2024 Introduction to Computers

By: Joseph Deng Ajak

Upper Nile University

Faculty of Human Development
Department Of Computer Science
 Introduction to Computers 2024

Class Format

• Lectures
• Discussion and Tests
• Student’ Presentation

Mode of Assessment

• Tests and Assignments -30%

• Final Exam -70%

Course Topics:

- Part 1: Computer Systems Overview

o Unit One: Introduction to Computers: Definition, Advantages and Limitations
o Unit Two: Computer Sciences at Glance: History, Applications and Classifications
o Unit Three: Anatomy of Computers: Software Types and Tasks
o Unit Four: Anatomy of Computers: Hardware Components and Functions
- Part 2: Information Literacy
o Unit One: Information Gathering
o Unit Two: Data Analysis, Interpretation and Presentation
o Unit Three: Data Analysis using an Excel Spreadsheet
o Unit Four: Referencing and citation
- Part 3: Computer Networks
o Unit One: Introduction
o Unit Two: The Internet & The Intranet
o Unit Three: Search Engines
- Part 4: General Computer Security
o Unit One: Understanding malwares
o Unit Two: Malware Prevention and Removal
o Unit Three: Safeguarding your data
o Unit Four: General Computer Troubleshooting
- Part 5: Practical’s
o Unit One: Study of Computer Components – Booting of Computer and its Shut Down
o Unit Two: Practicing WINDOWS Operating System: Use of Mouse, Title Bar, Minimum,
Maximum and Close Buttons, Scroll Bars, Menus and Tool Bars
o Unit Three: WINDOWS Explorer – Creating Folders, COPY and PASTE functions.

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 Introduction to Computers 2024

Chapter One: Computer Systems Overview

Today, almost all of us in the world make use of computers in one way or the other. It finds applications
in various fields of engineering, medicine, commercial, agriculture, education, research and others. Not
only in these sophisticated areas, but also in our daily lives, computers have become indispensable. They
are present everywhere, in all the devices that we use daily like planes, cars, games, washing machines,
microwaves etc. and in day to day computations like banking, reservations, Airtime & Mobile Money,
electronic mails, internet and many more.
✓ The word computer is derived from the word compute. Compute means to calculate. The
computer was originally defined as a superfast calculator. It had the capacity to solve
complex arithmetic and scientific problems at very high speed. But nowadays in addition
to handling complex arithmetic computations, computers perform many other tasks like
accepting, sorting, selecting, moving, comparing various types of information. They also
perform arithmetic and logical operations on alphabetic, numeric and other types of information.
This information provided by the user to the computer is data.
The data in one form, which is given to the computer, is the input or input data.
Information in another form that is presented by the computer after performing a process on it, called
output data.
The set of instructions given to the computer to perform various operations is called as the computer
program. The process of converting the input data into the required output form with the help of the
computer program is called as data processing. The computers are therefore also referred to as data
processors
✓ Therefore, a COMPUTER can also be defined as a fast and accurate data processing system
that accepts data, performs various operations on the data, has the capability to store the
data and produce the results on the basis of detailed step by step instructions given to it.

Course Objectives:

After going through this course, you would be able to:

➢ Familiarize yourself with characteristics of computers
➢ Identify the basic components of a computer
➢ Explain the importance of various units of a computer
➢ Differentiate between system software and application software
➢ Explain the importance of operating system
➢ Understand the terms computer networks, emails and the internet
➢ Know how navigate the internet for reliable information
➢ Appreciate the need of computer security
➢ Answer the typical first question “which type of computer is best for you?”

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 Introduction to Computers 2024

Unit one: Introduction to Computers:

Definitions:
✓ A computer is a programmable machine designed to perform arithmetic and logical
operations automatically and sequentially on the input given by the user and gives the
desired output after processing.
✓ A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its
own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules,
produce information (output), and store the information for future use
✓ A computer is fast and accurate data processing system that accepts data, performs
various operations on the data, has the capability to store the data and produce the
results on the basis of detailed step by step instructions given to it.
✓ A Computer is an electronic device that can perform activities that involve Mathematical,
Logical and graphical manipulations. Generally, the term is used to describe a collection
of devices that function together as a system.

Computer performs the following three operations in sequence.

1. It receives data & instructions “input” from the input devices.
2. Processes the data as per instructions
3. Provides the result (output) in a desired form (Information)
Data: It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols.
Ex: Names of students and their marks in different subjects listed in random order.
Information: It is the processed data that is presented in an organized manner.
Ex: When the names of students are arranged in alphabetical order, total and average marks are calculated
& presented in a tabular form, it is information.
Program (Software): Set of instructions that enable a computer to perform a given task.

A computer performs five major operations or functions irrespective of its size and make. These are
1. It accepts data or instructions as input,
2. It stores data and instruction
3. It processes data as per the instructions,
4. It controls all operations inside a computer, and
5. It gives results in the form of output.

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 Introduction to Computers 2024

- Characteristics of Computers
The characteristics of computers that have made them so powerful and universally useful are speed,
accuracy, diligence, versatility and storage capacity. Let us discuss them briefly.

i. Speed
Computers work at an incredible speed. A powerful computer is capable of performing about 3-4
million simple instructions per second. computrs can perform millions of calculations in seconds
ii. Accuracy
In addition to being fast, computers are also accurate. Errors that may occur can almost always be
attributed to human error (inaccurate data, poorly designed system or faulty instructions/programs
written by the programmer)
iii. Diligence: Unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. They do not suffer from human
traits of stress, boredom, sickness and tiredness resulting in lack of concentration. Computers,
therefore, are better than human beings in performing voluminous and repetitive jobs.
iv. Versatility
Computers are versatile machines and are capable of performing any task as long as it can be
broken down into a series of logical steps. The presence of computers can be seen in almost every
sphere – Railway/Air reservation, Banks, Hotels, Weather forecasting and many more.
v. Storage Capacity
Today’s computers can store large volumes of data. A piece of information once recorded (or
stored) in the computer, can never be forgotten and can be retrieved almost instantaneously.
vi. Precision: Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures precision & exactness.
vii. Automation: Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically (which
increases the productivity).
viii. Cost effectiveness: Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby
reducing costs.

Limitations of “traditional” computers:

1. Computers need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If the instructions are
not clear & complete, the computer will not produce the required result.
2. Computers cannot think or make decisions by its own.
3. Computers cannot learn by experience.

Class Discussion:
Thinking of the advantages & disadvantages of computers… where do the following points fall?
Other characteristics of computers:
1. Computers are made and programmed by human.
2. Computers have no feelings.
3. Computers are accurate.

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 Introduction to Computers 2024

# Example Technical Specifications

Paraphrased from an online electronics retailer:

- “3.6 GHz Intel Core i7-7700 processor and 12GB RAM offers powerful performance for
multimedia projects, smooth multitasking, and effortless everyday computing.”
o (3.6 GHz 4th generation Intel Core i7-4790, 8 GB RAM)
- “1TB hard drive large digital warehouse to store all your files, photos, videos, music, and much
more” – 6 USB ports, including 2 USB 3.0 ports
- “HDMI output delivers crisp high-quality visuals and high-fidelity audio to a home theatre or
projector through a single cable connection”
o FYI: estimated cost 700 – 1,000 $ in 2023
- Last accessed from www.bestbuy.ca July 2017 (June 2015)
# Which Type of Computer Is Best for You?

