CONCEPT OF CRYPTOGRAPHY

Cryptography is technique of securing information and communications

through use of codes so that only those person for whom the information is intended
can understand it and process it. Thus preventing unauthorized access to
information. The prefix “crypt” means “hidden” and suffix graphy means “writing”.
In Cryptography the techniques which are use to protect information are
obtained from mathematical concepts and a set of rule based calculations known
as algorithms to convert messages in ways that make it hard to decode it. These
algorithms are used for cryptographic key generation, digital signing, verification to
protect data privacy, web browsing on internet and to protect confidential
transactions such as credit card and debit card transactions.

TECHNIQUES USED FOR CRYPTOGRAPHY:

In today’s age of computers cryptography is often associated with the process

where an ordinary plain text is converted to cipher text which is the text made such
that intended receiver of the text can only decode it and hence this process is known
as encryption. The process of conversion of cipher text to plain text this is known
as decryption.
FEATURES OF CRYPTOGRAPHY ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1. Confidentiality:
Information can only be accessed by the person for whom it is intended
and no other person except him can access it.
2. Integrity:
Information cannot be modified in storage or transition between sender
and intended receiver without any addition to information being detected.
3. Non-repudiation:
The creator/sender of information cannot deny his or her intention to send
information at later stage.
4. Authentication:
The identities of sender and receiver are confirmed. As well as
destination/origin of information is confirmed.

TYPES OF CRYPTOGRAPHY:

In general there are three types of Cryptography:

1. Symmetric Key Cryptography:

It is an encryption system where the sender and receiver of message use

a single common key to encrypt and decrypt messages. Symmetric Key
Systems are faster and simpler but the problem is that sender and
receiver have to somehow exchange key in a secure manner. The most
popular symmetric key cryptography system is Data Encryption
System(DES).

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 2. Hash Functions:

There is no usage of any key in this algorithm. A hash value with fixed
length is calculated as per the plain text which makes it impossible for
contents of plain text to be recovered. Many operating systems use hash
functions to encrypt passwords.
3. Asymmetric Key Cryptography:

Under this system a pair of keys is used to encrypt and decrypt

information. A public key is used for encryption and a private key is used
for decryption. Public key and Private Key are different. Even if the public
key is known by everyone the intended receiver can only decode it
because he alone knows the private key.

Encryption – Process of converting electronic data into another form, called

cipher text, which cannot be easily understood by anyone except the authorized
parties.This assures data security.

Decryption– Process of translating code to data.

· Message is encrypted at the sender's side using various encryption
algorithms and decrypted at the receiver's end with the help of the
decryption algorithms.
· When some message is to be kept secure like username, password, etc.,
encryption and decryption techniques are used to assure data security.
Types of Encryption

1. Symmetric Encryption– Data is encrypted using a key and the

decryption is also done using the same key.
2. Asymmetric Encryption-Asymmetric Cryptography is also known as
public key cryptography. It uses public and private keys to encrypt and
decrypt data. One key in the pair which can be shared with everyone is
called the public key. The other key in the pair which is kept secret and is
only known by the owner is called the private key. Either of the keys can
be used to encrypt a message; the opposite key from the one used to
encrypt the message is used for decryption.

Public key– Key which is known to everyone. Ex-public key of A is 7, this

information is known to everyone.
Private key– Key which is only known to the person who's private key it is.

Authentication-Authentication is any process by which a system verifies the

identity of a user who wishes to access it.

Non- repudiation– Non-repudiation means to ensure that a transferred message

has been sent and received by the parties claiming to have sent and received the
message. Non-repudiation is a way to guarantee that the sender of a message
cannot later deny having sent the message and that the recipient cannot deny
having received the message.

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Integrity– to ensure that the message was not altered during the transmission.

Message digest -The representation of text in the form of a single string of digits,
created using a formula called a one way hash function. Encrypting a message
digest with a private key creates a digital signature which is an electronic means of
authentication..

DIGITAL SIGNATURE
A digital signature is a mathematical technique used to validate the authenticity and
integrity of a message, software or digital document.

