6

Capacitors and capacitance

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

ž describe an electrostatic field

ž appreciate Coulomb’s law
ž define electric field strength E and state its unit
ž define capacitance and state its unit
ž describe a capacitor and draw the circuit diagram symbol
ž perform simple calculations involving C D Q/V and Q D It
ž define electric flux density D and state its unit
ž define permittivity, distinguishing between εo , εr and ε
ž perform simple calculations involving
Q V D
DD ,E D and D εo εr
A d E
ž understand that for a parallel plate capacitor,
ε0 εr A n  1
CD
d
ž perform calculations involving capacitors connected in parallel and in series
ž define dielectric strength and state its unit
ž state that the energy stored in a capacitor is given by W D 12 CV2 joules
ž describe practical types of capacitor
ž understand the precautions needed when discharging capacitors

the negative plate. Any region such as that shown

6.1 Electrostatic field between the plates in Fig. 6.1, in which an electric
charge experiences a force, is called an electrostatic
Figure 6.1 represents two parallel metal plates, A field. The direction of the field is defined as that
and B, charged to different potentials. If an electron of the force acting on a positive charge placed
that has a negative charge is placed between the in the field. In Fig. 6.1, the direction of the force
plates, a force will act on the electron tending to is from the positive plate to the negative plate.
push it away from the negative plate B towards the Such a field may be represented in magnitude and
positive plate, A. Similarly, a positive charge would direction by lines of electric force drawn between
be acted on by a force tending to move it toward the charged surfaces. The closeness of the lines is

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 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE 53

the magnitude of their charges and inversely pro-

portional to the square of the distance separating
them, i.e.
q1 q2
force / 2
d
Figure 6.1 or
q1 q2
an indication of the field strength. Whenever a p.d. force = k
is established between two points, an electric field d2
will always exist.
Figure 6.2(a) shows a typical field pattern for where constant k ³ 9 ð 109 . This is known as
an isolated point charge, and Fig. 6.2(b) shows Coulomb’s law.
the field pattern for adjacent charges of opposite Hence the force between two charged spheres in
polarity. Electric lines of force (often called elec- air with their centres 16 mm apart and each carrying
tric flux lines) are continuous and start and finish a charge of C1.6 µC is given by:
on point charges; also, the lines cannot cross each 6 2
q1 q2 9 1.6 ð 10 
other. When a charged body is placed close to an force D k ³ 9 ð 10 
d2 16 ð 103 2
uncharged body, an induced charge of opposite sign
appears on the surface of the uncharged body. This D 90 newtons
is because lines of force from the charged body ter-
minate on its surface.
6.2 Electric field strength
Figure 6.3 shows two parallel conducting plates sep-
arated from each other by air. They are connected
to opposite terminals of a battery of voltage V volts.
There is therefore an electric field in the space
between the plates. If the plates are close together,
the electric lines of force will be straight and paral-
lel and equally spaced, except near the edge where
fringing will occur (see Fig. 6.1). Over the area in
which there is negligible fringing,

V
Electric field strength, E = volts/metre
d

where d is the distance between the plates. Electric

field strength is also called potential gradient.

Figure 6.2

The concept of field lines or lines of force is

used to illustrate the properties of an electric field.
However, it should be remembered that they are
only aids to the imagination.
The force of attraction or repulsion between
two electrically charged bodies is proportional to Figure 6.3

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54 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

where I is the current in amperes and t the time in

6.3 Capacitance seconds.
Static electric fields arise from electric charges,
electric field lines beginning and ending on electric Problem 1. (a) Determine the p.d. across a
charges. Thus the presence of the field indicates 4 µF capacitor when charged with 5 mC
the presence of equal positive and negative electric (b) Find the charge on a 50 pF capacitor
charges on the two plates of Fig. 6.3. Let the charge when the voltage applied to it is 2 kV.
be CQ coulombs on one plate and Q coulombs on
the other. The property of this pair of plates which
determines how much charge corresponds to a given (a) C D 4 µF D 4 ð 106 F and
p.d. between the plates is called their capacitance: Q D 5 mC D 5 ð 103 C.

Q Q Q 5 ð 103
capacitance C = Since C D then V D D
V V C 4 ð 106
5 ð 106 5000
The unit of capacitance is the farad F (or more D D
4 ð 103 4
usually µF D 106 F or pF D 1012 F), which is
Hence p.d. V D 1250 V or 1.25 kV
defined as the capacitance when a p.d. of one volt
appears across the plates when charged with one (b) C D 50 pF D 50 ð 1012 F and
coulomb. V D 2 kV D 2000 V

