Main menu















Search
Create account
 Log in
Personal tools



Contents

hide

(Top)


History


Techniques


Cell types


Structure and function
Toggle Structure and function subsection
o
Structure of eukaryotic cells

o
Cell metabolism
 o
Cell signaling


Growth and development
Toggle Growth and development subsection
o
Eukaryotic cell cycle

o
Cell mortality, cell lineage immortality

o
Cell cycle phases


G1 phase


S phase


G2 phase


M phase


G0 phase


Pathology


Cell cycle checkpoints and DNA damage repair system


Mitochondrial membrane dynamics


Autophagy


Notable cell biologists


See also


Notes
 
References


External links

Cell biology
83 languages
 Article
 Talk
 Read
 Edit
 View history
Tools



















Appearance
hide
Text


Small
Standard
Large
Width


Standard
Wide
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the branch of biology. For cells themselves, see Cell (biology).

Part of a series on

Biology

Science of life

 Index
 Outline
 Glossary
 History (timeline)

show
Key components

show
Branches

show
Research

show
Applications

 Biology portal
 Category

 v
 t
 e

Cell biology (also cellular biology or cytology) is a branch of biology that studies
the structure, function, and behavior of cells.[1][2] All living organisms are made of
cells. A cell is the basic unit of life that is responsible for the living and functioning of
organisms.[3] Cell biology is the study of the structural and functional units of cells.
Cell biology encompasses both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and has many
subtopics which may include the study of cell metabolism, cell communication, cell
cycle, biochemistry, and cell composition. The study of cells is performed using
several microscopy techniques, cell culture, and cell fractionation. These have
allowed for and are currently being used for discoveries and research pertaining to
how cells function, ultimately giving insight into understanding larger organisms.
Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological
sciences while also being essential for research in biomedical fields such as cancer,
and other diseases. Research in cell biology is interconnected to other fields such
as genetics, molecular genetics, molecular biology, medical
microbiology, immunology, and cytochemistry.

History[edit]
Cells were first seen in 17th-century Europe with the invention of the compound
microscope. In 1665, Robert Hooke referred to the building blocks of all living
organisms as "cells" (published in Micrographia) after looking at a piece of cork and
observing a cell-like structure;[4][5] however, the cells were dead. They gave no
indication to the actual overall components of a cell. A few years later, in
1674, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to analyze live cells in his examination
of algae. Many years later, in 1831, Robert Brown discovered the nucleus. All of this
preceded the cell theory which states that all living things are made up of cells and
that cells are organisms' functional and structural units. This was ultimately
concluded by plant scientist Matthias Schleiden[5] and animal scientist Theodor
Schwann in 1838, who viewed live cells in plant and animal tissue, respectively.[3] 19
years later, Rudolf Virchow further contributed to the cell theory, adding that all cells
come from the division of pre-existing cells.[3] Viruses are not considered in cell
biology – they lack the characteristics of a living cell and instead are studied in
the microbiology subclass of virology.[6]

Techniques[edit]
Cell biology research looks at different ways to culture and manipulate cells outside
of a living body to further research in human anatomy and physiology, and to derive
medications.The techniques by which cells are studied have evolved. Due to
advancements in microscopy, techniques and technology have allowed scientists to
hold a better understanding of the structure and function of cells. Many techniques
commonly used to study cell biology are listed below:[7]

 Cell culture: Utilizes rapidly growing cells on media which allows for a
large amount of a specific cell type and an efficient way to study cells.
[8]
Cell culture is one of the major tools used in cellular and molecular
biology, providing excellent model systems for studying the normal
physiology and biochemistry of cells (e.g., metabolic studies, aging), the
effects of drugs and toxic compounds on the cells, and mutagenesis and
carcinogenesis. It is also used in drug screening and development, and
large scale manufacturing of biological compounds (e.g., vaccines,
therapeutic proteins).
 Fluorescence microscopy: Fluorescent markers such as GFP, are used to
label a specific component of the cell. Afterwards, a certain light
wavelength is used to excite the fluorescent marker which can then be
visualized.[8]
 Phase-contrast microscopy: Uses the optical aspect of light to represent
the solid, liquid, and gas-phase changes as brightness differences.[8]
  Confocal microscopy: Combines fluorescence microscopy with imaging by
focusing light and snap shooting instances to form a 3-D image.[8]
 Transmission electron microscopy: Involves metal staining and the
passing of electrons through the cells, which will be deflected upon
interaction with metal. This ultimately forms an image of the components
being studied.[8]
 Cytometry: The cells are placed in the machine which uses a beam to
scatter the cells based on different aspects and can therefore separate
them based on size and content. Cells may also be tagged with GFP-
fluorescence and can be separated that way as well.[9]
 Cell fractionation: This process requires breaking up the cell using high
temperature or sonification followed by centrifugation to separate the parts
of the cell allowing for them to be studied separately.[8]
Cell types[edit]
Main article: Cell types

