COMPUTER SCIENCE 11

CHAPTER 2: Information Networks

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 Topics
• Computer Network
• Workgroup Computing & Groupware
• Network Models
• Network Standards
• Network Topologies
• LAN & Components of LAN
• WAN & MAN
• Network Protocols
• Internet
• Email
• OSI Model

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 Information Network / Computer Network
• Two or more computer connected together to share information and
resources.
• Resources can be printer , hard disk or software.
• Information network uses two important technologies. Computing and
telecommunication.
• Telecommunication is a process of transferring information over a distance
through radio waves and optical signal etc.
• Computer in a network connected with one another through cables, satellite
or phone lines.
Uses of Network
• Networks allow users to share program and data at the same time.
• Networks allow users to share peripheral devices.
• Networks allow users to send email messages along with attachments(files)
• Some network also provide tools for teleconferencing and video conferencing

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 Workgroup computing
• When two or more than two people work on the same project using
computer network, it is called workgroup.
• When people of a workgroup perform some processing is called workgroup
computing.
• It is also known as collaborative computing.
• It allow people to share their ideas and experiences using computer
network
• Workgroup computing has played an important role in research and
development.
Groupware
• Groupware is a software used for workgroup computing.
• The researchers can use it to share information bout different projects online.
• The individuals can use it to collaborate with their colleagues

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 Network Models
• There are three types of network models
1. Client – Server Model
• The Client – Server model is a network architecture where computer tasks are divided b/w Client and Server.
• The Client is a device(computer, laptop, Phone etc) that requests a service or resource form server.
• The server is Centralized System that provides the requested services and resources.
• The client and server communicate over a network by request and response.
• The client sends a request to the server to the server, which processes the request and send back a response the client.
• The server can handle multiple requests form different clients simultaneously, and the client do not interact with each other
directly.
• The server typically has more processing power, memory and storage capacity that client.
• The client performs simpler tasks such as displaying data or sending user input to the server.
• The server can handle complex tasks, such as running a database or processing large amounts of data
• Client Applications is used to send request to server. Web browser is example of client application.
• Some Server are called dedicated Server.
• Dedicated server is used to perform a specific task. File server , printer server, database server, network server.
• Advantages
• It reduces the volume of data traffic on the network.
• It also provides faster responses to the client
• It can use less power computer as clients.
• Disadvantages
• It is expensive model.
• The operations stop all over the network when server goes done

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 Network Models (Cont)
2. Peer – to – Peer
• The peer-to-peer (P2P) model is a network architecture where all devices or nodes have same status and can act as both clients
and servers.
• P2P networks are decentralized, meaning there is no central server or authority that controls the network.
• In a P2P network, each device or node can share its resources, such as files, processing power, and bandwidth, with other
devices on the network.
• P2P networks can be used for a variety of applications, including file sharing, messaging, and distributed computing.
• In a P2P file-sharing network, each client can download and upload files directly from and to other clients on the network, without
the need for a centralized file server.
• Each computer is independent in terms of data storage and devices.
• Advantages
• It is easy to setup
• It is easy to maintain.
• It does not require expensive server computer.
• It is suitable for small office of ten or less computers.
• Disadvantages
• He can slow down the down the network speed.
• It also provides less security of data
3. Hybrid Network Model
• It has the combined features of both Client – Server and Peer – to – Peer network.
• The users take advantage of both models

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 Network Standards.
• Network standards are a set of guidelines, protocols, and specifications that define how computer networks should be designed
• Network standards are developed and maintained by various organizations, such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE), the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
• Network standards can cover various aspects of networking, such as data transmission, routing, addressing, security, and
management.
Type of Network Standards
1. De Facto
• De – Facto means “by tradition” or “by facts”.
• These standards are developed informally and came into existence after historical development.
• These are used by organizations worldwide.
• SNA(system network architectures) an example of De – Facto standard
2. De Jure
• De – Jure mean “According to Law or Regulations”
• These standards are properly researched, developed and approved by some networks governing bodies.
• These organization are
• ANSI American National Standard Institute.
• IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
• ISO The International Standard Organization.
• ITU-T The international Telecommunication union – Telecommunication Standards Sector (Formally CCITT)
• EIA The Electronics Industries Association.
• Telcordia

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 Network Topologies
• Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of nodes, devices, and connections in a computer network.
• Topology refers to the layout of connected devices on a network.
• The scheme of joining computers in a network is called topology.
• Arrangement of computer nodes in a computer network is called topology.
• It is shape of network
Type of Network Standards
1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Tree Topology
5. Mesh Topology