Q D CV D 50 ð 1012 ð 2000
6.4 Capacitors 5ð2
D D 0.1 ð 106
108
Every system of electrical conductors possesses
capacitance. For example, there is capacitance Hence, charge Q D 0.1 mC
between the conductors of overhead transmission
lines and also between the wires of a telephone Problem 2. A direct current of 4 A flows
cable. In these examples the capacitance is into a previously uncharged 20 µF capacitor
undesirable but has to be accepted, minimized or for 3 ms. Determine the p.d. between
compensated for. There are other situations where the plates.
capacitance is a desirable property.
Devices specially constructed to possess capaci-
tance are called capacitors (or condensers, as they I D 4 A, C D 20 µF D 20 ð 106 F and t D 3 ms D
used to be called). In its simplest form a capaci- 3 ð 103 s. Q D It D 4 ð 3 ð 103 C.
tor consists of two plates which are separated by
an insulating material known as a dielectric. A Q 4 ð 3 ð 103
VD D
capacitor has the ability to store a quantity of static C 20 ð 106
electricity.
The symbols for a fixed capacitor and a variable 12 ð 106
D D 0.6 ð 103 D 600 V
capacitor used in electrical circuit diagrams are 20 ð 103
shown in Fig. 6.4
Hence, the p.d. between the plates is 600 V

Problem 3. A 5 µF capacitor is charged so

that the p.d. between its plates is 800 V.
Figure 6.4
Calculate how long the capacitor can provide
an average discharge current of 2 mA.
The charge Q stored in a capacitor is given by:
C D 5 µF D 5 ð 106 F, V D 800 V and
Q = I × t coulombs I D 2 mA D 2 ð 103 A.
Q D CV D 5 ð 106 ð 800 D 4 ð 103 C

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 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE 55

Also, Q D It. Thus,

Q
Q 4 ð 103 electric flux density, D = coulombs/metre2
tD D D 2s A
I 2 ð 103

Hence, the capacitor can provide an average Electric flux density is also called charge den-
discharge current of 2 mA for 2 s. sity, .

Now try the following exercise

6.6 Permittivity
Exercise 24 Further problems on At any point in an electric field, the electric field
capacitors and capacitance strength E maintains the electric flux and produces
a particular value of electric flux density D at that
1 Find the charge on a 10 µF capacitor when the point. For a field established in vacuum (or for
applied voltage is 250 V [2.5 mC] practical purposes in air), the ratio D/E is a constant
2 Determine the voltage across a 1000 pF capac- ε0 , i.e.
itor to charge it with 2 µC [2 kV]
3 The charge on the plates of a capacitor is 6 mC D
= e0
when the potential between them is 2.4 kV. E
Determine the capacitance of the capacitor.
[2.5 µF] where ε0 is called the permittivity of free space or
4 For how long must a charging current of 2 A the free space constant. The value of ε0 is
be fed to a 5 µF capacitor to raise the p.d. 8.85 ð 1012 F/m.
between its plates by 500 V. [1.25 ms] When an insulating medium, such as mica, paper,
plastic or ceramic, is introduced into the region of
5 A direct current of 10 A flows into a previously an electric field the ratio of D/E is modified:
uncharged 5 µF capacitor for 1 ms. Determine
the p.d. between the plates. [2 kV]
D
6 A 16 µF capacitor is charged at a constant = e0 er
E
current of 4 µA for 2 min. Calculate the final
p.d. across the capacitor and the corresponding
charge in coulombs. [30 V, 480 µC] where εr , the relative permittivity of the insulating
material, indicates its insulating power compared
7 A steady current of 10 A flows into a previ- with that of vacuum:
ously uncharged capacitor for 1.5 ms when the
p.d. between the plates is 2 kV. Find the capac-
itance of the capacitor. [7.5 µF] relative permittivity,
flux density in material
er =
flux density in vacuum

6.5 Electric flux density

εr has no unit. Typical values of εr include air, 1.00;
Unit flux is defined as emanating from a posi- polythene, 2.3; mica, 3–7; glass, 5–10; water, 80;
tive charge of 1 coulomb. Thus electric flux ceramics, 6–1000.
is measured in coulombs, and for a charge of Q The product ε0 εr is called the absolute permit-
coulombs, the flux D Q coulombs. tivity, ε, i.e.
Electric flux density D is the amount of
flux passing through a defined area A that is e = e0 er
perpendicular to the direction of the flux:

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56 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

