DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

DESIGN SPEED
INTRODUCTION A selected speed used to determine the various geometric
 The geometric designs of highway or streets are the design features of the roadway.
visible features of roads Other factors determining the selection of the design
 The characteristics of the vehicle that are expected to speed:
use them and these are the static, kinematic and 1. Terrain
dynamics characteristics of the vehicle. 2. Traffic volume and composition
 The design criteria, design standards and engineering 3. Cost of right-of-way and construction
design procedures used in principal elements of 4. Aesthetic considerations
highways Recommended design speed based on AASHTO:
1. Design speed ranges from 15-17 mph (20-120 kph)
THREE MAIN GUIDING PRINCIPLES ARE CONSIDERED 2. Intermediate values are chosen in increments of 5
mph (10 kph)
1. The design must have maximum benefits to traffic at
the least cost. DESIGN VEHICLE
2. Have minimum interference to agriculture and/or  The dimensions of the motor vehicles that will utilize
industry and lastly, the proposed facility also influence the design of a
3. Have aesthetically pleasing appearance. roadway project.
 AASHTO recommends four design vehicles classes
TWO TYPES OF HIGHWAY DESIGNS of geometric design of a highway facility.
1. Geometric Design  It includes: passenger cars, buses, trucks and
2. Structural Design semitrailer-full trailer combinations
 Normally the design engineer will select for design
GEOMETRIC DESIGN ELEMENTS purposes the largest vehicle
1. Alignment
2. Grade III. CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS
3. Sight Distance  Most important parts of developing a roadways
4. Curvature design focuses on the selection and configuration of
5. Width the elements
 Referred to as the typical section or templates when
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS used within the context of most computer design
1. Topography programs.
2. Locality  The aspects of the cross-section directly relate to the
3. Type and Intensity of traffic number of travel lanes
4. Economy
5. Safety and Comfort 1. HIGHWAY TRAVEL LANES
The width of the surface road and number of lanes should be
I. DESIGN STANDARD adequate
 Geometric design practices of the stage and other Categories of Highway Travel Lanes
designing agencies are not entirely uniform on a TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS
national basis.  The bulk of our highway system is composed of two-
 Significantly influence the designer’s decisions and lane highways
modify the implementation of wholly uniform design  Two-lane roads vary from low type roads
standards.
 American Association of State Highway and THREE-LANE HIGHWAYS
Transportation Officials (AASHTO)  Three-lane roads were build in previous years and
 Differences in experience and the interpretation of are still in use
research also contribute to variation in design  Center lane is either used a two-lane center left-turn
practices lane or alternates in the uphill direction
FOUR-LANE OR WIDER HIGHWAYS
II. DESIGN CRITERIA  Basic multi-lane type
Design controls and criteria:  The amount of interaction between opposing traffic
 Traffic safety considerations flows is substantially reduced
 Functional classification of the roadway DIVIDED HIGHWAYS
 Projected traffic volume and composition  Super highway with broad median strip
 Required design speed  The width of these median strips varies from 4ft.
 Multimodal needs of the surrounding community (91.2m) to 60ft.(18m)
 Topography of the surrounding land  A median strip less than 4ft.(1.2m) to 6ft.(1.8m) in
 Capital costs for construction width is considered to be little more than a center line
 Agency funding mechanism stripe and its use
 Human sensory capacities of roadway users
 Vehicle size and performance characteristics MEDIAN BARRIERS
 public involvement, review and comment  Used primarily to prevent from crossing the median
 environmental considerations and encroaching into opposing lanes
 Right-of-way impacts and costs  Cross-median crashes are rare events, they are
usually high-speed crashes
Of all the factors considered in the design of a  Engineers believe that freeway and expressways with
highway design, the principal design criteria are: average daily traffic volumes greater than 20,000
1. Traffic volume vehicles per day and median widths narrower than
2. Design speed 30ft.(10m) require installation of median barriers
3. Vehicle size and vehicle mix  The ends of median barriers required special
Major traffic elements that influence highway design: attention
 Average Daily Traffic (ADT)  Metal barrier ends are often flared away from the road
 Design Hourly Volume (DHV) and anchored in the backstage
 Directional Distribution (D) BRIDGE RAILINGS
 Composition of Trucks (T)  Special types of longitudinal barriers designed to
 Design Speed (V) prevent vehicles from running of the edges of bridges
or culverts
 Most appropriate type of bridge railing for a given
location depends on the design speed, the traffic
 volume, and the percentage of heavy trucks and - A road series of straight lines called tangent
buses inIT the traffic stream connected by circular curves.
CRASH CUSHIONS - Circular curves – the sharpness of the circular
 Used to decelerate vehicle to a stop curve for alignment design is expressed in terms
 Most crash cushions are also designed to redirect a of degree of curve (D)
vehicle away from a hazard for angle impacts
 Variety of crash cushions have been proposed and ARC DEFINITION: D is the central angel subtended by an arc
tested of 20m.
 Most crash cushions are proprietary systems that
have been carefully designed and tested by their
manufacturers
 Employs one of two concepts of mechanics: the
kinetic energy principle of the conservation of
momentum principle
 Hydraulic energy absorbing systems also fall into this CHORD DEFINITION: D is the central angle subtended by a
category 20m chord
 These type of cushions require a rigid support to
resist the vehicle impact force

2. PAVEMENT CROWNS
 Raising of the center line of the roadway above the
elevations of the pavement edges
 Can formed by intersecting tangent lines or curved 2) SUPER ELEVATION OF CURVES
lines

3. CURB CONFIGURATIONS
Curb- it is the edge where a raised pavement/
sidewalk/footpath, road median, or roud shoulder meets an
unraised street or other roadway.
 Use of curb usually adds to the cost of a road,
generally confined to urban and sub-urban roadways
 Design of curbs varies from a low, flat, angle-type to
nearly vertical barrier-type curb

4. SHOULDERS
 It is the portion of the roadway between the edge of
the traffic lane and the edge of the ditch, gutter, curb,  When a car is going round a flat curve, it is subjected
or side slope to a side thrust (skid) equal to a centrifugal force to
 Reserve area by the verge of a road or motorway counteract this tendency to skid off the road, the outer
 A usable outside shoulder width of at least 10ft(3m) edge of the road or rails is being lifted or super
and preferable 12ft(3.6m) that is clear of obstruction elevation to the curve is being applied
is desirable for all heavily traveled and high speed  Transverse slope is usually given as a per cent
highways  Controlled by the design speed and of the side friction
 Shoulders wider that 10ft(3m) may experience factor between tires and pavement
unauthorized used of shoulder MINIMUM RADIUS OF CURVATURE FOR HORIZONTAL
CURVES:
5. GUARDRAILS
 It is a protective railing
 Various types of guardrails are in use in the present
time, most important of these are the W-beam
guardrail, the cable guardrail, and the box beam
guardrail
 The shoulders is increased approximately 2ft(0.6m) to
allow space for placing the posts

