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•• - - - ~ - ~ -

CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS Molality and mole ..

amount of solute present in a given quantity of solution fraction are independent
of temperature

"' '
'
Molarity (M) Molality (m) .
Mole fraction (x) Normality (N)
Moles of solute x 1000 Moles of solute Moles of solute . Equiv. of solute x 1000
xlO00
Vol of solution (mL} Wt. of solvent (g) Total moles of solution Vol. of solution (mL)

Henry's law Henry's law gives relationship Raoult'a law

m oc-p or m = K.p between solubility ofgas in a PA =pJ.xA andpB =Pa-Xa
1 liquid and pressure.
X oc p or p = K' X or p = Kw and p =PA+ PB= Pi.'+ (pe-PA'>xii

IDEAL SOLUTIONS
• Obeys Raoult's law NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS
• ~H=0 Ideal solutions are formed by liquids • donot obey Raoult's law
• ~V=0 having same intermolecular forces. • i:lmixing H * O
benzene + toluene • ~ g V:t0
n-hexane + n-heptane_

" AZEOTROPES
Positive deviations from Raoult' Negative deviations from Raoult's law
1
Liqui,d mixture boiling without I
• PA <p;.xA and pa< P;Xa
•

change in composition law

• Solutions with +ve deviations • PA>pAxAandpB>Ps-Xa • ~H=-ve
from ideal behaviour form • ~H= +ve • V=-veJ_
minimum boilingazeotropes. • V= +ve •• . .. Acetone + Chloroform
• Solutions with-ve deviation from Ethyl alcohol + Cyclohexane Water+ Nitric acid
• .. • t l,

ideal behaviour form maximum Benzene + Acetone ' .. ,

boiling azeotropes.
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

...
depend only on the number of solute particles

. lowenng
Relative . m. vapour pressure : Pl - PA = xB and M8 =
0
PA

Elevation in boiling point :

and Kb= &Ivap xl000

Kr xios xl000
Depression in freezing point : !!.Tr= K,- X m, MB = t:,.Tr X WA
MRT2
and Ky-= r
A.llrwiion X 1000

n tosRT
.Osmotic pressure : 1t = cRT = -RT
V
and Ma= -V-
1t

Observed colligative property

i = Normal colligative property

• Into osmosis, there is net flow of solvent from solvent

the solution .or from less concentrated solution
• • The solutions having same osmotic pressure
are called isotonic solutio~
to more concentrated solution through the semi- • Ifa solution has more osmotic pressure than
permeable m~mbrane. some other solution, it is called hypertonic.
• The common semi-permeable membrane used in the
laboratory is copper ferrocyanide, C~[Fe(CN)sJ.
• A solution having less osmotic pressure than
the other is called hypotonic solution.

• The reverse osmosis process can be

used for desalination of sea water.

Van't
. Hoff factor
,'

i Normal molar mass _ O~servea colligative property

• t .,- = Observed molar ma~s ~- Normal colligative Pf~perty
• .ff observed colligative property < normal colligative property
>. ,: or p~served molar mass > nof\nahriolar·ifi~~: '.' . , ',
•. . .... ,,. , ... - r --·r .. ,

~~-• .·the solute is associated: . ; , ,./ ;: , ' ,'-.:·

t fr
•'•..•
J ,.(;,
observed
. ,.
colligative·_ pi:o~rty > AO~al ~Olli. ative
-~ or observed mol~·mass <. normal molar m
.~• ..,,,..A••

the solute .is.dissociated .

• ·:.>A ..J-:. .,
.. 'O ,/,.~; : .~<~"'' <

• For solutes which donot undergo Colligative Properties for solutes undergoing
association or dissociation, association or dissociation
i ='1 PA - PA
• For solutes undergoing association,
i <1
PA
I•
• For solutes undergoing dissociation,
t:,.Tr = iK,m
i>1 t:,.Tb = i Kb m
1t = i cRT
 -
ie 1e I
:Pi,·
::,
:I!
e
0.
::,
Pi,.
.,.,
::,

[
.
--A A•

&_P_:
IP.:' -
n

- B Ai~ ~ - la
x,•I Mole-+ x.-o Mole--+ x.-o
x,-o Fraction X9•l Fraction
xA•l Mole --+
x8•1 Fraction x0 •1
Ideal behaviour Positive deviation from Negative deviation from
ideal behaviour ideal behaviour

0
B

i !::,
1.0 atm (1.013 bar)
ie
::,

l
I ::l
[
I
I
I

i A
1
Boiling point
_ • elevation
I
i '
I
l.... Freezlng point

-
.: b.p. of f.p. of , ,i.t I depression
: , solution solutiQn f.p. of
-solvent
-"
Temperature (K) T• T, T,'
Temperature ( K ) -
Elevation in boiling point Depression in freezing point