Table of Contents

British Expansion Beyond Indian Frontiers ......................................................................................... 3

Foreign Policy of British India ......................................................................................................................3
Relations With Nepal...................................................................................................................................3
Gorkha’s Territorial Conquests in the West ............................................................................................................. 4
Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) ................................................................................................................................... 4

Conquest of Burma ......................................................................................................................................7

Burma Before the British Conquest......................................................................................................................... 7
The First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26) ................................................................................................................. 8
Northeast India...................................................................................................................................................... 9
The Second Burmese War (1852-53) ..................................................................................................................... 10
Third Burmese War (1885) ................................................................................................................................... 11
Independence ...................................................................................................................................................... 12

Relations with Afghanistan .......................................................................................................................12

First Afghan War (1838-42) .................................................................................................................................. 13
Phase of Non-Interference ................................................................................................................................... 14
The Second Afghan War (1878-80) ....................................................................................................................... 14
British Policy in Afghanistan................................................................................................................................. 16
Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919-21) ...................................................................................................................... 16

Relations with Bhutan ...............................................................................................................................17

Relations with Sikkim ................................................................................................................................18
Relations with Tibet ..................................................................................................................................19
Nominal Suzerainty of the Chinese Empire ........................................................................................................... 19
British interest in Tibet ......................................................................................................................................... 20

Important Events and Governors-General ..................................................................................................21

Important Wars and Treaties .....................................................................................................................22
Summary...................................................................................................................................................22
Timeline ....................................................................................................................................................23
 Author: Vishwjeet Kawar
A Protégé of PMF IAS

Suggestions / Feedback: [email protected] | https://t.me/vishwjeetkawar

 British Expansion Beyond Indian Frontiers

Foreign Policy of British India

• During the period of British domination, India’s relations with its neighbours were ultimately
determined by the needs of British imperialism. The foreign policy of India (ruled by the British) was
designed to serve the interests of the British.
• The British Government had two major aims in Asia and Africa:
1. Strategic: To defend the Indian Empire and keep the European powers at arm's length from India.
2. Economic: To promote British economic interests.
• These aims led to British expansion and territorial conquests outside India’s natural frontiers. This
often resulted in border clashes and conflicts with neighbouring states.
• The foreign policy guided by British imperialism helped the British to promote their commercial and
economic interest. However, the cost of its implementation was borne by India:
 Indian soldiers had to shed their blood.
 Indian taxpayers had to bear the heavy cost. In 1904, for example, over half of India’s revenue was
spent on the army.

Expansion Outside India

• The British came to India as traders. Gradually, they started to interfere in India's political
functioning and gained control over the subcontinent by following the policy of annexation.
• With India under control, the British shifted their focus to expansion outside India.

Relations With Nepal

Gorkha’s Territorial Conquests in the West
• In 1767, Raja Prithvi Narayan Shah led the Gorkha army to attack the Kathmandu Valley (ruled by
the Malla dynasty) to take over Nepal's reign. This resulted in the disruption of trade between Nepal
and Patna (EIC).
 Raja Prithvi Narayan Shah was the last King of the Gorkha Kingdom and the first King of the
Kingdom of Nepal.
 Gorkha: The term is derived from a town in central Nepal and does not denote an ethnic group.
• The kings of the Malla dynasty in the Kathmandu Valley urgently requested assistance from Calcutta
(British). The EIC ordered Captain Kinloch of Patna to attack Prithvi Narayan Shah, but the Gorkhas
could defend themselves successfully.
• In the following years, the Gorkhas defeated the Malla rulers of Nepal, and Prithvi Narayan Shah
became king. They gradually built a powerful army and extended their sway from Bhutan in the East
to the river Sutlej in the West.

Nepal-Sikh War
• In 1805, the ruler of Kangra State (Himachal Pradesh), Sansar Chand, attacked Bilaspur. Bilaspur
sought help from the Gurkhas, who crossed the Sutlej River and attacked the Kangra State.
• In 1809, Sansar Chand invited Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab to fight against Gorkha and offered
him a Kangra fort in return.
• Knowing that he would have to fight against Gorkha in the future to conquer the territory east of
the Sutlej, Ranjit Singh agreed to help Sansar Chand.
• In 1809, After a long and furious contest, Ranjit Singh’s Sikh troops defeated the Gorkha army,
and the Gurkhas abandoned their conquests beyond the Sutlej.
• Except for the Kangra fort and 66 villages (allotted for the support of the garrison), Ranjit Singh
gave the remaining territory to Sansar Chand.
• In 1828, Ranjit Singh conquered the entire territory of Kangra, and the last portion of the once-
powerful Kangra State finally came under the control of the Sikhs.

Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16)

• In 1801, Sadat Ali Khan, the Nawab of Awadh, handed over the Gorakhpur to British EIC. This brought
the two expanding powers (the Gorkhas and the British) face to face across an ill-defined border.
• In 1804, Amar Singh Thapa (a military general of the Gorkha army) conquered the Palpa and demanded
rent from Butwal near Gorakhpur.
• The generals of the EIC warned the Gorkha kingdom to stay out of their land. The dispute over the
land border continued for a decade, and in 1814, Lord Hastings formally declared war on the Gorkha
kingdom.
• The British officials expected an easy victory, but the Gurkhas bravely defended their territory and
repeatedly defeated the British armies. However, in the long run, the Gurkhas could not withstand the
superior British forces in terms of manpower, money, and materials.

