcanoes
-Relocation of people from volcanic active areas.
-Early warning systems.
-Bombing the crest of the volcano to reduce its intensity.
-Use of lava diverters.
-Educating the public about the volcano plan.
-Provision of temporary shelter, food aid and medical aid.
-Use of rescue teams.
Benefits of volcanoes
-Lava weathers to form fertile soils, for example, in the highlands of east Africa and
Indonesia, and fertile basaltic clays of the south east lowveld in Zimbabwe.
-Minerals hence mining activities, for example, in South Africa.
-The superheated water can be used to produce geothermal power, for example, in Iceland.
-Volcanic areas are tourist attractions, for example, the hot springs and geysers.
-Hot spring water is said to be able to cure skin diseases.
-Igneous rocks can be used for building purposes.
EARTHQUAKES
-These are sudden earth movements or vibrations of the earth. It is the trembling or shaking
of the earth due to internal forces in the earth.
-Countries that have suffered from major earthquakes include Japan, China, Newzealand and
Mozambique.
-Small earthquakes are known as tremors.
Causes of earthquakes
-Volcanic activity.
-Tectonic plates sliding past each other.
-Folding and faulting.
-Large water bodies for example, Lake Kariba.
-Large scale mining activities.
-The earthquakes occur in most plate boundaries for example the constructive plate margin.
Nature of earthquakes

Focus –This is the point where the earthquake originates in the crust.
Epicentre –It is the point immediately above the focus where the shockwaves first hit.
Shockwaves
-These are the waves that cause damage to property and even loss to lives. They are divided
into two types, that is, the surface and body waves.
Body waves
a) Primary waves-These cause the crustal rocks to move back and forth in the direction
of wave movement.
b) Secondary waves-These cause the crustal rocks to move from side to side, at right
angles to the direction of wave movement.
Surface waves
a) Love waves-These cause the surface rocks to move from one side to the other at right
angles to the direction of wave movement.
b) Rayleigh waves-These cause the surface rock to have a vertical circular movement
very similar to that of water in a sea wave.
Measuring earthquakes
Intensity
-These are the vibrations produced by an earthquake or the effect produced or it is the
severity of the earthquake. This is measured by a seismograph.
Magnitude
-It is the total amount of energy released by one earthquake. It is measured by a Richter scale
or a Mecalli scale.
-The scale can start from zero to nine or above. The diagram below shows the Richter scale.
Distribution of earthquakes in Zimbabwe
-The major occurrences of earthquakes are found in the Kariba area along the Zambezi
valley. Most of these earthquakes are associated with infilling of Lake Kariba, as well as with
changes in the level of water in the Lake.
-Earthquakes are also concentrated on the south east around the Save valley at Chipinge area.
This might be due to closeness to the east African rift valley which is on the constructive
plate margin.
-The Nyamandlovu area sometime experiences earth tremors due to the presence of acquifers
in the area.
-The map below shows the distribution of earthquakes in Zimbabwe:
Indigenous knowledge systems of predicting earthquakes
-Strange animal behaviour-China and Japan take animal behaviour serious as an earthquake
prediction method. Animal behaviour in Zoos eg panda bear moan like humans, dogs bark the
whole night. Horses flee from the stables.
-Rats flee from houses.
-Fish jump in and out of water.
NB: Strange animal behaviour have been very accurate in Japan and China, however, people
argue that it lacks scientific evidence.
Scientific Methods
1. Seismometer –it records the foreshocks. These are tremors that occur before the main
earthquake. However, they may produce misleading information such as recording the 24
foreshocks without the main earthquake eg 1989 San Francisco occurred without the
seismometers giving a clue on foreshocks.
2. Gravity meter-is a method used to examine pressure build up in the crust. It shows the
steepness of the slope to be higher than normal. The weakness is that it is localised, it
provides information on a steep landform under study instead of all landforms.
3. Radon gas sensors-are sensitive devices that pick up the release of radon gas which is
released when pressure builds up. The weakness is that the earthquake may not occur despite
the release of the radon gas.
Effects of earthquakes
-They destroy buildings.
-They cause lateral or vertical displacement of the crust.
-They cause landslides and the opening up of cracks on the earth’s surface.
-They cause the raising or lowering of the sea floor.
-Settlements are buried.
-Sewer and water pipes burst.
-Earthquakes may trigger tsunami leading to flooding, for example, the 2011 Japan
earthquake which caused a giant tidal wave (tsunami).
-They claim a lot of lives.
Measures to reduce the effects of earthquakes
-Build shock proof houses.
-Avoid building sky scrapers.
-Use seismic building material or light material.
-Educate people about earthquakes.
-Provide temporary shelter, food aid and medical aid.
-Use of rescue teams.
-Evacuate people from earthquake prone areas.
-Land use zoning.
Impact of Volcanoes and earthquakes on climate
-The global climate cycle is disturbed by changes in the location of water bodies that help
regulate heat and moisture on the earth.
-Plate tectonics can cause a change in the ocean currents which in turn generates more heat.
-Increase in the amount of carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere due to
volcanic eruptions. This leads to a rise in temperature, for example, the eruption of Mt
Pinatubo in 1991 increased global temperatures.
TSUNAMI
-It is a giant tidal wave in the sea or ocean triggered by earthquakes or violent volcanic
eruptions. Examples include the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 and the Japan Tsunami of
2011.
Effects
-Loss of lives.
-Buildings collapse.
-People are buried alive.
-Destroys telecommunications networks.
-Outbreak of waterborne diseases such as cholera.
-Destruction of agricultural land, crops and food supplies.
-Soil erosion of coastal areas.
Measures to reduce the effects of tsunami
-Evacuation of people.
-Land use zoning.
-Discouraging settlements in areas that are prone to tsunami.
-Use of rescue teams.
-Use of early warning systems.
-Education on tsunami.
-Resettlement of people from coastal areas.
Disaster Risk Management of Volcanoes and Earthquakes
Disaster –A natural or human caused occurrence that results in damage to the environment or
property, and often to loss of life.
Risk – It refers to a potential danger. It is a measure of the expected losses due to a hazard
occurring in an area.
Manage –To control a situation for the best possible outcome.
Disaster risk management
-The practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyse and manage the
causal factors of disasters.
Strategies for disaster risk management include:
-Reduced exposure to hazards.
-Preparing people and property so that they are less vulnerable.
-Improved preparedness for adverse effects.
What to do in areas at risk of volcanoes
-Volcano prediction followed by evacuation of the people from the area and return when it is
safe to do so.
-A properly managed evacuation system should be in place.
What to do in areas at risk of earthquakes
-One should have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery powered radio, a torch and extra
batteries at home.
-Know how to turn off gas, water and electricity supplies into the home.
-Make a plan for where to meet your family when an earthquake occurs.
-Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards and appliances to the walls or on the floor.
-Learn the earthquake plan at your school.
What to do during an earthquake
-Stay calm and if you are inside a building, stand against a wall near the centre of the
building, stand in the door way or crawl under heavy furniture (a desk or table).
-Stay away from windows and outside doors.
-If you are outside, stay in the open away from power lines or anything that may fall.
-Do not use matches, candles or any type of flame. There might be broken gas lines or
flammable liquids might have spilled from pipelines or storage tanks.
What to do after an earthquake
-Check yourself and others for injuries and provide first aid to anyone who needs it.
-Check water, gas and electricity lines for damage. If any are damaged, shut off the valves.
-If you smell gas, open all the windows and doors, leave immediately and report.
-Turn on the radio and only use the phone in an emergency.
-Stay out of damaged buildings.
-Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes for feet safety.