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 Bus Topology
• All computer are connected to common communication medium.
• The communication medium is called BUS/ backbone .
• A special device terminator is used at both ends of the series to absorb the signals.
• In bus topology if computer transmits data on the communication medium then all the nodes on the bus see this message and only
the destination computer accepts and processes the message.
• Ethernet But is mostly used in LAN because it is relatively easy to install.
• The number of computer in bus topology should be limited.
• Problem are increase with the increase of number of computer in bus topology.
• The entire network fails if the backbone fails.
• Collision can occur in bus topology if two computers transmit data at same time
• Advantages
• It is easy to understand.
• It is easy to connect additional computer to this kind of network.
• This topology is best to connect computer close to each other.
• It is simple and easy to use.
• It requires small length of cable to connect computer.
• It is less expensive.
• If one node fails it done not affect the rest of the network
• If is easy to extend a bus. It allows more computer to join network
• Disadvantages
• It is difficult to troubleshoot.
• It only supports small number of computer.
• The network speed slows down as the number of computer increases.

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 Star Topology
• All the computer are connected through a central device (Hub or switch)
• Twisted pair (UTP) cable is used in star topology. Star topology requires more cable.
• It is mostly using in LAN because it is easy to maintain and install.
• If any computer fails the network is not affected.
• If Hub or Switch fails then the entire network also fails.
• Advantages
• It is easy to maintain and modify network
• Adding or removing computers can be done without disturbing the network.
• Finding faults becomes very simple.
• Single computer failure does not bring down the whole network.
• It is more flexible than other topologies.
• Disadvantages
• If central hub fails the entire network breaks down.
• It requires a large length of cable to connect computer.
• It is more expensive.

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 Ring Topology
• Every computer is connected to the next computer last computer is connected to the first computer .
• In this way ring shape is formed
• In a ring topology every device has exactly two neighbors for communication.
• Each computer receive message from previous computer and transmits it to the next computer.
• All messages are travel through a ring in the same direction(clock – wise or anti – clock –wise)
• A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and the entire network fails.
• Token passing scheme us used in ring topology.
• Advantages
• No change of data collision.
• It is less expensive than star topology.
• Every computer has equal access to the network
• Disadvantages
• Failure of one computer in the ring affect the whole network
• It is difficult to troubleshoot.
• Adding or removing computers effect he whole network.
• Speed of ring topology is very slow.

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 Tree Topology
• Three Topology integrates multiple star topologies together on to a bus.
• All computer are connected in such a way that forms a tree like structures.
• It has the combined features of star and bus topology.
• It consist of different groups of computer attached in star topology.
• The groups are then connect to a Bus cable.
• Three topology is used for expansion of existing network

• Advantages
• It provides point – to – point wiring for individual segments.
• It is supported by several hardware and software vendors
• Disadvantages
• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
• If the backbone line breaks the entire segment goes down.
• It is more difficult to configure and wire than other topologies

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 Mesh Topology
• In Mesh topology every computer is directly connected to every other computer on the network.
• There are several possible paths form source to destination.
• Mesh topology is used in WAN or internet.
• It has high fault tolerance due to multiple links.
• Troubleshooting in mesh topology is easy as compared to other networks.
• The installation of mesh topology is difficult.
• Its performance is not affected with heavy load of data transmission.

• Advantages
• No traffic problem as there are dedicated links.
• Reliable because failure of one link does not affect the entire system.
• Security as data travels along a dedicated line.
• Point – to – Point links makes fault identification easy.
• More fault tolerant.
• Disadvantages
• Expensive hardware is required for direct connections.
• Because of direct connections more wire is required.
• Installation and maintenance is complex.

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 LAN (Local Area Network)
• A LAN (Local Area Network) is a computer network that connects devices within a small geographic area, such as a home, office, or
building
• A LAN is a network of computers and other devices that are connected to each other through a wired or wireless network.
• It is typically used to share resources, such as printers, files, and internet connections, among the devices on the network
• LAN can transmit data at very high speed 10 Mbps to 1000 mbps.

