HISTORY OF PRINTING

 In the earliest ages of life when printing was not in the, human beings were the embodiment of
information. They performed the functions of: creating, storing and dissemination of
information by themselves.
 In the Oral era, human being conceived their own ideas and were not able to share them because
there were no medium for information dissemination. Info was created and stored in the head.
 In the Scribal era, humans learnt how to write and as such wrote on surfaces like: clay tablets,
ground, trees, caves etc.
 In the printing era, creation, storage, and dissemination of info was on the rise and as such
different forms of printing ensued.
 In 200 AD, Chinese invented the wood block. This was the method by which ink is applied on a
raised surface and imprinted on a substrate. This invention was used by the Chinese monks. It is
a method that the Japanese adopted and used to good effect.
 Under the song dynasty in the 11th century, Bi Sheng invented the movable type. With this,
types were separated, readymade and renewable

NB: The problem with this invention is that, there were too many characters. About 50,000 of them
and this made it inconvenient.

 Books were already in existence before the printing era. They were;
 Handwritten by monks.
 Took a long time and were very expensive.
 Pages were made of papyrus.
 Papyrus; a grass like weed plant which grew along the Nile River, beating into pulp and
used in the making of paper. They were found in Northern Sudan.
 Parchment; it is a substrate or writing surface made of sheep skin. Sheep were unskinned,
their skins dried and used as printable surface. There was the problem of shortage of sheep.
 Vellum; it is a substrate or writing surface made out of calf skin. The skin of calves were
removed, dried and used as printing surface. There was the problem of shortage of calf.
 By then, the gothic font were used.
 The first book printed/ the earliest known Chinese book is the “diamond sutra” in 868.
 In 105 AD, a Chinese by name Ts’ai Lun, invented paper. The paper making technology
reached the Middle East through slavery. The Chinese were invaded and taken as captives. They
were transported through Spain, Tunisia and Morocco before it got to Europe and then
America. Through this transit, the technology spread.
 JOHANNES GUTENBERG; he was a man of many disciplines. A multitalented man. He
had various abilities. He was a;
1. Blacksmith
2. Printer
 3. Engraver
4. Inventor
5. Revolutionist.

Gutenberg invented the metal movable type and the Wine press machine for printing.it is the use
of mechanical pressure to transfer an image to a surface.

WHY HE WAS NOT A GENIUS;

 He knew that printing technology already existed.
 He combined technology and his own ideas.
 Then he invented the metal movable type – wine press machine.

 The first book printed with Gutenberg’s machine is the Gutenberg Bible in 1455. It was also
known as 42 line Bible.
 It was called the 42 line Bible because each page had 42 lines.
 There are just about 48 copies of the book existing. Three are in institutions and the rest are
privately owned. One was auctioned and it cost $2,000,000.

IMPACT OF GUTENBERG’S INVENTION

 Books became cheaper to make and easy to buy.
 Books were small and portable.
 Most people could afford.
 Literacy increased in Europe.
 New ideas (science) spread quickly.
 Organized system of spelling, grammar and punctuations.
 Organized book format; Title, Table of content, Page numbers and Index.

 Books were on the increase and most of them were religious books. Others were; pamphlets,
encyclopedia etc.
 The library housed most books.
 NB; Martin Luther disclosed a different way of interacting with God during his understudy
of the Bible. He published his 95 thesis with the help of the movable type machine. This
brought forth the protestant movement which caused the reformation.
 There was dissolution of monasteries by this time.
 The beginning of writing is attributed to the Egyptians.
 Printing was a tool for propaganda. Whoever could print had the power.
 All the books that were printed before 1501 are called “incunabula”
 PRINTING AND THE VARIOUS
PROCESSES
PRINTING: the production of multiple copies of images and words with the help of another surface
to transfer impression unto a substrate.

PURPOSE
 To identify societal needs and to meet them.
 To manufacture products that communicate visually.
 To provide some form of graphic communication for business.

THE TYPES OF PRINTING PROCESSES

There are six major printing processes and they are:
1. Letterpress printing
2. Flexographic printing
3. Gravure/ Intaglio printing
4. Screen printing
5. Offset lithographic printing
6. Non-impact printing

NB: each type is useful for a certain substrate.

REASONS WHY THERE ARE SO MANY PROCESSES

 Wide range of situations printers face (wide range of printing products).
 Each process is specially designed for a certain type of:
 Substrate
 Product
 Size or shape of object to be printed
 The length of run
 Client’s budget.
 NB: the processes are grouped according to the nature of the plates they use.
 All plates comprise of an image and non-image areas.
 Image areas carry ink while non-image areas do not.

 The processes are also categorized into physical and chemical processes.

PHYSICAL:
 They use plates with image areas higher than non-image areas.
 They are called relief process.
 They are: Letterpress printing and Flexographic printing

LETTERPRESS PRINTING
 It is the oldest printing process.
 Ink is applied on the surface of raised image areas
 Paper is pressed against the surface (plate/ form) transferring ink (impression)

ATTRIBUTES:
 Good resolution production
 Fast printing speed of 6,000 IPH (impression per minutes)
 Can print 4 color process or spot colors
 Can print on highly textured substrates.
 Can print on substrate thickness of about 0.050+ inches
 Usually sheet fed
 Typical products includes: Books, Business cards, Invitation cards, consecutive numbering,
Newspapers, forms etc.

TYPES OF LETTERPRESS MACHINES

PLATEN PRESS MACHINE

A platen applies pressure unto the substrate against the forme to transfer impression unto the
substrate. The forme is set in an almost vertical position inside the machine.