6. DRAINAGE DITCHES
 Should be located and shape to avoid creating a
hazard to traffic safety
 Should be low enough to drain the water from under
the pavement

7. SLOPE
MAXIMUM SUPER-ELEVATION
 The graded area immediately adjacent roadway
 It depend on the four factors:
shoulder is the side slope
1. Climate Condition
 Side slope down to the ditch is often referred to as the 2. Terrain Condition (flat, rolling, mountainous)
fore slope 3. Type of Area (urban, rural)
4. Frequency of slow moving vehicles
8. RIGHT-OF-WAY
 No single is emax universally applicable
 Should be acquired in order to avoid the expenses of
developed property  It is desirable to use one emax within in region and
similar climate for design consistency
IV. ROADWAY ALIGNMENT  emax values as per AASHTO:
1) HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
 o 12%- maximum value where snow and ice do 1) CREST VERTICAL CURVE – a vertical curve that
not exist connects a positive grade with a negative grade.
o 10%-highest supe-revelation rate for highway
in common use 2) SAG VERTICAL CURVE – a vertical curve that
o 8%-reasonable maximum value for low connects a negative grade with a positive grade.
volume gravel roads
o 4-6%-where traffic congection and extensive
marginal development acts to restrict top
speeds

MAXIMUM SIDE FRICTION

 AASHTO recommendation for Maximum side friction

MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM GRADES:

 The side friction vary with speed V. SIGHT DISTANCE

 AASHTO recommends a curve for values “f” (0.17 to  The length of roadway ahead visible or in the context
0.08) with reasonable margin of safety at high speed of road design on how far a road user can see before
and leads to somewhat low “e” design speed than do the line of sight is blocked
some of the other curves.
THREE TYPES OF SIGHT DISTANCE:
3) SPIRAL CURVES OR TRANSITION CURVES 1) STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE – the total distance
- Spirals are used to overcome the abrupt change traveled during three time intervals.
in curvature and super elevation between tangent a) The time for the driver to perceived the hazard
and circular curve b) The time to react
- Transition curve- Used to gradually change the c) The time to stop the vehicle after the brakes are
curvature and super elevation of the road applied

THE MINIMUM LENGTH OF THE TRANSITION (Ls)

 A spiral length that allow comfortable increase in
lateral acceleration as a vehicle enters a curve
Where:

Ls= min. length of spiral (m) d) Based on the National Safety Council, average
V= velocity (km/hr.) driver reaction time ¾ seconds.
R= radius of curvature (m)
C= max. rate of charge in lateral acceleration BRAKING DISTANCE
(1.2m/s^3)  Refers to the distance a vehicle will travel from the
point where it brakes are fully applied
WIDENING OF CURVES  Affects the original speed of the vehicle
 Present roadway design practice requires no  The reaction time of the driver/rider and the
widening when the radius is greater than 195m (D=9 coefficient of friction between tires and road surface
degrees) on a two-lane pavement 7.2m wide for
smaller curves or greater curvatures and/or narrower PERCEPTION-REACTION DISTANCE
pavements  The distance traveled from the time the object or
 Widening is normally from 0.6-1.2m depending on obstruction is sighted to the instant the brakes are
design speed and pavement width applied (s=Vt)
 No pavement be widened less than 0.6m

4) VERTICAL ALIGNMENT (PROFILE GRADELINE)

 Defined as the longitudinal profile of the highway as a
measure of how the centerline of the highway rises
and fal
 It shown on a profile taken along the road centerline  A car moving at a certain velocity V after seeing an
and is a series of straight lines object ahead of him, will still travel at distance Vt
before he starts applying the breaks

TWO KINDS OF VERTICAL CURVES:

  The breaking distance depends upon the speed and - The shortest distance sufficient for a vehicle to
type of pavement turn out of a traffic lane, pass another vehicle and
turn back to the same lane safely and
comfortably
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE FOR TWO LANE HIGHWAYS

SAFE STOPPING DISTANCE (HORIZONTAL)

 Distance traversed during perception plus brake
reaction time: PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE FOR VERTICAL SAG CRURVE
AT UNDERPASS

 Distance required for stopping after breaks are

applied (breaking distance)

PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE (SUMMIT PARABOLIC

CURVE)

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SUMMIT PARABOLIC

CURVE)
h1=3.75ft or 1.14m (height of the driver’s eye above the
pavement)
h2=6in. or 0.15m (height of object above pavement)

2) DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE

- Used when drivers must make decisions more
complex than stop or don’t stop
- It is longer than stopping sight distance to allow
for the distance traveled while making a more
complex decision
- ideally roads are designed for the decision sight
distance, typical times detecting and
understanding a situation is about 6 to 10
seconds and 4 to 5 seconds to perform the right
maneuver
3) PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
- Passing is not an event that is a major factor in
the design of four-lane highways, it is a critical
component of two-lane highway design
- Capacity of a two-lane roadway is greatly
increased if a large percentage of the roadway’s
length PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE FOR SAG PARABOLIC
CURVE
 HEAD LAMP SIGHT DISTANCE
Sight distance related to the height of a vehicle headlamp

- Detectors keep the traffic stopped for as long as

there are pedestrians on the crossing
2. PELICAN CROSSING
- Red/amber/green traffic lights with no flashing
phase
- Red standing figure/green walking figure
pedestrian lights located on the opposite side of
VI. BICYCLE LANE
the road
- Traffic is stopped for a fixed time, regardless of
Bicycle lane is a traffic lane marked in existing roadway or
whether pedestrians are still crossing the road
carriageway and generally restricted to cycle traffic.
3. TOUCAN CROSSING
- Similar to puffin crossing but accommodate
5 BASIC TYPES OF FACILITY IMPROVEMENT THAT CAN
cyclists as well as pedestrians
BE USED TO ACCOMMODATE BICYCLISTS
4. ZEBRA CROSSING
1. SHARED LANE – shared motor vehicle/bicycle use
- He familia black and white bars across the road
of a standard width travel lane
with flashing yellow belisha beacons
2. WIDE OUTSIDE LANE – an outside lane with a width
- Traffic should give way to pedestrians who are
of at least 2.4m(14ft)
starting to cross
3. BIKE LANE – a portion of the roadway designated by
- Pedestrians need to exercise more care when
stripping, signing, and/or pavement markings for
crossing zebra crossings
preferential or exclusive use of bicycles
4. SHOULDER – a paved portion of the roadway to the
VII. ROADSIDE DESIGN
right of the edge stripe designed to serve bicyclists
5. SEPARATE BIKE PATH – a facility physically
8.1 CLEAR ROADSIDE RECOVERY AREA
separated from the roadway and intended for bicycle
use  In 1960’s, it became apparent that many motorist
ware running off high-speed highways and colliding
 The design speed for bicycle facilities is 20 to 30 kph
with trees, poles and other fixed objects along the
for flat section, up to 48kph on downgrades.
roadside
 The width is 2m minimum for two way travel and
grade of the lane is 5% maximum on short distances
 Pedestrian sidewalks should be provided along
arterial roads that are not provided with shoulders.
 A minimum width of 1.8m is recommended for
commercial areas and major school routes
 For residential subdivision streets, a 1.5m wide
sidewalk is recommended.

FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF BICYCLE

FACILITY
 Skill level of users
 Motor vehicles parking
 Barriers
 Crash reduction
 Directness
 Accessibility
 Aesthetic
 Personal safety/security
 Stops
 Conflicts
 Maintenance
 Pavement surface quality
 Highway engineers began to appreciate the concepts
 Truck and bus traffic
of “forgiving roadsides”, which would decrease the
 Traffic volume and speeds
number and lessen the severity of off-road crashes
 Bridges
 Highway research focused on roadside hazards
 Intersection condition suggested that a clear and unobstructed roadside
 Costs/funding area extending about 30ft(9 m) from the traveled way
 State and local laws and ordinances would allow approximately 85% percent of the vehicle
leaving the roadway to avoid the collision
VII. PEDESTRIAN LANE  AASHTO recommends clear zone dimensions based
 A person traveling on foot, whether walking or running on traffic volumes, speeds and roadside geometry
 Is a designed point on a road at which some means  AASHTO also suggest that the dimensions given in
are employed to assist pedestrians wishing to across Table 8-1 may need to be modified for horizontal
curvature
TYPES OF PEDESTRIAN CROSSING
1. PUFFIN CROSSING 8-2 ROADSIDE TOPOGRAPHY
- Red/amber/green traffic lights with no flashing  When a motorist leaves the roadway, the vehicle’s
phase lateral encroachment and trajectory are affected by
- Red standing figure/green walking figure the geometry of the roadside
pedestrian lights located above the crossing  Most roadside are not flat
control button to encourage pedestrians to look
 Usually, the motorist encounters an embankment, a
towards approaching traffic
cut slope, or a ditch.
  The slopes of embankment may be parallel to the 8-3.3 CURBS
flow of traffic or at an angle to the floe of traffic  The use of curbs along high-speed roadways should
be avoided
8-2.1 EMBANKMENT PARALLEL TO THE FLOW OF  It is common for vehicles that are sliding sideways or
TRAFFIC slipping overturn upon impact with curbs.
AASHTO defines 3 categories of slopes of embankment  Curbs places in front of roadside or median barriers
parallel to the flow of traffic: can cause a vehicle to amount or cross over the
1. RECOVERABLE SLOPES: motorists encroaching on barrier
recoverable embankment slopes can generally stop
their vehicles or slow them enough to return safety to 8-3.4 CROSS-DRAINS
the roadway  Are designed to carry water underneath the roadway
2. NON-RECOVERABLE: these slopes are traversable, embankment are varied in size and design
but motorist who encroach on them will be unable to  The preferred safety treatment for a cross-drains is to
stop or to return to the roadway safely extend it it shorten it to intercept the embankment
3. CRITICAL SLOPES: critical slopes are those on  Larger culverts can be made traversable by
which a vehicle is likely to over turn passenger cars by using bar grates or pipes to reduce
 This design is known as a “barn roof” section that the clear opening width
provides a relatively flat area adjacent to the roadway
 It is more economical to construct than a recoverable 8-3.5 PARALLEL DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
slope that extends all the way to the original ground  It is placed generally parallel to the flow of traffic
line and is considered to be safer than proving a  These structures are commonly found under
constant steeper slope from the edge of the shoulder driveways, median crossovers, intersecting side
8-2.2 EMBANKMENT AT AN ANGLE TO THE FLOW OF roads, and other traveled ways
TRAFFIC  Safety guidelines for dealing with parallel drainage
are similar to those for cross-drains
 The ends of vulnerable drainage structures should be
outfitted with sloped grates consisting of pipes or bars
placed at a right to the main flow of traffic.

 Motorist who leave the roadway may be confronted

with cross-slopes or embarkment at an angle to the
flow of traffic
 Obstacles of this type often occur at side streets and
driveways where ditches flow into drainage structures 8-4 BREAKAWAY SIGN AND LUMINAIRE SUPPORTS
 Emphasized earlier the desirability of proving
8-3 DRAINAGE FEATURES traversable areas along roadsides that are free of any
 Ditches and drainage structures are integral and obstacles that might be struck.
necessary elements of the highway cross section  This option is not always possible
 Breakaway sign supports should not be placed in
8-3.1 DITCHES drainage ditches where erosion of freezing could
 The side slopes of ditches should be as possible interfere with the proper operation of the yielding
consistent with drainage requirements support
 Slope combinations that fall within the shaded regions
of the figures are considered to be traversable 8-5 LONGITUDINAL BARRIERS
 Used to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway
and crashing into roadside obstacles, overturning or