The insulating medium separating charged surfaces Electric field strength

is called a dielectric. Compared with conductors,
dielectric materials have very high resistivities. They V 200
are therefore used to separate conductors at differ- ED D D 250 kV=m
d 0.8 ð 103
ent potentials, such as capacitor plates or electric
power lines.
D
(a) For air: εr D 1 and D ε0 εr
E
Problem 4. Two parallel rectangular plates
measuring 20 cm by 40 cm carry an electric Hence electric flux density
charge of 0.2 µC. Calculate the electric flux
density. If the plates are spaced 5 mm apart D D Eε0 εr
and the voltage between them is 0.25 kV
determine the electric field strength. D 250 ð 103 ð 8.85 ð 1012 ð 1 C/m2
D 2.213 mC=m2
2 4 2
Area D 20 cm ð 40 cm D 800 cm D 800 ð 10 m
and charge Q D 0.2 µC D 0.2 ð 106 C, (b) For polythene, εr D 2.3
Electric flux density
Electric flux density
Q 0.2 ð 106 0.2 ð 104
DD D D
A 800 ð 104 800 ð 106 D D Eε0 εr
2000 D 250 ð 103 ð 8.85 ð 1012 ð 2.3 C/m2
D ð 106 D 2.5 mC=m2
800
D 5.089 mC=m2
Voltage V D 0.25 kV D 250 V and plate spacing,
d D 5 mm D 5 ð 103 m.
Electric field strength Now try the following exercise
V 250
ED D D 50 kV=m
d 5 ð 103 Exercise 25 Further problems on electric
field strength, electric flux density and
Problem 5. The flux density between two permittivity
plates separated by mica of relative
(Where appropriate take ε0 as 8.85 ð 1012 F/m)
permittivity 5 is 2 µC/m2 . Find the voltage
gradient between the plates. 1 A capacitor uses a dielectric 0.04 mm thick
and operates at 30 V. What is the electric field
Flux density D D 2 µC/m2 D 2 ð 106 C/m2 , strength across the dielectric at this voltage?
ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m and εr D 5. [750 kV/m]
D/E D ε0 εr , hence voltage gradient, 2 A two-plate capacitor has a charge of 25 C. If
D 2 ð 10 6 the effective area of each plate is 5 cm2 find
ED D V/m the electric flux density of the electric field.
ε0 εr 8.85 ð 1012 ð 5 [50 kC/m2 ]
D 45.2 kV=m
3 A charge of 1.5 µC is carried on two parallel
rectangular plates each measuring 60 mm by
Problem 6. Two parallel plates having a 80 mm. Calculate the electric flux density. If
p.d. of 200 V between them are spaced the plates are spaced 10 mm apart and the
0.8 mm apart. What is the electric field voltage between them is 0.5 kV determine the
strength? Find also the electric flux density electric field strength.
when the dielectric between the plates is [312.5 µC/m2 , 50 kV/m]
(a) air, and (b) polythene of relative
permittivity 2.3 4 Two parallel plates are separated by a dielec-
tric and charged with 10 µC. Given that the

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 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE 57

area of each plate is 50 cm2 , calculate the elec-

tric flux density in the dielectric separating
the plates. [2 mC/m2 ]

5 The electric flux density between two plates

separated by polystyrene of relative permittiv-
ity 2.5 is 5 µC/m2 . Find the voltage gradient
between the plates. [226 kV/m]

6 Two parallel plates having a p.d. of 250 V

between them are spaced 1 mm apart. Deter-
mine the electric field strength. Find also
the electric flux density when the dielectric
between the plates is (a) air and (b) mica of
relative permittivity 5
[250 kV/m (a) 2.213 µC/m2 (b) 11.063 µC/m2 ]

Figure 6.5

6.7 The parallel plate capacitor

For a parallel-plate capacitor, as shown in Problem 7. (a) A ceramic capacitor has an

Fig. 6.5(a), experiments show that capacitance C effective plate area of 4 cm2 separated by
is proportional to the area A of a plate, inversely 0.1 mm of ceramic of relative permittivity
proportional to the plate spacing d (i.e. the dielectric 100. Calculate the capacitance of the
thickness) and depends on the nature of the capacitor in picofarads. (b) If the capacitor in
dielectric: part (a) is given a charge of 1.2 µC what will
be the p.d. between the plates?

e0 er A
Capacitance, C = farads
d (a) Area A D 4 cm2 D 4 ð 104 m2 ,
d D 0.1 mm D 0.1 ð 103 m,
ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m and εr D 100
where ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m (constant)
εr D relative permittivity Capacitance,

A D area of one of the plates, in m2 , and ε0 ε r A

C D farads
d D thickness of dielectric in m d
8.85 ð 1012 ð 100 ð 4 ð 104
Another method used to increase the capacitance is D F
0.1 ð 103
to interleave several plates as shown in Fig. 6.5(b).
Ten plates are shown, forming nine capacitors with 8.85 ð 4
D F
a capacitance nine times that of one pair of plates. 1010
If such an arrangement has n plates then capaci-
8.85 ð 4 ð 1012
tance C / n  1. Thus capacitance D pF D 3540 pF
1010

e0 er A.n − 1/ (b) Q D CV thus

C = farads
d Q 1.2 ð 106
V D D V D 339 V
C 3540 ð 1012

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58 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