A drawing of a prokaryotic cell

There are two fundamental classifications of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
Prokaryotic cells are distinguished from eukaryotic cells by the absence of a cell
nucleus or other membrane-bound organelle.[10] Prokaryotic cells are much smaller
than eukaryotic cells, making them the smallest form of life.[11] Prokaryotic cells
include Bacteria and Archaea, and lack an enclosed cell nucleus. Eukaryotic cells
are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. They range from 10 to 100 μm in
diameter, and their DNA is contained within a membrane-bound nucleus. Eukaryotes
are organisms containing eukaryotic cells. The four eukaryotic kingdoms
are Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista.[12]

They both reproduce through binary fission. Bacteria, the most prominent type, have
several different shapes, although most are spherical or rod-shaped. Bacteria can be
classed as either gram-positive or gram-negative depending on the cell
wall composition. Gram-positive bacteria have a thicker peptidoglycan layer than
gram-negative bacteria. Bacterial structural features include a flagellum that helps
the cell to move,[13] ribosomes for the translation of RNA to protein,[13] and
a nucleoid that holds all the genetic material in a circular structure.[13] There are many
processes that occur in prokaryotic cells that allow them to survive. In
prokaryotes, mRNA synthesis is initiated at a promoter sequence on the DNA
template comprising two consensus sequences that recruit RNA polymerase. The
prokaryotic polymerase consists of a core enzyme of four protein subunits and a σ
protein that assists only with initiation. For instance, in a process termed conjugation,
the fertility factor allows the bacteria to possess a pilus which allows it to transmit
DNA to another bacteria which lacks the F factor, permitting the transmittance of
resistance allowing it to survive in certain environments.[14]

Structure and function[edit]

Structure of eukaryotic cells[edit]
Main article: Eukaryote

A diagram of an animal cell

Eukaryotic cells are composed of the following organelles:

 Nucleus: The nucleus of the cell functions as the genome and genetic
information storage for the cell, containing all the DNA organized in the
form of chromosomes. It is surrounded by a nuclear envelope, which
includes nuclear pores allowing for the transportation of proteins between
the inside and outside of the nucleus.[15] This is also the site for replication
of DNA as well as transcription of DNA to RNA. Afterwards, the RNA is
modified and transported out to the cytosol to be translated to protein.[16]
 Nucleolus: This structure is within the nucleus, usually dense and
spherical. It is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis, which is
needed for ribosomal assembly.
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): This functions to synthesize, store, and
secrete proteins to the Golgi apparatus.[17] Structurally, the endoplasmic
reticulum is a network of membranes found throughout the cell and
connected to the nucleus. The membranes are slightly different from cell
to cell and a cell's function determines the size and structure of the ER. [18]
 Mitochondria: Commonly known as the powerhouse of the cell is a double
membrane bound cell organelle.[19] This functions for the production of
energy or ATP within the cell. Specifically, this is the place where the
Krebs cycle or TCA cycle for the production of NADH and FADH occurs.
Afterwards, these products are used within the electron transport chain
(ETC) and oxidative phosphorylation for the final production of ATP.[20]
 Golgi apparatus: This functions to further process, package, and secrete
the proteins to their destination. The proteins contain a signal sequence
that allows the Golgi apparatus to recognize and direct it to the correct
place. Golgi apparatus also produce glycoproteins and glycolipids.[21]
 Lysosome: The lysosome functions to degrade material brought in from
the outside of the cell or old organelles. This contains many acid
hydrolases, proteases, nucleases, and lipases, which break down the
 various molecules. Autophagy is the process of degradation through
lysosomes which occurs when a vesicle buds off from the ER and engulfs
the material, then, attaches and fuses with the lysosome to allow the
material to be degraded.[22]
 Ribosomes: Functions to translate RNA to protein. it serves as a site of
protein synthesis.[23]
 Cytoskeleton: Cytoskeleton is a structure that helps to maintain the shape
and general organization of the cytoplasm. It anchors organelles within the
cells and makes up the structure and stability of the cell. The cytoskeleton
is composed of three principal types of protein filaments: actin filaments,
intermediate filaments, and microtubules, which are held together and
linked to subcellular organelles and the plasma membrane by a variety of
accessory proteins.[24]
 Cell membrane: The cell membrane can be described as a phospholipid
bilayer and is also consisted of lipids and proteins.[13] Because the inside of
the bilayer is hydrophobic and in order for molecules to participate in
reactions within the cell, they need to be able to cross this membrane
layer to get into the cell via osmotic pressure, diffusion, concentration
gradients, and membrane channels.[25]
 Centrioles: Function to produce spindle fibers which are used to separate
chromosomes during cell division.
Eukaryotic cells may also be composed of the following molecular components:

