Thomas’ Calculus: Early

Transcendentals
Fourteenth Edition in SI Units

Chapter 8
Techniques of
Integration

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Section 8.1 Using Basic Integration
Formulas

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Table 8.1 Basic integration formulas

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Section 8.2 Integration by Parts

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Integration by Parts Formula

 u ( x)v' ( x)dx = u ( x)v( x) −  v( x)u' ( x)dx (1)

Integration by Parts Formula—Differential Version

 udv = uv −  vdu (2)

Integration by Parts Formula for Definite Integrals

u ( x)v' ( x)dx = u ( x)v( x) a −  v( x)u' ( x)dx

b b

b
(3)
a a

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Figure 8.1
The region in Example 6.

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Section 8.3 Trigonometric Integrals

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Products of Powers of Sines and
Cosines (1 of 2)
We begin with integrals of the form


m n
sin x cos x dx,

where m and n are nonnegative integers (positive or zero). We can

divide the appropriate substitution into three cases according to m
and n being odd or even.
Case 1 If m is odd, we write m as 2k + 1 and use the identity
sin 2 x = 1 − cos 2 x to obtain
sin m x = sin 2 k +1 x = (sin 2 x) k sin x = (1 − cos 2 x) k sin x. (1)
Then we combine the single sin x with dx in the integral and set
sin x dx equal to − d (cos x).

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Products of Powers of Sines and
Cosines (2 of 2)
Case 2 If m is even and n is odd in  sin m x cos n x dx, we write n as 2k + 1
2
and use the identity cos 2 x = 1 − sin 2 x to obtain

cos n x = cos 2 k +1 x = (cos 2 x) k cos x = (1 − sin 2 x) k cos x.

We then combine the single cos x with dx and set cos x dx equal to
d (sin x).


m n
Case 3 If both m and n are even in sin x cos x dx, we substitute

1 − cos 2 x 1 + cos 2 x
sin x =
2
, cos x =
2
(2)
2 2
to reduce the integrand to one in lower powers of cos 2 x.

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Section 8.4 Trigonometric
Substitutions

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Figure 8.2
Reference triangles for the three basic substitutions identifying
the sides labeled x and a for each substitution.

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Figure 8.3
The arctangent, arcsine,
x
and arcsecant of ,
a x
graphed as functions of .
a

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Procedure for a Trigonometric
Substitution
1. Write down the substitution for x, calculate the differential dx,
and specify the selected values of θ for the substitution.
2. Substitute the trigonometric expression and the calculated
differential into the integrand, and then simplify the results
algebraically.
3. Integrate the trigonometric integral, keeping in mind the
restrictions on the angle θ for reversibility.
4. Draw an appropriate reference triangle to reverse the
substitution in the integration result and convert it back to the
original variable x.

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Figure 8.4
Reference triangle for x = 2 tan  (Example 1):
x
tan  =
2
and

4 + x2
sec  = .
2

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 −1 x
 a +x
2 2
x
sinh = ln  + 
a  a a 
 

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Figure 8.5
Reference triangle for x = 3sin  (Example 3):

x
sin  =
3
and

9− x 2
cos  = .
3

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Figure 8.6
 2  −1  5 x 
If x =   sec  0    , then = sec   ,
5 2  2 
and we can read the values of the other trigonometric
functions of  from this right triangle (Example 4).

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Section 8.5 Integration of Rational
Functions by Partial Fractions

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Method of Partial Fractions Left Parenthesis Start
Fraction f of x over g of x End Fraction Proper Right
Parenthesis (1 of 2)
1. Let x − r be a linear factor of g ( x). Suppose that ( x − r )
m

is the highest power of x − r that divides g ( x). Then, to this factor,

assign the sum of the m partial fractions:
A1 A2 Am
+ + + .
(x − r) (x − r) 2
(x − r) m

Do this for each distinct linear factor of g ( x).