crossing into the path of vehicles traveling in the

opposite direction

8-5.1 ROADSIDE BARRIERS

 Used to shield motorist from hazardous located along
each side of a roadway
 They are intended to redirect errant vehicle away
from a hazard rather than to protect or prevent from
leaving the roadway and striking a fixed object or
8-3.2 DRAINAGE STRUCTURES traversing a terrain feature that is considered more
hazardous than the barrier itself
 It is also important that curbs, cross-drainage
structures, parallel drainage culverts and drop inlets
IX. INTERSECTIONS, INTERCHANGES, TERMINALS
be designed with proper consideration for safety
The following guidelines apply:
1. Eliminate all nonessential drainage structures
2. Design, relocate or modify drainage structures so
they are traversable and not otherwise hazardous to
an out-of-control vehicle
3. Shield hazardous drainage features that cannot be
redesigned or relocated with a suitable traffic barrier ISLANDS AND CHANNELS
4. For drainage structures with traversable surface
grates, orientation of the grate structure must be ISLANDS
compatible with alternative vehicles like bicycles
 defines area between traffic lanes for control of
vehicle movement and for pedestrian refuge
  Within an intersection , a median or outer separation 1. To provide separation between two or more traffic
is considered an island arteries
ISLANDS IN AN INTERSECTION SERVE ONE OR MORE OF 2. To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from entry to
THE FOLLOWING PURPOSES: the other or between local roadway and the freeway.
1. separation of vehicular flows. TYPES OF INTERCHANGES
2. separation of conflicts. 1. Diamond interchange- simplest and generally least
3. control of angle conflict. costly form of interchange.
4. Reduction of excessive pavement areas. 2. Cloverleaf- most common interchange where
5. regulation of traffic flow in the intersection area. freeways intersect arterials.
6. arrangements to favour a predominant turning 3. Partial cloverleaf
movement. 4. Y interchange
7. protection of pedestrians. 5. T or trumpet interchange- suitable for skewed or
8. protection and storage of turning and crossing orthogonal intersections.
vehicles. 6. Directional interchange- used whenever one freeway
9. action of traffic control devices. joins or intersects another freeway.
ISLANDS ARE GENERALY GROUPED INTO THREE MAJOR 7. freeway with rotary(flyover with roundabout)
CLASSES
1. DIRECTIONAL OR CHANNELIZE ISLANDS - are OBJECTIONS TO THE CLOVERLEAF DESIGN:
designed primarily to guide the motorist through the 1. It requires large area of land.
intersection by indicating the intended route. 2. At higher speeds more time is required to traverse
2. DIVISIONAL ISLANDS - are most frequently used on the longer loops.
undivided highways approaching intersections. They 3. Vehicles making a left turn must execute a 270 0
serve to alert the driver to the intersection and right turn and travel a substantially greater distance.
regulate the flow of traffic into and out of the 4. Vehicles leaving the curved loop in one quadrant
intersection. must weave through those entering the adjacent loop
3. REFUGE ISLAND - located at or near crosswalks to from the through roadways.
aid and protect pedestrians crossing the roadway.
- Refuge islands are most generally used on wide DEFINITION OF TERMS
streets in urban areas for loading and unloading  Transportation engineering- the application of
of transit liders. technology and scientific principles to the planning,
functional design, operation and management of
B) INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE facilities for any mode of transportation in order to
provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
INTERSECTION economical and environmentally compatible
 an area where two or more roads come together. movement of people and goods.
 The roads approaching the intersection are called the  Traffic engineering- a phase of transportation
legs of the intersection. engineering which deals with the planning, geometric
 A junction of three approaches is indicated as a design and traffic operation of roads, streets and
"branch" T , or Y. highways, their networks, terminals, abutting lands
 A branch may be defined as an offshoot of a main- and relationships with other modes of transportation.
traveled highway, and is usually has a small  Auxiliary lane- the portion of the roadway adjoining
deflection angle. the travelled way for parking speed change, or for
other purposes supplementary to through traffic.
ROTARY INTERSECTION Flared intersection- an intersection with auxiliaty
 or roundabout as called in England lanes.
 is one in which all traffic merges into and emerges  At grade intersection- major roads that across each
from a one- way road around a central island; or an other at the same elevations.
at-grade intersection operating with one-way traffic  Overpass — when the major highway is taken above
counterclockwise around a central area, circular or by raising its profile above the general grounded level
elliptical in shape, or sufficient size to produce by embankment and an over-bridge across another
weaving maneuvers in lieu of direct crossing between highway.
the various movements.  Underpass- when the major highway is taken by
depressing it below the ground level to across
C) GRADE SEPERATIONS AND INTERCHANGES another road by means of an under bridge; or other
suitable means to facilitate the safe and orderly
GRADE movement of vehicles and pedestrian.
 separation structures permit the cross flow of traffic at  Channelized intersection- an at-grade intersection
different levels without interruption. It gives the in which there is division or regulation of conflicting
advantage of freedom from cross interference with movement into definite paths of travel by the use of
resultant saving of time and increase in safety for pavement marking, raised islands, or other suitable
traffic movements. means to facilitate the safe and orderly of vehicles
GRADE SEPERATION AND INTERCHANGES MAY BE and pedestrian.
WARRANTED:  Trumpet intersection a highway intersection
1. As part of an express highway system designed to particularly adopted to toll road connecting where the
carry volumes of traffic. toll can be collected from both ingoing and outbound
2. To eliminate bottlenecks. traffic at the stem of the intersection. Flared
3. To prevent accidents intersection- an at-grade intersection in which the
4. Where the topography is such that other types of number of lanes or the pavement width exceeds the
design are not feasible. normal numbers of lanes or the normal width of the
5. Where the volumes catered for would require the approach roadways.
design of an intersection at grade of reasonable size,  Skew crossing- an intersection wherein the two
and roads at the same elevation cross each other at an
acute angle.
6. Where the road user benefit of reducing delays at an
at-grade intersection exceeds the cost of the  Diamond interchange- a type of interchange which
provides for transfer of traffic from one road to
improvement.
another crossing it but with a reduced speed
INTERCHAGE - is a grade separation in which vehicles
 Cloverleaf- sometimes called high speed
moving in one direction of flow maybe transfer by the use of
interchange, an interchange with inner loops and
connecting roadways. These connecting roadways at
outer connections,
interchanges are called ramps.
THE FUNCTION OF INTERCHANGES ARE  Diamond interchange- an interchange with a single
one-way ramp in each quadrant of a shape and
position to provide easy exit from and entrance to the
 major highway and to confine necessary left turns at
grade to the minor highway or crossroad.
 Directional interchange- an interchange with one or
more highway separations and direct connections for
the major turning movements.
 Crossing- an intersection with four approach
roadways.
 Median — a portion of a divided highway separating
the travelled ways for traffic opposite directions.
 Multiple intersection- an intersection with five or
more approach roadways.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING early as 2000 BC. History also records the
construction of a magnificent road to aid in the
Transportation Engineering building of the Great Pyramid in Egypt nearly 3,000
 the application of technology and scientific principles years before the birth of Christ. Traces of early roads
to the planning, functional design, operation and have been found in the island of Crete in the
management of facilities for any mode of Mediterranean, and it is known that the early
transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid, civilizations of the Chinese, Carthaginians, Mayans,
comfortable, convenient, economical and Aztecs, and Incas also led to extensive road building.
environmentally compatible movement of people and  By far the most advanced highway system of the
goods. ancient world was that of the Romans. When roman
 the application of scientific principles to the planning, civilization was at its peak, a great system of military
design, operation and management of transportation roads reached to the limits of the empire. Many of
systems. these roads were built of stone and were 3 ft or more
in thickness. Traces of this magnificent system are
DIFFERENT MODE OF TRANSPORTATION still in existence on the European continent; in fact,
1. Highways some of these roads still serve as bases for sections
2. Urban transit — buses, streetcars, light rail and rail of modern highways.
rapid transits  The Roman roads were characteristically laid on three
3. Air — airlines, airfreight carriers, general aviation courses:
4. Rail — train a) A layer of small broken stones.
5. Water — ocean shipping, barge lines b) A layer of small stones mixed with mortar and firmly
6. Pipelines — crude oil, petroleum products, natural compacted.
gas c) A wearing course of massive stone blocks properly
7. Other modes — cable and belt systems set and bedded with cement mortar. After the decline
and fall of the Roman empire, road building, along
with virtually all other forms of scientific activity,
Highway Engineering practically ceased for a period of 1,000 years.
 is the branch of civil engineering that deals with the 2. LATER EUROPEAN DEVELOPMENT
planning, design, construction, operation and  Interest in the art of road building was revived in
maintenance of highway systems, streets, roads, Europe in the late eighteenth century. During this
bridges, as well as parking facilities. The term is period, Jerome Tresaguet, a noted French Engineer,
usually taken to include the management, introduced new methods of construction and
organization, and supervision of personnel, maintenance of stone roads. He improved the crown,
equipment, and facilities required for all aspects of the drainage and the grade of the road including the
highway programs. foundation by reducing the depth of broken stones to
25 centimeters. Tresaguet made it possible for
IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Napoleon the Great to build the massive highways in
INCLUDE: France (national system of highways). He was
1. Overall planning of routes, financing, environmental accredited as the Father of modern road building.
impact evaluation, and value engineering to compare  At about the same time in England, two Scottish
alternatives; engineers, Thomas Telford and John Louden
2. Traffic engineering, which plans for the volumes of McAdam, developed similar types of construction.
traffic to be handles, the methods to accommodate Telford, president and founder of the institute of civil
traffic flows, the lighting and signing of highways, and Engineer, urged the use of large pieces of ledge