Battle at Malaun (1815)

• The battle at Malaun lasted from 14 April to 15 May 1815 and was one of the bloodiest months of the
Anglo-Gorkha war. In the end, the British defeated the Gurkhas, and on 15th May, the Gurkha
Commander Amar Singh Thapa surrendered.
• On May 15, 1815, the treaty was signed between Amar Singh Thapa and Gen Ochterlony.
 The Gorkha territory west of the Mahakali River was ceded to the British, and all forts
surrendered.
 Nepali soldiers were allowed to enter into the British Army.
• The Government of Nepal did not accept the British demand for the stationing of a Resident at
Kathmandu, Nepal's capital. Hence, the peace negotiations broke down, and fighting resumed early in
1816.

Treaty of Sugauli (1816)

• The British forces won important victories and reached within 50 miles of Kathmandu. Finally, in 1816,
the war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli between the Nepal Government and the British.
• By the terms of the Treaty, the Nepal Government:
1. Accepted a British Resident at Kathmandu.
2. Ceded the districts of Garhwal and Kumaon.
 3. Abandoned claims to Tarai.
4. Withdrew from Sikkim.
5. Gave up all territories west of Kali and east of its present-day borders.
• As a result of the Treaty of Sugauli, Nepal lost one-third of its territory to the EIC.

Advantages for the British

 The British gained greater trade facilities with Central Asia.

 The British acquired hill stations, including Shimla and Mussoorie.
 Gorkhas joined the British Army, increasing its strength.
 The Nepali soldiers who stayed back after the Anglo-Nepal war and their descendants often
identify themselves as 'Gorkhalis' rather than Nepalis.
 Similarly, those agitating for greater autonomy in Darjeeling called their territory 'Gorkhaland'. This
is because when the Gorkhalis crossed the Mahakali River to annex the hill states, the region was not
yet known as 'Nepal'.

Recruitment of Nepalis into the British Army

• The British EIC was impressed by the fighting spirit of Nepali soldiers and recruited them into the
British Army after the Battle of Malaun in 1815.
• After the Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16), more Nepali soldiers were recruited in the Gorkha regiments
of the British Army. Indian citizens were also allowed to join the Gorkha regiments, but only after
1947.
• After the end of colonial rule in 1947, a tripartite agreement between Nepal, India and Britain was
signed. The tripartite agreement allowed India and Britain to continue to recruit Gurkhas to their
military.
• There are currently more than 20,000 Nepali nationals in the seven Gurkha regiments of the Indian
Army. Every year, some 1,400 Nepali youth are selected to join the Indian Army.
• The Gorkha troops of the Indian Army are highly respected for their bravery in battle. Former chief
of the Indian Army Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw once said, “If a man says he is not afraid of
dying, he is either lying or he’s a Gurkha.”

Ram Chand Thakur (1914-2002)

• Ram Chand Thakur was a soldier from the Gorkha Rifles from Kangra in Himachal Pradesh.
• He joined the Netaji’s Indian National Army and composed many martial songs, including Kadam
Kadam Badaye Ja (which is sung in the Indian military) and the INA National Anthem.

Gurkha Recruitment on Pause

• In 2022, the Indian government announced the Agnipath scheme for the recruitment of its
soldiers.
 • The rules of the Agnipath scheme also apply to the Gurkha soldiers. The Nepal government
objected to the new scheme and blocked the recruitment of Nepalese Gorkhas.
• The Nepal government claimed that the new scheme went against the 1947 Tripartite Agreement,
which stated that any modifications to the agreement should be made through a political consensus.

Conquest of Burma

• With India under control, the British shifted focus to expansion in South East Asia. The British could
control Nepal and China easily, but Burma (now Myanmar) posed many threats to the British.

Burma Before the British Conquest

• Before the British conquest, Burma was under the rule of the Konbaung dynasty, which ruled from
1752 to 1885. The Konbaung dynasty was an expansionist who was always looking for expansion.
• King Bodawpaya conquered Tenasserim (1776), Pegu, and Arakan (1784) and led the foundation of
modern-day Burma.
• The Burmese rulers conquered Manipur and Assam in 1813 and 1822, respectively, bringing their
boundary line to touch the border of British India. This posed a threat to the British and led to the
Anglo-Burmese Wars.
• The conflict between Burma and British India was initially caused by border clashes and was further
escalated by expansionist desires.
• Following the three wars between the two expansionist powers, the British emerged victorious and
conquered Burma.
Burmese Ruler (Konbaung dynasty) Reign
Alaungpaya (Founder) 1752-60
Bodawpaya 1782-1819
Pagan 1846-53
Mindon 1853-78
Thibaw 1878-85

Causes of the Anglo-Burmese Wars

 The expansionist urges of the British and the Burmese rulers and border clashes along the ill-defined
border.
 The British urge to exploit Burma's forest resources.
 To promote exports of British goods to the Burmese population.
 To check the spread of French commercial and political influence in Burma.
 Anglo-Burmese Wars Governor-General
First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26) Lord Amherst
Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852-53) Lord Dalhousie
Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) Lord Dufferin

The First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26)