2. Let x + px + q be an irreducible quadratic factor of g ( x) so that

2

x 2 + px + q has no real roots. Suppose that ( x 2 + px + q ) n is the

highest power of this factor that divides g ( x). Then, to this factor,
assign the sum of the n partial fractions:

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Method of Partial Fractions Left Parenthesis Start
Fraction f of x over g of x End Fraction Proper Right
Parenthesis (2 of 2)
B1 x + C1 B2 x + C2 Bn x + Cn
+ 2 + + 2 .
( x + px + q ) ( x + px + q )
2 2
( x + px + q ) n

Do this for each distinct linear factor of g ( x).

f ( x)
3. Set the original fraction equal to the sum of all these partial
g ( x)
fractions. Clear the resulting equation of fractions and arrange the
terms in decreasing powers of x.
4. Equate the coefficients of corresponding powers of x and solve the
resulting equations for the undetermined coefficients.

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Section 8.6 Integral Tables and
Computer Algebra Systems

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Reduction Formulas
The time required for repeated integrations by parts can sometimes
be shortened by applying reduction formulas like
1
 
n −1 n−2
tan n
x dx = tan x − tan x dx (1)
n −1

 
n −1
(ln x ) n
dx = x (ln x ) n
− n (ln x ) dx (2)

sin n −1 x cos m +1 x n − 1
 
n−2
sinn
x cos m
x dx = − + sin x cos m
x dx (n  −m). (3)
m+n m+n

By applying such a formula repeatedly, we can eventually express

the original integral in terms of a power low enough to be evaluated
directly. The next example illustrates this procedure.

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Example 5 (1 of 2)
Suppose that you want to evaluate the indefinite integral of the function

f ( x) = x 2 a 2 + x 2 .
Using Maple, you first define or name the function:
 f := x ^ 2*sqrt ( a ^ 2 + x ^ 2 ) ;
Then you use the integrate command on f, identifying the variable of
integration:
 int( f , x);
Maple returns the answer

( )
3
1 1 2 1 4
x(a + x ) − a x a + x − a ln x + a 2 + x 2 .
2 2 2 2 2

4 8 8
If you want to see if the answer can be simplified, enter
> simplify(%);
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Example 5 (2 of 2)
Maple returns 1 2
8
1
4
1
(
a x a 2 + x 2 + x 3 a 2 + x 2 − a 4 ln x + a 2 + x 2 .
8
)

If you want the definite integral for 0  x  , you can use the format
2
 Pi 
 int  f , x = 0..  ;
 2
3
Maple will return the expression 1 2  2  1 1
 ( 4a +  ) − a 2 4a 2 +  2 + a 4 ln(2)
2

64 32 8
1
8
( 1
)
− a 4 ln  + 4a 2 +  2 + a 4 ln(a 2 ).
16

You can also find the definite integral for a particular value of the constant a:
 a := 1;
 int( f , x = 0..1);
Maple returns the numerical answer
3
8
2 +
1
8
ln ( )
2 −1 .
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Section 8.7 Numerical Integration

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Figure 8.7
The Trapezoidal Rule approximates short stretches
of the curve y = f ( x) with line segments. To approximate
the integral of f from a to b, we add the areas of the trapezoids
made by joining the ends of the segments to the x-axis.

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The Trapezoidal Rule
b
To approximate a
f ( x)dx, use
x
T= ( y0 + 2 y1 + 2 y2 + + 2 yn−1 + yn ) .
2
The y’s are the values of f at the partition points
x0 = a, x1 = a + x, x2 = a + 2x,, xn −1 = a + (n − 1)x, xn = b,
(b − a )
where x = .
n

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Figure 8.8
The trapezoidal approximation of the area under the graph
of y = x from x = 1 to x = 2 is a slight overestimate
2

(Example 1).

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Table 8.2

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Figure 8.9
Simpson’s Rule approximates short stretches of the curve
with parabolas.