- (This is very basic material to bring everyone up to a basic level) – Later sections can be more
challenging (e.g. using databases)
- No single model (let alone manufacturer) is best for everyone
- Ask yourself how you will use your machine, what things are the most important to you:
o Portability?
o Touch screen capability?
o Will you run programs that will ‘push’ your system, e.g., video editing, gaming, image and
3D graphic editing or will you use your computer mainly for common tasks (e.g., word
processing, entertainment, online browsing)
o Is gaming in general (even ones that don’t ‘push’ your system) important?
▪ If so consider a computer that is more commonly used.
o Future expandability and upgrade capability of your machine?
# Most Important Hardware (When Choosing A Computer)

- (This refers to hardware that distinguishes one computer from another computer, other pieces such
as hardware such as some sort of network connection is also crucial but not significantly different
from computer-to-computer).
- Processor (CPU – or the APU for some AMD models)
- Memory (RAM)
- Storage (hard drive)

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 Introduction to Computers 2024

Unit Two: Computer Science at Glance:

The computers of today are vastly different in appearance and performance as compared to the computers
of earlier days. But where did this technology come from and Where is it heading? To fully understand
the impact of computers on today’s world and the promises they hold for the future, it is important to
understand the evolution of computers.
History of Computers:
The term Computer came from the Latin word “computare” which means – to reckon – to sum up – to
calculate. Webster’s dictionary defines “computer” as any programmable electronic device that can
accept, store and process data and give output.
The old oxford English dictionary describes a computer as a person employed to make calculations
“before the machine, people were hired to do calculations”
- Abacus 3000 BC: A simple counting aid, was most likely invented in Babylonia

- The slide rule 1622: is a mechanical precursor of the pocket calculator, it was invented in England
by William Oughtred and was very commonly used until the 1970s when it was made obsolete for
most purposes by electronic calculators.

1. 1940 – 1956: The First-Generation Computer technology

ENIAC (Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator) – The first all-electronic computer was
produced by a partnership between the US Government and the University of Pennsylvania. It was built
using 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 1,500 relays and consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical
power. The ENIAC computed at speed about thousand times faster than Mark I. However, it could store
and manipulate only a limited amount of data. Program modifications and detecting errors were also
difficult.

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2. 1956 – 1963: The Second-Generation: Transistorized Computers

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor
was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The transistor was
far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-
efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated
a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum
tube. Second-Generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for outputs.

3. 1964 – 1971: The Third-Generation: Integrated Circuits (ICs).

In 1961, the development of the integrated circuit by Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor, was the
hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips,
called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Instead of
punched cards and printouts. Users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and
monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different
applications at one time. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they
were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

4. 1971 – present: The Fourth Generation: microprocessor:

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were
built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the
palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer
on single chip

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5. Now: The Fifth-Generation

Defining the fifth-generation computers is somewhat difficult because the field is still in its infancy.
The computers of tomorrow would be characterized by Artificial Intelligence (AI). An example of Al is
Expert Systems. Computers could be developed which could think and reason in much the same way as
humans. Computers would be able to speak, listen, see, translate, move and
reason independently.
Artificial intelligence (AI, also machine intelligence, MI) is intelligence displayed by machines,
in contrast with the Natural Intelligence (NI) displayed by humans and other animals.
In computer science AI research is defined as the study of "intelligent agents": any device that
perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of success at some goal.
Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is applied when a machine mimics "cognitive"
functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as "learning" and "problem
solving".
For most of its history, AI research has been divided into subfields that often fail to communicate
with each other. These sub-fields are based on technical considerations, such as particular goals
(e.g. "robotics" or "machine learning"), the use of particular tools ("logic" or "neural networks"),
or deep philosophical differences. Subfields have also been based on social factors (particular
institutions or the work of particular researchers).
The traditional problems (or goals) of AI research include Reasoning, Knowledge, Planning, Learning,
Natural Language Processing, Perception and the Ability to Move & Manipulate Objects. General
intelligence is among the field's long-term goals. Approaches include statistical
methods, computational intelligence, and traditional symbolic AI. Many tools are used in AI,
including versions of search and mathematical optimization, neural networks and methods based
on statistics, probability and economics. The AI field draws upon Computer Science, Mathematics,
Psychology, Linguistics, Philosophy, Neuroscience, Artificial Psychology and many others.
N.B: Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are coming together to
enable the creation of fifth generation computers.

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6. The future of computers?????

Appliances of computers:

Today computers find widespread applications in all activities of the modern world.
Some of the major application areas include:
- Scientific, Engineering and Research: This is the major area where computers find vast
applications. They are used in areas, which require lot of experiments, mathematical calculations,
weather forecasting, and complex mathematical and engineering applications. Computer Aided
Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) help in designing robotics, automobile
manufacturing, automatic process control devices etc.
- Business: Record keeping, budgets, reports, inventory, payroll, invoicing, accounts are all the
areas of business and industry where computers are used to a great extent. Database management
is one of the major areas where computers are used on a large scale. The areas of application here
include banking, airline reservations, etc. where large amounts of data need to be updated, edited,
sorted, and searched from large databases.
- Information: This is the age of information. Television, Satellite communication, Internet,
networks are all based on computers.
- Education: Online training programs for students are becoming popular day by day. All the major
encyclopedias, dictionaries and books are now available in the digital form and therefore are easily
accessible to the student of today.
- Games and Entertainment: Computer games are popular with children and adults alike.
Computers are nowadays also used in entertainment areas like movies, sports, advertising etc.
- Agriculture:
i. Bioinformatics: The present role of bioinformatics is to aid agriculture researchers in gathering
and processing genomic data to study protein function.
ii. Remote Sensing & Geographic Information System: The trees, which are affected by disease, or
insect attack can be detected by remote sensing techniques much before human eyes see them. The
application of remote sensing data taken momentum in the field of agriculture and crop studies
especially crop production forecasting covering both crop inventory and crop yield forecast
models, drought assessment, soil mapping and soil degradation, command area monitoring, flood
damage assessment, land suitability mapping, insect pest infestation forecasting and widespread
availability of satellite signals that allow private use of Global Positioning System (GPS) made it
possible for farmers to spatially locate data from precision farming applications.
iii. Precision agriculture: Precision Agriculture is conceptualized by a system approach to re-
organize the total system of agriculture towards a low-input, high-efficiency, sustainable
agriculture. This new approach mainly benefits from the emergence and convergence of several
technologies, including the (GPS), geographic information system (GIS), miniaturized computer
components, automatic control, in-field and remote sensing, mobile computing, advanced
information processing, and telecommunications. Agricultural research is now capable of

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gathering more comprehensive data on production variability in both space and time. The desire to
respond to such variability on a fine-scale has become the goal of Precision Agriculture
- HealthCare:
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. The computers are
being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG “electrocardiogram”, EEG “electroencephalogram”, MRI
“Magnetic resonance imaging”, Ultrasounds and CT Scans “Computerized Tomography” etc. are
also done by computerized machines. Some major fields of health care in which computers are
used are:
o Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
o Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
o Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality such
as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
o Pharma Information System - Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful
drug’s side effects etc.
o Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery
o Medical Research: some biological disease, diagnosis, tests, drugs are contagious or even
toxic only machines can undertake.