• The First Burmese War was the result of border clashes. Burmese occupation of Manipur and Assam
provided the source of conflict between the two.
• The British authorities looked upon the Burmese occupation of Manipur and Assam as a serious threat
to their position in India. British authorities sent troops to Cachar and Jaintia to counter the Burmese
threat to India. This angered Burmese Commander-in-Chief Maha Bandula, who marched their troops
into Cachar.
• In February 1824, British authorities declared war on Burma after the Burmese invaded and captured
Shalpuri island near Chittagong, which was a part of EIC.
• After an initial setback, the British forces drove the Burmese out of Assam, Cachar, Manipur and Arakan.
• The British decided to take amphibious action (through land and sea) to take over the Rangoon. In
1824, a naval force of 10,000 British and Indian troops led by Sir Archibald Campbell arrived in
Rangoon. On April 1, Maha Bandula was killed.
• By February 1826, the Anglo-Indian army had advanced to Yandabo (a town), just eighty kilometres
from the then-capital Ava (Inwa). However, the Burmese resistance was strong and determined, and the
war had become financially highly costly.
• Therefore, the British, who were winning the war, and the Burmese, who were losing it, were willing to
make peace. This led to the Treaty of Yandabo, signed on 26 February 1826, ending the war.

Treaty of Yandabo (1826)

• The Treaty of Yandabo is the peace treaty that ended the First Anglo-Burmese War, with the British
emerging victorious.
• The treaty was signed on 24 February 1826 by General Sir Archibald Campbell on the British side and
on the Burmese side by the Governor of Legaing Maha Min Hla Kyaw Htin.
• By the terms of the Treaty of Yandabo, the Government of Burma agreed:
1. To cede the coastal provinces of Arakan (now Rakhine) and Tenasserim (now Tanintharyi) to the
British.
2. To abandon all claims to Assam, Cachar, and Jaintia
3. To recognise Manipur as an independent state.
4. To accept a British Resident at Ava while posting a Burmese envoy at Calcutta.
5. To pay one million sterling pounds as war compensation
6. To negotiate a commercial treaty with Britain
• After the Treaty of Yandabo:
 Assam, Arakan and Tenasserim became a part of British India.
 Cachar, Jaintia and Manipur became the British Protectorate (under British Control).

Importance of the Treaty of Yandabo

 The Treaty of Yandabo enabled the British to annex Burma and consolidate their position in South East
Asia.
 It put an end to one of the most expensive wars in British Indian history.
 It marked the beginning of the end of Burmese independence.
 The powerful Burmese empire that posed a threat to the British was finally conquered and crippled.

Aftermath of the Treaty of Yandabo

• The War and indemnity left Burma weak economically and politically.
• The battle cost the British five to thirteen million pounds sterling, thus leading to a severe economic
crisis in British India in 1833.
• Due to the heavy economic loss, the EIC had to give up its privileges and lost its trade monopoly with
China.

Northeast India
• The North Eastern states were always a part of India, geographically, culturally, and politically.
 • In North East states, dynasties rule the states for a long period of time. The Mughals, as well as the
Delhi Sultans, were never able to conquer the North Eastern states. Thus, the region of the North
East was partially isolated from the rest of the country.
• When Burma invaded Manipur and Assam, the British feared the loss of territory and, therefore,
shifted focus to Northeast India to consolidate their hold on the Indian territory.
• After the First Anglo-Burmese War, the Treaty of Yandabo (1826) was signed without the consent
of the rulers of the territories covered under the treaty, including:
1. Assam (Ahom Kingdom)
2. Cachar (Kachari Kingdom)
3. Jaintia (Jaintia Kingdom)
4. Manipur (Manipuri Kingdom)
• After the Treaty of Yandabo:
1. Assam: The Ahom Kingdom was terminated, and the control of Assam passed into the British
hands.
2. Manipur: Manipur became a British Protectorate.
3. Cachar and Jaintia: Initially, the British allowed the local rulers to rule the territory, but later,
they annexed them.
 British annexed the Southern Cachar in 1832 and Northern Cachar in 1854.
 British annexed the Jaintia in 1835. The main reason for the annexation of Jaintia was the
practice of human sacrifice. The Jaintias abducted the British subjects and sacrificed them to
the goddess Kali.

The Second Burmese War (1852-53)

• The Second Burmese War, which broke out in 1852, was almost wholly the result of British commercial
greed.
• British timber firms had begun to take an interest in the timber resources of Upper Burma. Moreover,
the large population of Burma appeared to the British to be a vast market for the sale of British cotton
goods and other manufactured goods.
• The British, already occupying Burma's two coastal provinces (Arakan and Tenasserim), now wanted
to establish commercial relations with the rest of the country.
• The aggressive Lord Dalhousie became the Governor-General of India in 1948. He was determined to
advance British interests in Burma and was waiting for a reason for armed intervention in Burma.
• A complaint from two British sea captains that the Governor of Rangoon had extorted 1,000 rupees
from them was used as the pretext for the war. A British expedition was sent to Burma in April 1852.
They quickly captured Rangoon, Bassein, and Pegu.
• During this time, Burma was undergoing a power struggle. In February 1853, the Burmese King,
Mindon, removed his half-brother, King Pagan.
• Mindon found himself in a difficult situation. He was not in a position to fight the British, and he
could not openly agree to surrender Burmese territory either. Consequently, there were no official
negotiations for peace, and the war ended without a treaty.
• With the annexation of Pegu, the British gained control over Burma's entire coastline and sea trade.
After three years of fighting against local guerrilla resistance, the British also gained control of Lower
Burma.