general layout; stone to form a base with smaller stones for the
3. Pavement and roadway engineering which involves wearing course. McAdam advocated the use of
setting of alignments, planning the cuts and fills to smaller broken stones throughout. This latter type of
construct the roadway, designing the base course construction is still in extensive use, being the
and pavement, and selecting the drainage system; forerunner of various types of modern macadam
and bases and pavements.
4. Bridge engineering, which involves the design of  The invention of road building equipment enhances
highway bridges, retaining walls, tunnels, and other the development of roads. In 1858, Eli Blake invented
structures. the first stone crusher and at the same period, a
steam road roller was invented in France by Aveling
and Porter
ENGINEERS IN THE FIELD OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING:
3. HIGHWAYS IN THE PHILIPPINES
 Handle the planning, design, construction, and
 In the early part of 1900, transportation in this country
operation of highways, roads, and other vehicular
depended largely on trail, water, railroad, earth road
facilities as well as their related bicycle and
and panially graveled roads. Highway in the
pedestrian realms.
Philippines was practically non-existence and is
 Estimate the transportation needs of the public and
nothing more than a dream to most Filipinos.
secure the funding for the project.
 The American government in the Philippines initiated
 Analyze locations of high traffic volumes and high
most of the development of the roadway system,
collisions for safety and capacity.
which during the Spanish era were mostly trails and
 Use civil engineering principles to improve the earth roads. It was the Americans who initiated the
transportation system. construction of the then very popular Macadam roads
Highways to connect towns and provinces in the country
 used for the movement of goods, for travel to and  After WWII , the newly independent Philippine
from work, for services, for social and recreational government gave special attention to the
purposes, and for many other activities necessary to development of the roads through finances coming
the functional of our complex society. The words from the war damage reparations paid by the
highway, street and road are general terms that Japanese government and other financial aid
denote public ways for vehicles. Highway usually extended by the us government. The newly installed
refers to a facility that can accommodate large government embarked on a massive road-building
volumes of traffic. Street and road are used mainly for program were previously constructed macadam roads
facilities that serve local areas and also provide were treated with hot bituminous asphalt.
access to highways.
 Twenty years later, major highways and expressways
were constructed with financial assistance and loans
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHWAYS
from the World Bank and the IMF
1. ANCIENT DEVELOPMENT
 From the year 1950 to the early 1980, which was
 Early roads with hard surfaces were found to have
considered as the automobile age, the new
been constructed in Mesopotamia as early as 3,500
government concept for development is to get the
BC. The streets of the city of Babylon were paved as
 farmers out of the mud. It was during this period that using the highway system; such information is
road construction and improvement became a matter needed for the determination of design standards, the
of priority to the government with a slogan "This systematic classification of highways and the
nation is on wheels". development of programs for improvement and
 Modern highway development continued alongside maintenance.
with technical advances in equipment and 4. Travel surveys — identify where and when trips
management techniques. begin and end, the trip purpose, and the mode of
travel, as well as certain social and economic
characteristics of the tripmaker.
HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
Planning Difficulties: Three aspects of difficulties confronting HIGHWAY PROGRAMMING
the highways and transportation planners and administrators: There are three separable sets of inputs involved in
a) Financial highway engineering:
b) Political 1. Economic — which deals with the questions of
c) Technical resources.
Transportation Planning consists of those activities that. 2. Financial — the questions of who pays and who
1. collect information on the performance of the existing spends, how much and where.
transportation system; 3. Political and administration — this involves
2. forecast future performance levels given expected decision making.
changes to key factors such as land use, price of fuel, In highway programming, projects are prioritized. That is, those
and growth in employment; and that are most economically viable are selected if they fit into
3. identify possible solutions to expected problems in the financial capability and political criteria. Projects that failed
system performance. on either the financial or political criteria shall be abandoned or
modified for substitute or alternative but shall pass rigorous
BASIC ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORTATION PLANNING tests.
1. Inventory of Facilities. Knowing what your
transportation network consists of and the condition HIGHWAY TYPES/CLASSIFICATION
and performance of these facilities, is an important Classification According to Functions
point for transportation planning. It may be upgrading 1. Highways
the physical condition of a facility (e.g. repaving a 2. Arterial highway — is a highway for through traffic
road or building a new bridge) or improving its on a continuous route.
performance (e.g. building a new road to serve 3. Belt highway — carries traffic around an urban area.
existing demand). Inventory: Number of lanes, type of 4. Bypass — allows traffic to avoid all or part of an
pavement, the last time the pavement was replaced, urban area.
capacity of the road, accident records 5. Divided highway — has separated roadways for
2. Collect and maintain socio-economic and land traffic moving in opposite directions.
use data. Transportation planning relate trip making 6. Expressway — a divided highway for through traffic
to the types of activities that occur in a region and to with full or partial control of access and generally,
the characteristics of the tripmaker that will influence grade separations at major intersections.
the way these trips are made.. A fundamental concept 7. A freeway — is an expressway with full access
in transportation planning is called derived demand. control.
Derived demand means that a trip is taken to 8. Major highway — has intersections at grade, access
accomplish some activity at the destination and that to abutting property, and means to expedite through
the trip itself is simply a means of reaching this traffic.
activity. 9. Parkway — is a highway for noncommercial traffic,
3. Define goals and objectives. generally within a park or a ribbon of small parks, and
4. Identify system deficiencies or opportunities. with full or partial control of access.
Transportation planning identifies and prioritizes
those elements of the transportation system where STREETS AND ROADS:
problems exist today or where problems will exist in 1. Cul-de-sac — is a street closed at one end and with
the future given growth in travel. provisions for turning a vehicle.
5. Develop and analyze alternatives. Once the 2. Dead-end street — a cul-de-sac without provision for
planning process has identifies areas where turning.
improvements are needed, transportation planners 3. Frontage street or road - also called service road,
define different strategies that could solve the controls access to, and serves area adjacent to a
problem. These strategies maybe on improvements to highway.
highways, such as adding new lanes, improving traffic 4. Local street or road - is intended mainly for access
control through signals or signing, or improving traffic to residences, businesses, or property.
flow through channelization.
6. Evaluate alternatives. Evaluation brings together all
the information gathered on individual alternatives
and provides a framework to compare the relative
worth of the alternatives. Evaluation includes methods CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS ACCORDING TO
for comparing in an analytical way the relative value SYSTEM
of the alternatives. In our country, roads or highways classified under this
7. Implement plan. category are national, provincial, city, municipal and barangay
8. Monitor System Performance. Transportation roads.
planning is a process that continually examines the 1. National Roads
performance and condition of the transportation - Public roads, declared as national roads by the
system to identify where the improvements can be President of the Philippines upon
made. recommendation of the Minister of Public Works
and Highways satisfying the conditions set forth
under Executive Order No. 113 Establishing the
DATA COLLECTION Classification of Roads. National roads are
1. Road-use studies. Road use studies are performed classified primary and secondary roads. The
to determine the relative use of various parts of a former forms the part of the main highway
highway system. trunkline system which is continuous in extend;
2. Pavement-life studies. The primary objective of the latter includes all access roads forming a
pavement-life studies is to determine the average rate secondary trunkline system.
of retirement and the estimated average service life 2. Provincial Roads
for each type of pavement. - Roads connecting one municipality to another,
3. Traffic volume studies — provide highway officials the terminal to the plaza; roads extending from
with essential information on the number of vehicles one municipality or from a provincial or national
 to a public wharf, or railway station. For purposes 2. Indirect benefits, included benefits to adjacent party
of allocating national aid maintenance funds, a and to the general public.
provincial road is designated and accepted as - Efficient fire and police protection
such by the Minister of Public Works and - Rapid postal deliveries
Highways, upon recommendation of the - Improved access to educational, recreational
- Provincial Board (Sangguniang Panlalawigan). and social facilities
3. City Roads - Decreased cost of commodities
- Roads/streets within the urban area of the city - Improved national defense
not classified as provincial or national roads.
4. Municipal Roads COST OF HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION
- Roads/streets within the poblacion area of a Highway transportation cost is defined as the sum of the
municipality not classified as national or highway investment cost, the maintenance and operating
provincial roads. costs, and the highway user costs
5. Barangay Roads
- Roads located outside the poblacion area of a
municipality or urban area of a city and those
outside industrial, commercial or residential /
subdivision (access roads to subdivision are not
barangay roads), and are not otherwise classified
as national, provincial, city or municipal roads.
Barangay roads must have the following:
a) Road right-of-way . 10.00 m.
minimum
b) Width of travelled way 4.00 m.
minimum ECONOMIC ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
c) Allowable grade 1. the benefit-cost ratio of the total investment
10%maximum 2. equivalent uniform annual costs
3. present worth of future expenditures
4. the interest rate or rate of return at which the
alternatives are equally attractive
5. payback (pay-out) period method

SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF

HIGHWAYS
This establishes public awareness of the impact of highway
and other public project on environment. It includes
preparation of environmental impact statement, forming
environmental legislation, formulation of highway
environmental policies, and documentations and analysis of
highway environmental processes.
 Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)—is a written
statement containing an assessment of the
anticipated significant effects of the proposed action
may have on the quality of the environment.
 Environmental Legislation —indicates the types of
environmental impacts that must be considered in the
project development process and outlines which
agencies have the approval power of project
implementation.

Environmental Policies —it includes the following:

1. involvement of the public in the planning process
2. use of a systematic interdisciplinary approach in
the planning development process
3. incorporation of measures to mitigate adverse
impacts from proposed projects
HIGHWAY ECONOMY
 Economic studies for highway purposes are done HIGHWAY NOISE PLANNING
principally for one or more of the following reasons:  AASHTO (18) has established standards for
- To determine feasibility of a project evaluation of the impact of highway-generated noise
- To compare alternative locations on nearby land uses or activities. The standards
- To evaluate various features of highway provides a basis for the selection of appropriate noise
design, for example, the type of surface to attenuation measures
be used
- To determine priority of improvement
- To allocate responsibility for the costs of
highway improvement among the various
classes of highway users (and non-users, in
some cases)
- Occasionally, to compare proposals for
highway improvement with proposals for  Leq - equivalent sound level, the average acoustic
other public projects such as education intensity over time. It represents the sound level that
if held constant over a specific time period, would
BENEFITS OF HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENTS contain the same total acoustic energy as the actual
Highway benefits are grouped into two categories: varying levels of the traffic noise during the same
1. Direct benefits that result from a reduction in highway period.
user costs. It is considered the most quantifiable and
 L10 — 10th percentile noise level, the noise level
most significant highway benefits
exceeded 10 percent of the time
- Decreased operating cost
- Higher operating speeds
Noise Attenuation Three general ways:
- Fewer delays
1. by providing a buffer zone between the highway
- Decreased accident losses
and adjacent land activities
 2. by modifying the horizontal or vertical alignment SINGLE UNIT TRUCKS:
of the highway  Have the cargo and the power unit mounted on a
3. by providing the noise shielding/noise barriers common frame
 A noise barrier (also called a soundwall, sound berm,  Ranges from two-axle, six-tire vehicles weighing
sound barrier, or acoustical barrier) is an exterior 10,000 lbs to 3 or 4-axle vehicles weighing up to
structure designed to protect sensitive land uses from 40,000 lbs
noise pollution. Noise barriers are the most effective  Most commonly used for having freight relatively short
method of mitigating roadway, railway, and industrial distances
noise sources — other than cessation of the source COMBINATION TRUCKS:
activity or use of source controls.  Have a power unit or tractor plus one more trailers
 In the case of surface transportation noise, other has two general types, namely
methods of reducing the source noise intensity  Semitrailer – which has one more axles near is rear
include encouraging the use of hybrid and electric but no front axles
vehicles, improving automobile aerodynamics and tire  Full trailer – which has one or more axles at both
design, and choosing low-noise paving material. front and rear ends
Extensive use of noise barriers began in the United BIG TRUCKS
States after noise regulations were introduced in the  Tractor-semitrailer combinations – has 5 axles,
early 1970s. commonly referred to as “18 wheeler”
 The sound tube in Melbourne, Australia, designed to  Twin-trailer trucks – consist of a tractor plus a 28ft
reduce roadway noise without detracting from the semitrailer followed by another 28ft semitrailer
area's aesthetics. referred to as “western double”
 Noise barrier earth berm along Highway 12, Sonoma  Rocky-mountain double trucks – have a tractor
County, California plus a 45ft semitrailer plus a 28th full trailer
 This noise abatement wall in The Netherlands has a  Turnpike double trucks - consists of a tractor plus a
transparent section at the driver's eye-level to reduce 45ft semitrailer followed by a 45ft full trailer
the visual impact.  Triple-trailer trucks - a tractor pulling three 28ft
trailers
HIGHWAY AIR POLLUTION VAN
5 major classes of natural man-made air pollutants:
 A passenger vehicle mounted on an automobile or
1. carbon monoxide (CO)
light truck chasis that is capable of transporting 6-15
2. hydrocarbons (HC) and photochemical oxidants
peopl
3. nitrogen oxides BUSES
4. particulate matter  Usually transport more than 15 passengers
5. sulfur dioxide  Minibus – a vehicle less than 25ft in length that has
capacity of 16-25 peopple
Some ways and control of Highway air pollution:  Single-unit transit bus – 8.0-8.5 wide and as much
1. Use of Pollution Modeling - Thorough assessment or as 60.00 – 40.00 ft long, capable of transporting up to
estimate of the quantities of pollutant concentration within 53 seated passengers
 Articulated transit bus - 8.5 ft wide and as much as
the study area both before and after the development. 60.00ft long with a seated passenger capacity of 73
Two types of computer programs used for assessment passengers
are:  Intercity bus – commonly 8.5 in width and 40ft long
and have a seated capacity of by passengers
- Emission models — provide estimates of RECREATIONAL VEHICLES
quantities of various types of pollutants  Operationally similar to some passenger cars, light
trucks and buses
based on the amount of travel, driving
 Often perform poorly because they are more heavily
patterns and emission rates for various loaded than other vehicle of similar size operated by
classes of vehicles. drivers with limited training
- Dispersion models — use data on source TYPES OF VEHICLE ON TOLL GATES IN THE
emissions from emission modeling and with PHILIPPINES
CLASS 1 – these are vehicle such as cars, jitneys, pickups
additional data on meteorological conditions,
and vans
geographic boundaries, and so forth CLASS 2 – these are vehicles such as two-axle trucks, buses,
- Compute the dispersion of pollutants over and vans
CLASS 3 – these are such as trucks and trailers with three or
the area of interest for specified period of more axles
time.
VEHICLE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
2. Use of Air quality standards
 Vehicle performance limitations and capabilities affect
required lengths of speed change lanes, weaving
lanes, and no-passing zones, and the design of traffic
VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
control system
VEHICLE TYPE AND SIZE
 If highway system are to operate safety and
 The type and size of motor vehicles influence
efficiently, highway and traffic engineers need to
clearance for bridges, tunnels, grade separation
understand performance characteristics of the various
structures and the geometric characteristics of
vehicles that use such systems
streets, roads, and parking facilities
RESISTANCES
 Streets and highway facilities are used by a variety or
 Resistance to motion as the tires roll over
vehicles ranging from motorcycles to articulated truck
irregularities in the surface and push through mud,
up to 72ft (22m) in length and weighing over 80,000
sand or snow
lbs
 Includes that caused by the flexing of the tires and the
MOTOCYCLES: internal friction of the moving parts of the vehicles
 Small motorized two or three- wheeled vehicles that  Higher on low-quality pavement surface es, increases
can transport one or two people in vehicle speed
CURVE RESISTANCE
 Can operate satisfactorily on any street or highway
PASSENGER CARS AND LIGHT TRUCKS  The force required to cause a vehicle to move along a
curve path
 The dominant source of personal transportation
 A function of the radius and the vehicle speed
 Typically weighs 1500-4000 lbs (680-1800kg)
AIR RESISTANCE
 Can accommodate 2-6 passengers