Classifications of computers:
Types of
Computers

Microcomputer Minicomputer Mainframe Supercomputer

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1. Microcomputer:
Microcomputers are generally referred to as Personal Computers (PCs). They have smallest
memory and less power. They are widely used in day-to-day applications by students, lecturers,
scientist, reporters, etc. uses of Microcomputers: Word Processing, Home entertainment, Home
banking, Printing, Surfing the internet…

2. Minicomputer: Mini computers are more powerful than the microcomputers. They have higher
memory capacity and more storage capacity with higher speeds. These computers are mainly used
in process control systems. They are mainly used in applications like payrolls, financial
accounting, Computer aided design etc.

3. Mainframe:
Mainframe computers are very large computers which process data at very high speeds of the
order of several million instructions per second. They can be linked into a network with smaller
computers, microcomputers and with each other. They are typically used in large organizations,
government departments etc. mainly used in banks, Airline reservation, Weather forecasting,
Animated Cartoon etc.

Mainframe Supercomputer

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4. Supercomputer:
A super computer is the fastest, most powerful and most expensive computer, which is used for
complex tasks that require a lot of computational power. Super computers have multiple
processors, which process multiple instructions at the same time. Used by applications for
molecular chemistry, nuclear research, weather reports, processing geological data and advanced
physics Consists of several computers that work in parallel as a single system

Unit Three: Computer Anatomy – Software:

Computer software, or just software, is the collection of computer programs and related data that provide
the instructions telling a computer what to do. The term was coined to contrast the old term hardware
(meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible, meaning it "cannot be
touched". Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, to include application software only.
Sometimes the term includes data that has traditionally not been associated with computers, such as film,
presses and records.

The main various types of Computer Software are discussed below:

1. SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software is the program that controls computer hardware and provide an environment for running
application software. It also maintains computer operation efficiently. The main components of system
software are the operating system “such as MS Windows, Unix and Apple's macOS” network operating
system include Novell NetWare, Microsoft Windows NT, Microsoft Windows 2000, Microsoft Windows
XP, Sun Solaris, Linux.

The most basic types of system software are:

a) The computer BIOS and device firmware, which provides basic functionality to operate and control
the hardware connected to or built into the computer. The BIOS usually appears – before the
Windows “OS” starts – in-form of the name or logo of the computer being used. E.g. if you are using
HP computer, the logo of HP appears before the Windows starts. Similarly, if you are using DELL
computer, the name DELL will appear first and so on.
b) The Operating System is defined as an integrated set of programs which manage the various
resources and operations of a computer system. The operating system acts as an interface between the
humans and the computer. The operating system ensures smooth and efficient operation of a
computer.
o Memory management: Allocation of main memory and other storage to the system programs and
the user data and programs.
o Input/output management: Management of the input/output devices and their assignment to the
various programs that are being executed
o File management: The files have to be stored in various storage devices. They have to be
transferred from one storage device to another. This is taken care of by the Operating System.

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o Data security and integrity: The data and programs have to be handled in such a way that they do
not interfere with each other.
o Assigning priority to jobs: The operating system is the one which has to decide and allot priority
to the jobs which are to be executed.
- The Operating System allows the parts of a computer to work together by performing tasks like
transferring data between memory and disks or rendering output onto a display device. It also
provides a platform to run application software.
- An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the computer
hardware.
- It is specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that reside
in the computer, including application programs and other system software.

2. APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software is computer software designed to help the user to perform singular or multiple
related specific tasks. Examples include enterprise software, accounting software, office suites, graphics
software, anti-Virus SW and media players.

Some of the categories of application software include:

o Word Processing Software “i.e. MS Office Word”

o Spreadsheets “i.e. MS Office Excel”
o Database Management Software “i.e. MS Office Access”
o Presentation Programs “i.e. MS Office PowerPoint”
o Graphics Programs “i.e. Photoshop”
o Entertainment and Education software “i.e. Windows Media Player or VLC”
o Web design tools and Web browsers “i.e. Mozilla FireFox, Chrome & Notepad”
o Games “i.e. GTA-San Andreas, Chess, and Cards etc.…”
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All
software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's notepad for writing and
editing simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which
work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

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Unit Four: Computer Anatomy – Hardware:

The computer system consists of three units:

1. Input device 2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) 3. Output device

Block diagram of a Computer: also known as Computer’ Processing Cycle

Unit Function
1.Input device Reads information from input media and enters to the computer in a coded form
2.CPU - Stores program and data => Memory Unit
- Performs arithmetic and logical functions => Arithmetic/logic unit
- Interprets program instructions and controls the input and output devices =>
Control unit
3. Storage device where data are stored
4. Output device decodes information and presents it to the user

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Central Processing Unit “CPU”: It is the part of the computer that carries out the instructions of a
computer program. It is the unit that reads and executes program instructions. Hence it is known as the ―
brain of the computer.
CPU has two main parts:
1. CPU – where the actual processing takes place; and
2. Main memory – where data are stored.
The contents of main memory can be transferred to auxiliary storage devices such as hard disks, floppy
diskettes, zip disks, compact disks, or USB flash disk.
The microprocessor is housed on a tiny silicon chip. Chip contains millions of switches and pathways that
help your computer make important decisions.
CPU knows which switches to turn on and which to turn off because it receives its instructions from
computer programs (software).
CPU has three primary sections: Arithmetic/logic unit, Control unit, Memory Unit as show on the table
above.

- The Motherboard
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. A
motherboard connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other
ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a
computer.

Input Devices
Devices used to provide data and instructions to the computer are called Input devices.
Some important input devices are
Key board, Mouse, Scanner, MICR, Web camera, Microphone etc.

1. Keyboard: is an input device used for typing text into the computer.

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2. Mouse: is an input device that controls the movement of the cursor on a monitor.

3. Scanner: It is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate into
digital form.

Activity: spotting the following pictures, discuss the facts that made them input devices!

Output devices
Any device that is capable of representing information on a computer is called an Output device.
Output devices receive information from the CPU and present it to the user in the desired form.

Some important Output devices are : Monitor, Printer

1. Monitor: It is output device that display information “similar to TV screen”

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2. Printer: A printer is used to transfer data from a computer onto paper. The paper copy obtained
from a printer is often referred as ―printout‖.

MEMORY OF THE COMPUTER:

Types of Memory: A computer memory is of two types
1. Primary Memory ( Internal storage)
2. Secondary Memory ( External storage)
Primary Memory: Primary memory is also called internal memory and is an important part of a
computer. It is the main area in a computer where the data is stored. The stored data can be recalled
instantly and correctly whenever desired. This memory can be quickly accessed by the CPU for reading or
storing information.