Third Burmese War (1885)

Causes of the Third Burmese War
Commercial Greed of the British

1. The possibility of trade with China through Burma attracted British merchants and industrialists.
2. Many merchants demanded the British conquest of Upper Burma to open more markets.
 In 1862, Burma signed a commercial treaty with the British allowing British merchants to settle in
any part of Burma and navigate the Irrawaddy River to China.
 However, the Burmese king held a trade monopoly on several goods, such as cotton, wheat, and
ivory. This did not satisfy the British merchants and the king finally abolished all monopolies in
February 1882.

Growing French Influence in Burma

• King Mindon died in 1878 and was succeeded by King Thibaw. In 1885, Thibaw signed a purely
commercial treaty with France, providing for trade.
• The British merchants feared that:
 French and American rivals would capture the rich Burmese market.
 An alliance with France might lead to the founding of French dominion in Burma.
 The French had already emerged as a major rival of Britain in Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

Trade dispute: Justification of War

• The British wanted to annex Upper Burma. Only a pretext for war was needed, and the Scottish-run
Bombay-Burmah Trading Corporation (BBTC) case provided this.
• The Burmese Government accused the Company of extracting more than double the quantity of teak
contracted by bribing local officials and demanded compensation.
• Lord Dufferin, Governor General of India, seized this opportunity and put forward many claims on the
Burmese Government.
• The British government demanded that Burma's foreign relations be placed under the control of the
Viceroy of India. The Burmese Government didn’t accept such demands. Its rejection was followed by a
British invasion on 13 November 1885.
• The Burmese Government was unable to effectively resist the British forces. King Thibaw surrendered
on 28 November 1885.
• The kingdom was annexed and officially became British Burma, a province of India, on January 1,
1886.

Independence
• After the First World War (1914-18), a vigorous modern nationalist movement arose in Burma. A wide
campaign of boycotting British goods was organised, and the demand for Home Rule was put forward.
The Burmese nationalists soon joined hands with the Indian National Congress.
• In 1935, the British separated Burma from India in the hope of weakening the Burmese struggle for
freedom. The Burmese nationalists opposed this step.
• The Burmese nationalist movement reached new heights under the leadership of U Aung San during
the Second World War (1939-45). Finally, Burma won its independence on 4 January 1948.

Relations with Afghanistan

Ruler of Afghanistan Reign

Ahmad Shah Durrani 1747-72
Dost Mohammad Khan 1826-39 & 1843-63
Shah Shuja Durrani 1803-09 & 1839-42
Sher Ali Khan 1868-79
Mohammad Yaqub Khan 1879
Ayub Khan 1879-80
Abdur Rahman Khan 1880-1901
Habibullah Khan 1901-1919
Amanullah Khan 1919-26
• The rivalry between the British and Russian Empires for influence in Central Asia started in 1830 and
continued throughout the 19th century. The British rulers of India feared that Russia would launch an
attack on India through Afghanistan and the North Western frontier of India.
• The British wanted to keep Russia at a safe distance From the Indian frontier:
 To promote British commercial interests in Central Asia.
 To protect British India from a Russian invasion.
• The British concern about the Russian influence on Afghanistan led to the First Anglo-Afghan War
(1838-1842) and the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880).
Afghan Wars Governor-General
First Afghan War (1838-42) Lord Auckland
Second Afghan War (1878-80) Lord Lytton
 Third Afghan War (1919-21) Lord Chelmsford

First Afghan War (1838-42)

• Dost Mohammad Khan became the ruler of Afghanistan in 1826. This period was marked by
geopolitical rivalry between the British and Russian Empires for influence in Central Asia.
• The British were concerned about Russian advances and wanted to use Afghanistan as a buffer state
to protect British India from a Russian invasion.
• Lord Auckland became the Governor-General of India in 1836. He proposed an alliance with Dost
Muhammed based on the subsidiary system. Dost Muhammed wanted to be an ally of the British
Indian Government based on complete equality and not as one of its puppets or subsidiary allies.
• Lord Auckland decided to replace Dost Muhammed with a friendly ruler in Afghanistan. On 26 June
1838, the Indian Government, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, and Shah Shuja (ex-ruler of Afghanistan) signed
a Tripartite Treaty at Lahore. According to this treaty:
 The Indian Government and Ranjit Singh agreed to assist Shah Shuja in capturing power in
Afghanistan.
 Shah Shuja promised not to negotiate with foreign states without the consent of the British and
the Punjab Government.
 Shah Shuja recognised Maharaja Ranjit Singh's (the Sikh ruler) claims over the Afghan territories
on the right bank of the River Indus.
• The three allies attacked Afghanistan in February 1839. They defeated the Dost Mohammad and
placed Shah Shuja on the throne. Thus, the British Government interfered in Afghanistan's internal
affairs without reason or excuse.
• However, Afghans did not like a foreign occupation or a king imposed by a foreign power. Shah Shuja
was disliked and hated by the people of Afghanistan. Gradually, the patriotic, freedom-loving Afghans
began to rise in anger.
• In 1840, during the conflict, Dost Mohammad Khan was captured by the British and sent to India.
• On November 2, 1841, an uprising broke out in Kabul, and the sturdy Afghans fell upon the British
forces. On 11 December 1841, the British were compelled to sign a treaty with the Afghan chiefs by
which they agreed to evacuate Afghanistan and restore Dost Muhammed.
• In January 1842, as the British forces withdrew, they were attacked all along the way. Out of 16,000
men, only one reached the frontier alive, while a few others survived as prisoners. Shah Shuja was
killed after the British left Kabul. Thus, the entire Afghan adventure ended in total failure.
• The British Indian Government reoccupied Kabul on 16 September 1842.
• The new governor-general of India, Lord Ellenborough, decided to evacuate Afghanistan. He
negotiated a settlement with Dost Muhammed, which recognised Dost Muhammed as the independent
ruler of Afghanistan. Consequently, in 1843, Dost Muhammed returned to Kabul and was restored to
the throne.
• The First Anglo-Afghan War was a major failure for the British, resulting in significant economic and
human losses—around one and a half crores rupees and nearly 20,000 men.