1. Key Generation Algorithms : Digital signature are electronic signatures,

which assures that the message was sent by a particular sender. While
performing digital transactions authenticity and integrity should be
assured, otherwise the data can be altered or someone can also act as if
he was the sender and expect a reply.
2. Signing Algorithms: To create a digital signature, signing algorithms like
email programs create a one-way hash of the electronic data which is to
be signed. The signing algorithm then encrypts the hash value using the
private key (signature key). This encrypted hash along with other
information like the hashing algorithm is the digital signature. This digital
signature is appended with the data and sent to the verifier. The reason
for encrypting the hash instead of the entire message or document is that
a hash function converts any arbitrary input into a much shorter fixed
length value. This saves time as now instead of signing a long message
a shorter hash value has to be signed and moreover hashing is much
faster than signing.
3. Signature Verification Algorithms : Verifier receives Digital Signature
along with the data. It then uses Verification algorithm to process on the
digital signature and the public key (verification key) and generates some
value. It also applies the same hash function on the received data and
generates a hash value. Then the hash value and the output of the
verification algorithm are compared. If they both are equal, then the digital
signature is valid else it is invalid.

THE STEPS FOLLOWED IN CREATING DIGITAL SIGNATURE ARE :

1. Message digest is computed by applying hash function on the message

and then message digest is encrypted using private key of sender to form
the digital signature. (digital signature = encryption (private key of sender,
message digest) and message digest = message digest
algorithm(message)).
2. Digital signature is then transmitted with the message.(message + digital
signature is transmitted)
3. Receiver decrypts the digital signature using the public key of
sender.(This assures authenticity,as only sender has his private key so
only sender can encrypt using his private key which can thus be
decrypted by sender’s public key).
4. The receiver now has the message digest.
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 5. The receiver can compute the message digest from the message (actual
message is sent with the digital signature).
6. The message digest computed by receiver and the message digest (got
by decryption on digital signature) need to be same for ensuring integrity.
Message digest is computed using one-way hash function, i.e. a hash function in
which computation of hash value of a message is easy but computation of the
message from hash value of the message is very difficult.

DIGITAL CERTIFICATE
Digital certificate is issued by a trusted third party which proves sender's identity to
the receiver and receiver’s identity to the sender.
A digital certificate is a certificate issued by a Certificate Authority (CA) to verify the
identity of the certificate holder. The CA issues an encrypted digital certificate
containing the applicant’s public key and a variety of other identification information.
Digital certificate is used to attach public key with a particular individual or an entity.

DIGITAL CERTIFICATE CONTAINS:-

1. Name of certificate holder.
2. Serial number which is used to uniquely identify a certificate, the
individual or the entity identified by the certificate
3. Expiration dates.
4. Copy of certificate holder's public key.(used for decrypting messages and
digital signatures)
5. Digital Signature of the certificate issuing authority.
Digital ceritifcate is also sent with the digital signature and the message.

DIGITAL CERTIFICATE VS DIGITAL SIGNATURE :

Digital signature is used to verify authenticity, integrity, non-repudiation ,i.e. it is

assuring that the message is sent by the known user and not modified, while digital
certificate is used to verify the identity of the user, maybe sender or receiver. Thus,
digital signature and certificate are different kind of things but both are used for
security. Most websites use digital certificate to enhance trust of their users.

Feature Digital Signature Digital Certificate

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 Digital signature is like a fingerprint
or an attachment to a digital Digital certificate is a file that
Basics / document that ensures its ensures holder’s identity and
Definition authenticity and integrity. provides security.

Hashed value of original message It is generated by CA (Certifying

is encrypted with sender’s secret Authority) that involves four steps:
Process / key to generate the digital Key Generation, Registration,
Steps signature. Verification, Creation.

Authenticity of It provides security

Security Sender, integrity of the document and authenticity of certificate
Services and non-repudiation. holder.

It follows Digital Signature Standard

Standard (DSS). It follows X.509 Standard Format

DIGITAL ENVELOPE:
A digital envelope is a secure electronic data container that is used to protect
a message through encryption and data authentication.
A digital envelope allows users to encrypt data with the speed of secret key
encryption and the convenience and security of public key encryption.

Rivest, Shamir and Adleman (RSA) Public-Key Cryptography Standard

(PKCS) governs the application of cryptography to data for digital envelopes and
digital signatures.