Primary memory is further classified into two types:

1. Random Access Memory (RAM)
2. Read- Only Memory (ROM )

RAM:
RAM is also known as read/write memory as information can be read from and written onto it. RAM is a
place in a computer that holds instructions for the computer, its programs and the data. The CPU can
directly access the data from RAM almost immediately. However, the storage of data and instructions in
RAM is temporary, till the time the computer is running. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to
the computer is switched off. i.e. it is volatile memory.

RAMs

ROM:
It is called Read-only memory as information can only be read from and not written or changed onto
ROM. ROM is the built-in‘memory of a computer. It stores some basic input – output instructions put by
the manufacturer to operate the computer. The storage of data and instructions in ROM is permanent.
It does not depend on the power supply. i.e. it is non-volatile memory.
NB:
➢ RAM, refers to the amount of ‘working memory’ that your computer has. More specifically, RAM is
the feature of a computer that allows programs to run. The more RAM that a computer has, the faster
programs will run. Having more RAM also allows the user to run more programs concurrently.

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➢ ROM, refers to the storage space that a computer can hold. A computer ROM can only hold so many
programs and files. For this reason, ROM has been likened to ‘long-term memory’.

Secondary memory: The primary memory which is faster (and hence expensive) is generally not
sufficient for large storage of data. As a result, additional memory, called the ―auxiliary‖ or ―secondary
memory‖ is used. It is also referred as ―backup storage‖ as it is used to store large volume of data on a
permanent basis which can be transferred to the primary memory whenever required for processing.
Data are stored in secondary storage in the same binary codes as in the main (primary memory) storage.
Some of the devices of secondary storages are Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, CD-ROM, DVD and Flash drive.
➢ Hard Disk: is a permanent part of the computer where data and programs are saved. These disks
have storage capacities ranging from 1GB, 80 GB, 500 GB, to 1000 GB and more. Hard disks are
rewritable.
Magnetic hard drive (HDD) Solid state hard drive
(SSD)
Slower Faster (roughly double)
Less expensive More expensive
Hard drives with the highest Lower maximum storage
capacities are only magnetic capacity
Less ‘durable’ (may be affected More durable (no moving
by magnetic fields, physical parts)
jarring, temperature extremes)

➢ CD-ROM: CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk–Read Only Memory. It is used to store a wide
variety of information. Its main advantage is that it is portable and can hold a large amount of data.

➢ Flash Drive: It is a small, portable device that can be used to store, access and transfer data. Due
to its small size, it is commonly called Pen drive. It is also called USB drive. We can read, write,
copy, delete, and move data from computer to pen drive or pen drive to computer. It comes in
various storage capacities of 2GB, 4GB, 8GB etc. It is popular because it is easy to use and small
enough to be carried in a pocket. This device is plugged into the USB port of the computer and the
computer automatically detects this device.

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Memory Units:

➢ The amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.

➢ That in which storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.
Following are the main memory storage units:
S/N Unit Description
1. Bit (Binary A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a
Digit) component in an electric circuit.
2. Byte A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit which can represent
a data item or a character.
S/N Unit Description
1. Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
2. Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB
3. GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB
4. TeraByte (TB) 1 TB = 1024 GB
5. PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

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Computer Components:

Computer

Hardware Software

Input Devices Mouse, keyboard Windows, Android System Software

Output Devices Screen, projector MS word, Opera Application Software

Processing Devices CPU scandisk Utility Software

Memory Devices RAM ROM, chips Firmware

Storage Devices Flash, Hard Disk

Communication D Modem, Router

Computer is an electronic device that can perform activities that involve Mathematical, Logical
and graphical manipulations.
a) Computer Software are the set of programs that makes the hardware perform a set of tasks in
particular order.
i. System software: consists of a group of programs that control the operations of a computer
equipment including functions like managing memory, managing peripherals, loading,
storing, and is an interface between the application programs and the computer. MS DOS
(Microsoft’s Disk Operating System), UNIX are examples of system software.
ii. Application software: Software that can perform a specific task for the user, such as word
processing, accounting, budgeting or payroll, fall under the category of application
software.
iii. Utility Software: These are a set of programs or tools which are used in program
development or for performing limited tasks, eg. scandisk.
iv. Firmware: programs available on hardware are called Firmware.
b) Computer hardware are the physical parts or devices of the computer system

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Chapter Two: Information Literacy

Data and Information Overview:

What is data? Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts or instructions in a formalized
manner which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human or electronic
machine.

Data is represented with the help of characters like alphabets (A-Z,a-z), digits (0-9) or special
characters(+,- ,/,*,<,>,= etc.).

What is Information?

Information is the processed data which has some meaningful values for the receiver & on which
decisions and actions are based.

For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following characteristics

• Timely - Information should be available when required.

• Accuracy - Information should be accurate.
• Completeness - Information should be complete.
Data Processing Cycle

Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to increase their
usefulness and add values for particular purpose. Data processing consists of basic steps input, processing
and output. These three steps constitute the data processing cycle.

Data Processing Cycle

Input Process Output
Data Machine/Human Information

Input - In this step the input data is prepared in some convenient form for processing. The form will
depend on the processing machine. For example, when electronic computers are used, the input data could
be recorded on any one of several types of input medium, such as flash disks, HDD and so on.

Processing - In this step input data is changed to produce information in a more useful form. For
example, pay- checks may be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month may be
calculated from the sales orders, or student’s results for a semester may be calculated from tests,
assignments and final exam.

Output -Here the result of the proceeding processing step are collected. The particular form of the
output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-checks for employees, or
academic records for students.

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Data Gathering

1. Data is often collected to make statements or tell a story about a group or “population” of
interest. However, often a population is so large that we cannot possibly measure the variables of
interest for every person in the population. The alternative is to select a “sample” from the
population of interest. The tricky part of taking a sample is ensuring that the sample is
representative of the larger population about which you would like to make statements. The
illustration below may be helpful in understanding this:

2. A “population” is the larger group you want to learn about; a “sample” is a subset of that
population that is examined in order to generalize to the larger group.
3. Therefore, Data gathering is the process of collecting data and facts for certain use.

4. The early activities to conduct any type of research aimed at understanding the core problem that
need to be solved
5. There is often little existing documentation on current information system such as the campus
library
6. The existing documentation is likely not centralized e.g. it may be in personal desk, drawers etc.
7. The existing documentation is often out of date - need to observe what actually happens
Challenges for collecting data:
▪ There is need to have a checklist of types of information or documentation to gather/collect
▪ Challenges are:

– Where to look for information

– When to stop looking for information, i.e. how much is enough?
• Need to have a checklist of types of information or documentation to gather “discussed below”

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Sources of Information
• People
• Existing documentation will include many of:
– Organization charts
– Methods and procedures manuals
– Job descriptions
– Forms and reports
– Policy manuals
– Computer program documentation
– Computer operation manuals
– External sources (other companies, vendors)
Methods for gathering information
• Fact-finding techniques
– Interviewing
– Questionnaires
– Observation
– Documentation review
– Prototyping
• Which methods can be used to record student’s results?