• Use and Advantage of LAN

• One copy of software can be shared by all users in a LAN.
• System resources like printers and hard disk can be shared b/w users in LAN.
• It is easy to manage the data stored on centralized computer in LAN.
• The data is more secure form being copied or destroyed.
• Data can be shared by all users using LAN
• Components of LAN
• All networks require some components for interconnection.
• There components are
1. Communication Media
2. NIC
3. Bridge
4. Router
5. Gateway

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 1. Communication Media
• Communication media refers to the channels or pathways that transmit data, information, or
messages from one location to another
• It is also called communication channels.
• There are two kinds of transmission media.
1. Guided media
2. Unguided media
1. Guided media
• Guided media, also known as wired media or bounded media.
• Guided media is a type of communication media that uses physical wires or cables to
transmit data signals.
• Data signals are not bounded to cabling media therefore it is also known as unbounded
media.
• The transmission rate is slower than the physical medium.
• Guided media can be categorized into different types based on the type of cable used, such
as twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable.
2. Unguided media
• Unguided media, also known as wireless media or unbounded media.
• Unguided media is a type of communication media that uses wireless signals to transmit
data between devices.
• Unguided media can be categorized into different types based on the type of wireless
signals used, such as radio waves, microwaves, and infrared waves.

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 2. NIC( Network Interface Card
• A NIC is a hardware component that is installed inside a computer or laptop to enable it to connect to a network.
• The NIC acts as an interface between the computer and the network, and allows the computer to transmit and receive data over the
network.
• The NIC is responsible for converting the digital signals from the computer into a form that can be transmitted over the network, and
for receiving and decoding incoming signals from the network.
• It is also called LAN adapter.

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 3. Bridges
• A bridge is a hardware device that operates at the data link layer( layer 2) of the OSI model and use MAC addresses to make
forwarding decisions.
• It is used to connect two or more different network segments or LANs that use the same communication protocol, such as Ethernet.
• A bridge receives data packets on one network segment and forwards them to the appropriate destination on another network
segment

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 4. Router
• Router is combination of hardware and software resources and it connects two or more network similar or different protocols.
• Router operates at the network layer (3) of the OSI model. And uses IP addresses to make routing decisions.
• It is responsible for directing traffic b/w network base on the destination IP address of packets.
• It manage the best router any two communication network.
• Router are used when several network are connected together.

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 5. Gateway
• It is a collection of hardware and software resources that connects to or more different network that use different protocols such as
(LAN or WAN).
• It act as a translator, converting data form one format to another so that it can be transmitted b/w the network.
• It receive data form one network and transfer it according to the protocol of other network.

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 WAN ( Wide Area Network)
• WAN is a type of computer network that connects multiple LANs and other devices.
• It cover large geographical area, such as a city, country, or even the whole world.
• WAN can be established using different technologies and communication channels, such as leased lines, satellite
links, microwave links, and fiber optic cables.
• The larger computer in WAN are hosts and hosts are the computer on the network which provides services to other
computer on the network.

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 MAN ( Metropolitan – Area Network)
• It covers a larger area than a Local Area Network (LAN) but smaller than a Wide Area Network (WAN).
• It connect two or more LANs in City.
• The size of MANs usually ranges from 5 kilometers to 50 kilometers
• Television cable is an example of a MAN.

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 LAN vs WAN
LAN WAN
Area
It covers small geographical area It covers large geographical area
Connection
Computer and devices are physically connected Computer may or may not be physically connected.

Devices
Ethernet Card is used in LAN Modem is used in WAN
Speed
Data transmission speed is very high. 10Mbps to 1000 Mbps Data transmission speed is low. 56Kbps to 56Mbps

Cost
Its cost of installation is less than WAN. Its cost is high
Error
Its error rate is negligible Its error rate is high
Examples
Computer lab of a college Internet

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 Network Protocols
• Protocols are the rules to exchange data between two devices.
• A network protocol defines how data is transmitted over the network, how devices identify themselves and others on the network, and
how errors and other issues are handled..
• Network protocols enable different devices and applications to communicate with each other, even if they are made by different
manufacturers and use different hardware and software.
• Network protocols are essential for the proper functioning of computer networks, as they ensure that data is transmitted correctly and
efficiently
• LAN Protocols
1. Ethernet
• It is most commonly used LAN protocol.
• Ethernet is used in Bus topology with high –speed network cable,
• It is relatively simple and cheaper.
• As all computer share the same transmission media there the computer must follows certain rules for communication with
each other otherwise it may cause of loss of data.
• Before transmitting data a station listens to the network to determine whether it is already in use, if it is then it must wait, if
the network is not in use the station transmits.
• When two stations transmit data at the same time then the data collision occurs
• Special message is sent to the network to indicate that is jammed.
• CSMA/CD(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) method is used to access medium.