A digital envelope is also known as a digital wrapper.A digital envelope

uses two layers for encryption: Secret (symmetric) key and public key encryption.
Secret key encryption is used for message encoding and decoding. Public key
encryption is used to send a secret key to a receiving party over a network. This
technique does not require plain text communication.

Either of the following methods may be used to create a digital envelope:

· Secret key encryption algorithms, such as Rijndael or Twofish, for message

encryption.
· Public key encryption algorithm from RSA for secret key encryption with a
receiver’s public key.

A digital envelope may be decrypted by using a receiver's private key to decrypt a

secret key, or by using a secret key to decrypt encrypted data.

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An example of a digital envelope is Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) - a popular data
cryptography software that also provides cryptographic privacy and data
communication authentication.

ELECTRONIC PAYMENT SYSTEM

An e-payment or Electronic Payment system allows customers to pay for the

services via electronic methods. They are also known as online payment systems.
Normally e-payment is done via debit, credit cards, direct bank deposits, and e-
checks, other alternative e-payment methods like e-wallets, bitcoin, cryptocurrencies,
bank transfers are also gaining popularity.

TYPES OF E-PAYMENT SYSTEM

E-payments can be done in the following ways,

· Internet banking – In this case, the payment is done by digitally transferring

the funds over the internet from one bank account to another. Some popular
modes of net banking are, NEFT, RTGS, IMPS.

· Card payments – Card payments are done via cards e.g. credit card, debit
card, smart cards, stored valued cards, etc. In this mode, an electronic
payment accepting device initiates the online payment transfer via card

· Credit/ Debit card – An e payment method where the card is required for
making payments through an electronic device.

· Smart card – Also known as a chip card, a smart card, a card with a
microprocessor chip is needed to transfer payments.

· Stored value card – These types of cards have some amount of money
stored beforehand and are needed to make funds transfer. These are prepaid
cards like gift cards, etc.

· Direct debit – Direct debit transfers funds from a customer’s account with the
help of a third party

· E-cash – It is a form where the money is stored in the customer’s device which
is used for making transfers.

· E-check – This is a digital version of a paper check used to transfer funds

within accounts.

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Alternate payment methods – As technology is evolving, e-payment methods
kept evolving with it (are still evolving..) These innovative alternate e-payment
methods became widely popular very quickly thanks to their convenience.

· E-wallet – Very popular among customers, an E-wallet is a form of prepaid

account, where customer’s account information like credit/ debit card
information is stored allowing quick, seamless, and smooth flow of the
transaction.

· Mobile wallet – An evolved form of e-wallet, mobile wallet is extensively used

by lots of customers. It is a virtual wallet, in the form of an app that sits on a
mobile device. Mobile wallet stores card information on a mobile device. The
user-friendly nature of mobile wallets makes them easier to use. It offers a
seamless payment experience making customers less dependent on cash.

· QR payments – QR code-enabled payments have become immensely

popular. QR code stands for ‘Quick Response’ code, a code that contains a
pixel pattern of barcodes or squares arranged in a square grid. Each part of
the code contains information. This information can be merchant’s details,
transaction details, etc. To make payments, one has to scan the QR code with
the mobile device.

· Contactless payments – Contactless payments are becoming popular for

quite some time. These payments are done using RFID and NFC technology.
The customer needs to tap or hover the payment device or a card near the
payment terminal, earning it a name, ‘tap and go’.

· UPI payments – NPCI (National Payment Corporation of India) has

developed an instant real-time payment system to facilitate interbank
transactions. This payment system is titled UPI(Unified Payment Interface).
Payments via UPI can be made via an app on a mobile device.

· Biometric payments – Biometric payments are done via using/scanning

various parts of the body, e.g. fingerprint scanning, eye scanning, facial
recognition, etc. These payments are replacing the need to enter the PIN for
making transactions making these payments more accessible and easy to
use.

· Payments are done via Wearable devices – Wearable devices are rapidly
becoming popular among customers. These devices are connected to the
customer’s bank account and are used to make online payments. An example
of a wearable used for making an online payment is a smartwatch.

· AI-based payments – As machine learning and Artificial Intelligence is

creating a revolution all around the world, AI-based solutions are becoming
more popular. Payments based on AI such as speakers, chatbots, ML tools,

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 deep learning tools, etc are making it easier for businesses to maintain
transparency.

How e-payment system works?