Something to think about: Match the Methods above with their respective definitions…

- Is a planned meeting during which you obtain information from users of the existing system?
- Is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of gathering
information from respondents?
- Is the active acquisition of information from a primary source? observation can involve the
recording of data via the use of instruments
- Is the process whereby each party to a case sorts through and analyzes the documents and
data they possess (and later the documents and data supplied by their opponents through
discovery) to determine which are sensitive or otherwise
- is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process or to act as
a thing to be replicated or learned from

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Data Analysis, Interpretation & Presentation

Blind men and an elephant – Indian fable:

Things aren’t always what we think!!!

Six blind men go to observe an elephant. One feels the

side and thinks the elephant is like a wall. One feels the
tusk and thinks the elephant is like spear. One feels
touches the squirming and thinks the elephant is like
snake. One feels the knee and thinks the elephant is like a
tree. One touch the ear and thinks the elephant is like a
fan. One grasps the tail and thinks the elephant is like
rope. They argue long and loud and though each was
partly in the right, all were in the wrong.

DATA ANALYSIS:

8. People turn to data because they have a story to tell or a problem to solve. Most people start with a
question, then look to data for answers. Thus,
9. DATA ANALYSIS “DATA STUDY” can be defined as the process of identifying core problems
and propose solution to it.
10.Data is used to describe things by assigning a value to them. The values are then organized,
processed, and presented within a given context so that it becomes useful. Data can be in different
forms which can be categorized into qualitative and quantitative: “checklist of types of
information”

Qualitative data
- “Qualitative data” is data that uses words and descriptions. Qualitative data can be observed
but is subjective and therefore difficult to use for the purposes of making comparisons.
Descriptions of texture, taste, or an experience are all examples of qualitative data. Qualitative
data collection methods include focus groups, interviews, or open-ended items on a survey. The
OMS questionnaires do not collect qualitative data, but it is helpful to be aware of the
differentiation.
Quantitative data
- “Quantitative data” is data that is expressed with numbers. Quantitative data is data which can
be put into categories, measured, or ranked. Length, weight, age, cost, rating scales, are all
examples of quantitative data. Quantitative data can be represented visually in graphs and tables
and be statistically analyzed. The OMS questionnaires collect quantitative data.

TOOLS TO SUPPORT DATA ANALYSIS

- Spreadsheet – simple to use, basic graphs “illustrated below”
- Statistical packages, e.g. SPSS “Statistical Package for Social Sciences” or Predictive Analytic
Software “PASW”

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Interpreting the Information:

- Numbers do not speak for themselves
o For example, what does it mean that 55 participants reported a change in behavior. Or 25%
of students rated this course A5 “i.e. First Class” and 75% rated it A4 “i.e. Second Class-
Upper”. What does these numbers mean?
- Interpretation is the process of attaching meaning to the data
- Interpretation demands fair and careful judgement. Often the same data can be interpreted in
different ways. So, it is important to involve others or take time to hear how different people
interpret the same information
- Part of interpreting information is identifying the lessons learned
o What did you learn? About the program, participants and the evaluation?
o Were there finding that surprised you?
o Are there things you don’t understand very well – where further study is needed?
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS
Give overview of data

PRESENTING THE FINDINGS

- Only make claims that your data can support
- The best way to present your findings depends on the audience, the purpose, and the data
gathering and analysis undertaken
- Graphical representations (as shown above) may be appropriate for presentation
- Other techniques are:
o Rigorous notations, e.g. UML “Unified Modeling Language”
o Using stories, e.g. to create scenarios
o Summarizing the findings
- Presentation of the findings should not overstate the evidence

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Citing and Referencing

✓ What Is Referencing?
It is a method used to demonstrate to your readers that you have conducted a thorough and appropriate
literature search, and reading. Equally, referencing is an acknowledgement that you have used the ideas
and written material belonging to other authors in your own work.

As with all referencing styles, there are two parts: citing, and the reference list.

✓ Why Should I Reference?

Referencing is crucial to you to carry out successful research, and crucial to your readers so they can see
how you did your research. Knowing why you need to reference means you will understand why it is
important that you know how to reference.

- Accurate referencing is a key component of good academic practice and enhances the presentation of
your work: it shows that your writing is based on knowledge and informed by appropriate academic
reading.
- You will ensure that anyone reading your work can trace the sources you have used in the
development of your work, and give you credit for your research efforts and quality.
- If you do not acknowledge another person’s work or ideas, you could be accused of plagiarism.
Plus your lecturers are very keen to see good reference lists. Impress them with the quality of the
information you use, and your references, and you will get even better marks.

✓ What Should I Reference?

You should include a reference for all the sources of information that you use when writing or creating a
piece of your own work.

✓ What Is A Citation?
When you use another person’s work in your own work, either by referring to their ideas, or by including
a direct quotation, you must acknowledge this in the text of your work. This acknowledgement is called a
citation.

When you are using the Harvard style, your citation should include:

1. The author or editor of the cited work

2. The year of publication of the cited work

Citing a precise formulation

Citing means repeating or copying out someone else’s words. You should cite when a formulation is so
precise that it would lose its meaning or significance if worded differently. When you cite someone else’s
work, you must put the text between quotation marks and provide a source reference.

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Citation styles

In the academic world there are strict rules for setting out source references. Each discipline has its own
citation style. Also, references are set out differently depending on whether you use them in a
bibliography, in the text itself, in a footnote or in an endnote. During your study you will learn which
citation styles should be used for your discipline.

Some examples of citation styles, in this case for a journal article:

- APA-style:
HAUCK, MARKUS. (November 01, 2009). Global warming and alternative causes of decline in arctic-
alpine and boreal-montane lichens in North-Western Central Europe. Global Change Biology, 15,11,
2653-2661.

- Chicago-style:
HAUCK, MARKUS. 2009. "Global warming and alternative causes of decline in arctic-alpine and boreal-
montane lichens in North-Western Central Europe". Global Change Biology. 15 (11): 2653-2661.

- MLA-style:
HAUCK, MARKUS. "Global Warming and Alternative Causes of Decline in Arctic-Alpine and Boreal-
Montane Lichens in North-Western Central Europe." Global Change Biology. 15.11 (2009): 2653-2661.
Print.

- Turabian:
HAUCK, MARKUS. 2009. "Global Warming and Alternative Causes of Decline in Arctic-Alpine and
Boreal-Montane Lichens in North-Western Central Europe". Global Change Biology. 15, no. 11: 2653-
2661.

List of sources / Bibliography

The bibliography, source list or list of references is placed at the end of the text to provide an overview of
the information sources you have consulted. There are strict rules for compiling these lists, and there are
different styles for different disciplines (APA, MLA, Chicago, Vancouver, and Harvard).

Footnotes

Some citation styles do not use a bibliography, but footnotes to indicate the sources used. This means that
the source references appear at the bottom of each page instead of at the end of the text.