Phase of Non-Interference
• The British were concerned about Russia's growing sphere of influence. As the Russians continued to
advance southward, the British resumed relations with Dost Mohammad in 1854.
• A new period of Anglo-Afghan friendship was started in 1855 with the signing of a Treaty of
Friendship (Treaty of Peshawar) between Dost Muhammed and the Government of India. Under the
Treaty of Peshawar, both agreed:
 To maintain friendly and peaceful relations
 To respect each other’s territories
 To abstain from interfering in each other’s internal affairs
 To be friends of each other's friends and enemies of each other's enemies.
 Dost Muhammed remained loyal to the Treaty of Friendship. He maintained absolute neutrality
when:
 England was fighting against Russia in the Crimean War (1854-56)
 England was facing the Revolt of 1857 in India.
• After 1864, the policy of non-interference was vigorously pursued by Lord Lawrence and his two
successors. The British also gave the Amir of Kabul aid and assistance to help him discipline his rivals
internally and maintain his independence from foreign enemies.
• Thus, by a policy of non-interference and occasional help, the Amir was prevented from aligning
himself with Russia.

The Second Afghan War (1878-80)

• The policy of non-interference did not last very long.
• After the defeat in the Crimean War (1853-56), Russia turned its attention to Central Asia. From 1870
onwards, the Anglo-Russian rivalry intensified. The hysterical fear of a Russian invasion of India again
haunted British officials and public opinion.
• Lord Lytton became Governor-General of India in 1876. He was asked to counter Russian influence in
Afghanistan or secure a strong frontier by force.
• The Afghan ruler (Amir), Sher Ali, was aware of the Russian threat to his independence. Therefore, he
was willing to cooperate with the British to eliminate any danger from the North.
• Sher Ali asked for the promise of military aid in case of need against internal or foreign enemies. The
Indian Government refused to enter into any such reciprocal and unconditional commitment.
• In July 1878, King Sher Ali allowed a Russian delegate to enter Kabul. Wanting to retain the British
influence, Viceroy Lord Lytton ordered a diplomatic mission to Kabul in August.
• Sher Ali refused to meet with the British mission. The British viewed this as confirmation of Sher Ali
Khan's inclination towards Russia and launched the Second Anglo-Afghan War on November 21, 1878.
• Sher Ali Khan opted to leave Kabul to seek political and military aid from the Russian Empire. He
died in Mazar-e Sharif (a city in Afghanistan), leaving the throne to his son Mohammad Yaqub Khan.
• In November 1878, approximately 40,000 British soldiers entered Afghanistan and occupied Kabul. In
May 1879, peace was achieved when Yakub Khan signed the Treaty of Gandamak.
• By the Treaty of Gandamak, the British recognised the Yaqub Khan as Amir (ruler) and secured:
 The right to keep a Resident in Kabul.
 Control over Afghanistan's foreign policy: Yaqub Khan agreed to conduct his foreign relations
with other states in accordance “with the wishes and advice” of the British government.
• However, this British triumph was short-lived. On September 3, 1879, the British envoy, Sir Louis
Cavagnari, and his escort were murdered in Kabul. British forces were again dispatched, and before
the end of October, they occupied Kabul.
• Unpopular for signing the ‘Treaty of Gandamak’ with the British, Yakub Khan abdicated the throne in
1879. It remained vacant until July 1880, when Abdur Rahman, a grandson of Dost Muhammed, became
Amir.
• In 1880, Lytton Was replaced by a new Viceroy, Lord Ripon. Ripon rapidly reversed Lytton’s aggressive
policy and returned to the policy of non-interference in the internal affairs of Afghanistan.
• Lord Ripon recognised Abdur Rahman as the new ruler of Afghanistan. The demand for the
maintenance of a British Resident in Afghanistan was withdrawn. In return, Abdur Rahman agreed not
to maintain political relations with any power except the British.
• Thus, the Amir of Afghanistan lost control of his foreign policy but retained the power to administer
the country's internal affairs.

Abdur Rahman Khan

• Abdur Rahman Khan ruled Afghanistan from 1880 to 1901.

Northern Boundary

• During the reign of Abdur Rahman Khan, a joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission was
formed after Russia and Great Britain agreed to work together to mark the northern boundary of
Afghanistan.
• The commission delineated a permanent boundary along the Amu Darya River.