Entities involved in an online payment system

The merchant
The customer / the cardholder
The issuing bank
The acquirer
Payment Processor
Payment Gateway

Working of e-payments can be explained in the following three steps,

· Payment initiation – Customer finalizes the product/service and chooses the

payment method to initiate the transaction. Depending on the payment
method, the customer enters the required information like card number, CVV,
personal details, expiration date, PIN, etc. The chosen payment method either
redirects the customer to an external payment page or a bank’s payment page
to continue the payment process.

· Payment authentication – The information submitted by the customer along

with other details like payment information, customer’s account information is
authenticated by the operator. The operator can be a payment gateway or any
other solution involved. If everything gets authenticated positively, the
operator reports a successful transaction. On the contrary, if there is any
problem with any of the authentication checks, the transaction fails. After the
successful transaction, the customer gets a payment confirmation.

· Payment settlement – After the successful authentication process, payment

from the customer’s bank gets transferred into the merchant’s account by the
online payment service provider.

BENEFITS OF E-PAYMENT SYSTEMS

People are almost comfortable with online shopping and e-payments. With this
trend, accepting online payment is a must for any business.

E-payments are making shopping and banking more convenient. They are
helping customers to reach more clients locally and globally.

E-payments are faster making the transactions efficient.

With e-payments, customers can pay online at anytime from anywhere,

making them easily accessible and convenient for customers.

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 It’s easy to integrate online payment solutions with businesses as many
payment processing solution providers offering different types of solutions.

Online payment solutions come with security and risk and anti-fraud tools
making them reliable and secure not only for customers but also for merchants.

E-payments are proved to be highly effective for international transactions, as

they are cheaper, easier, faster, and generally are real-time.

In conclusion, if you are running a business, accepting online payments is the

need of current times. You need to find out what your target customers are preferring
and accordingly you need to provide the most convenient and relevant online
payment solutions.

RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH PAYMENT SYSTEMS

In any payment transaction, there will be a time lag between the time payment
instructions are issued and final settlement of these claims (either on gross or net
basis). This time lag exposes the entire system to various risks which are given
below:

1. Credit Risk: the risk that a party within the system will be unable fully to meet
its financial obligations within the system either when due or at any time in the
future
2. Liquidity Risk: the risk that a party within the system will have insufficient
funds to meet financial obligations within the system as and when expected
although it may be able to do so at some time in the future
3. Legal Risk: the risk that a poor legal framework or legal uncertainties will
cause or exacerbate credit or liquidity risks
4. Operational Risk: the risk that operational factors such as technical
malfunctions or operational mistakes will cause or exacerbate credit or liquidity
risks
5. Systemic Risk: the risk that the inability of one of the participants to meet its
obligations, or a disruption in the system itself, could result in the inability of
other system participants or of financial institutions in other parts of the
financial system to meet their obligations as they become due. Such a failure
could cause widespread liquidity or credit problems and, as a result, could
threaten the stability of the system or of financial markets.

SECURE SOCKETS LAYER(SSL)

SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) is a standard security protocol for establishing an
encrypted link between a server and a client. This ensures that all data
transmission between a client and server remains confidential.

When data is transferred in non-encrypted form between a server and a client, cyber
criminals can eavesdrop, intercept, modify and steal the data. Private, confidential
data including personal information, login credentials, card details, banking data and

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corporate communication must be transmitted securely, and this is achieved through
SSL protocol.

Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is a protocol developed by Netscape for transmitting

private documents via the Internet. SSL uses a cryptographic system that uses
two keys to encrypt data − a public key known to everyone and a private or secret
key known only to the recipient of the message.

What Happens Between The Web Browser And Server

1. A browser attempts to connect to a web site secured with SSL. The browser
requests that the web server identify itself.
2. The server sends the browser a copy of its SSL certificate.
3. The browser checks whether it trusts the SSL certificate. If so, it sends a
message to the server.
4. The server sends back a digitally signed acknowledgement to start an SSL
encrypted session.
5. Encrypted data is shared between the browser and the server.
SSL Fundamentals