 Chromatin: This makes up chromosomes and is a mixture of DNA with

various proteins.
 Cilia: They help to propel substances and can also be used for sensory
purposes.[26]
Cell metabolism[edit]
Cell metabolism is necessary for the production of energy for the cell and therefore
its survival and includes many pathways and also sustaining the main cell organelles
such as the nucleus, the mitochondria, the cell membrane etc. For cellular
respiration, once glucose is available, glycolysis occurs within the cytosol of the cell
to produce pyruvate. Pyruvate undergoes decarboxylation using the multi-enzyme
complex to form acetyl coA which can readily be used in the TCA cycle to produce
NADH and FADH2. These products are involved in the electron transport chain to
ultimately form a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This
gradient can then drive the production of ATP and H2O during oxidative
phosphorylation.[27] Metabolism in plant cells includes photosynthesis which is simply
the exact opposite of respiration as it ultimately produces molecules of glucose.

Cell signaling[edit]
Further information: Cell signaling
Cell signaling or cell communication is important for cell regulation and for cells to
process information from the environment and respond accordingly. Signaling can
occur through direct cell contact or endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling.
Direct cell-cell contact is when a receptor on a cell binds a molecule that is attached
to the membrane of another cell. Endocrine signaling occurs through molecules
secreted into the bloodstream. Paracrine signaling uses molecules diffusing between
two cells to communicate. Autocrine is a cell sending a signal to itself by secreting a
molecule that binds to a receptor on its surface. Forms of communication can be
through:

 Ion channels: Can be of different types such as voltage or ligand gated ion
channels. They allow for the outflow and inflow of molecules and ions.
 G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR): Is widely recognized to contain seven
transmembrane domains. The ligand binds on the extracellular domain
and once the ligand binds, this signals a guanine exchange factor to
convert GDP to GTP and activate the G-α subunit. G-α can target other
proteins such as adenyl cyclase or phospholipase C, which ultimately
produce secondary messengers such as cAMP, Ip3, DAG, and calcium.
These secondary messengers function to amplify signals and can target
ion channels or other enzymes. One example for amplification of a signal
is cAMP binding to and activating PKA by removing the regulatory
subunits and releasing the catalytic subunit. The catalytic subunit has a
nuclear localization sequence which prompts it to go into the nucleus and
phosphorylate other proteins to either repress or activate gene activity.[27]
 Receptor tyrosine kinases: Bind growth factors, further promoting the
tyrosine on the intracellular portion of the protein to cross phosphorylate.
The phosphorylated tyrosine becomes a landing pad for proteins
containing an SH2 domain allowing for the activation of Ras and the
involvement of the MAP kinase pathway.[28]
Growth and development[edit]
Eukaryotic cell cycle[edit]
Main article: Cell cycle

The process of cell division in

the animal cell cycle
Cells are the foundation of all organisms and are the fundamental units of life. The
growth and development of cells are essential for the maintenance of the host and
survival of the organism. For this process, the cell goes through the steps of the cell
cycle and development which involves cell growth, DNA replication, cell division,
regeneration, and cell death.

The cell cycle is divided into four distinct phases: G1, S, G2, and M. The G phase –
which is the cell growth phase – makes up approximately 95% of the cycle. The
proliferation of cells is instigated by progenitors. All cells start out in an identical form
and can essentially become any type of cells. Cell signaling such as induction can
influence nearby cells to determinate the type of cell it will become. Moreover, this
allows cells of the same type to aggregate and form tissues, then organs, and
ultimately systems. The G1, G2, and S phase (DNA replication, damage and repair)
are considered to be the interphase portion of the cycle, while the M phase (mitosis)
is the cell division portion of the cycle. Mitosis is composed of many stages which
include, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis, respectively.
The ultimate result of mitosis is the formation of two identical daughter cells.