Durand Line

• In 1893, Abdur Rahman Khan and British Civil Servant Sir Henry Mortimer Durand agreed to mark
the boundary between Afghanistan and British India. The boundary is known as the Durand Line.
• The Durand Line cut through Pashtun villages and has been the cause of continuing conflict between
Afghanistan and Pakistan.
British Policy in Afghanistan
• Throughout the 19th century, the British rulers feared that Russia would launch an attack on India
through Afghanistan or Persia (now Iran). The British reaction to the Russian threat was two-fold:
1. Forward Policy
2. Policy of Masterly Inactivity (Non-Interference)

Forward Policy
• A Forward Policy is a foreign strategy focused on gaining control of specific territories through
invasion, annexation, or the establishment of cooperative buffer states.
• Lord Auckland, the Governor-General of India (1836-42), advocated the Forward Policy to protect
India from the perceived Russian threat. This policy advocated establishing British control over
Afghanistan to check the Russian advance.
• Lord Auckland believed that the British Indian government should go forward to establish its control
over Afghanistan and check the Russian advance beyond the Indo-Afghan border to avoid dangerous
repercussions on the disaffected Indian people.
• This Forward Policy led to the First Afghan War, which sought to replace the Amir with a more
favourable successor to achieve India's defence. The intent was not to colonise but to prevent the
Russian advance by controlling Afghanistan's foreign policy.
• In 1874, the new Government in Britain (Conservative Party) believed in the 'Forward Policy' and
gradually forced the Indian Government into the Second Afghan War.
• The members of the Conservative Party of Britain generally supported the Forward Policy.

Policy of Masterly Inactivity

• Sir John Lawrence, the Governor-General of India (1864-69), advocated the Policy of Masterly
Inactivity.
• The Policy of Masterly Inactivity aimed to reach a diplomatic understanding with Russia and adopt
a policy of watchful non-intervention in Afghanistan.
• In the case of the Russian attack, the Government of India preferred to meet the danger on the Indian
frontier itself since it was dangerous to strive for political domination over Afghanistan.
• The Policy of masterly inactivity arose out of disillusionment with the expense of forward policies,
emphasising observation, consolidation, and negotiation to establish British influence.
• The Liberals of Britain generally supported the Policy of Masterly Inactivity.

Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919-21)

• The First World War (1914-18) and the Russian Revolution of 1917 created a new situation in Anglo-
Afghan relations.
 The war gave rise to strong anti-British feelings in Muslim countries.
  The Russian Revolution inspired new anti-imperialist sentiments all over the world.
• The Afghans now demanded full independence from British control. Habibullah (ruler of Afghanistan)
was assassinated on 20 February 1919, and his son Amanullah, the new Amir, declared open war on
British India.
• By the treaty in 1921, Afghanistan recovered its independence in foreign affairs.
 In 1919, Amanullah established diplomatic relations with Russia, making Afghanistan one of the
first countries to recognize the Soviet government. As a result, a "special relationship" was developed
between the two governments, which lasted until December 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded
Afghanistan.

Relations with Bhutan

• At the beginning of the Company’s rule, the relationship between India and Bhutan was hostile. There
were frequent attacks by the Bhutanese in the Duars plains of British territory.
• Warren Hastings signed an Anglo-Bhutanese Treaty on April 25, 1774, to end the hostilities and
establish friendly relations with Bhutan. This treaty permitted EIC to trade with Tibet through Bhutan's
territory.
• The Treaty of Yandabo (1826) handed over Assam to the British, bringing them into close contact with
Bhutan.
• The Bhutanese took advantage of political instability in Northeast India after the Anglo-Burmese War
(1824-26). They committed various acts of aggression, leading to encroachments and adding to their
possessions of the Dooars. This led to an estranged relationship between the British India and Bhutan.
• The intermittent raids by the Bhutiyas on the Bengal side of the border further strained relations between
India and Bhutan
 The EIC’s engagement with Bhutan started in 1772 after the Bhutanese invaded Cooch Behar (a city
in West Bengal), which was a dependency of the EIC.

Duar War and Treaty of Sinchula (Ten Article Treaty of Rawa Pani) (1865)
• In 1863, a brief war broke out between the British and Bhutan. In 1864, the British launched the Duar
War. Bhutan was defeated, and peace was concluded by the Treaty of Sinchula, signed in 1865, by
which:
 Bhutan ceded all the Bengal and Assam Duars
 The British agreed to pay Bhutan an annual payment of Rs.50,000.
 The relations of the Bhutan with Great Britain started growing to the extent that the Bhutanese
king accompanied Col. Younghusband to visit Lhasa (Tibet) to sign a convention in 1904 through
which Tibet agreed to end its special ties with Bhutan in favour of the Britishers.

Treaty of Punakha (Treaty of Friendship) (1910)

• A fresh treaty, the Treaty of Punakha, was concluded in 1910, by which:
 Bhutan surrendered her foreign relations to British India and accepted the latter as arbiter in her
disputes with Cooch Behar and Sikkim.
 Britain increased the annual subsidy to Bhutan to Rs.100,000 and assured that they would not
interfere in Bhutan's internal affairs.
• After India's independence, a new treaty was signed in 1949, and the government of India further
increased the allotted payment to Bhutan to Rs 500,000 a year.

Relations with Sikkim

• By the end of the 18th century, the Gorkhas took control of Sikkim. However, after the Anglo-Nepal
War (1814-16), the British restored Sikkim's independence.
 The Treaty of Sugauli (1816) (between the British and Nepal): The British annexed the territories
of the Sikkim captured by Nepal.
 The Treaty of Titalia (1817) (between the British and Sikkim): The British restored the territory of
Sikkim to the Kingdom of Sikkim, ruled by Chogyal monarchs.