FLAT BED PRESS MACHINE

With this machine, the forme is set flat/ horizontally inside the machine as pressure is applied on the
substrate firmly against the forme, with the aid of an impression cylinder, to make impression.
ROTARY PRESS MACHINE
The substrate is inserted between two rollers i.e. the plate cylinder and the impression cylinder
which rotate in opposite direction to transfer images onto the substrate as it is pulled through the
rollers. The forme for rotary press machine is like that of flexography, the forme is usually a rubber
or metal which is wrapped around a cylinder.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN LETTERPRESS

 Metal gauge pins and photopolymer gauge pins: pins used to lock substrates onto the
platen before printing.
 Line gauge: it is used to check text spacing.
 TYPE: The assortment of pieces of metal of various sizes on which characters are cast. It
includes; letters, symbols and numbers. They are made of wood (wood type), metal (metal
type), and clay.
 Types are manufactured by a type founder. Types can be manufactured in the foundry
known as foundry types.
 Foundry types are made an alloy of lead, antimony, tin and occasionally copper. A six
(6) point type contains 46% lead, 20% tin, 32% antimony, 2% copper. A 12 points
type contains 56% lead, 16% tin, 28% antimony. Copper is used when casting small
point types to make them hard and resistant to pressure.

 LEAD: Melting point of 621 F,

It is ductile, non-rusting,
Very cheap,
Can resist atmospheric pressure.

 TIN: Melting point of 450 F,

Tin is added to make types ductile,
Brittle less.
To make types smooth

 ANTIMONY: Melting point of 1166 F,

It has unusual properties,
Expands upon cooling,
Contracts upon heating,
Ensures long life and to endure pressure.

 COPPER: Melting point of 1985 F,

Adds extra toughness to the type.
Mostly used to cast small types.

Types can also be made in the press house. They are made by either of these three (3) machines;
 Monotype casting machines: it is used to cast types individually/ single unit and compose
them. Types casted with the monotype are made of lead and as such are soft. They are melted
after use. This machine consists of a keyboard unit and caster. Invented by Tolbert Langston
(1869).
 Linotype/ intertype casting machine: it is used to cast types into slugs. Slug refers to a metal
strip with a composed line of sentence. Intertype uses punched tape while linotype uses
keyboard. It was invented by Ottman Mergenthaler (1886).
 LUDLOW CASTING MACHINE: a semi automotive machine that combines hand and
machine functions. Matrix are made of copper with moulds of characters on them. Characters
are usually made in large size. Used to make characters for displays and posters. Manufactured
by William A. Ludlow.

 Kern: a special type with an extending typeface that exceeds the type body.
 Ligature: a type with two or more characters
 Leaders: a type with several dots

 SPACING TYPES
 EM QUAD/ MUTTON QUAD: an inter-word spacing tool that is the square size of a type.
Can be divided into 5 parts; 1 em space, 2 em space, 3 em space, 4 em space and 5 em space.
 EN QUAD/ NUT QUAD: An inter word spacing material, half the size of an EM quad.
 THIN SPACE: inter letter spacing tool. Sizes are;
 ½ point which is made of copper
 1 point which is made of brass

 QUOIN: A tool that expands to tighten furniture against composed types to make a forme. A
key opens or closes a quoin through screwing to expand or losing the quoin
 FURNITURE: Tool placed firmly inside a chase to hold composed types firm in the chase and
form part of the non-image areas. Furniture are stored on furniture racks.
 TWINE: Material that binds composed words firmly making it easy when lifting from galley
into chase.
 CASE: wooden frame with compartments/ apartments that store or hold types. E.g. California
job case which has 89 compartments. A case contains; upper case, lower case, symbols and
spacing types.
 COMPOSITOR: the person who composed the forme.
 POINT: the unit of measurement of types.
 PICA: the unit of measurement of lines of text.
 INTERLINEAR SPACING TOOL: Tools use to separate lines when composing types. They
are; lead and slug.
 GALLEY: a long metal tray into which types are transferred, from a composing sick during
the composition of a forme. It is in the galley where final type composition is done as well as
the galley proof.
 COMPOSITION STICK: A tool on which types are initially composed. A narrow metal
holder in which types are set on to compose lines of sentences.
 MALLET: a hammer-like tool that is used to level characters of types (image area) being
composed to ensure the right registration of text on substrate during printing.
 SUBSTRATE: they are materials on which impressions are made during printing.
 PLANNER: a flat wooden structure use to level composed types with the help of a mallet.
 REGLETS: a thin tool placed in-between the quoin and furniture to prevent slippage and
markings on the furniture.
 TWEEZER: a tool use to correct types in a galley or chase during composition to ensure that
types fit and stand upright in the galley/ chase.
 TYPE SCALE/ TYPE GAUGE/ TYPE RULE: special ruler used by printers and production
staff showing width in Ems and points, calculating width of a line.

HOW TO PREPARE A FORME FOR LETTERPRESS PRINTING

Place the composing stick in your left hand. Pick up types from the case and compose them on the
composing stick with the nicks facing outside. Types are composed with the help of inter letter, word
and linear spacing types. After composing on the composition stick, carefully and meticulously
transfer them into the galley. In the galley, types are composed to give the final outlook of the
composition. In the galley, composed types are tied using the twine to prevent them from scattering
when lifting out. It is also in the galley that proof/ test can be conducted before printing which is
called Galley proof. After composing in the galley, the tied types are lifted and placed in the chase
according to the position the compositor wants to register his text on the substrate.

Then, furnitures are placed into the chase to form the non-image area of the forme and also to hold
the composed types in position. A quoin is usually placed in between furnitures and opened using the
key to tighten the composed types against the furniture. This holds composed types firm and in
position four printing. The mallet is used to level the forme surface to differ between the image areas
(composed types) and the non-image areas to ensure the right print of text.