The cell cycle is regulated in cell cycle checkpoints, by a series of signaling factors
and complexes such as cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinase, and p53. When the cell
has completed its growth process and if it is found to be damaged or altered, it
undergoes cell death, either by apoptosis or necrosis, to eliminate the threat it can
cause to the organism's survival.[29]

Cell mortality, cell lineage immortality[edit]

The ancestry of each present day cell presumably traces back, in an unbroken
lineage for over 3 billion years to the origin of life. It is not actually cells that
are immortal but multi-generational cell lineages.[30] The immortality of a cell lineage
depends on the maintenance of cell division potential. This potential may be lost in
any particular lineage because of cell damage, terminal differentiation as occurs in
nerve cells, or programmed cell death (apoptosis) during development. Maintenance
of cell division potential over successive generations depends on the avoidance and
the accurate repair of cellular damage, particularly DNA damage. In sexual
organisms, continuity of the germline depends on the effectiveness of processes for
avoiding DNA damage and repairing those DNA damages that do occur. Sexual
processes in eukaryotes, as well as in prokaryotes, provide an opportunity for
effective repair of DNA damages in the germ line by homologous recombination.[30][31]

Cell cycle phases[edit]

The cell cycle is a four-stage process that a cell goes through as it develops and
divides. It includes Gap 1 (G1), synthesis (S), Gap 2 (G2), and mitosis (M).The cell
either restarts the cycle from G1 or leaves the cycle through G0 after completing the
cycle. The cell can progress from G0 through terminal differentiation.

The interphase refers to the phases of the cell cycle that occur between one mitosis
and the next, and includes G1, S, and G2.

G1 phase[edit]
The size of the cell grows.
The contents of cells are replicated.

S phase[edit]
Replication of DNA

The cell replicates each of the 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).

G2 phase[edit]
The cell multiplies.

In preparation for cell division, organelles and proteins form.

M phase[edit]
After mitosis, cytokinesis occurs (cell separation)

Formation of two daughter cells that are identical

G0 phase[edit]
These cells leave G1 and enter G0, a resting stage. A cell in G0 is doing its job
without actively preparing to divide.[32]

Pathology[edit]
Main article: Cytopathology
The scientific branch that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level is
called cytopathology. Cytopathology is generally used on samples of free cells or
tissue fragments, in contrast to the pathology branch of histopathology, which
studies whole tissues. Cytopathology is commonly used to investigate diseases
involving a wide range of body sites, often to aid in the diagnosis of cancer but also
in the diagnosis of some infectious diseases and other inflammatory conditions. For
example, a common application of cytopathology is the Pap smear, a screening
test used to detect cervical cancer, and precancerous cervical lesions that may lead
to cervical cancer.[33]

Cell cycle checkpoints and DNA damage repair

system[edit]
The cell cycle is composed of a number of well-ordered, consecutive stages that
result in cellular division. The fact that cells do not begin the next stage until the last
one is finished, is a significant element of cell cycle regulation. Cell cycle checkpoints
are characteristics that constitute an excellent monitoring strategy for accurate cell
cycle and divisions. Cdks, associated cyclin counterparts, protein kinases, and
phosphatases regulate cell growth and division from one stage to another.[34] The cell
cycle is controlled by the temporal activation of Cdks, which is governed by cyclin
partner interaction, phosphorylation by particular protein kinases, and de-
phosphorylation by Cdc25 family phosphatases. In response to DNA damage, a
cell's DNA repair reaction is a cascade of signaling pathways that leads to
checkpoint engagement, regulates, the repairing mechanism in DNA, cell cycle
alterations, and apoptosis. Numerous biochemical structures, as well as processes
that detect damage in DNA, are ATM and ATR, which induce the DNA repair
checkpoints[35]