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 Network Protocols (Cont..)
2. Token Ring
• Token ring protocol is used in ring topology.
• A token is an electronic signal.
• When a node want to transmit data, first it captures the token and then transmits the data.
• After the transmission done it releases the token back to the network.
• As one token is available to the network and the one node with token can transmits data at a time.
• No chance of collision.
• Transmission rate of token ring is slow.
• Token ring was developed by IBM(International Business Machines).
• The method of controlling access to the shared network cable is called token passing.

3. ARCnet
• It stand for Attached Resource Computer Network and was introduced in 1977.
• It uses either twisted pair or co – axial cable.
• The original ArCnet protocol was very slow.
• ARCnet is inexpensive, reliable, easy to setup and easy to expand.
• Fast ArCnet increased the transmission rate to 100Mbps and it can also use fiber optic cable.

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 TCP/IP( Transmission control protocol/ Internet protocol)
• .It is WAN protocol.
• TCP/IP is a suite of protocols that consists of two main protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP).
• TCP is responsible for establishing and maintaining a reliable connection between devices, while IP is responsible for routing data
packets between devices on the network.
• TCP/IP is used to transmit data across the internet and other computer networks, and is the standard protocol used for internet
communication.
• Every computer is identified separately over internet using TCP/IP protocol.
• TCP/IP ensures the reliable connection between the computers over internet.

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 Communication line over telephone network
• .Different lines for communication over telephone network are
1. ISDN
• ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a set of communication protocols that enables digital transmission of voice,
video, and data over traditional telephone networks
• It transmits data voice and video simultaneously at a very high speed over telephone lines.
• It provides reliable digital connection at higher speeds than those offered by analog connection.
• ISDN supports multiple channels for simultaneous communication, which means that different types of data can be
transmitted at the same time, such as voice and data or video and data.
2. DSL
• It stands for digital Subscriber line.
• DSL is a broadband technology that provides high-speed internet access over traditional copper telephone lines
• DSL uses digital modulation techniques to transmit data over the telephone lines.
• DSL supports multiple channels for simultaneous communication, which means that different types of data can be
transmitted at the same time.
• There are different types of DSL, including Asymmetric DSL (ADSL) and Symmetric DSL (SDSL).
• ADSL is the most common type of DSL and is designed to provide faster download speeds than upload speeds
• SDSL provides equal upload and download speeds and is often used by businesses and other organizations that require
fast and reliable internet connections.

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 Method of Ethernet to access network
• .Different access methods used by Ethernet to access a network are
1. CSMA/CM ( Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection)
• CSMA/CD is a protocol used in Ethernet networks to ensure that only one device is transmitting on the network medium at
any given time.
• CSMA/CD uses a "listen before transmit" approach, where devices wait for the network medium to be idle before
attempting to transmit data.
• If two devices attempt to transmit data at the same time and a collision occurs, CSMA/CD uses a collision detection
mechanism to detect the collision and stop the transmission of both data packets.
• Once a collision has been detected, devices that were attempting to transmit data wait for a random amount of time before
attempting to transmit again
• CSMA/CD is important for ensuring that Ethernet networks operate efficiently and without errors, particularly in busy
network environments.
2. CSMA/CS( Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Carrier Sense)
• A node or computer listens to the bus for predetermined amount of time before transmitting and wait unit the talking note
has completed the transmission
3. CSMA/CR(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Resolution)
• It allows multiple devices to communicate at once a protocol determines which device receive priority.

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 Internet
• .The internet is a global network of computers and servers that are connected to each other.
• It allows people to access and share information, communicate with each other, and engage in online activities such as
shopping, entertainment, and social networking.
• The internet is based on a system of protocols that govern how data is transmitted and received, including the transmission
control protocol (TCP) and internet protocol (IP)
• Websites are hosted on servers, which are specialized computers that store and deliver web content to users when they
request it.
• The computers are connected through different telecommunication link
• Phone lines
• Fiber optics lines
• Satellites and wireless connection.
• History of Internet
• ARPANET was designed in by US – Defense department DARPA(Defense Advance Research Project Agency) in
collaboration with universities and research organizations.
• ARPANET(Advance Research Project Agency Network) was a wide area network connecting a small number of user there
were four hosts.
• ARPANET was used for military purpose during 1970 – 1980.
• In 1989, NSF(National Science Foundation) established a network of five super computing centers that were available to
researchers for academic purpose.
• This network of NSF was known as NSFnet.
• Internet became available for general public in 1995 NSFnet moved the last restrictions on the use of internet for commercial
traffic.