NB: the chase is placed on a flat surface called the imposing surface to give a level/ flat base for the
composition of the forme. After composing the forme, lift and shake to test if it is firm and ready for
printing.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF A TYPE

 Face: the part of the character that forms the printing character. Part of the type that appears
after impression. Made up of thicker and thinner strokes. The face of a type is made up of:
 Thick strokes
 Thin strokes
 Counter
 Beard.
 Serif.
 Serifs: little extension at the main or thin stroke of the character.
 Counter: central non-image area of a character.
 Bowl: the loop of a letter such as in B, C and U.
 Belly: the front part of a type.
 Nick: groove at the belly of type which helps the compositor to check improper composing.
 Feet: the part at the lower end of a type that supports the entire frame.
 Groove: a hollow space beneath the type body between the feet.
 Beard: the space of the edge of the face of a character of a type to the edge of a body of the
type. The thickness of a character
 Shoulder: the edge of a type.
 Font: collection of the types of the same style and size.

 NB: For English types, height to paper = 0.915

 Type is measured from –points-pica-em quad and en quad-inch-mm and cm.

FLEXOGRAPHIC PRINTING
 Uses flexible relief plate
 Can print on a variety of substrates.’
 Plates are affixed to cylinders.
 Two (2) rollers (fountain roll and anillox roll) deliver liquid ink.

ATTRIBUTES
 Good resolution reproduction.
 Fast printing speed of 300+ FPM (feet per minutes)
 Able to print 4 color process or spot colors.
 Able to print thick ink film – ink is very thick
 Substrate to about 0.050+ thick.
 Web (roll fed)
 Typical products: packaging, bread bags, tags, labels, newspapers, wallpapers, milk
cartons, cereal boxes.

WEB FED: this is where substrates for printing are fed in a roll. With this, the tip of the rolled
substrate is inserted in-between plate and impression cylinders. The 2 cylinder roll in opposite
directions to pull the substrate through thereby making impression.

HOW THE FLEXOGRAPHIC PRINTING MACHINE WORKS

The fountain roll rotates in the ink duct to pick the ink and transfer it unto the anillox roll. There is a
doctor blade placed on the anillox roll to scrap off excess ink. The anillox roll applies ink directly
unto the plate cylinder. Then pressure is applied on the substrate against the inked plate cylinder to
make an impression.
 GRAVURE/ INTAGLIO PRINTING
 Image areas are below the plate surface.
 Ink is carried in individual cells.
 Produces rich 4 color tonal range.
 There are four ways of making the gravure plate. They are;
1. Electro mechanical engraving
2. Etching
3. Direct laser engraving
4. Embossing

ATTRIBUTES
 High quality reproduction.
 Expensive prepress
 Fast printing speed of 100?? Fpm
 Very long runs
 Web (roll fed)
 Typical products: packaging, gum wrappers, magazines, Formica, wrapping paper, postage
stamps.

SCREEN PRINTING/ STENCIL/ SILK

 Image area is open.
 Uses a stencil porous mesh, and squeegee.
 Diverse applicable on most substrates.

ATTRIBUTES
 Good resolution reproduction.
 Print speed of 80 to 4500 IPH (impression per hour).
 Typically short run.
 No limit to substrate thickness.
 Usually sheet fed.
 Typical products: roll textiles, garments decals, labels, metal signs, bottles, mugs, dinning
ware, posters, control panel, bill boards, automobile dash boards, T-shirts, mascara tubes.
 NON-IMPACT PRINTING
 Printing directly from electronic files.
 No need for a physical plate.
 Production time is reduced.
 Images can be changed during printing
 Examples are: Toner-based photocopiers, Thermal, Ink jet and Laser printers.
 Usually sheet fed.

OFFSET LITHOGRAPHY/ PLANOGRAPHIC PRINTING

 Chemical printing process.
 Image and non-image areas are physically the same. They are on the same plane, hence the
name planography.
 Used 4 over 70% of printing in the U.S.A
 Exceptional color and black and white halftone reproduction capabilities.
 Indirect printing.

PRINCIPLES
 Antipathy of water and grease. (water and grease do not readily mix)
 Image areas accept only ink.
 Non-image areas accept only water.
 Image is not printed directly onto substrate.
 Image is transferred from plate to rubber blanket.
 Rubber blanket then transfers image to substrate.

FACTS
 Positive film takes positive plates where image areas are opaque.
 Negative film takes negative plates where images areas are transparent.
 Plate images are in right reading while rubber blanket images are in reverse reading.
 Image areas are oleophilic/ hydrophobic. I.e. image areas are ink receptive and do not
accept water.
 Non image areas are hydrophilic/ oleophobic. I. e, non-image areas are water receptive
and do not accept ink.
 Water is supplied onto the plate cylinder before ink is added.
 It is called offset because images are offset/ transferred from the plate cylinder onto a
rubber blanket.

HISTORY
 Over 200 yrs. old.
 Invented by Alois Senefelder in 1796.
 First used on the Bavarian Stone.
 Letters initially had to be written/ drawn backward.

FIRST LITHOGRAPHIC PRESSES

 Flatbed and rotary presses were used.
 Nearly all early lithographic printing were direct lithography.
 IRA WASHINGTON RUBEL developed the offset press for indirect lithography.

ATTRIBUTES
 High resolution production.
 Fast printing speed of 10,000 IPH.
 Ink film about 3 microns.
 Substrates about 0.020 inches thick.
 Sheet fed/ Web (roll fed).
 Can print 4 color process or spot colors.
 Typical products: Books, Catalogue, Magazine, Brochure, Forms, Maps, Annual reports.

Process colors: they are derivative colors. They are transparent. They are derived from different
colors. Colors are screened and as such are made of dots.
C ---------- Cyan
Y ---------- Yellow which is printed first.
M ---------- Magenta
K ---------- Key (black) which is printed last.