2 A waxed paper capacitor has two parallel

Problem 8. A waxed paper capacitor has
two parallel plates, each of effective area plates, each of effective area 0.2 m2 . If the
capacitance is 4000 pF determine the effective
800 cm2 . If the capacitance of the capacitor
thickness of the paper if its relative permittiv-
is 4425 pF determine the effective thickness
ity is 2 [0.885 mm]
of the paper if its relative permittivity is 2.5
3 Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate
2 4
A D 800 cm D 800 ð 10 m D 0.08 m , C D2 2 capacitor having 5 plates, each 30 mm by
4425 pF D 4425 ð 1012 F, ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m 20 mm and separated by a dielectric 0.75 mm
and εr D 2.5. Since thick having a relative permittivity of 2.3
[65.14 pF]
ε 0 εA A ε 0 εr A
CD then d D 4 How many plates has a parallel plate capacitor
d C
having a capacitance of 5 nF, if each plate
8.85 ð 1012 ð 2.5 ð 0.08 is 40 mm by 40 mm and each dielectric is
D
4425 ð 1012 0.102 mm thick with a relative permittivity
of 6. [7]
D 0.0004 m
5 A parallel plate capacitor is made from 25
Hence, the thickness of the paper is 0.4 mm.
plates, each 70 mm by 120 mm interleaved
with mica of relative permittivity 5. If
the capacitance of the capacitor is 3000 pF
Problem 9. A parallel plate capacitor has
determine the thickness of the mica sheet.
nineteen interleaved plates each 75 mm by
[2.97 mm]
75 mm separated by mica sheets 0.2 mm
thick. Assuming the relative permittivity of
6 A capacitor is constructed with parallel plates
the mica is 5, calculate the capacitance of
and has a value of 50 pF. What would be the
the capacitor.
capacitance of the capacitor if the plate area
is doubled and the plate spacing is halved?
[200 pF]
n D 19 thus n1 D 18, A D 75ð75 D 5625 mm2 D
5625 ð 106 m2 , εr D 5, ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m and 7 The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
d D 0.2 mm D 0.2 ð 103 m. Capacitance, is 1000 pF. It has 19 plates, each 50 mm by
30 mm separated by a dielectric of thickness
ε0 εr A n  1
CD 0.40 mm. Determine the relative permittivity
d of the dielectric. [1.67]
8.85 ð 1012 ð 5 ð 5625 ð 106 ð 18
D F 8 The charge on the square plates of a multiplate
0.2 ð 103
capacitor is 80 µC when the potential between
D 0.0224 mF or 22.4 nF them is 5 kV. If the capacitor has twenty-five
plates separated by a dielectric of thickness
0.102 mm and relative permittivity 4.8, deter-
Now try the following exercise mine the width of a plate. [40 mm]

9 A capacitor is to be constructed so that its

capacitance is 4250 pF and to operate at a p.d.
Exercise 26 Further problems on parallel of 100 V across its terminals. The dielectric is
plate capacitors to be polythene εr D 2.3 which, after allow-
(Where appropriate take ε0 as 8.85 ð 1012 F/m) ing a safety factor, has a dielectric strength
of 20 MV/m. Find (a) the thickness of the
polythene needed, and (b) the area of a plate.
1 A capacitor consists of two parallel plates each
[(a) 0.005 mm (b) 10.44 cm2 ]
of area 0.01 m2 , spaced 0.1 mm in air. Calcu-
late the capacitance in picofarads. [885 pF]

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 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE 59

6.8 Capacitors connected in parallel

and series
(a) Capacitors connected in parallel
Figure 6.6 shows three capacitors, C1 , C2 and C3 ,
connected in parallel with a supply voltage V
applied across the arrangement.

Figure 6.7

the p.d. across the individual capacitors be V1 , V2

and V3 respectively as shown.
Let the charge on plate ‘a’ of capacitor C1 be
CQ coulombs. This induces an equal but opposite
charge of Q coulombs on plate ‘b’. The conductor
between plates ‘b’ and ‘c’ is electrically isolated
from the rest of the circuit so that an equal but
opposite charge of CQ coulombs must appear on
plate ‘c’, which, in turn, induces an equal and
opposite charge of Q coulombs on plate ‘d’, and
so on.
Hence when capacitors are connected in series the
Figure 6.6
charge on each is the same. In a series circuit:

When the charging current I reaches point A it V D V1 C V2 C V3

divides, some flowing into C1 , some flowing into
C2 and some into C3 . Hence the total charge QT D Q Q Q Q Q
Since V D then D C C
I ð t is divided between the three capacitors. The C C C1 C2 C3
capacitors each store a charge and these are shown
as Q1 , Q2 and Q3 respectively. Hence where C is the total equivalent circuit capaci-
QT D Q1 C Q 2 C Q 3 tance, i.e.

But QT D CV, Q1 D C1 V, Q2 D C2 V and Q3 D 1 1 1 1

C3 V. Therefore CV D C1 V C C2 V C C3 V where C = + +
C C1 C2 C3
is the total equivalent circuit capacitance, i.e.
C D C1 C C2 C C3 It follows that for n series-connected capacitors:

It follows that for n parallel-connected capacitors,

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... +
C = C1 + C2 + C3 . . . . . . + Cn C C1 C2 C3 Cn

i.e. the equivalent capacitance of a group of parallel- i.e. for series-connected capacitors, the reciprocal
connected capacitors is the sum of the capacitances
of the equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of
of the individual capacitors. (Note that this for-
the reciprocals of the individual capacitances. (Note
mula is similar to that used for resistors connected
in series). that this formula is similar to that used for resistors
connected in parallel).
For the special case of two capacitors in series:
(b) Capacitors connected in series
Figure 6.7 shows three capacitors, C1 , C2 and C3 , 1 1 1 C 2 C C1
connected in series across a supply voltage V. Let D C D
C C1 C2 C1 C2

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60 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

Hence C D C1 C C 2 C C 3 C C 4

 i.e. C D 1 C 3 C 5 C 6 D 15 mF
C1 C2 product
C = i.e. (b) Total charge QT D CV where C is the equiva-
C1 + C2 sum
lent circuit capacitance i.e.