There are 3 essential elements at work in the process described above: a protocol
for communications (SSL), credentials for establishing identity (the SSL certificate),
and a third party that vouches for the credentials (the certificate authority).
· Computers use protocols to allow different systems to work together. Web
servers and web browsers rely on the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
protocol to enable encrypted communications. The browser’s request that the
server identify itself is a function of the SSL protocol.
· Credentials for establishing identity are common to our everyday lives: a
driver’s license, a passport, a company badge. An SSL certificate is a type of
digital certificate that serves as a credential in the online world. Each SSL
certificate uniquely identifies a specific domain (such as thawte.com) and a web
server.
· Our trust of a credential depends on our confidence in the organization that
issued it. Certificate authorities have a variety of methods to verify
information provided by individuals or organizations. Established certificate
authorities, such as Thawte, are well known and trusted by browser vendors.
Browsers extend that trust to digital certificates that are verified by the
certificate authority

BIOMETRICS
Biometrics is the measurement and statistical analysis of people's physical
and behavioral characteristics. The technology is mainly used for identification and
access control, or for identifying individuals that are under surveillance.
The basic premise of biometric authentication is that everyone is unique and an
individual can be identified by his or her intrinsic physical or behavioral traits.
The term "biometrics" is derived from the Greek words "bio" meaning life and "metric"
meaning to measure.
There are two main types of biometric identifiers:

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 Ø Physiological characteristics: The shape or composition of the body.
Ø Behavioral characteristics: The behavior of a person.

Examples of physiological characteristics used for biometric authentication

include fingerprints; DNA; face, hand, retina or ear features; and odor.
Behavioral characteristics are related to the pattern of the behavior of a
person, such as typing rhythm, gait, gestures and voice. Certain biometric identifiers,
such as monitoring keystrokes or gait in real time, can be used to provide continuous
authentication instead of a single one-off authentication check.
Other areas that are being explored in the quest to improve biometric
authentication include brainwave signals, electronic tattoos, and a password pill that
contains a microchip powered by the acid present in the stomach. Once swallowed,
it creates a unique ID radio signal that can be sensed from outside the skin, turning
the entire body into a password.

Biometric verification becoming common

Authentication by biometric verification is becoming increasingly common in

corporate and public security systems, consumer electronics, and point-of-sale
applications. In addition to security, the driving force behind biometric verification has
been convenience, as there are no passwords to remember or security tokens to
carry. Measuring someone’s gait doesn’t even require a contact with the person.
Biometric devices, such as fingerprint readers, consist of:
· A reader or scanning device.
· Software that converts the scanned information into digital form and compares
match points.
· A database that stores the biometric data for comparison.

Accuracy of biometrics

The accuracy and cost of readers has until recently been a limiting factor in
the adoption of biometric authentication solutions but the presence of high quality
cameras, microphones, and fingerprint readers in many of today’s mobile devices
means biometrics is likely to become a considerably more common method of
authenticating users, particularly as the new FIDO specification means that two-
factor authentication using biometrics is finally becoming cost effective and in a
position to be rolled out to the consumer market.
The quality of biometric readers is improving all the time, but they can still
produce false negatives and false positives. One problem with fingerprints is that
people inadvertently leave their fingerprints on many surfaces they touch, and it’s
fairly easy to copy them and create a replica in silicone. People also leave DNA
everywhere they go and someone’s voice is also easily captured. Dynamic biometrics
like gestures and facial expressions can change, but they can be captured by HD
cameras and copied. Also, whatever biometric is being measured, if the
measurement data is exposed at any point during the authentication process, there
is always the possibility it can be intercepted. This is a big problem, as people can’t
change their physical attributes as they can a password. While limitations in biometric
authentication schemes are real, biometrics is a great improvement over passwords
as a means of authenticating an individual.

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E-COMMERCE - SECURITY SYSTEMS
Security is an essential part of any transaction that takes place over the internet.
Customers will lose his/her faith in e-business if its security is compromised.
Following are the essential requirements for safe e-payments/transactions −
· Confidentiality − Information should not be accessible to an unauthorized
person. It should not be intercepted during the transmission.
· Integrity − Information should not be altered during its transmission over the
network.
· Availability − Information should be available wherever and whenever
required within a time limit specified.
· Authenticity − There should be a mechanism to authenticate a user before
giving him/her an access to the required information.
· Non-Repudiability − It is the protection against the denial of order or denial
of payment. Once a sender sends a message, the sender should not be able
to deny sending the message. Similarly, the recipient of message should not
be able to deny the receipt.
· Encryption − Information should be encrypted and decrypted only by an
authorized user.
· Auditability − Data should be recorded in such a way that it can be audited
for integrity requirements.
MEASURES TO ENSURE SECURITY
MAJOR SECURITY MEASURES ARE FOLLOWING −
· Encryption − It is a very effective and practical way to safeguard the data
being transmitted over the network. Sender of the information encrypts the
data using a secret code and only the specified receiver can decrypt the data
using the same or a different secret code.
· Digital Signature − Digital signature ensures the authenticity of the
information. A digital signature is an e-signature authenticated through
encryption and password.
· Security Certificates − Security certificate is a unique digital id used to verify
the identity of an individual website or user.