 Spot colors: they are already made colors. They print without variations. They are not
screened and as such are not made of halftone dots. They give solid state outcome.
 PHOTOGRAPHY
Daguerre: developed a process of producing permanent photographic images.
Eastman: first made photography practical. I.e.
 Standardized camera size.
 Produced roll film.
Printing photos is difficult because of the many shades of gray.

HALFTONES
 Halftone screens turn photos into usable format.
 Images are broken into hundreds of dots.
 Halftone dots print in black.
 Tiny black dots combined with white spaces create the illusion of gray.

TERMS UNDER PRINTING

Grammage: this refers to the thickness of a paper.
Camera ready: this is the stage where the manuscript is finally set for printing with all prepress
processes taken care of.
Imposition scheme: arranging pages in a particular order for printing usually through scientific
selection.
Page layout: manner of arranging pages of a book. The process of arranging or rearranging the
composition of text and graphics on pages to make up a book.
Offcuts: refers to the excess sheet space on a machine after placing/ mounting sheets.
Make ready: setting up the press to have a right amount of ink and an exact/ perfect substrate
position. To have the right printed image and the right registration of text on the substrate with the
right amount of ink.
Electronic prepress: steps prior to printing that uses computers and digital technology.
Letterpress: process of printing from raised surface by applying pressure on a substrate onto inked
image carries.
Flexography: a direct rotary printing method that use flexible relief image plates made of rubber or
photopolymer material and relatively thin bodied, resin-solvent or water-based inks.
Gravure: a printing process that uses engraved cylinders or cylinder-mounted plate to carry the
images.
Screen printing: a printing process that uses squeegee to force ink through porous fabric/ mesh
which has non-image areas blocked by a stencil.
Nonimpact printing: a printing process in which the substrate doesn’t contact the plate.
Offset lithography: a printing process where inked images are offset or transferred onto another
surface before finally being transferred onto the substrate.
 PRINTING INDUSTRY
PURPOSE
To create and manufacture products that communicate visually.

FACTS
 One of the largest manufacturing organizations in the world.
 Continually growing.

DIVISIONS OF THE INDUSTRY

 Commercial printing
 Publishing industry
 Packaging industry
 In-plant printing industry
 Quick printing industry
 Allied industries.

COMMERCIAL PRINTING INDUSTRY

 Print large variety of products with no specialization.
 It is dominated by offset lithography.
 Products include: catalogue, posters, business forms, advertisements ETC.
 Examples: Ausapp, Sakoa, graphic media, Bemenco, FNET, AD-AGE concepts, creative
talent, Broadex commercial printing press.

PUBLISHING INDUSTRY
 Companies that deal with all the procedures of turning a manuscript into suitable form for
publication/ distribution.
 They contract printing companies usually to print out their work in multiple copies.
 Examples: Ghana publishing cooperation, Unimax publishing, Waterville, pearl, Freedom,
Approachers, Asempa, Afram, Allied new ltd.

PACKAGING INDUSTRY
 Produces items that are used to contain, preserve, protect and identify products. E.g.
 Labels
 Cartons
 Boxes
  Wrappers
 Cans
 Tags
 Plastic bags.
 Examples: fine-pack, crown cans GH, Pharmanova, Compact LTD.

IN-PLANT PRINTING
 Owned by organizations whose main aim is not printing but realize the need to print,
 They produce in-house business forms, time cards, booklets and manuals,
 Printing facilities at hospitals, governmental agencies, universities etc.
 Examples: UPK, Adventist printing press, university of Cape
Coast printing press, university of Ghana printing press, Bible of Africa printing press,
Ashesi university printing press.

QUICK PRINTIING INDUSTRY

 Specializes in simple short-run jobs.
 Limited to small offset presses.
 Duplicators and digital imaging system.
 Often depend on walk-in-business.
 Examples: Perry dery GH, Hepon ventures, Kay press, Kiz impression, Imagricons,
Printlink, Printables, Mispah business center

ALLIED INDUSTRIES
 Production Houses
 Material Suppliers
 Equipment Services And Repair
 Educators
 Prepress Service Bureaus
 Equipment Supplier
 Editors And Journalists
 Artists And Graphic Designers
 Examples: Fedel solutions, Skysat technologies, Henkoq ventures, Dannywarren LTD,
Raphin co. LTD. EPP bookshop, Alpha and Omega, Beacons Book LTD, Challenged
Bookshop.
 PRINT PRODUCTION PROCESS
OBJECTIVES
 To know the 3 main phases of the print production process.
 To identify various activities under each phase.

DEFINITION
Process, sequential order or step through which a print product ravels before it gets to the final
desired product for the customer.

PREPRESS PHASE
Refers to all the print production functions/ activities that take place from the time the job(s) are sent
to the print shop to the actual printing.
NB: they can occur in or outside the printing house but happens before the actual printing.

ACTIVITIES
TYPESETTING:
Setting text into type by the use of a computer. Composing with the computer.

COPYEDITING / LINE EDITING:

To correct the spelling, grammar, formatting and errors as such in a manuscript.

PAGE LAYOUT:
The stage at which you define the actual position of elements of a page considering margins and
various designs.

PAGE ASSEMBLY:
Assembling all the elements that are supposed to be on a page unto the page.

SCREENING:
Breaking continuous tone images into dots.

 Line work: work without gradations.

 Continuous tone work: works with gradations.

TRAPPING:
Resizing colour work (i.e. spreading or chocking images) so the errors with colour work such as
overlapping after printing are corrected. I.e. programming adjacent colour areas of a digital file to
allow for misregistration.
SEPARATION:
Dividing the 4 colour in a full colour work in fields using the image processor.