The cell cycle is a sequence of activities in which cell organelles are duplicated and
subsequently separated into daughter cells with precision. There are major events
that happen during a cell cycle. The processes that happen in the cell cycle include
cell development, replication and segregation of chromosomes. The cell cycle
checkpoints are surveillance systems that keep track of the cell cycle's integrity,
accuracy, and chronology. Each checkpoint serves as an alternative cell cycle
endpoint, wherein the cell's parameters are examined and only when desirable
characteristics are fulfilled does the cell cycle advance through the distinct steps.
The cell cycle's goal is to precisely copy each organism's DNA and afterwards
equally split the cell and its components between the two new cells. Four main
stages occur in the eukaryotes. In G1, the cell is usually active and continues to
grow rapidly, while in G2, the cell growth continues while protein molecules become
ready for separation. These are not dormant times; they are when cells gain mass,
integrate growth factor receptors, establish a replicated genome, and prepare for
chromosome segregation. DNA replication is restricted to a separate Synthesis in
eukaryotes, which is also known as the S-phase. During mitosis, which is also known
as the M-phase, the segregation of the chromosomes occur.[36] DNA, like every other
molecule, is capable of undergoing a wide range of chemical reactions. Modifications
in DNA's sequence, on the other hand, have a considerably bigger impact than
modifications in other cellular constituents like RNAs or proteins because DNA acts
as a permanent copy of the cell genome. When erroneous nucleotides are
incorporated during DNA replication, mutations can occur. The majority of DNA
damage is fixed by removing the defective bases and then re-synthesizing the
excised area. On the other hand, some DNA lesions can be mended by reversing
the damage, which may be a more effective method of coping with common types of
DNA damage. Only a few forms of DNA damage are mended in this fashion,
including pyrimidine dimers caused by ultraviolet (UV) light changed by the insertion
of methyl or ethyl groups at the purine ring's O6 position.[37]

Mitochondrial membrane dynamics[edit]

Mitochondria are commonly referred to as the cell's "powerhouses" because of their
capacity to effectively produce ATP which is essential to maintain cellular
homeostasis and metabolism. Moreover, researchers have gained a better
knowledge of mitochondria's significance in cell biology because of the discovery of
cell signaling pathways by mitochondria which are crucial platforms for cell function
regulation such as apoptosis. Its physiological adaptability is strongly linked to the
cell mitochondrial channel's ongoing reconfiguration through a range of mechanisms
known as mitochondrial membrane dynamics, which include endomembrane fusion
and fragmentation (separation) as well as ultrastructural membrane remodeling. As a
result, mitochondrial dynamics regulate and frequently choreograph not only
metabolic but also complicated cell signaling processes such as cell pluripotent stem
cells, proliferation, maturation, aging, and mortality. Mutually, post-translational
alterations of mitochondrial apparatus and the development of transmembrane
contact sites among mitochondria and other structures, which both have the potential
to link signals from diverse routes that affect mitochondrial membrane dynamics
substantially,[36] Mitochondria are wrapped by two membranes: an inner mitochondrial
membrane (IMM) and an outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM), each with a
distinctive function and structure, which parallels their dual role as cellular
powerhouses and signaling organelles. The inner mitochondrial membrane divides
the mitochondrial lumen into two parts: the inner border membrane, which runs
parallel to the OMM, and the cristae, which are deeply twisted, multinucleated
invaginations that give room for surface area enlargement and house the
mitochondrial respiration apparatus. The outer mitochondrial membrane, on the
other hand, is soft and permeable. It, therefore, acts as a foundation for cell signaling
pathways to congregate, be deciphered, and be transported into mitochondria.
Furthermore, the OMM connects to other cellular organelles, such as the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), lysosomes, endosomes, and the plasma membrane.
Mitochondria play a wide range of roles in cell biology, which is reflected in their
morphological diversity. Ever since the beginning of the mitochondrial study, it has
been well documented that mitochondria can have a variety of forms, with both their
general and ultra-structural morphology varying greatly among cells, during the cell
cycle, and in response to metabolic or cellular cues. Mitochondria can exist as
independent organelles or as part of larger systems; they can also be unequally
distributed in the cytosol through regulated mitochondrial transport and placement to
meet the cell's localized energy requirements. Mitochondrial dynamics refers to the
adaptive and variable aspect of mitochondria, including their shape and subcellular
distribution.[36]