Problem 10. Calculate the equivalent QT D 15 ð 106 ð 100 D 1.5 ð 103 C

capacitance of two capacitors of 6 µF and D 1.5 mC
4 µF connected (a) in parallel and (b) in
series. (c) The charge on the 1 µF capacitor
Q1 D C1 V D 1 ð 106 ð 100 D 0.1 mC
(a) In parallel, equivalent capacitance,
C D C1 C C2 D 6 µF C 4 µF D 10 mF The charge on the 3 µF capacitor
(b) In series, equivalent capacitance C is given by: Q2 D C2 V D 3 ð 106 ð 100 D 0.3 mC
C1 C2 The charge on the 5 µF capacitor
CD
C1 C C2 Q3 D C3 V D 5 ð 106 ð 100 D 0.5 mC
This formula is used for the special case of two The charge on the 6 µF capacitor
capacitors in series. Thus
Q4 D C4 V D 6 ð 106 ð 100 D 0.6 mC
6ð4 24
C D D D 2.4 mF [Check: In a parallel circuit
6C4 10
Q T D Q1 C Q 2 C Q 3 C Q 4 .
Problem 11. What capacitance must be Q1 C Q2 C Q3 C Q4 D 0.1 C 0.3 C 0.5 C 0.6
connected in series with a 30 µF capacitor for
the equivalent capacitance to be 12 µF? D 1.5 mC D QT ]

Let C D 12 µF (the equivalent capacitance), Problem 13. Capacitance’s of 3 µF, 6 µF

C1 D 30 µF and C2 be the unknown capacitance. and 12 µF are connected in series across a
For two capacitors in series 350 V supply. Calculate (a) the equivalent
1 1 1 circuit capacitance, (b) the charge on each
D C capacitor, and (c) the p.d. across each
C C1 C2 capacitor.
Hence
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 6.8.
1 1 1 C1  C
D  D
C2 C C1 CC1
and
CC1 12 ð 30 360
C2 D D D D 20 mF
C1  C 30  12 18

Problem 12. Capacitance’s of 1 µF, 3 µF, Figure 6.8

5 µF and 6 µF are connected in parallel to a
direct voltage supply of 100 V. Determine (a) The equivalent circuit capacitance C for three
(a) the equivalent circuit capacitance, (b) the capacitors in series is given by:
total charge and (c) the charge on
each capacitor. 1 1 1 1
D C C
C C1 C2 C3
(a) The equivalent capacitance C for four capacitors 1 1 1 1 4C2C1 7
in parallel is given by: i.e. D C C D D
C 3 6 12 12 12

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 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE 61

Hence the equivalent circuit capacitance

12 5
C D D 1 mF or 1.714 mF
7 7
(b) Total charge QT D CV, hence
12
QT D ð 106 ð 350
7
D 600 µC or 0.6 mC
Since the capacitors are connected in series Figure 6.9
0.6 mC is the charge on each of them.
The equivalent capacitance of 5 F in series
(c) The voltage across the 3 µF capacitor,
with 15 µF is given by
Q
V1 D 5 ð 15 75
C1 µF D µF D 3.75 mF
5 C 15 20
0.6 ð 103
D D 200 V (b) The charge on each of the capacitors shown in
3 ð 106
Fig. 6.10 will be the same since they are con-
The voltage across the 6 µF capacitor,
nected in series. Let this charge be Q coulombs.
Q
V2 D Then Q D C1 V1 D C2 V2
C2
i.e. 5V1 D 15V2
0.6 ð 103
D D 100 V V1 D 3V2 1
6 ð 106
The voltage across the 12 µF capacitor, Also V1 C V2 D 240 V

Q Hence 3V2 C V2 D 240 V from equation (1)

V3 D Thus V2 D 60 V and V1 D 180 V
C3
0.6 ð 103 Hence the voltage across QR is 60 V
D D 50 V
12 ð 106
[Check: In a series circuit V D V1 C V2 C V3 .
V1 C V2 C V3 D 200 C 100 C 50 D 350 V D
supply voltage]
In practice, capacitors are rarely connected in series
unless they are of the same capacitance. The reason
for this can be seen from the above problem where
the lowest valued capacitor (i.e. 3 µF) has the highest
p.d. across it (i.e. 200 V) which means that if all the
capacitors have an identical construction they must Figure 6.10
all be rated at the highest voltage.
(c) The charge on the 15 µF capacitor is
Problem 14. For the arrangement shown in C2 V2 D 15 ð 106 ð 60 D 0.9 mC
Fig. 6.9 find (a) the equivalent capacitance of
the circuit, (b) the voltage across QR, and The charge on the 2 µF capacitor is
(c) the charge on each capacitor. 2 ð 106 ð 180 D 0.36 mC
The charge on the 3 µF capacitor is
(a) 2 µF in parallel with 3 µF gives an equivalent
capacitance of 2 µF C 3 µF D 5 µF. The circuit 3 ð 106 ð 180 D 0.54 mC
is now as shown in Fig. 6.10.