IMPOSITION:
Bringing various pages together so that after printing and folding, all the pages will follow in a
sequential order.

RETOUCHING:
The process whereby unwanted images on the film are blocked or corrected.

PROOF READING:
To assess a print work or electronic copy for and correct production errors of text or art.

PLATE MAKING / IMAGE CARRIER PREPARATION:

By way of light hitting the film and plate. I.e. mount your film on the plate and expose the images on
the film onto the plate using the high light from the plate making machine.

PRESS PHASE
The stage where actual printing is done.

MAKE READY:
Setting up the press / machine to have the right printed image and the right registration of test on the
substrate with the right amount of ink.

PRINT RUN:
This refers to actual printing whether long run or short run.

WASH UP:
Cleaning the press / machine after use.
NB: the press machine comprises of 4 units;

 Feeder unit
 Registration unit
 Printing unit
 Delivery unit

POST PRESS
This refers to all the PPP done after the actual printing.

CUTTING:
To cut / remove unwanted / excess parts of a product.
FOLDING:
To make proper arrangement of sheets by bending them to touch themselves.

ASSEMBLING:
Putting together printed sheets to form a group.

COLLATING:
To sort multipole copies of printed document into sequences of individual page order, one sequence
for each copy.

 Inserting and gathering

SCORING:
The action of scratching / marking paper or other materials to make it easier to fold and also flip.

PERFORATING:
A series of holes punched through a sheet to enable easy tearing / separation.

BINDING:
To tie, fasten, cohere or join pages by any ligature, to form a whole.

LAMINATION:
To cover something flat, usually paper in an adhesive protective plastic.

PACKAGING:
To bundle, pack or enclose printed product in a material that contains, protects, preserves and
identifies

DELIVERY:
To convey products to final consumer.

DIE-CUTTING:
The process of using metal dies to cut substrate into desired shapes.

NB: PPP varies per the kind of product.

NB: PREFLIGHTING:
Checking the digital file sent to the press for errors and correcting them.
NB: Meticulous or detailed check, follow up and attention is needed to prevent

 Delays
 Cost over runs
 Late-stage design changes
  Disappointment over the finished job.

FILM
 By observation, a film can be a transparent and translucent acetate / plastic base with light
sensitive clothing.
 The base forms the major component of the film.
 The emulsion is the light sensitive coationg.

DEFINITION:
A film is a light sensitive material that serves as a medium on which images can be captured for
plate-making.

WAYS OF GETTING A FILM

 Conventional workflow
 Digital workflow

CONVENTIONAL WORKFLOW
This involves the use of camera.

 VERTICAL CAMERA: Vertical line of exposure and always inside the darkroom.

 HORIZONTAL CAMERA: Horizontal line of exposure. It can have one area in light and the
other in a lighted room or outside the darkroom. The part in the dark carries the film

DIGITAL WORKFLOW
 CTF: computer to film
The means of outputting your film is through an image setter. You work on a computer connected to
the image setter which in turn outputs the work onto the film.

NB: Generally, people produce negative films with conventional workflow and the positive film
with the digital workflow.

STRUCTURE OF A FILM
 Emulsion layer
 Base layer
 Anti-halation layer

OTHERS
 Protective layer
 Subbing layer
EMULSION LAYER:
 Contains gelatin, silver halides or salts and gold irons.
 The part that reacts with light. It forms the image area. Very important. It defines the film. NB:
gold irons produce sharper images.
BASE LAYER:
 Acts as the support to the film. It can be an acetate / plastic or polyester.

ANTI-HALATION LAYER:
 It has a dye backing which prevents light from reflecting back to the emulsion layer.

OTHERS
SUBBING LAYER:
 An adhesive that binds the layers together.

PROTECTIVE LAYER:
 It protects the emulsion layer which forms the image.

To get a film, one needs to expose & develop & process.

PROCESSING A FILM
One needs a processing sink to process a film. Sections of processing sink include:

 Developing
 Stop bath
 Fixer
 Washer / wash up
NB: the images on the film are Latent after exposure.

1. DEVELOPER:
Establishers / develops the image onto the film. Developing has a time range. The developer brings
out images latent in photographic film.

2. 2.STOP BATH:
Stops further development.

3. FIXER:
It makes the image stable and permanent on the film.
4. WASHER
It stops the whole process removing all the chemicals.
NB: The entrance of a darkroom must be tight sealed to prevent light from creeping in.

TYPES OF EMULSIONS OF FILM

1. ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM:
It reacts to all colours of a visible spectrum except red.

2. PANCHROMATIC FILM:
It reacts to all colours of a visible spectrum.

3. BLUE SENSITIVE MATERIAL OR MONOCHROMATIC FILM

NB: when a film is kept under safe light for long it FOGS.

FACTORS THAT AFFECTS THE CHOICE OF FILM

 The printing process
 Film speed
 Film contrast
 The colour sensitivity of film
 The type of plate.

HANDLING A FILM
 One needs to put on gloves before handling a film.
 Hold at the tip of the film.
 Store film in a cold dry place under controlled temperature.
 Your work area must be dust free
 PRINTING INK
Ink is the most common material used to print images on substrates.

FORMS OF INK
 Paste form and
 Liquid form

PASTE INK
 The ink is very thick and tacky. Printing processes that use paste form of ink include
lithography (offset) and letterpress.
 They dry by oxidation polymerization and very slowly.