Autophagy[edit]
Main article: Autophagy
Autophagy is a self-degradative mechanism that regulates energy sources during
growth and reaction to dietary stress. Autophagy also cleans up after itself, clearing
aggregated proteins, cleaning damaged structures including mitochondria and
endoplasmic reticulum and eradicating intracellular infections. Additionally,
autophagy has antiviral and antibacterial roles within the cell, and it is involved at the
beginning of distinctive and adaptive immune responses to viral and bacterial
contamination. Some viruses include virulence proteins that prevent autophagy,
while others utilize autophagy elements for intracellular development or cellular
splitting.[38] Macro autophagy, micro autophagy, and chaperon-mediated autophagy
are the three basic types of autophagy. When macro autophagy is triggered, an
exclusion membrane incorporates a section of the cytoplasm, generating the
autophagosome, a distinctive double-membraned organelle. The autophagosome
then joins the lysosome to create an autolysosome, with lysosomal enzymes
degrading the components. In micro autophagy, the lysosome or vacuole engulfs a
piece of the cytoplasm by invaginating or protruding the lysosomal membrane to
enclose the cytosol or organelles. The chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA)
protein quality assurance by digesting oxidized and altered proteins under stressful
circumstances and supplying amino acids through protein denaturation.[39] Autophagy
is the primary intrinsic degradative system for peptides, fats, carbohydrates, and
other cellular structures. In both physiologic and stressful situations, this cellular
progression is vital for upholding the correct cellular balance. Autophagy instability
leads to a variety of illness symptoms, including inflammation, biochemical
disturbances, aging, and neurodegenerative, due to its involvement in controlling cell
integrity. The modification of the autophagy-lysosomal networks is a typical hallmark
of many neurological and muscular illnesses. As a result, autophagy has been
identified as a potential strategy for the prevention and treatment of various
disorders. Many of these disorders are prevented or improved by consuming
polyphenol in the meal. As a result, natural compounds with the ability to modify the
autophagy mechanism are seen as a potential therapeutic option.[40] The creation of
the double membrane (phagophore), which would be known as nucleation, is the first
step in macro-autophagy. The phagophore approach indicates dysregulated
polypeptides or defective organelles that come from the cell membrane, Golgi
apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria. With the conclusion of the
autophagocyte, the phagophore's enlargement comes to an end. The auto-
phagosome combines with the lysosomal vesicles to formulate an auto-lysosome
that degrades the encapsulated substances, referred to as phagocytosis.[41]

Notable cell biologists[edit]

 Jean Baptiste Carnoy
 Peter Agre
 Günter Blobel
 Robert Brown
 Geoffrey M. Cooper
 Christian de Duve
 Henri Dutrochet
 Robert Hooke
 H. Robert Horvitz
 Marc Kirschner
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek
 Ira Mellman
 Marta Miączyńska[42]
 Peter D. Mitchell
 Rudolf Virchow
 Paul Nurse
 George Emil Palade
 Keith R. Porter
 Ray Rappaport
 Michael Swann
 Roger Tsien
 Edmund Beecher Wilson
 Kenneth R. Miller
 Matthias Jakob Schleiden
 Theodor Schwann
 Yoshinori Ohsumi
 Jan Evangelista Purkyně
 

Czech anatomist Jan Evangelista Purkyně is best known for his 1837 discovery
of Purkinje cells.

Theodor Schwann, discoverer of the Schwann cell

Yoshinori Ohsumi, Nobel Prize winner for work on autophagy

See also[edit]