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Now try the following exercise charge on each capacitor and (c) the p.d.
across each capacitor.
[(a) 4 µF (b) 3 mC (c) 250 V]
Exercise 27 Further problems on
capacitors in parallel and series 8 If two capacitors having capacitances of
3 µF and 5 µF respectively are connected
1 Capacitors of 2 µF and 6 µF are connected in series across a 240 V supply, determine
(a) in parallel and (b) in series. Determine the (a) the p.d. across each capacitor and (b) the
equivalent capacitance in each case. charge on each capacitor.
[(a) 8 µF (b) 1.5 µF] [(a) 150 V, 90 V (b) 0.45 mC on each]
2 Find the capacitance to be connected in series 9 In Fig. 6.12 capacitors P, Q and R are iden-
with a 10 µF capacitor for the equivalent tical and the total equivalent capacitance of
capacitance to be 6 µF [15 µF] the circuit is 3 µF. Determine the values of
P, Q and R [4.2 µF each]
3 What value of capacitance would be obtained
if capacitors of 0.15 µF and 0.10 µF are con-
nected (a) in series and (b) in parallel
[(a) 0.06 µF (b) 0.25 µF]
4 Two 6 µF capacitors are connected in series
with one having a capacitance of 12 µF. Find
the total equivalent circuit capacitance. What
capacitance must be added in series to obtain
a capacitance of 1.2 µF? [2.4 µF, 2.4 µF]
Figure 6.12
5 Determine the equivalent capacitance when
the following capacitors are connected (a) in 10 Capacitances of 4 µF, 8 µF and 16 µF are
parallel and (b) in series: connected in parallel across a 200 V supply.
(i) 2 µF, 4 µF and 8 µF Determine (a) the equivalent capacitance,
(ii) 0.02 µF, 0.05 µF and 0.10 µF (b) the total charge and (c) the charge on
(iii) 50 pF and 450 pF each capacitor.
(iv) 0.01 µF and 200 pF [(a) 28 µF (b) 5.6 mC
[(a) (i) 14 µF (ii) 0.17 µF (c) 0.8 mC, 1.6 mC, 3.2 mC]
(iii) 500 pF (iv) 0.0102 µF 11 A circuit consists of two capacitors P and Q
(b) (i) 1.143 µF (ii) 0.0125 µF in parallel, connected in series with another
capacitor R. The capacitances of P, Q and R
(iii) 45 pF (iv) 196.1 pF] are 4 µF, 12 µF and 8 µF respectively. When
6 For the arrangement shown in Fig. 6.11 find the circuit is connected across a 300 V d.c.
(a) the equivalent circuit capacitance and supply find (a) the total capacitance of the
(b) the voltage across a 4.5 µF capacitor. circuit, (b) the p.d. across each capacitor
[(a) 1.2 µF (b) 100 V] and (c) the charge on each capacitor.
[(a) 5.33 µF (b) 100 V across P, 100 V across
Q, 200 V across R (c) 0.4 mC on P, 1.2 mC
on Q, 1.6 mC on R]

6.9 Dielectric strength

The maximum amount of field strength that a dielec-
tric can withstand is called the dielectric strength of
Figure 6.11 the material. Dielectric strength,
7 Three 12 µF capacitors are connected in
series across a 750 V supply. Calcu- Vm
Em =
late (a) the equivalent capacitance, (b) the d

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 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE 63

energy 0.24
Problem 15. A capacitor is to be (b) Power D D W D 24 kW
constructed so that its capacitance is 0.2 µF time 10 ð 106
and to take a p.d. of 1.25 kV across its
terminals. The dielectric is to be mica which, Problem 17. A 12 µF capacitor is required
after allowing a safety factor of 2, has a to store 4 J of energy. Find the p.d. to which
dielectric strength of 50 MV/m. Find (a) the the capacitor must be charged.
thickness of the mica needed, and (b) the
area of a plate assuming a two-plate
construction. (Assume εr for mica to be 6). Energy stored
1
WD CV2
(a) Dielectric strength, 2
2W
V hence V2 D
ED C
d  
V 1.25 ð 103 2W 2ð4
i.e. dD D m and p.d. V D D
E 50 ð 106 c 12 ð 106

D 0.025 mm
2 ð 106
(b) Capacitance, D D 816.5 V
3
ε0 εr A
CD Problem 18. A capacitor is charged with
d
10 mC. If the energy stored is 1.2 J find
hence
(a) the voltage and (b) the capacitance.
Cd 0.2 ð 106 ð 0.025 ð 103 2
area A D D m
ε0 εr 8.85 ð 1012 ð 6
Energy stored W D 12 CV2 and C D Q/V. Hence
2 2
D 0.09416 m D 941.6 cm

1 Q
WD V2
2 V
6.10 Energy stored in capacitors
D 12 QV from which
The energy, W, stored by a capacitor is given by
2W
VD
Q
1
W = CV 2 joules Q D 10 mC D 10 ð 103 C
2
and W D 1.2 J

Problem 16. (a) Determine the energy (a) Voltage

stored in a 3 µF capacitor when charged to
400 V (b) Find also the average power 2W 2 ð 1.2
developed if this energy is dissipated in a VD D D 0.24 kV or 240 V
Q 10 ð 103
time of 10 µs.
(b) Capacitance
(a) Energy stored

1 Q 10 ð 103 10 ð 106
CD D FD µF
W D CV2 joules D 12 ð 3 ð 106 ð 4002 V 240 240 ð 103
2
3 D 41.67 mF
D ð 16 ð 102 D 0.24 J
2

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64 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