LIQUID INK
 The ink is fluid and watery. Process that require such ink; flexography, gravure and screen
printing.
 Liquid ink dries by evaporation and they dry very quickly/fast

COMPONENTS OF INK
 Pigments
 Vehicle
 Additive

PIGMENTS
Solid particles that don’t dissolve but suspends. They give colour to the ink. They determine
the inks;

 Opacity (resistance to light)

 Heat
 Chemical
 Water and oil
 Suitability to lithographic printing

They are finely ground powder which determine the quality of an image. They can determine if ink is
sage enough for packing material or wrapper for food items/food stuffs.
Pigment can be classified into 3 ways. These are; black, white and coloured pigment.

BLACK PIGMENT
Made from organic ingredients such as Lampblack.

WHITE PIGMENT
It can either be opaque/transparent. Opaque pigments are make from organic compounds such as
zinc sulphide and zinc oxide. NB: They reflect light from their surfaces.
Transparent pigment on the other hand are made from inorganic compounds.

COLOURED PIGMENT
They are made from organic and inorganic pigments.

VEHICLE
The vehicle carries the pigment. Ink pigment requires liquid vehicle to carry it through the ink train
onto the substrate because it is finely ground powder. NB: INK TRAIN; a chain of rollers that carry
ink.
It determines the ink’s;

 Stiffness
 Degree of gloss
 Drying speed
 Ability to adhere to printing substrate.
 Appropriateness for a particular printing process.
NB: vehicle in lithographic ink must resist water and the slight acidity of dampening solution.

Vehicle contains Resin. Resin serves as a binder in an ink. It enables the ink adhere to the substrate
permanently.
Vehicle also contains drying oil and or semi drying oil. It is needed in order to aid inks in drying.

Drying oil: dries faster. It is produced from lin seed or Tung. It has the disadvantage of producing
darker images. Therefore it is not advisable to use in bright colour ink preparation.
Semi-drying: rather dries slowly. It is produced from soya oil/soya bean.
You can choose to use them individually. Semi drying oil, produces brighter colours.

ADDITIVES
These are chemicals added to the pigment and vehicle to improve the ink’s quality. Additives include;

 Wax
 Lubricant
 Anti-skinning agent
 Driers
 Viscosity
 Tack
 Anti-wetting agent
One needs pigment, vehicle and additives to manufacture ink

INK MAKING
Processes in manufacturing ink are; mixing and milling
MIXING
When manufacturing ink, you prepare your vehicle using the various components, resin, drying oil
and / semi drying oil. After that, you find your pigment (suitable) which is in a clay form /powdered
form. Pour the solid state pigment into the liquid vehicle and stir with your blade

MILLING
After mixing the ink, it then passes through a 3 roll machine which has 3 rollers rotating in different
direction to grind the mixed ink. All lithographic inks require a second process which is the short
mill. Tiny clamps of unmilled particles known as Agglomerates goes through this process (short mill
machine) to further grind them to finer particles / form. Ink is prepare after this stage.

PROPERTIES OF LITHOGRAPHIC INK

 The Body: is a term most press operators use to describe ink stiffness. It refers to the covering
power and flow of ink. I.e. the length and viscosity.
 Viscosity: the resistance to flowing under applied pressure. NB: shear thinning / pseudo
plasticity: refers to the loss of viscosity as a result of stirring or agitation.
 Length: the ability of inks to from threads / strings when they are stretched.
 Opacity: the covering ability of an ink. High opacity means, very little light is transmitted. NB:
processed inks are transparent inks.
 Tack: describes an inks resistance to splitting when pulled from two directions. An inkometer
is used to measure the tack of ink. The ability of ink to be offset in wholesome unto the blanket
cylinder and substrate respectively.
 HEALTH AND SAFETY
SAFE WORKING ENVIRONMENT:
 Requires planning
 Safety programs should include;
 Safety tours for new students and employees.
 Safety colour codes
 Safety personal conduct.

 Students and employees must be informed.

COLOUR CODES
SAFETY PROGRAM
OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health Administration

 Mechanical hazards
 Chemical hazards
 Noise hazards
 Fire hazards
 Light hazards
Also cover personal protection and first aid.
.

MECHANICAL HAZARD REGULATIONS

 Machine must be guarded properly.
 Lockout and tag-out devices must be used.
 Workers must use personal protective equipment.
 Material, tools and equipment must be handled safely.

MACHINE GUARDS
 Several types of machinery used can cause mechanical hazards.
 Proper placement of barrier guards is important.

CAUTION
 Never use equipment until you have proven your ability to use it safely to your instructor.
 When operating a paper cutter machine, never bypass the safety device requiring both hands to
be used to operate.

ELECTRICAL CONSIDERATION
 Turn off all power to machinery and small appliances when the lab is not in use. Use the main
disconnect (master) switch.
 In case of emergency or malfunction, turn off power. Use the panic button.
 When equipment is being serviced, lockout and tag-out devices must be used.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Eye Protective devices
Protection from flying materials and chemicals. E.g. goggles, glasses, face shield.

Ear Protective devices

Protection from excessive sound levels. E.g. ear plugs, moldable inserts, noise reducing headset.

Respiratory Protection devices

Protection from ink mists and chemical vapour. E.g. respirators, dust masks.
Skin Protection devices
Protection from irritating chemicals and solvents.
E.g. aprons, gloves, boots and full safety cloth

FIRST AID
 Everyone in the facility should be trained.
 Kids should be visible and accessible.
 Equipment should be installed near hazard areas. NB: eye and face wash units.
 Emergency phone numbers should be posted.

TIPS FOR SAFE LIFTING

 Clear a pathway
 Check weight
 Ask for help
 Keep your back straight
 Lift with your knees.
 Keep objects close to your body
 Tighten your stomach
 Deliver carefully

PROPER TOOL HANDLING

 Use tools for intended jobs.
 Keep tools clean and in good condition.
 Store tools appropriately

SAFETY PRECAUTION
 Make sure guards are in place.
 Remove all tools and set mechanisms correctly before turning on a machine.
 Make sure no one is near a machine before starting it
 Keep hands clear of points of operation
 So not place hands near rollers, nip point, drills, punches or blades.