 Biology portal

 Science portal

 The American Society for Cell Biology

  Cell biophysics
 Cell disruption
 Cell physiology
 Cellular adaptation
 Cellular microbiology
 Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (disambiguation)
 Meiomitosis
 Organoid
 Outline of cell biology
Notes[edit]
1. ^ Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander D.; Morgan, David; Raff, Martin;
Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2015). "Cells and genomes". Molecular
Biology of the Cell (6th ed.). New York, NY: Garland Science. pp. 1–
42. ISBN 978-0815344322.
2. ^ Bisceglia, Nick. "Cell Biology". Scitable. www.nature.com.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b c Gupta, P. (1 December 2005). Cell and Molecular Biology.
Rastogi Publications. p. 11. ISBN 978-8171338177.
4. ^ Hooke, Robert (September 1665). Micrographia.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b Chubb, Gilbert Charles (1911). "Cytology" . In Chisholm,
Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge
University Press. p. 710.
6. ^ Paez-Espino D, Eloe-Fadrosh EA, Pavlopoulos GA, Thomas AD,
Huntemann M, Mikhailova N, Rubin E, Ivanova NN, Kyrpides NC (August
2016). "Uncovering Earth's virome". Nature. 536 (7617): 425–
30. Bibcode:2016Natur.536..425P. doi:10.1038/nature19094. PMID 275330
34. S2CID 4466854.
7. ^ Lavanya, P. (1 December 2005). Cell and Molecular Biology. Rastogi
Publications. p. 11. ISBN 978-8171338177.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Cooper, Geoffrey M. (2000). "Tools of Cell Biology". The
Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd Edition.
9. ^ McKinnon, Katherine M. (21 February 2018). "Flow Cytometry: An
Overview". Current Protocols in Immunology. 120 (1): 5.1.1–
5.1.11. doi:10.1002/cpim.40. ISSN 1934-3671. PMC 5939936. PMID 29512
141.
10.^ Doble, Mukesh; Gummadi, Sathyanarayana N. (5 August
2010). Biochemical Engineering. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India
Pvt.Ltd. ISBN 978-8120330528.
11.^ Kaneshiro, Edna (2 May 2001). Cell Physiology Sourcebook: A Molecular
Approach (3rd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0123877383.
12.^ Levetin, Estelle; McMahon, Karen (16 October 2014). Ebook: Plants and
Society. McGraw Hill. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-07-717206-0.
13.^ Jump up to:a b c d Nelson, Daniel (22 June 2018). "The Difference Between
Eukaryotic And Prokaryotic Cells". Science
Trends. doi:10.31988/scitrends.20655. S2CID 91382191.
14.^ Griffiths, Anthony J.F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin,
Richard C.; Gelbart, William M. (2000). "Bacterial conjugation". An
Introduction to Genetic Analysis. 7th Edition.
15.^ Elosegui-Artola A, Andreu I, Beedle AE, Lezamiz A, Uroz M, Kosmalska AJ,
et al. (November 2017). "Force Triggers YAP Nuclear Entry by Regulating
 Transport across Nuclear Pores". Cell. 171 (6): 1397–
1410.e14. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2017.10.008. PMID 29107331.
16.^ "Nucleus". Genome.gov. Retrieved 27 September 2021.
17.^ "Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough and Smooth) | British Society for Cell
Biology". Retrieved 6 October 2019.
18.^ Studios, Andrew Rader. "Biology4Kids.com: Cell Structure: Endoplasmic
Reticulum". www.biology4kids.com. Retrieved 27 September 2021.
19.^ "Powerhouse of the cell has self-preservation mechanism". EurekAlert!.
Retrieved 27 September 2021.
20.^ Pelley, John W. (2007), "Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport Chain, and
Oxidative Phosphorylation", Elsevier's Integrated Biochemistry, Elsevier,
pp. 55–63, doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-03410-4.50013-4, ISBN 978032303410
4
21.^ Cooper, Geoffrey M. (2000). "The Golgi Apparatus". The Cell: A Molecular
Approach. 2nd Edition.
22.^ Verity, M A. Lysosomes: some pathologic implications. OCLC 679070471.
23.^ "Ribosome | cytology". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 27
September 2021.
24.^ Cooper, Geoffrey M (2000). The Cell: A Molecular Approach. ASM
Press. ISBN 9780878931064.
25.^ Cooper, Geoffrey M. (2000). "Transport of Small Molecules". The Cell: A
Molecular Approach. 2nd Edition.
26.^ "What Are the Main Functions of Cilia & Flagella?". Sciencing.
Retrieved 23 November 2020.
27.^ Jump up to:a b Ahmad, Maria; Kahwaji, Chadi I. (2019), "Biochemistry,
Electron Transport Chain", StatPearls, StatPearls
Publishing, PMID 30252361, retrieved 20 October 2019
28.^ Schlessinger, Joseph (October 2000). "Cell Signaling by Receptor Tyrosine
Kinases". Cell. 103 (2): 211–225. doi:10.1016/s0092-8674(00)00114-
8. ISSN 0092-8674. PMID 11057895. S2CID 11465988.
29.^ Shackelford, R E; Kaufmann, W K; Paules, R S (February 1999). "Cell
cycle control, checkpoint mechanisms, and genotoxic stress". Environmental
Health Perspectives. 107 (suppl 1): 5–
24. doi:10.1289/ehp.99107s15. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 1566366. PMID 102
29703.
30.^ Jump up to:a b Bernstein C, Bernstein H, Payne C. Cell immortality:
maintenance of cell division potential. Prog Mol Subcell Biol. 2000;24:23-
50. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-06227-2_2. PMID 10547857.
31.^ Avise JC. Perspective: The evolutionary biology of aging, sexual
reproduction, and DNA repair. Evolution. 1993 Oct;47(5):1293-
1301. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1993.tb02155.x. PMID 28564887.
32.^ "The Cell Cycle - Phases - Mitosis - Regulation". TeachMePhysiology.
Retrieved 7 October 2021.
33.^ "What is Pathology?". News-Medical.net. 13 May 2010. Retrieved 21
September 2021.
34.^ Nurse, Paul (7 January 2000). "A Long Twentieth Century of the Cell Cycle
and Beyond". Cell. 100 (1): 71–78. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81684-
0. ISSN 0092-8674. PMID 10647932. S2CID 16366539.
35.^ Cimprich, Karlene A.; Cortez, David (August 2008). "ATR: an essential
regulator of genome integrity". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 9 (8):
616–627. doi:10.1038/nrm2450. ISSN 1471-0080. PMC 2663384. PMID 18
594563.
 36.^ Jump up to:a b c Giacomello, Marta; Pyakurel, Aswin; Glytsou, Christina;
Scorrano, Luca (18 February 2020). "The cell biology of mitochondrial
membrane dynamics". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 21 (4): 204–
224. doi:10.1038/s41580-020-0210-7. ISSN 1471-0072. PMID 32071438. S
2CID 211170966.
37.^ You, Zhongsheng; Bailis, Julie M. (July 2010). "DNA damage and
decisions: CtIP coordinates DNA repair and cell cycle checkpoints". Trends
in Cell Biology. 20 (7): 402–409. doi:10.1016/j.tcb.2010.04.002. ISSN 0962-
8924. PMC 5640159. PMID 20444606.
38.^ Glick, Danielle; Barth, Sandra; Macleod, Kay F. (3 February
2010). "Autophagy: cellular and molecular mechanisms". The Journal of
Pathology. 221 (1): 3–12. doi:10.1002/path.2697. ISSN 0022-
3417. PMC 2990190. PMID 20225336.
39.^ Yoshii, Saori R.; Mizushima, Noboru (28 August 2017). "Monitoring and
Measuring Autophagy". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 18 (9):
1865. doi:10.3390/ijms18091865. ISSN 1422-0067. PMC 5618514. PMID 2
8846632.
40.^ Perrone, Lorena; Squillaro, Tiziana; Napolitano, Filomena; Terracciano,
Chiara; Sampaolo, Simone; Melone, Mariarosa Anna Beatrice (13 August
2019). "The Autophagy Signaling Pathway: A Potential Multifunctional
Therapeutic Target of Curcumin in Neurological and Neuromuscular
Diseases". Nutrients. 11 (8): 1881. doi:10.3390/nu11081881. ISSN 2072-
6643. PMC 6723827. PMID 31412596.
41.^ Levine, Beth; Kroemer, Guido (11 January 2008). "Autophagy in the
Pathogenesis of Disease". Cell. 132 (1): 27–
42. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2007.12.018. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 2696814. PMID
18191218.
42.^ "Research - IIMCB". www.iimcb.gov.pl.