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 Services of Internet
• .Internet provides various facilities and uses for users.
1. WWW(World Wide Web)
• It is a collection of millions of uploaded web pages or web sites.
• It organize the internet related resources so that we can easily access the information available on the internet.
• Hyper text transfer protocol(http) is used for WWW.
2. Email
• Email, short for electronic mail, is a way of sending and receiving messages electronically over the internet.
• Email works by using a server to send and receive messages between different email accounts.
• To send an email, you need an email account, which you can create for free with a service like Gmail or Yahoo Mail.
• When you compose an email, you enter the recipient's email address and a subject line, and then type your message in the body of the
email.
• You can also attach files, such as documents or photos, to your email.
• When you click the send button, your email is transmitted over the internet to the recipient's email server, which then delivers it to their
inbox.
3. Telnet
• Telnet is a software protocol that allows you to remotely access and control a computer or device over the internet or a network.
• Telnet was developed in the 1960s as a way to connect to mainframe computers and terminals, and it's still used today.
• To use Telnet, you need a Telnet client software, which can be a command-line tool or a graphical user interface (GUI).
• With Telnet, you can log in to a remote computer or device and access its command prompt or shell, just as if you were sitting in front of it
• Telnet is often used by system administrators to manage servers and network devices remotely.

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 Services of Internet(cont..)
4. FTP(File Transfer Protocol)
.
• File transfer Protocol(ftp) us used to transfer files form one computer to another over internet
• FTP works by establishing a connection between two computers, a client and a server, and then allowing files to be uploaded and
downloaded between them.
• The process of transferring files from remote computer to our computer (PC) is called Downloading.
• The process of transferring file form our computer(PC) to remote computer is called Uploading.
5. Gopher
• Gopher is a protocol that was developed in the early days of the internet as a way to organize and access information.
• Gopher works by providing a hierarchical directory structure of menus and submenus that users can navigate to find information
6. Chat Groups.
• Chatting is a process of exchanging views, ideas on the internet by typing text message.
• Many user can join chat group to exchanging views, ideas.
• Chat groups can be created for a variety of purposes, such as socializing, team collaboration, customer support, and more.
7. Intranet
• An intranet is a private network that is accessible only to authorized users within an organization, such as a company or government
agency.
• It is privately owned secure, business network based on internet technology(using TCP/IP) not necessarily to the internet.
• An intranet is typically used to share information and resources among employees, such as documents, files, and applications.
• An intranet can be accessed through a web browser, similar to the internet, but with restricted access.
• Information cannot be exchanged outside the organization using intranet
8. Extranet
• It is a combination of multiple intranets.
• It can be accessed by authorized users form outside the organization.
• Intranets of different companies are connected to each other to share data and information.
• Each company on extranet provides selected information to one or more other companies.

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 Email
• It. stands for electronic mail.
• It is a process of sending and receiving messages form one computer to another over the internet.
• This facility is provided by some special websites called email servers.
• The sender and receiver may be in the same building or anywhere in the world.
• The sender and receiver both have an email address and email facility e.g Yahoo, Hotmail, Gmail etc.
• The same message can be sent to many people using email facility.
• We can send letters, notes , files data and reports using the same technique.
• When email reaches at the destination it does not interrupt the working on the computer.
• Email facility is cost effective. We can use it at the cost of using internet.
• Email reaches at the destination in a minute or seconds.
• There is not problem of distances in sending and receiving emails.

Advantage and Uses of Email.

• It is very fast and timely.
• It is very cheap and inexpensive.
• People can send and receive message anywhere in the world.
• People can share information.
• It is possible to send and receive email through mobile phone.
• Email gives us the facility to send pictures, sound and videos.
• Email message does not disturb the recipient. It is stored on a server and can be read at any time.

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 HTTP(Hyper text Transport Protocol)
• HTTP
. is a protocol used for communication between web servers and web browsers.
• HTTP is a request-response protocol, with clients (web browsers) sending requests to servers, and servers
responding with data.
• HTTP is used to transmit data over the internet, including text, images, videos, and other media.
• HTTP is based on a client-server architecture, with web browsers acting as clients and web servers acting as
servers.
• HTTP requests typically include a method (such as GET or POST) and a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) that
identifies the resource being requested.
• HTTP responses typically include a status code (such as 200 OK or 404 Not Found) that indicates the status of
the request, along with any data or content that is returned.