Now try the following exercise plates rotate on a spindle as shown by the end
view of Fig. 6.13.
As the moving plates are rotated through half a
Exercise 28 Further problems on energy revolution, the meshing, and therefore the capac-
stored in capacitors itance, varies from a minimum to a maximum
value. Variable air capacitors are used in radio
(Assume ε0 D 8.85 ð 1012 F/m) and electronic circuits where very low losses
are required, or where a variable capacitance is
1 When a capacitor is connected across a 200 V needed. The maximum value of such capacitors
supply the charge is 4 µC. Find (a) the capac- is between 500 pF and 1000 pF.
itance and (b) the energy stored
[(a) 0.02 µF (b) 0.4 mJ]
2 Find the energy stored in a 10 µF capacitor
when charged to 2 kV [20 J]
3 A 3300 pF capacitor is required to store 0.5 mJ
of energy. Find the p.d. to which the capacitor
must be charged. [550 V] Figure 6.13
4 A capacitor is charged with 8 mC. If the energy
stored is 0.4 J find (a) the voltage and (b) the 2. Mica capacitors. A typical older type construc-
capacitance. [(a) 100 V (b) 80 µF] tion is shown in Fig. 6.14.
5 A capacitor, consisting of two metal plates
each of area 50 cm2 and spaced 0.2 mm apart
in air, is connected across a 120 V supply.
Calculate (a) the energy stored, (b) the electric
flux density and (c) the potential gradient
[(a) 1.593 µJ (b) 5.31 µC/m2 (c) 600 kV/m]
6 A bakelite capacitor is to be constructed to
have a capacitance of 0.04 µF and to have
a steady working potential of 1 kV maxi- Figure 6.14
mum. Allowing a safe value of field stress
of 25 MV/m find (a) the thickness of bakelite
required, (b) the area of plate required if the Usually the whole capacitor is impregnated with
relative permittivity of bakelite is 5, (c) the wax and placed in a bakelite case. Mica is easily
maximum energy stored by the capacitor and obtained in thin sheets and is a good insulator.
(d) the average power developed if this energy However, mica is expensive and is not used in
is dissipated in a time of 20 µs. capacitors above about 0.2 µF. A modified form
[(a) 0.04 mm (b) 361.6 cm2 of mica capacitor is the silvered mica type. The
mica is coated on both sides with a thin layer
(c) 0.02 J (d) 1 kW] of silver which forms the plates. Capacitance
is stable and less likely to change with age.
Such capacitors have a constant capacitance with
change of temperature, a high working voltage
6.11 Practical types of capacitor rating and a long service life and are used in high
frequency circuits with fixed values of capaci-
Practical types of capacitor are characterized by the tance up to about 1000 pF.
material used for their dielectric. The main types
include: variable air, mica, paper, ceramic, plastic, 3. Paper capacitors. A typical paper capacitor is
titanium oxide and electrolytic. shown in Fig. 6.15 where the length of the roll
corresponds to the capacitance required.
1. Variable air capacitors. These usually consist The whole is usually impregnated with oil or
of two sets of metal plates (such as aluminium), wax to exclude moisture, and then placed in a
one fixed, the other variable. The set of moving plastic or aluminium container for protection.

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 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE 65

Figure 6.17
Figure 6.15

Paper capacitors are made in various working

voltages up to about 150 kV and are used where
loss is not very important. The maximum value
of this type of capacitor is between 500 pF and
10 µF. Disadvantages of paper capacitors include
variation in capacitance with temperature change
and a shorter service life than most other types Figure 6.18
of capacitor.
4. Ceramic capacitors. These are made in various capacitance, a very long service life and high
forms, each type of construction depending on reliability.
the value of capacitance required. For high val-
ues, a tube of ceramic material is used as shown 6. Titanium oxide capacitors have a very high
in the cross section of Fig. 6.16. For smaller val- capacitance with a small physical size when used
ues the cup construction is used as shown in at a low temperature.
Fig. 6.17, and for still smaller values the disc
construction shown in Fig. 6.18 is used. Certain 7 Electrolytic capacitors. Construction is similar
ceramic materials have a very high permittivity to the paper capacitor with aluminium foil used
and this enables capacitors of high capacitance for the plates and with a thick absorbent mate-
to be made which are of small physical size with rial, such as paper, impregnated with an elec-
a high working voltage rating. Ceramic capaci- trolyte (ammonium borate), separating the plates.
tors are available in the range 1 pF to 0.1 µF and The finished capacitor is usually assembled in
may be used in high frequency electronic circuits an aluminium container and hermetically sealed.
subject to a wide range of temperatures. Its operation depends on the formation of a thin
aluminium oxide layer on the positive plate by
electrolytic action when a suitable direct poten-
tial is maintained between the plates. This oxide
layer is very thin and forms the dielectric. (The
absorbent paper between the plates is a conductor
and does not act as a dielectric.) Such capaci-
tors must always be used on d.c. and must be
connected with the correct polarity; if this is not
Figure 6.16 done the capacitor will be destroyed since the
oxide layer will be destroyed. Electrolytic capaci-
tors are manufactured with working voltage from
5. Plastic capacitors. Some plastic materials such 6 V to 600 V, although accuracy is generally not
as polystyrene and Teflon can be used as very high. These capacitors possess a much larger
dielectrics. Construction is similar to the paper capacitance than other types of capacitors of sim-
capacitor but using a plastic film instead of paper. ilar dimensions due to the oxide film being only
Plastic capacitors operate well under conditions a few microns thick. The fact that they can be
of high temperature, provide a precise value of used only on d.c. supplies limit their usefulness.