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➢ Avoiding plagiarism:
What is plagiarism?

Plagiarism means presenting someone else’s work as your own. Plagiarism is intellectual theft and is
regarded as academic misconduct.

Avoiding plagiarism

Plagiarism can be committed unintentionally. Make sure you always provide proper source references so
that others can see which ideas are not your own but found in publications by other authors. Providing
proper source references also enables other people to check these sources. See the boxes below for tips on
how to avoid plagiarism.

Do I have to provide a reference if I describe something in my own words?

You should always provide a source reference when you use someone else’s work in your own text,
irrespective of whether you are citing directly from the work or describing it in your own words
(paraphrasing).

Generally-known facts do not have to be referenced

Statements such as “The rise of the internet has had a major impact on the development of society” do not
require a source reference. This statement is so widely known and accepted that it can be regarded as a
generally-known fact.

Grey areas

Unfortunately, it is not always clear whether a source reference is required. In such cases you will have to
decide for yourself. Your decision should be based on the principle that you do not want to present
someone else’s work as your own.

Sanctions

Committing plagiarism can have serious consequences for the perpetrator within the University, such as
exclusion from course units and even degree programs.

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Chapter Three: Networking and the Internet

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to share
information and resources. OR

A network is an arrangement that enables two or more computers to communicate (talk) to each other.

Characteristics of a computer network

✓ Share Resources from one computer to another

✓ Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s)
connected over the network
✓ Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let other
computers of the network use the machines available over network.
Following is some of hardware’s required to setup a computer network.

Network Cables

Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used cable is Category 5 cable RJ-
45.

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Distributors “Switch”

A computer can be connected to another one via a

serial port but if we need to connect many
computers to produce a network, this serial
connection will not work. The solution is to use a
central body to which other computers, printers,
scanners etc. can be connected and then this body
will manage or distribute network traffic.

Router

A router is a type of device which acts as the central point

among computers and other devices that are part of a
network. A router is equipped with holes called ports and
computers and other devices are connected to a router
using network cables. Now-a-days router comes in
wireless modes using which computers can be connected
without any physical cable.
Routers are network devices that literally route data
around the network. By examining data as it arrives, the
router is able to determine the destination address for the
data. The router determines the best way for the data to
continue its journey.

Types of Networks

Networks can range from a small group of computers linked together in a class room to thousands
of computers linked together across the globe. Depending on the geographical location, networks
can be classified as
a) Local Area Network “LAN”:
If a network is confined to a single location, typically a building, it is called a LAN.
Ex: Set of interconnected computers within an office.
b) Metropolitan Area Network “MAN”:
A metropolitan area network is a network that is larger than a LAN, it connects the computers
distributed across multiple buildings.
Ex: the computers in all branches of an office within a city.
c) Wide Area Network “WAN”:
- When a network is located over wide areas such as cities, states, countries or even continents, it is
called a WAN.
- Ex:
o Computers in different branches of a Globalized company.
o Internet

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The Internet & The Intranet

Internet

The internet is a global connection of computers. These computers are connected via a huge network of
telecommunication links. The internet allows you to access to a whole resource of data and information
stored at different sites (called hosts) and locations around the world. The communication links which
inter connect each host computer use a common method of transmission known as TCP/IP, which stands
for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.

The internet is a worldwide network of computers all connected to each other by telephone lines, cables
and satellites. It’s like a huge library of information.

It is a worldwide system which has the following characteristics:

✓ Internet is a world-wide / global system of interconnected computer networks.

✓ Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) to transfer information from and to
computers connected the internet
✓ Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
✓ IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a computer’s
location.
✓ A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP Address so that
user can locate a computer by a name.
✓ For example, a DNS server will resolve a name http://www.uppernileuniversity.com to a particular
IP address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.
✓ Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.
Internet connection helps us to:
1. Read information on a wide range of topics
2. Send or receive E-mail
3. Download documents, pictures or any other useful programs such as virus detectors, file compression,
decompression utility etc.,
4. Share your opinions and your knowledge on a variety of topics through various new groups or using
the Social Network Site such as Facebook, YouTube WhatsApp etc…
5. Chat with other people anywhere in the world
6. View interesting videos listen to music or wander through a 3-D world.

Requirements for connecting to the Internet:

a) Modem:
A modem is a peripheral device that allows a computer to connect and communicate with other
computers. Modem stands for Modulator Demodulator.
b) Web Browser:
A browser is a software program that is necessary in order to view web pages on the web.
Ex: Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft outlook express etc.

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c) Telephone line: A telephone line is required to transfer data from one computer to another. The
computer is connected to a modem, which, in turn, connected to a telephone line.
d) Subscription with Internet service provider (ISP):

ISPs are companies that provide access to the internet. We need subscription with any ISP to get an
Internet connection. Some of the ISPs in India are VSNL, MTNL, Sify, Specrta Net etc.

Intranet

✓ Intranet is system in which multiple PCs are connected to each other.

✓ PCs in intranet are not available to the world outside the intranet.
✓ Usually each company or organization has their own Intranet network and members/employees of
that company can access the computers in their intranet.
✓ Each computer in Intranet is also identified by an IP Address which is unique among the
computers in that Intranet.

Versus
Intranet Internet

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Similarities in Internet and Intranet

1. Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP.

2. Intranet sites are accessible via web browser in similar way as websites in internet. But only
members of Intranet network can access intranet hosted sites.
3. In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo messenger/gtalk over the
internet.
Differences in Internet and Intranet

1. Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas Intranet is specific to few PCs.
2. Internet has wider access and provides a better access to websites to large population whereas
Intranet is restricted.
3. Internet is not as safe as Intranet as Intranet can be safely privatized as per the need.
How the Internet Works

The Internet and the World-Wide Web

Computers can be connected together on networks. A computer on a network can communicate with
other computers on the same network by exchanging data and files or by sending and receiving
messages. Computers on a network can even work together on a large computation.

Today, millions of computers throughout the world are connected to a single huge network called the
Internet. New computers are being connected to the Internet every day. Computers can join the Internet
by using a modem to establish a connection through telephone lines. Broadband connections to the
Internet, such as DSL and cable modems, are increasingly common. They allow faster data transmission
than is possible through telephone modems.

There are elaborate protocols for communication over the Internet. A protocol is simply a detailed
specification of how communication is to proceed. For two computers to communicate at all, they must
both be using the same protocols. The most basic protocols on the Internet are the Internet Protocol (IP),
which specifies how data is to be physically transmitted from one computer to another and the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which ensures that data sent using IP is received in its entirety
and without error. These two protocols, which are referred to collectively as TCP/IP, provide a
foundation for communication. Other protocols use TCP/IP to send specific types of information such as
web pages, electronic mail, and data files.

All communication over the Internet is in the form of packets. A packet consists of some data being sent
from one computer to another, along with addressing information that indicates where on the Internet that
data is supposed to go. Think of a packet as an envelope with an address on the outside and a
message on the inside. (The message is the data.) The packet also includes a “return address,” that
is, the address of the sender. A packet can hold only a limited amount of data; longer messages
must be divided among several packets, which are then sent individually over the net and reassembled
at their destination.