References[edit]
 Penner-Hahn, James E. (2013). "Chapter 2. Technologies for Detecting
Metals in Single Cells. Section 4. Intrinsic X-Ray Fluorescence". In Bani,
Lucia (ed.). Metallomics and the Cell. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 12.
Springer. pp. 15–40. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-1_2. ISBN 978-94-
007-5560-4. PMID 23595669.electronic-book ISBN 978-94-007-5561-1 IS
SN 1559-0836electronic-ISSN 1868-0402
 Cell and Molecular Biology by Karp 5th Ed., ISBN 0-471-46580-1
 This article incorporates public domain material from Science
Primer. NCBI. Archived from the original on 8 December 2009.
External links[edit]

Wikibooks has more on the topic of: Cell biology

Library resources about
Cell biology

 Resources in your library

  Media related to Cell biology at Wikimedia Commons
 Cell Biology at Curlie
 Aging Cell
 "Francis Harry Compton Crick (1916–2004)" by A. Andrei at the Embryo
Project Encyclopedia
 "Biology Resource By Professor Lin."
show

Molecular biology and cell biology

show

Structures of the cell / organelles

show

Branches of biology

show

Biology

show

Branches of chemistry

 France
 BnF data
y control databases: National  Germany
 Japan
 Czech Republic
Categories:
 Cell biology
 Molecular biology
 This page was last edited on 11 June 2024, at 10:06 (UTC).
 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0; additional terms may
apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered
trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
 Privacy policy

 About Wikipedia

 Disclaimers

 Contact Wikipedia

 Code of Conduct

 Developers

 Statistics

 Cookie statement

 Mobile view