CURRENT TRENDS IN ELECTRONIC WORLD

ELECTRONIC WASTE
Electronics waste, also referred as e-waste, describes “electronic products
nearing the end of their ‘useful life.’” But, “Many of these products can be
reused, refurbished, or recycled.”
E-waste includes a huge variety of electronic devices, including:

· Large appliances such as dishwashers and refrigerators

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 · Small appliances such as toasters and coffee makers
· Computers
· Televisions
· Stereo equipment
· Lighting equipment and bulbs
· Power tools
· Toys and sports equipment with electronic components
· Medical equipment systems
· Printers, scanners and photocopiers
· Personal care devices, such as electric toothbrushes and blowdryers

Problems caused by E-waste

· Improper or incomplete waste disposal creates a huge environmental
burden. It affects air, soil, water and wildlife, not to mention human health.
That means trash in waterways and green spaces, cancer for animals and
humans, species extinction, poisonous algae blooms and more.
· Failing to recycle is a huge waste of resources.
“Recycling one million laptops saves the energy equivalent to the
electricity used by 3,657 U.S. homes in a year,” says Earth911, citing EPA
studies. “For every one million cell phones that are recycled, the EPA
states that 35,274 pounds of copper, 772 pounds of silver, 75 pounds of
gold and 33 pounds of palladium can be recovered.”
E-waste Can Be Hazardous Waste

Many electronic devices contain hazardous chemicals. If they aren’t disposed of

safely, those chemicals can pose a safety hazard to people, animals and the
environment. In addition to contaminating soil, hazardous wastes can pollute the air
and leach into water sources.
For example, in California, the law views non-functioning cathode-ray tubes (CRTs)
from TVs and monitors as hazardous materials. These tubes are used to create
images on a screen. They are considered hazardous because they also contain lead.
Here are a few other examples of the hazardous waste electronics hold.
· Leaded glass: Computers and television screens contain leaded glass, which
is a poisonous heavy metal.
· Cancer-causing elements: Batteries carry explosive and cancer-causing
elements such as cadmium, lithium and lead.

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 · Mercury: Some appliances like gas hot water heaters and chest freezers
contain mercury switches. When mercury isn’t properly disposed, it may create
serious health issues such as respiratory and skin disorders.
Solutions to the E-waste Problem

1. Recycling

More consumers need to get into the habit of taking their used
electronics to an experienced recycling firm that can disassemble them,
separating and categorizing the contents by material and cleaning them, then
shredding them mechanically for further sorting with advanced separation
technologies.
An experienced recycling firm like Great Lakes Electronics Corporation will
meet the highest standards for how they recycle our e-waste and ensure that
nothing of value within any device gets wasted. By doing so, they’re also able
to meet the high demand for recycling metals from used electronics, which are
then used to make new products.

2. Education
The second most important solution is to educate people about how
important recycling is for e-waste. It can begin with setting an example, making
a commitment on your own to take any electronic device you have that’s no
longer wanted or being used, and bring it to a recycling firm rather than throw
it out with your regular trash or toss it in a desk drawer.
But then it’s also important to be vocal about that with others: to note that out
of concern for our environment, you adopted the practice of recycling each
device.
Writing about the environmental benefits of recycling e-waste on social media
sites is also a good place to start spreading the word.

3. Teach
It’s important to spread that message to your family, friends,
neighbours, and co-workers, but it’s also important to get the message to our
future leaders — our children.
we could start by asking your teacher if we could work on a project to have all
the kids at school bring in the old cell phones their parents no longer want,
and teach the students how to collect the devices and get them to a recycling
firm.
And it isn’t just schools that have a role to play here. Non-profit organizations,
municipal governments and businesses in the private sector can also get
involved in hosting community events that promote recycling and educating
people about our e-waste challenge.