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Every computer on the Internet has an IP address , a number that identifies it uniquely among all
the computers on the net. The IP address is used for addressing packets. A computer can only send data
to another computer on the Internet if it knows that computer’s IP address. Since people prefer to use
names rather than numbers, most computers are also identified by names, called domain names.
For example, the main computer of the Mathematics Department at Hobart and William Smith
Colleges has the domain name math.hws.edu. (Domain names are just for convenience; your
computer still needs to know IP addresses before it can communicate. There are computers on the
Internet whose job it is to translate domain names to IP addresses. When you use a domain name, your
computer sends a message to a domain name server to find out the corresponding IP address. Then, your
computer uses the IP address, rather than the domain name, to communicate with the other computer.)

The Internet provides a number of services to the computers connected to it (and, of course, to the users of
those computers). These services use TCP/IP to send various types of data over the net. Among the most
popular services are instant messaging, file sharing, electronic mail, and the World-Wide Web. Each
service has its own protocols, which are used to control transmission of data over the network. Each
service also has some sort of user interface, which allows the user to view, send, and receive data through
the service.
For example, the email service uses a protocol known as SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
to transfer email messages from one computer to another. Other protocols, such as POP and IMAP, are
used to fetch messages from an email account so that the recipient can read them. A person who
uses email, however, doesn’t need to understand or even know about these protocols. Instead, they are
used behind the scenes by the programs that the person uses to send and receive email messages. These
programs provide an easy-to-use user interface to the underlying network protocols.

The World-Wide Web is perhaps the most exciting of network services. The World-Wide Web allows you
to request pages of information that are stored on computers all over the Internet. A Web page can
contain links to other pages on the same computer from which it was obtained or to other computers
anywhere in the world. A computer that stores such pages of information is called a web server. The
user interface to the Web is the type of program known as a web browser. Common web browsers
include Internet Explorer and Firefox. You use a Web browser to request a page of information. The
browser will send a request for that page to the computer on which the page is stored, and when a
response is received from that computer, the web browser displays it to you in a neatly formatted form. A
web browser is just a user interface to the Web. Behind the scenes, the web browser uses a protocol
called HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) to send each page request and to receive the response from
the web server

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World Wide Web (WWW):

It refers to the collection of information accessible on the internet. The web is similar to a library. It
consists of millions & millions of pages of text, pictures, sounds and animation on various topics. These
pages, called web pages are stored on different computers that are connected to the internet. The web
pages have links between them i.e when we click a certain word or picture in a page, it will take us to
another page. These words or pictures that help to move from one page to another are called hyperlinks. A
collection of related web pages is known as a web site. A web site can be accessed by means of a unique
name assigned to it.

Internet was initially designed for the transmission of text basing on the protocols mentioned. In order to
transmit a graphically designed web page complete with pictures, embedded sound and animation a
special language was designed which is referred to as Hyper Text Mark up Language (HTML). HTML
uses special text codes to define the various elements of a web page.

The WWW support a protocol called Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP). All internet servers cannot
support HTTP and so the web can be regarded as a subset of the larger internet. HTTP provides a method
of transmitting a professionally laid out page over the text-based internet.

Uniform Resource Locator: (URL): Each web site has a unique address commonly referred to as a URL.
A URL specifies the exact location of the web page on the internet.

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A typical web address or URL looks as https://www.microsoft.com/catalog/navigation.asp

Explanation of the example URL:

URL Element Explanation

http Identifies protocol necessary to retrieve the file.
WWW Indicates that the site is on the world wide web
Microsoft Indicates the name of the web site
.com Indicates the domain type of the web site
/catalog/navigation.asp Specifies the path of the file stored on the web server‘s hard disk

E-Mail

E-mail or electronic mail is a service for sending or receiving messages electronically through a computer
network. The electronic mail uses various technologies that support electronic transmission of text, data
and graphics.

Some of the features of E-mail are

1. it is much faster than the normal mail. Messages can be sent within a matter of seconds to any part
in the world.
2. it can be sent to many people at the same time
3. E-mail is cheaper than a phone call and an ordinary mail
4. it can access information and file libraries on request
5. E-mail user can have a mail box which is accessed through a computer terminal
6. An E-mail message consists of two parts
a. A header specifying the address of the sender and the address of the receiver
b. The text of the message
7. The mailing system allows selecting messages for reading, displaying, saving, deleting,
forwarding and replying.
8. Mailing list can be created to send the same message to a group of people

E-Mail Address:

An E-Mail address consists of three parts

1. The person‘s Login name

2. @ sign
3. Domain name

A domain represents organization, network, and country name

Ex: [email protected] in this Statistics is the user name and his account is in the domain
gmail.com Both the names are separated by the @symbol.

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Search Engines:

Search engines are utilities used to search for information on the web. A user interface is provided where
you can enter the word or phrase you are searching for. The search engine looks for the keywords we have
entered and returns the results of the search, providing links to relevant Web sites for us to choose from.
Some commonly used search engines are MSN, Alta Vista, Google, Yahoo! search and Infoseek etc.

Why use a search engine?

The internet has millions of websites. You can search for almost anything – from recipes and local news,
to history and gardening tips.

To search the internet effectively you need a search engine.

• A search engine will scan through thousands of websites and WebPages on the internet and collect and
organize the information it thinks is most relevant to you.

You can make your searching more effective by following a few handy tips:

• Use key words not full sentences or questions. For example, instead of typing “I need tips for
diagnosing tuberculosis (TB)” simply type “Diagnosing Tuberculosis”

• If you can’t find what you want, try to use different words or a different way of expressing it

• Practice putting key words into the search box and pressing the search button

• A list of search results will appear, with the most popular websites near the top of the list

• To view a website, simply click on the link

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Chapter Three: General Computer Security

Preliminary:

For so many reasons, Wellbeing has always been an overriding concern of human kind. Therefore, for
human beings to survive they need to know how to protect themselves and what to protect themselves
from. Similarly, for Computer Technology to function and encounter its purpose they need to be secured
as well. Thus, when taking different procedures to secure our computer systems, this branch of security is
called Computer Security
Information Technology has also some loopholes associated with it, like the possibility of stealing of vital
information and intentionally implanting destructive or malicious programs on the other's computer
system. The motive behind such activities is perhaps to show down the pace of an organization and harm
it economically. We shall discuss now about these malicious Software “Malwares”, which are often called
virus, worms, Trojan horse, logic bomb, spyware and so on.

Unit One: Understanding Malware

- Short for malicious software

- Is software used or created to disrupt computer operation, gather sensitive information, or gain
access to private computer systems.
- It can appear in the form of code, scripts, active content, and other software programs.
- 'Malware' is a general term used to refer to a variety of forms of hostile, intrusive, or annoying
software

Viruses’ Trojan horse Worms

Types of Infection “Malware”

When you listen to the news, you hear about many different forms of electronic infection. The most
common are:

1. Viruses - A virus is a small piece of software that piggybacks on real programs. For example, a
virus might attach itself to a program such as a text program “MS Office word”. Each time the text
program runs, the virus run too, and it has the chance to reproduce (by attaching to other
programs) or wreak havoc.
2. E-mail viruses - An e-mail virus moves around in email messages, and usually replicates itself by
automatically mailing itself to dozens of people in the victim's e-mail address book.