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 OSI(Open System Interconnection) Model
• It. is known as OSI networking reference model.
• It was presented by ISO(international standard organization).
• It provides a logical framework how data communication processes should take place across networks.
• There seven layers in OSI model each layers has a particular function.
• There are Two groups of OSI layers.
• Upper layers
• Focus on user applications and how files are represented on computers before transmission.
• Lower layers
• Concentrates on how communication occurs across the network.

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 OSI Layers
.

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 7. Application Layer
• It. is the top – most layer of OSI.
• It provides services directly to user applications.
• It enable the user to access the network.
• It provides user interfaces.
• It support protocol are
• FTP: It allows a user to access retrieve and manage files in remote computer.
• Mail Services: It provides the basis for email forwarding and storage facilities.

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 6. Presentation Layer
• The
. Presentation Layer is the sixth layer of the OSI model.
• It is responsible for formatting, encrypting, and compressing data.
• The Presentation Layer is responsible for data formatting and conversion between different data formats used
by different systems.
• It is also responsible for encryption and decryption of data to ensure that data is transmitted securely.
• It can also perform data compression, which reduces the amount of data that needs to be transmitted, leading
to more efficient communication.
• Some common examples of data formats handled by the Presentation Layer include ASCII, Unicode
• The Presentation Layer acts as a translator between different data formats, ensuring that data sent from one
system can be interpreted correctly by another

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 5. Session Layer
• The
. Session Layer is the fifth layer of the OSI model.
• It is responsible for establishing, managing, and terminating communication sessions between devices on the network
• It ensures that a session is established before data transmission begins and that the session is maintained until all data
transmission is complete.
• The protocols used in this layer provide mechanisms for checkpointing, which allows for the recovery of data
transmission in the event of a disruption.
• The Session Layer also provides services such as synchronization of data exchange between applications

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 4. Transport Layer
• The
. Transport Layer is the fourth layer of the OSI model.
• The Transport Layer is responsible for providing reliable, end-to-end data transport services between devices on the
network, including error detection and correction.
• It ensures that data is transmitted efficiently and reliably over the network, and provides flow control and congestion
management to prevent network congestion and optimize performance.
• The protocols used in this layer are designed to provide end-to-end communication services.
• The Transport Layer also provides segmentation and reassembly of data packets, which are necessary when transmitting
data over a network with different maximum transmission unit (MTU) sizes
• Common protocols that operate at the Transport Layer include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol).

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 3. Network Layer
• The
. Network Layer is the third layer of the OSI model.
• The Network Layer is responsible for the routing and forwarding of data packets between devices on the network.
• It provides services such as logical addressing, routing, and path determination to ensure that data packets are delivered
to their destination.
• The protocols used in this layer are designed to ensure that data is transmitted across the network in the most efficient
and reliable way possible.
• Common protocols that operate at the Network Layer include IP (Internet Protocol) and ICMP (Internet Control Message
Protocol).

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 2. Data Link Layer
• The
. Data Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI model.
• The Data Link Layer is responsible for the reliable transmission of data between devices on the same network, including
the physical addressing of devices and the detection and correction of errors in data transmission
• It provides services such as framing, flow control, error control, and access control to ensure that data is transmitted
efficiently and reliably within a single network.
• Framing: The Data link layer divides the stream of bits into manageable data units called frames.
• Flow Control: The rate of sending data can be more then the rate of receiving data. It manage data flow rate.
• Error Control: The data link layer detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames. It also prevents duplication of frames.
• Access Control: If two or more devices are connected to the same link data link layer determines which devices has
control over the link at a give time.
• Common protocols that operate at the Data Link Layer include Ethernet, Token Ring, and PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol).

Science Tutorial M Zahid Mughal

 1. Physical Layer
• The
. Physical Layer is the first layer of the OSI model.
• It is responsible for the physical transmission of data over the network, including the transmission of bits over a
communication channel.
• It provides services such as encoding, modulation, and transmission of data over a physical medium, such as copper
wire, optical fiber, or wireless signals.
• The Physical Layer is responsible for ensuring that data is transmitted accurately and without interference, such as noise,
attenuation, or distortion.

Science Tutorial M Zahid Mughal

Science Tutorial M Zahid Mughal