  Includes the force required to move air from a The average of a series of measures of spot speeds can be
vehicles pathway as well as the frictional effects or air expressed in two ways as:
along its top, sides and undercarriage  Time-mean speed ( ) - arithmetic mean of speeds of
all vehicles passing a point during specified interval of
POWER REQUIREMENTS time.
 Power is defined as the rate at which works is done  Space-mean speed ( ) -arithmetic mean of speeds of
 The power P required to overcome the various vehicles occupying a relatively long section of street
resistances and to propel a vehicle is expressed in or highway at a given instant
units of horsepower (1hp=550 ft.lb/sec) and may be
computed by the following equation: B. MICROSCOPIC PARAMETERS
 Spacing - the distance between successive vehicles
ACCELERATION AND DECLARATION PERFORMANCE in a traffic stream as they pass some common
 A motor vehicle moves according to the fundamental reference point on the vehicles.
laws of motion, relationships among distance, time,  Time Headway - the time between successive
velocity, and uniform acceleration are given by the vehicles in a traffic stream as they pass some
following equation: common reference point on the vehicles
 Maximum acceleration rates vary with the size of the TRAFFIC VOLUMES AND RATE OF FLOW
vehicle and its operating speed.  Traffic volume - the number of vehicles that pass a
 Vehicles are capable of greatest acceleration at point along a roadway or traffic lane per unit of time.
lowest speeds. Two measures of traffic volume:
 From a starting speed of 15mph (25kph), max. 1. Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) -the number
acceleration values range from 2.9ft/sec2 (0.9m/sec2) of vehicles that pass a particular point on a roadway
for tractor-semitrailer trucks up to about 14.7 during a period of 24 consecutive hours averaged
ft/sec2(4.5m/sec2) for large cars. over a period of 365 days. (veh/day)
 For a speed change of 0 - 30mph (48kph), typical 2. Design Hourly Volume (DHV) -a future hourly
maximum accelerations are: volume that is used for design. It is usually the 30th
Tractor-semitrailer truck - 1.5 ft/sec2 (0.5m/sec2) highest hourly volume of the design year. Design year
For large cars - 10.3 ft/sec2 (3.1m/sec2) -a future target year often assumed as 20 years
For high-performance sports car - 14.2 ft/sec2 (4.3 m/sec2) beyond the road construction year.
 Without braking, a vehicle will decelerate when the  Hourly volumes - used for design and operational
driver releases the accelerator due to the "drag" of analysis
the engine, air resistance, grade resistance, and so  Peak hour volume - single highest hourly volume
forth.  Peak hour factor - describes the relationship between
 A passenger car operating in the range of 50 to 60 hourly volume and maximum rate of flow within the
mph (80 to 100 kph) will decelerate about 3 ft/sec2 hour
(0.9m/sec2) without braking; in the range of 20 to 30 PHF = hourly volume/maximum rate of flow OR
mph (32 - 48 kph), an automobile will decelerate PHF = V/(4 x V15)
about 1.5ft/sec2 (0.45 m/sec2). PHF range - 1.0 (each 15-minute period equal) to 0.25
 Under normal braking conditions the levels of (one 15 min period contains all traffic)
deceleration developed usually do not reach the limit
of a vehicle's braking capability nor that of pavement- HIGHWAY CAPACITY
tire interface.  The ability of a highway to accommodate traffic
 Observe normal deceleration rates for passenger  Usually expressed as the number of vehicles that can
cars (with braking) are about 4.8 ft/sec2(1.5m/sec2) in pass a given point in a certain period of time at a
the range of 30-70 n (48-112 kph) and about 6.7 given speed
ft/sec2(2.0kph) in the range of 0 - 30 mph (48kp)
THE HIGHWAY CAPACITY MANUAL
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS  A publication of the Transportation Research Board
HIGHWAY ENGINEERS MUST HAVE KNOWLEDGE (TRB) in the United States.
ABOUT TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS FOR:  Contains concepts, guidelines, and computational
 Developing highway and transportation plans procedures for computing the capacity and quality of
 Performing economic analyses service of various highway facilities, including
 Establishing geometric design criteria freeways, highways, arterial roads, roundabouts,
 Selecting and implementing traffic control measures signalized and unsignalized intersections, rural
Evaluating the performance of transportation facilities highways, and the effects of mass transit,
TRAFFIC FLOW CHARACTERISTICS pedestrians, and bicycles on the performance of
Traffic Flow Parameters these systems.
 Macroscopic Parameters - describe the traffic  There have been five editions with improved and
stream as a whole. updated procedures from 1950 to 2010, and two
 Microscopic Parameters - describe the behavior of major updates to the HCM 1985 edition, in 1994 and
the individual vehicle with respect to each other. 1997.
A. MACROSCOPIC PARAMETERS  Has been a worldwide reference for transportation
- Traffic flow - number of vehicles that pass a and traffic engineering scholars and practitioners, and
certain point during a specified time interval also the base of several country specific capacity
(vehicles/hour). manuals.
- Speed - rate of motion in distance/time
(mph) LEVELS OF SERVICE FOR ROAD TRANSPORTATION
- Density - number of vehicles occupying a  A measure used by traffic engineers to determine the
given length of highway or lane (vehicles per effectiveness of elements of transportation
mile per lane, vpmp|) infrastructure.
 Most commonly used to analyze highways by
THREE BASIC CLASSES OR MEASURES OF SPEED OF categorizing traffic flow with corresponding safe
TRAVEL: driving conditions.
1. Spot speed - "instantaneous" speed of a vehicle as it
passes a specified point along a street or highway. THERE ARE 6 LEVELS OF SERVICE:
2. Overall speed -the total distance traveled divided by  LOS A - Free-flow operation
the total time required including traffic delays.  LOS B - Reasonably free flow Ability to maneuver is
3. Running or operating speed -the total distance only slightly restricted Effects of minor incidents still
traveled divided by running time or maximum safe easily absorbed
speed a vehicle can be driven without exceeding  LOS C - Speeds at or near FFS Freedom to
design speed. maneuver is noticeably restricted Queues may form
SPOT SPEED behind any significant blockage.
  LOS D - Speeds decline slightly with increasing flows • The police and human factors specialist tend to see it
Density increases more quickly Freedom to maneuver largely as an enforcement problem.
is more noticeably limited Minor incidents create • Highway engineers view it in terms of needed
queuing improvements in highway design and traffic control.
 LOS E - Operation near or at capacity No usable • Motor vehicle manufacturers and the medical
gaps in the traffic stream Operations extremely community recognize the need to "package" vehicle
volatile Any disruption causes queuing occupants in more crash-resistant vehicles.
 LOS F - Breakdown in flow Queues form behind • Emergency medical specialists see the needs for
breakdown points Demand > capacity better first aid of the injured and faster access to
hospital trauma units.
FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITY SERVICE FLOW RATE, • Because of these different perspectives, there are
AND LEVEL OF SERVICE differences of opinion concerning the programs of
 Many of the procedures described in the highway action most needed to reduce highway losses.
capacity manual are used on simple tables or graphs
for specified standard conditions, which must be CRASH LOSS FACTORS
adjusted to account for prevailing conditions different • It is helpful to think of a crash as an event comprised
from those specified. of nine parts, called crash factors.
 The conditions so defined are often described in • One may visualize a crash in three phases; pre-
terms of base conditions. crash, at-crash and post-crash.
• Within each phase, one or more human, vehicular
IDEAL CONDITIONS FOR UNINTERRUPTED FLOW and environmental factors may contribute to the
FACILITIES INCLUDES: initiation of the crash or alter its consequences.
 3.6m (12-ft) lane widths
 1.8m (6-ft) clearance between the edge of travel
lanes and the nearest roadside obstructions
 All passenger cars in the traffic stream
 A driver population comprised predominantly of
regular and familiar users of the facility