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3. Worms - A worm is a small piece of software that uses computer networks and security holes to
replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans the network for another machine that has a specific
security hole. It copies itself to the new machine using the security hole, and then starts replicating
from there, as well.
4. Trojan horses - A Trojan horse is simply a computer program. The program claims to do one
thing (it may claim to be a game) but instead does damage when you run it (it may erase your hard
disk). Trojan horses have no way to replicate automatically.

Computer viruses are called viruses because they share some of the traits of biological viruses. A computer
virus passes from computer to computer like a biological virus passes from person to person.

There are similarities at a deeper level, as well. A biological virus is not a living thing. A virus is a
fragment of DNA inside a protective jacket. Unlike a cell, a virus has no way to do anything or to
reproduce by itself - it is not alive. Instead, a biological virus must inject its DNA into a cell. The viral
DNA then uses the cell's existing machinery to reproduce itself. In some cases, the cell fills with new viral
particles until it bursts, releasing the virus. In other cases, the new virus particles bud off the cell one at a
time, and the cell remains alive.

A computer virus shares some of these traits. A computer virus must piggyback on top of some other
program or document in order to get executed. Once it is running, it is then able to infect other programs or
documents. Obviously, the analogy between computer and biological viruses stretches things a bit, but
there are enough similarities that the name stick.

Usage of Malware

- Many early infectious programs were written as experiments or pranks.

- Today, malware is used primarily to steal sensitive personal, financial, or business information for
the benefit of others.
- Malware is sometimes used broadly against government or corporate websites to gather guarded
information, or to disrupt their operation in general.
- However, malware is often used against individuals to gain personal information such as social
security numbers, bank or credit card numbers, and so on.

How Malware Spreads?

– Malware is a program that must be triggered or somehow executed before it can infect your computer
system and spread to others.
– Here are some examples on how malware is distributed:
a) Social network
b) Pirated software “Infected Software”
c) Removable media (e.g. Flash Drives, HDD, Memory Drives)
d) Emails and Websites

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Malware Symptoms

While these types of malware differ greatly in how they spread and infect computers, they all can produce
similar symptoms. Computers that are infected with malware can exhibit any of the following symptoms:

– Slow computer or web browser speeds by Increased CPU usage

– Problems connecting to networks
– Modified or deleted files or file names
– Appearance of strange files, programs, or desktop icons
– Programs running, turning off, or reconfiguring themselves (malware will often reconfigure or
turn off antivirus and firewall programs)
– Strange computer behavior such as Freezing or crashing
– Emails/messages being sent automatically and without user’s knowledge (a friend receives a
strange email from you that you did not send)
– There seems to be a lot of network activity when you are not using the network “Denial of Service
- DoS”
– The available memory on your computer is lower than it should be
– Programs or files appear or disappear without your knowledge

Unit Two: Malware Prevention and Removal

There are several general best practices that organizations and individual users should follow to prevent
malware infections. Some malware cases require special prevention and treatment methods, but following
these recommendations will greatly increase a user’s protection from a wide range of malware:

– Install and run anti-malware and firewall software. When selecting software, choose a program
that offers tools for detecting, quarantining, and removing multiple types of malware. At the
minimum, anti-malware software should protect against viruses, spyware, adware, Trojans, and
worms. The combination of anti-malware software and a firewall will ensure that all incoming and
existing data gets scanned for malware and that malware can be safely removed once detected.
– Keep software and operating systems up to date with current vulnerability patches. These patches
are often released to patch bugs or other security flaws that could be exploited by attackers.
– Be vigilant when downloading files, programs, attachments, etc. Downloads that seem strange or
are from an unfamiliar source often contain malware.
Anti-Malware Program

– Anti-Malware program is used to prevent, detect, and remove computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses
and any other type of malware.

Examples of Anti-Malware program:

1. Antivirus program
– “Antivirus" is protective software designed to defend your computer against malicious software.
– In order to be an effective defense, the antivirus software needs to run in the background at all
times, and should be kept updated so it recognizes new versions of malicious software.

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Examples of Anti-Viruses Programs

2. Anti-spyware program
- Anti-spyware program is a type of program designed to prevent and detect unwanted spyware
program installations and to remove those programs if installed.
- Examples of Anti-spyware program:
o Spyware Doctor
o AVG Anti-spyware
o STOPzilla
o Spysweeper
3. Anti-spam program
- Anti-spam software tries to identify useless or dangerous messages for you.
4. Firewall
- A firewall blocks attempts to access your files over a network or internet connection.
- That will block incoming attacks.
- Your computer can become infected through shared disks or even from another computer on the
network.
- So you need to monitor what your computer is putting out over the network or internet also.

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Unit three: Safeguarding Your Data

How can you protect both your personal and work-related data?
- Lock your computer when you are away from it
- Use and maintain anti-virus software and a firewall
- Regularly scan your computer for spyware
- Avoid unused software programs
- Consider creating separate user accounts
- Establish guidelines for computer use
- Use passwords and encrypt sensitive files
- Disconnect your computer from the Internet when you aren't using it
- If you are a member of an online community or chat room, be very careful about accepting files or
clicking links that you find or that people send you within the community.
- Make sure you back up your data (documents, bookmark files, important email messages, etc.) on
disc so that in the event of a virus infection, you do not lose valuable work.

Unit four: General Computer Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting Do's Troubleshooting Don’ts

1 DO make sure your hardware device drivers are DON'T allow your computer to run hot
up to date
2 DO check that all connections are seated firmly DON'T use a brush when you decide to clean the
and properly in their sockets. circuit cards and motherboard in your computer
3 DO perform preventive maintenance on your DON'T download and install files from the
computer and keep it clean regularly Internet without scanning them for viruses first.
4 DO make absolutely sure you have removed DON'T plug in your mouse, keyboard, or
any and all electrical static buildup from any peripheral while the computer is on.
yourself before working inside your computer
and before touching any new circuit cards
and chips.
Final Quiz:

Think and justify other mechanism’s you would use to protect both your data and your computer
system!!!

Further readings:

- Sinhal, Dr. Amit. (2018). Computer Fundamentals & its Application.

- Computer Fundamentals Concepts, Systems & Applications – P.K Sinha
- Saini, Vineet. (2013). Introduction To Computer Fundamental.
- https://computer.howstuffworks.com/virus.htm
- https://www.us-cert.gov/publications/virus-basics
- Őren, Tuncer (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic
Agents" (PDF). Turk J Elec Engin. 9 (1): 63–70.
- Parsons, June Jamrich and Dan Oja. Computer Concepts. Cambridge, MA: Course Tech, 1999.
- Understanding Computers: An Overview for Records and Archives Staff 1999 ©IRMT
- Automating managers: The Implications of Information Technology for Managers 1990 John Moses

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