Treaty of Titalia
• The Treaty of Titalia was signed between the Chogyal (monarch) of the Kingdom of Sikkim and
the British EIC.
• It returned Sikkimese land annexed by the Nepalese over the centuries and guaranteed the
security of Sikkim by the British.
• The British had their vested interests in befriending Sikkim, including:
 To open a direct trade route through Sikkim to Tibet as an alternative to the route through Nepal.
 To counter increasing Russian intrusion into Tibet.
• The Anglo-Sikkimese ties began to deteriorate in 1835 when Sikkim had to give Darjeeling to the
British in return for an annual subsidy of Rs.3000.
• Relations between Sikkim and the British soured further in 1849 when a minor quarrel led Dalhousie
to send troops into Sikkim. This resulted in the British annexation of Darjeeling and a major portion
of the Sikkimese Morang (terai) territory. Another clash occurred in 1860.
• In 1861, the Treaty of Tumlong reduced Sikkim to the status of a virtual protectorate.
• 1886, fresh trouble arose when the Tibetans tried to bring Sikkim under their control. The Government
of India carried out military operations against the Tibetans in Sikkim in 1888. The final settlement came
in 1890 with the signing of an Anglo-Chinese agreement.

Anglo-Chinese Agreement or Convention of Calcutta (1890)

• Anglo-Chinese Agreement was a treaty between Britain and China relating to Tibet and the Kingdom
of Sikkim. The Viceroy of India, Lord Lansdowne, and the Chinese Amban in Tibet, Sheng Tai, signed
the treaty on 17 March 1890 in Calcutta, India.
• The treaty recognised that Sikkim was a British protectorate over whose internal administration and
foreign relations the Government of India had the right to exorcise exclusive control. It also demarcated
the Sikkim–Tibet border.
 British protected states represented a more loose form of British suzerainty, where the local
rulers retained control over the states' internal affairs, and the British exercised control over
defence and foreign affairs.
• China is said to have negotiated the treaty without consulting Tibet, and the Tibetans refused to
recognise it.

Sikkim’s merger
• In 1950, Sikkim became a protectorate of India through a treaty signed between the then-Sikkim
monarch, Tashi Namgyal, and the Indian government. This meant that while Sikkim was not part
of India, it was also not a fully sovereign country.
• The Indian government managed Sikkim's defence and foreign relations, while the Chogyal, as
the monarchy, controlled the internal administration.
• From the 1950s to the 1970s, the discontent against the monarchy in Sikkim grew because of
growing inequality and feudal control.
• Thousands of protesters surrounded the royal palace during the 1973 anti-monarchy protests.
Finally, in the same year, a tripartite agreement was signed between the Chogyal, the Indian
government, and three major political parties to introduce major political reforms.
• In 1974, elections were held, and the Sikkim State Congress, which advocated greater integration
with India, won.
• The assembly first sought the status of ‘associate state’ and then, in April 1975, passed a resolution
asking for full integration with India. This was followed by a referendum that put a stamp of popular
approval on the assembly’s request.
• The Indian Parliament immediately accepted this request, and Sikkim became the 22nd State of
the Indian Union in 1975.

Relations with Tibet

Nominal Suzerainty of the Chinese Empire

• Tibet is located to the north of India and is separated from India by the Himalayan mountain range.
• Tibet was ruled by a Buddhist religious aristocracy (the lamas). The chief political authority was
exercised by the Dalai Lama, who claimed to be the living incarnation of the power of the Buddha.
• The lamas wanted to isolate Tibet from the rest of the world. They acknowledged the nominal
suzerainty of the Chinese Empire to repel foreign threats.
• With no threat from Tibet and China being militarily weak, the British interest in Tibet was purely
commercial in the beginning.
• Warren Hastings showed keen commercial interest in the region and sent two missions, one in 1774
and another in 1783. However, the isolationist and suspicious Dalai Lama (the ruler) declined the offer
to establish trade relations with the British EIC.

British interest in Tibet

• Both Britain and Russia were keen to promote relations with Tibet. British policy towards Tibet was
governed by economic and political considerations.
 Economically, the British wanted to develop the Indo-Tibetan trade and exploit its rich mineral
resources.
 Politically, they wanted to safeguard the northern frontier of India.
• However, until the end of the 19th century, the Tibetan authorities blocked all British efforts to penetrate
it.
• At the beginning of the 20th century, Russian influence in Tibet increased. The British government
perceived this as threatening India's security from the northern side.
• Under Lord Curzon, the British government decided to take immediate action to counter Russian moves
and bring Tibet under its system of protected border states.
 According to some historians, the Russian danger was not real and was merely used as an excuse
by Curzon to intervene in Tibet.