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66 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY

15 Three 3 µF capacitors are connected in series.

6.12 Discharging capacitors The equivalent capacitance is. . . .
When a capacitor has been disconnected from the 16 State a disadvantage of series-connected
supply it may still be charged and it may retain this capacitors
charge for some considerable time. Thus precautions 17 Name three factors upon which capacitance
must be taken to ensure that the capacitor is auto- depends
matically discharged after the supply is switched off.
This is done by connecting a high value resistor 18 What does ‘relative permittivity’ mean?
across the capacitor terminals. 19 Define ‘permittivity of free space’
20 What is meant by the ‘dielectric strength’ of
a material?
Now try the following exercises
21 State the formula used to determine the
energy stored by a capacitor
Exercise 29 Short answer questions on 22 Name five types of capacitor commonly used
capacitors and capacitance 23 Sketch a typical rolled paper capacitor
1 Explain the term ‘electrostatics’ 24 Explain briefly the construction of a variable
2 Complete the statements: air capacitor
Like charges . . . . . . ; unlike charges . . . . . . 25 State three advantages and one disadvantage
of mica capacitors
3 How can an ‘electric field’ be established
between two parallel metal plates? 26 Name two disadvantages of paper capacitors
4 What is capacitance? 27 Between what values of capacitance are
ceramic capacitors normally available
5 State the unit of capacitance
28 What main advantages do plastic capacitors
6 Complete the statement: possess?
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ
Capacitance D 29 Explain briefly the construction of an elec-
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ trolytic capacitor
7 Complete the statements:
30 What is the main disadvantage of electrolytic
(a) 1 µF D . . . F (b) 1 pF D . . . F capacitors?
8 Complete the statement: 31 Name an important advantage of electrolytic
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ capacitors
Electric field strength E D
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ 32 What safety precautions should be taken
9 Complete the statement: when a capacitor is disconnected from a sup-
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ ply?
Electric flux density D D
ÐÐÐÐÐÐ
10 Draw the electrical circuit diagram symbol
for a capacitor
Exercise 30 Multi-choice questions on
11 Name two practical examples where capaci- capacitors and capacitance (Answers on
tance is present, although undesirable page 375)
12 The insulating material separating the plates
of a capacitor is called the . . . . . . 1 Electrostatics is a branch of electricity con-
cerned with
13 10 volts applied to a capacitor results in a (a) energy flowing across a gap between con-
charge of 5 coulombs. What is the capaci- ductors
tance of the capacitor? (b) charges at rest
14 Three 3 µF capacitors are connected in paral- (c) charges in motion
lel. The equivalent capacitance is. . . . (d) energy in the form of charges

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 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE 67

2 The capacitance of a capacitor is the ratio (d) is proportional to the relative permittivity
(a) charge to p.d. between plates of the dielectric
(b) p.d. between plates to plate spacing 8 Which of the following statement is false?
(c) p.d. between plates to thickness of dielec- (a) An air capacitor is normally a vari-
tric able type
(d) p.d. between plates to charge (b) A paper capacitor generally has a shorter
3 The p.d. across a 10 µF capacitor to charge it service life than most other types of
with 10 mC is capacitor
(a) 10 V (b) 1 kV (c) An electrolytic capacitor must be used
only on a.c. supplies
(c) 1 V (d) 10 V (d) Plastic capacitors generally operate sat-
4 The charge on a 10 pF capacitor when the isfactorily under conditions of high tem-
voltage applied to it is 10 kV is perature
(a) 100 µC (b) 0.1 C 9 The energy stored in a 10 µF capacitor when
charged to 500 V is
(c) 0.1 µC (d) 0.01 µC
(a) 1.25 mJ (b) 0.025 µJ
5 Four 2 µF capacitors are connected in paral- (c) 1.25 J (d) 1.25 C
lel. The equivalent capacitance is
10 The capacitance of a variable air capacitor is
(a) 8 µF (b) 0.5 µF at maximum when
(c) 2 µF (d) 6 µF (a) the movable plates half overlap the fixed
plates
6 Four 2 µF capacitors are connected in series. (b) the movable plates are most widely sep-
The equivalent capacitance is arated from the fixed plates
(a) 8 µF (b) 0.5 µF (c) both sets of plates are exactly meshed
(d) the movable plates are closer to one side
(c) 2 µF (d) 6 µF
of the fixed plate than to the other
7 State which of the following is false. 11 When a voltage of 1 kV is applied to a capac-
The capacitance of a capacitor itor, the charge on the capacitor is 500 nC.
(a) is proportional to the cross-sectional area The capacitance of the capacitor is:
of the plates
(b) is proportional to the distance between (a) 2 ð 109 F (b) 0.5 pF
the plates (c) 0.5 mF (d) 0.5 nF
(c) depends on the number of plates

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