4. Keep Learning

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 Just as the technology that creates smart phones and other devices
keeps changing, the same is true when it comes to e-waste. In the U.S., 25
states now have laws that aim to either prevent used electronics from being
sent to landfills, or that promote recycling. The European Union has
established new goals for increasing e-waste recycling rates. The United
Nations has launched the Step-Initiative to introduce a comprehensive
approach to handling E-Waste, while also preparing professionals to work in
the field of E-Waste management.

E- SURVEILLANCE
Electronic surveillance is the act of recording, observing or listening to
individuals in real-time with or without their knowledge. Electronic surveillance is
typically conducted secretively and does not interfere with an individual's normal
activities. Usually, a surveillance activity involves one or more individuals observing
and documenting another individual's actions using cameras, long-range
microphones and listening devices, as well as by monitoring cell, office, and home
phone services.

Surveillance can be anywhere

Law enforcement and government agencies use electronic surveillance to
collect information with the objective of identifying and preventing criminal activity or
terrorist intentions. On the other hand, personnel security and the protection of
property are the primary reasons large and small corporations employ electronic
surveillance techniques. In either case, surveillance is an effective tool for crime
prevention and identifying potential acts of espionage, theft and property damage.
Devices and Their Uses
The use of various electronic devices provides the opportunity to collect
information on anyone at any time and with varying duration. Surveillance devices
vary in size and use; listed below are several of the more prominent methodologies:

· Wiretapping: multiple wires connected internally to a target's communication

device, such as a telephone enabling real-time monitoring and recording
· Bugging: requires the planting of a small electronic device on a person or in
a strategic location, enabling individuals to listen in, copy and record real-time
conversations

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 · Pen register: a device placed on a telephone line used to identify the
telephone numbers of calls made from the surveilled phone
· Photographic surveillance: includes visual equipment such as closed-circuit
television and digital cameras in various sizes used to photograph individuals
· Wired agents and informers: involves the planting of a recording or listening
device on a single person while engaged in conversations with other
individuals

SOME OF THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE E-SURVEILLANCE SOFTWARE

· Non-proprietary: Designed to support a wide range of quality CCTV products.

· Monitor an unlimited number of cameras and security devices across any
number of sites.
· The system doesn’t require any additional or proprietary hardware on site. It
interfaces directly with a wide variety of devices including Adpro, Axis, Integral,
SYAC, Panasonic, Dedicated Micros, Pixord, Pelco, lenel and Galaxy.
· Compliant with the British standard BS8418: Automatically monitors operator
response times and creates a full audit trail of all actions taken.
· A truly scalable monitoring solution, available from a single standalone
workstation to a server based central station with an unlimited number of
operators and workstations.
· All alarms and events are intelligently prehandled, prioritised and routed
immediately to available operators.
· Integrated incident reporting, problem management and extensive
management information.
· All events, live cameras and other up to date site information and statistics are
accessible through a customised website.
· No practical limit to the level of IP alarm traffic received and automatically
handled. The software has been tested to over 10,000 unique alarms per
second on standard PC server hardware.
· Certified by Microsoft through the ‘Designed for windows’ programme.

E-GOVERNANCE

E-Governance can be defined as the application of communication

and information technology for providing government services, exchange of
information, transactions, integration of previously existing services and information
portals.

It makes the whole administrative process convenient, efficient, transparent, fully

accountable and responsible. As a fast-growing economy and an emerging world
leader, E-Governance is a must in a country like India, both in Government and
corporate sector.

Some effective examples of successful implementation of E-Governance to the

governmental function include projects like; e-Mitra project(Rajasthan), e-Seva
project(Andhra Pradesh), CET(Common Entrance Test)

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The objective of E-Governance is to bring about ‘Simple, Moral, Accountable,
Responsive and Transparent’ (SMART) governance. The rationale of E-governance
is in its need in reducing red tape; promotion of knowledge sharing to facilitate
improvements in quality of governance; fulfilling expectations of the people from
government; welfare of citizens, transparency and accountability; increase reach of
service delivery by government; speeding up government processes and decision
taking ability; equitable access to public service; internal efficiency; reducing costs
and improving revenues; improving quality of services etc.