AN IDEAL SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION APPROACH HAS:

• 3.6m (12-ft) lane widths
• Level grade
• No curb parking allowed on the intersection FIVE AREAS OF SPECIAL CONCERN IN HIGHWAY CRASH
approaches PROBLEM:
• All passenger cars in the traffic stream • Alcohol Impairment
• No turning movements at the intersection • Large Trucks
• Intersection located outside the central business • Roadside Hazards
district • Traffic safety and the Elderly
• green signal available at all times • Driver Inexperience

ROADWAY FACTORS INCLUDE:

• the types of facility and its development environment
• lane widths
• shoulder widths and/or lateral clearance
• design speed
• horizontal and vertical alignments

CAPACITY ANALYSIS FOR FREEWAY SEGMENTS

CAPACITY ANALYSIS FOR FREEWAY SEGMENTS
• With controlled access, limited ramp locations, and no
fixed interruptions of traffic flow, freeways operate
under the purest form of uninterrupted flow.
• Capacity analysis of a freeway segment can be
evaluated based on density in terms of passenger
cars per mile per lane (pc/mi/ln) or passenger cars
per kilometer per lane (p/km/In).

Density is the primary determinant of LOS on a freeway. In

other words, it is the Performance Criterion for freeways. LOS
thresholds for a basic freeway segment are defined in terms of
density as follows:

CONTROL DELAY
• The level of service for signalized intersections is
defined in terms of control delay.
• Control delay is the component of delay that results
from the type of control at the intersection; it is
measured by comparison with the uncontrolled
condition.
• It is the difference between the travel time that would
have occurred in the absence of the intersection
control, and the travel time that results because of the
presence of the intersection control.
THE HIGHWAY CRASH PROBLEM
• The highway crash problem is a complex one that is
viewed differently by different groups.