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Figure 8.10
By integrating from −h to h, we find the shaded area to be

h
( y0 + 4 y1 + y2 ).
3

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Simpson’s Rule
b
To approximate a
f ( x)dx, use

x
S= ( y0 + 4 y1 + 2 y2 + 4 y3 + + 2 yn − 2 + 4 yn −1 + yn ).
3
The y’s are the values of f at the partition points
x0 = a, x1 = a + x, x2 = a + 2x, , xn −1 = a + (n − 1)x, xn = b.
(b − a )
The number n is even, and x = .
n

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Table 8.3

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Theorem 1—Error Estimates in the
Trapezoidal and Simpson’s Rules
If f'' is continuous and M is any upper bound for the values of | f" |
on [a, b], then the error ET in the trapezoidal approximation of the integral
of f from a to b for n steps satisfies the inequality

M (b − a )3
ET  2
. Trapezoidal Rule
12n
If f (4) is continuous and M is any upper bound for the values of f (4)
on [a, b], then the error ES in the Simpson’s Rule approximation of the
integral of f from a to b for n steps satisfies the inequality

M (b − a )5
ES  4
. Simpson’s Rule
180n

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Table 8.4
Trapezoidal Rule approximations (Tn ) and Simpson’s
Rule approximations ( Sn ) of ln 2 = 1   dx
1 2

x

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Figure 8.11
The dimensions of the swamp in Example 6.

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Section 8.8 Improper Integrals

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Figure 8.12
Are the areas under these infinite curves finite? We will see
that the answer is yes for both curves.

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Figure 8.13
x
−
(a) The area in the first quadrant under the curve y = e 2

(b) The area is an improper integral of the first type.

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Definition 1
Integrals with infinite limits of integration are improper integrals of Type I.

1. If f ( x) is continuous on [a, ), then

 b
 a
f ( x) dx = lim  f ( x) dx.
b → a

2. If f ( x) is continuous on [−, b), then

b b
−
f ( x) dx = lim  f ( x) dx.
a →− a

3. If f ( x) is continuous on [−, ), then

 c 
 −
f ( x) dx = 
−
f ( x) dx +  f ( x)dx,
c

where c is any real number.

In each case, if the limit exists and is finite, we say that the improper
integral converges and that the limit is the value of the improper
integral. If the limit fails to exist, the improper integral diverges.
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Figure 8.14
The area under this curve is an improper integral (Example 1).

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Figure 8.15
The area under this curve is finite (Example 2).

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Figure 8.16
The area under this curve is an example of an improper
integral of the second kind.

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Definition 2
Integrals of functions that become infinite at a point within the interval of
integration are improper integrals of Type II.
1. If f ( x) is continuous on (a, b] and discontinuous at a, then
b b
 a
f ( x) dx = lim+  f ( x) dx.
c→a c

2. If f ( x) is continuous on [a, b) and discontinuous at b, then

b c
a
f ( x) dx = lim−  f ( x) dx.
c →b a

3. If f ( x) is discontinuous at c, where a  c  b, and continuous on

[a, c) (c, b], then
b c b
 f ( x) dx = f ( x) dx +  f ( x)dx.
a a c

In each case, if the limit exists and is finite, we say the improper integral
converges and that the limit is the value of the improper integral. If the
limit does not exist, the integral diverges.
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Figure 8.17
The area beneath the curve and above the x-axis
for  0,1) is not a real number (Example 4).

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Figure 8.18
Example 5 shows that the area under the curve exists (so it is
a real number).

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Figure 8.19
− x2
The graph of e lies below the graph of
e − x for x  1 (Example 6).

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Theorem 2—Direct Comparison Test
Let f and g be continuous on [a, ) with 0  f ( x)  g ( x)
for all x  a. Then
 
1. If 
a
g ( x)dx converges, then a
f ( x)dx also converges.
 
2. If  a
f ( x)dx diverges, then a
g ( x)dx also diverges.

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Theorem 3—Limit Comparison Test
If the positive functions f and g are continuous on
[a, ), and if
f ( x)
lim = L, 0  L  ,
x → g ( x )

then
 
a
f ( x)dx and a
g ( x)dx

both converge or both diverge.

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Figure 8.20
The functions in Example 8.

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Table 8.5

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