Expedition to Lhasa
• In March 1904, Curzon sent a military expedition to Lhasa, the Capital of Tibet, under Francis
Younghusbdnd. Younghusbdnd started his march into Tibet through Sikkim. During this expedition,
700 Tibetans were killed.
• Younghusbdnd reached Lhasa in August 1904, and after prolonged negotiations, a Treaty of Lhasa was
signed, by which:
 Tibet was reduced to the status of a protectorate of the British.
 Tibet was to pay Rs. 25 lakhs as indemnity
 The Chumbi Valley was to be occupied by the British for three years.
 A British trade mission was to be stationed at Gyantse (a town in Tibet).
• The British agreed not to interfere in Tibet’s internal affairs. On their part, the Tibetans agreed not to
admit the representatives of any foreign power into Tibet.
• The British accomplished little during the Tibetan expedition. Although it led to Russia's withdrawal
from Tibet, it confirmed China's suzerainty in 1906.
Anglo-Chinese Convention (1906)
• Anglo-Chinese Convention was a treaty signed between the Qing Dynasty of China and the British
Empire in 1906.
• This treaty, which was signed in the absence of Tibet, reaffirmed the Chinese suzerainty over Tibet. By
the terms of the treaty:
 The British agreed not to annex or interfere in Tibet in return for indemnity from the Chinese
government.
 China agreed not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with Tibet's territory or internal
administration.

Shimla Conference 1913

• After the Chinese Revolution of 1911, the. Dalai Lama announced his independence.
• Instead of recognising Tibet as an independent state, the British invited representatives of China and
Tibet to a tripartite conference in Shimla in May 1913. At the conference:
1. The Tibetans sought to acknowledge their independence, repudiate the Anglo-Chinese
Convention of 1906, and the revision of the trade regulations.
2. The Chinese Government wanted that their sovereignty over Tibet should be recognised and their
right to control foreign and military affairs of the country should be accepted.
3. The British were more interested in the Indo-Tibetan border than Tibet's internal problems.
• On 27 April 1914, two agreements were concluded.
1. Tibet was divided into two zones, 'Outer Tibet' and 'Inner Tibet'. Chinese suzerainty over the whole
of Tibet was recognised.
 Outer Tibet would remain in the hands of the Tibetan Government at Lhasa under Chinese
suzerainty, but China would not interfere in its administration.
 Inner Tibet would be under the jurisdiction of the Chinese government.
2. It was decided to draw a boundary between Tibet and British India (McMahon line)
• However, China refused to ratify the conference’s agreement (including the demarcated border) and
did not accept Tibet as an independent nation.

Important Events and Governors-General

Governors-General of Bengal
Governor-General In Office Events
Lord Hastings (Lord Moira) 1813-1823 Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16)
Lord Amherst 1823-28 First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26)
Governors-General of India
Governor-General In Office Events
Lord Auckland 1836–1842 First Afghan War (1838-42)
Lord Dalhousie 1848-1856 Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852-53)
John Lawrence 1864-69 Duar War (1864)
Governors-General and Viceroys
Governor-General In Office Events
Lord Lytton 1876-1880 Second Afghan War (1878-80)
Lord Dufferin 1884-1888 Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885)
Lord Curzon 1899-05 British Invasion of Tibet (1904)
Lord Chelmsford 1916-21 Third Afghan War (1919-21)

Important Wars and Treaties

Wars Associated Treaties

Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) Treaty of Sugauli (1816)
First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26) Treaty of Yandabo (1826)
Second Afghan War (1878-80) Treaty of Gandamak (1879)
Duar War (1864-65) Treaty of Sinchula (1865)

Summary

• During the period of British domination, India’s relations with its neighbours were ultimately
determined by the needs of British imperialism. The foreign policy guided by British imperialism
helped the British promote their commercial and economic interests. However, India has borne the
cost of its implementation.

Relations With Nepal

• In 1801, the Nawab of Awadh handed over the Gorakhpur to British EIC. This brought the two
expanding powers (the Gorkhas and the British) face to face across an ill-defined border.
• The generals of the EIC warned the Gorkha kingdom to stay out of their land. The dispute over the
land border continued for a decade, and in 1814, Lord Hastings formally declared war on the Gorkha
kingdom.
• Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli (1816), according to which
the British got the regions of Kumaon-Garhwal west of the river Kali.

Conquest of Burma
• The First Burmese War (1824-26) resulted from border clashes. Burmese occupation of Manipur and
Assam provided the source of conflict. The Treaty of Yandabo (1826) ended the First Anglo-Burmese
War. After the Treaty of Yandabo, the Assam, Arakan, and Tenasserim became a part of British India.
• The Second Burmese War, which broke out in 1852, was almost wholly the result of British commercial
greed. It was ended in 1853 without a treaty. After the Second Burmese War, the British gained control
over Burma's entire coastline and sea trade.
• The British defeated the Burmese in the Third Burmese War (1885) and annexed Burma.

Relations with Afghanistan

• The British concern about the Russian influence on Afghanistan led to the First Anglo-Afghan War
(1838-1842) and the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880).
• In the First Anglo-Afghan War, the Indian Government, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, and Shah Shuja
attacked Afghanistan in February 1839. They defeated the Dost Mohammad and placed Shah Shuja
on the throne. Thus, the British Government interfered in Afghanistan's internal affairs without reason
or excuse.
• The First Anglo-Afghan War was a major failure for the British, resulting in significant economic and
human losses—around one and a half crores rupees and nearly 20,000 men.
• The British launched the Second Anglo-Afghan War in 1878. In May 1879, peace was achieved by
signing the Treaty of Gandamak.

Bengal and Assam Duars

• The British defeated Bhutan in the Duar War (1864). The Treaty of Sinchula concluded a peace by
which Bhutan ceded all the Bengal and Assam Duars to the British.

Sikkim
• By the treaty of Tumlong (1861), Sikkim became a British protectorate.

Timeline