Elements of E-Governance:
Basic elements of e-governance are:
1. Government
2. Citizens
3. Investors/Businesses

Types of E-Governance:

E-governance is of 4 types:

1. Government-to-Citizen(G2C):

The Government-to-citizen mentions the government services that are

acquired by the familiar people. Most of the government services come under
G2C. Similarly, the primary aim of Government-to-citizen is to supply facilities to
the citizens. It also helps the ordinary people to minimize the time and cost to
carry out a transaction. A citizen can retrieve the facilities anytime from
anywhere.
Similarly, spending the administrative fee online is also possible due to G2C.
The facility of Government-to-Citizen allows the ordinary citizen to outclass time
limitation. It also focuses on geographic land barriers.
2. Government-to-business(G2B):

The Government-to-business is the interchange of services between

Government and Business firms. It is productive for both government and
business firms. G2B provides access to pertinent forms needed to observe. It
also contains many services interchanged between business sectors and
government.
Similarly, the Government-to-business provides timely business information. A
business organization can have easy and easy online access to government
agencies. G2B plays a important role in business development. It upgrades the
efficiency and quality of communication and transparency of government
projects.
3. Government-to-Government(G2G):

The Government-to-Government mentions the interaction between different

government departments, firms and agencies. This increases the efficiency of
government processes. In G2G, government agencies can share the same

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 database using online communication. The government departments can work
together. This service can increase international discretion and relations.
G2G services can be at the local level or at the international level. It can convey
with both global government and local government. It also provides safe and
secure inter-relationship between domestic or foreign government. G2G builds
a universal database for all members to upgrade service.
4. Government-to-Employee(G2E):

The Government-to-Employee is the internal part of G2G section. It aims to

bring employees together and improvise knowledge sharing. It provides online
facilities to the employees. Similarly, applying for leave, reviewing salary
payment record and checking the balance of holiday. The G2E sector yields
human resource training and development. So, G2E is also the correlation
between employees and government institutions.

ADVANTAGES OF E-GOVERNANCE

· Speed
Technology makes communication swifter. Internet, smartphones have
enables instant transmission of high volumes of data all over the world.

· Saving Costs
A lot the Government expenditure goes towards the cost of buying
stationery for official purposes. Letters and written records consume a lot of
stationery. However, replacing them with smartphones and the internet can
saves crores of money in expenses every year.
· Transparency
The use of e-governance helps make all functions of the business
transparent. All Governmental information can be uploaded onto the internet.
The citizens access specifically access whichever information they want,
whenever they want it, at the click of a mouse, or the touch of a finger.
However, for this to work the Government has to ensure that all data as to be
made public and uploaded to the Government information forums on the internet.

· Accountability
Transparency directly links to accountability. Once the functions of the
government are available, we can hold them accountable for their actions.

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DISADVANTAGES OF E-GOVERNANCE

· Loss of Interpersonal Communication

The main disadvantage of e-governance is the loss of interpersonal
communication. Interpersonal communication is an aspect of communication
that many people consider vital.
· High Setup Cost and Technical Difficulties
Technology has its disadvantages as well. Specifically, the setup cost is very
high and the machines have to be regularly maintained. Often, computers
and internet can also break down and put a dent in governmental work and
services.
· Illiteracy
A large number of people in India are illiterate and do not know how to operate
computers and smartphones. E-governance is very difficult for them to access
and understand.
· Cybercrime/Leakage of Personal Information
There is always the risk of private data of citizens stored in government serves
being stolen. Cybercrime is a serious issue, a breach of data can make the public
lose confidence in the Government’s ability to govern the people.

E-CARE
e-care is an umbrella term referring to the automation of all aspects of the
care delivery processes across administrative, clinical and departmental boundaries
in the healthcare delivery system.
The beneficiary of the convergence of multiple technologies such as object-
oriented and adaptive applications that leverage the web to link disperate system and
enable automated, real time responses to inquires, clinical alerts etc.

BENEFITS OF E-CARE
· Request or schedule medical appointments.
· Request referrals.
· Request prescription renewals.
· View test results.
· View your health summary from your electronic health record.
· Communicate electronically and securely with your clinical team.

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