CAUTION (AIR NOZZLE)

 When operating a compressed air nozzle, do not exceed 30 psi.
 Always wear eye protection.
 Inserting an air nozzle into body cavities and activating the air pressure can cause injury or even
death

HAZARD COMMUNICATION PROGRAMS

 Employers are required to;
 Keep a list of hazardous chemicals used.
 Maintain files of Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
 Train employees to use chemicals.
 Focus is on the employees “right to know”. NB: MSDS contains; chemical’s name, date
prepared, hazard info, characteristics, precautionary statement.

COMMON PRINTING CHEMICALS

 Solvents
 Plate making chemicals
 Ink mists
 Gases
 Fumes
 Dust.

BLANKET AND ROLLER WASHES

 Many contain volatile organic compounds (VOC)
 Some are irritating to the skin
 Those with high flash point should be used.

CAUTION
 Never attempt to identify a solvent by sniffing it.
 Inhaling harmful vapors can cause serious physical injury or even death.

PRECAUTION (PLATEMAKING CHEMICALS)

 Wear an apron
 Never wear contact lenses
 Do not store food or drinks in the same areas as platemaking chemicals.
 Properly label and store chemicals
 Clean up spilled chemical immediately
 Make sure there is adequate exhaust ventilation.

CAUTION
 When diluting platemaking chemicals, always pour the acid, into the water.
 Never add water to a concentrated liquid. Doing so will produce a dangerous splattering of the
acid.

AIRBORNE HAZARDS
 Face shields and respirators should be worn for protection.
 Hazards include ink mists, gases, fumes and dust.
 Systems for controlling dust, providing adequate ventilation and scrubbing the air should be
installed.
NOISE HAZARDS
 Excessive sound/ noise can:
 Reduce efficiency of the workforce.
 Interfere with communications.
 Cause permanent hearing damage
 Sound levels should be controlled
 Proper ear protection should be worn
 Maximum allowable exposure is 90 decibels (dBA) for 8 hours

FIRE HAZARDS
 Flammable debris left on floors.
 Low flash point cleaning solvents
 Static electricity accumulation
 Oily clothes left outside cans with lid.
 Flammable ink and solvent storage
 Paper dust from bindery and press areas
 Scrap paper accumulation.
 Set off spray powder accumulation

ELIMINATING FIRE HAZARDS

 Use safety trash containers
 Use solvents with flash points over 100F
 Install static eliminators on all presses
 Use cans with self-closing lids for disposal.
 Store ink cans in a safety cabinet
 Install dust collectors.
 Place all scrap paper in bins.
TYPES OF FIRE

CAUTION
 In order to distinguish an electrical fire, the power source mist be turned off.

LIGHT HAZARDS
Light sources that can damage the skin or eyes.
 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
 Infrared (IR) light
 Laser beams
 Pulsed xenon lamps (PXAS)
 Mercury vapor lamps
 Ozone lights
 Insufficient lit work and storage areas.

CAUTION
 Most plate makers operate at extremely high voltages
 The plate maker should always be unplugged when bulbs or lamps are replaced or repairs are
being made.

FEDERAL ENCIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS

 Enforced by the environmental protection agency.
 Include;
 Clean air act amendments
 Clean water act

ENVIRONMENTALLY RIENDLY PRINTING

 Contract for purchase of recycled paper
 R&D relationship with paper and ink manufacturers / suppliers.
 Air and water control equipment.
 Paper recycling programs
 Sound environmental company policies

TIPS TO HELP THE ENVIRONMENT

 Use recycled paper
 Know what is environmentally smart.
 Recycle at school, work and home.
 Perform environmental audits

DEFINITIONS
BARRIER GUARD:
A plastic/metal safety barrier covering a point of operation on a machine.

DECIBEL (dBA):
A unit of measure for stating sound levels.
DUST COLLECTORS:
A vacuum system that captures airborne dust and removes it to a storage compartment.

ERGONOMICS:
The study of equipment design that improves convenience, ease of use and operator comfort.

FLASH POINT:
The lowest temperature at which a solvent emits vapors supporting combustion if exposed to an open
flame.

INFRARED (IR) LIGHT:

A range of electromagnetic spectrum that serves as a source of heat.

INK MISTS:
Tiny droplets making a spray, fog, or mist of ink, created as rotating press rollers throw tiny droplets
of ink into the air.

LASER BEAM:
A beam of nearly parallel and monochromatic light moving in phase.

LOCKOUT DEVICE:
A key or combination type lock to hold an energy-isolating device in the off position to prevent the
machine from energizing.

MAIN DISCONNECT (MASTER) SWITCH.

A switch that allows all power to machinery and small appliances to be turned off when a facility is
not in use.

MSDS:
A sheet that gives the chemical’s name, address and telephone number of the manufacturer.

MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP:

An enclosed light source that produces radiation by passing an electrical curr3ent through gaseous
exchange.

NIP POINT:
The point where two rollers come together.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT;

Various types of eye, ear, respiratory and skin protection devices used to prevent physical injury.

PULSED XENON LAMP (PXA):

A primary light source in graphic arts photography. This source provides a constant output with a
spectral composition resembling sunlight.

STATIC ELIMINATOR:
A press attachment use to reduce the amount of static developing on a press because of low relative
humidity and the movement of paper over metal surfaces. It is also to eliminate ink set off or paper
feeding problems.

TAGOUT DEVICE:
A prominent warning attached to an energy-isolating device to prevent power from being restored to
a particular circuit

UV RADIATION:
A range of electromagnetic radiation lying outside the visible spectrum. They are used for producing
various types of proofs, curing ink or exposing plates and films.

VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOC):

An organic compound that significantly participates in photochemical reactions and is released as
hazardous emissions. It eventually vapourizes and reacts with the atmosphere and sunlight to crate
smog and other pollutants.
 PAPER MAKING
ORIGIN
 Papyrus from Egypt (2000 BC). An ancient reed/grass used by ancient Egyptians to make
writing surface. It produced a thick paper-like material used by Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.
 First paper developed in China (105 AD). Used mulberry, hemp and rags to make paper.
 (74-750 AD) the battle fought between Muslims and Chinese at Samarkand in Turkestan now
(Uzbekistan) spurred the development of paper outside china’s domain.
 (750 AD) paper mills established across northern Africa- Sudan etc.
 The Muslims used linen because they produced stronger paper.
 (1200 AD) paper making in Europe.
 (1309 AD) first use of paper in England.
 (1405-1455 AD) Gutenberg.
 (1495 AD) first paper mill in England.
 (1600-1700) literacy and industrialization on the increase.
 (1666) laws in England banning the use of clothes and all materials with cotton in the burial of
the dead.
 (1798) Louis Robert of France – first paper making machine.
 (1812) Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier purchased patent rights for the machine.
 Drum drier was invented in 1839

PAPER MAKING
 Definition: it is the process of making paper, a material which is used universally today for
writing, printing and packaging.
 The main source of paper making is cellulose fibers (basic structure of plants).
 The main source of cellulose fiber in the first 16th century were cotton and linen rags.
 The main source of cellulose fiber is woods.

WOOD FIBER SOURCES

 Softwood trees / coniferous
 Examples include: pine, fir, spruce and hemlock.
 They have long and thick fibers.
 They have a fiber length of 3mm.
 They are stronger and rougher.
 Typical products: paper bags and corrugated boxes.

 Hardwood trees / deciduous

 They include: oak, maple, birch, chestnut, beech, poplar and eucalyptus.
  They have short and thin fibers.
 Fiber length 1mm.
 They are smoother.
 Typical products include: writing paper and tissue paper.
NB: conifers are preferred deciders for their longer fibers. Longer fibers form firmer fibrous web and
hence a firmer paper on the paper machine.

PAPER MAKING PROCESS

Pulp production
1. Logging: the cutting, skidding, on site processing and loading of trees or logs unto trucks/
skeleton cars.
2. Debarking: the process of removing the back from the logs before they undergo chipping.
3. Chipping: cutting wood into wafer-like pieces. The reduction of debarked logs into chips of
approximately 1/4” thick and 11/2 long.
4. Pulping: the tiny fragments of wood are then pressure cooked with chemicals in a large vat
called the digester to separate the fibers. Pulping is crushing into a soft, wet, shapeless mass.
The process of reducing the chipped wood into individual fibers. The end product of pulping is
pulp. The principal function of pulping is to dissolve the lignin that holds the cellulose fibers
together and to separate them.
NB: lignin: a complex organic substance deposited in the cell walls of many plants, making
them rigid and woody. Pulp is stored in blow bit before moving to further treatment stages.
Lignin makes pulp darker.
5. Washing/bleaching: the pulp goes to washers which removes spent chemicals used in digester.
Other small pieces of noon-cooked wood, grits and remaining lignin are removed.
The pulp is treated with chlorine and similar chemical solutions to whiten the paper fibers.
Pulp is given final series of wash and sent to storage for additives.
Without bleaching pulp is brown.
6. Refining/ beating: mechanical pounding and squeezing of pulp in order to make fibers more
flexible and further soften the pulp, thereby increasing their matting, and felting capacity. It
plays a major role in affecting several characteristics of the finished paper. Many additives are
added during the refining stage.

ADDITIVES
1. FILLERS: finely ground particles of clay or chalk added to pulp to improve the opacity. It is
high in ;papers used for double sided printing
2. SIZING: used to make paper less absorbent. An excessive absorption of dampening solution can
weaken the sheet and slow drying of ink.
Lithographic papers receive large amount of sizing to increase their water repellent qualities.
3. DYES: dyes and pigment are added to the pulp during refining to give the paper colour.
Paper Manufacturing
There are 4 sections in the paper-making machine; wet end (forming) section, wet press section, dryer
section and calendar section.

1. FORMING PAPER/ REMOVING WATER: A slurry of 99% water and 1% fiber flows from
the head box, unto a continuously forward-moving wire mesh called the forming wire. Water
drains from the pulp through the wire screen as it moves along, leaving mat fiber on the surface
of the wire. There are suction boxes under the wire screen that supports the removal of water.
Pulp asses under dandy roll to break up bubbles that might have formed. Dandy roll also
produces watermarks. Pulp moves from wet end to wet press.
NB: at this point paper leaves the wire with 75% water content.

2. DRYING – WET PRESS: felt is a frabric used to pick the wet stock off the wire. It also acts as
a blotter, soaking up water, in the press section of the machine. The felt usually passes between
a series of rolls which squeeze out more water. Pulp is squeezed between felt blankets to
absorb much more water. 65% water. Paper leaves to dry section.
DRYING – DRY SECTION: paper passes under and over steam heated drums to remove the
remaining water. Surface sizing is performed. Starch is added to strengthen paper surface.
Paper leaves to calendar section

3. FINISHING: paper emerges from dry section and is forced between heavy iron calendar
rollers.
At this stage, paper thickness is made consistent. If we end the paper making process here we
will refer to this paper as machine finished.

Making Glossy Paper

Liquid coating is applied to paper and dried. Super calendaring is performed: the process of
sending paper through a series of rollers that polish the coating to form a glossy finish.

FINISH
Degree of smoothness of Degree of Gloss
paper surface
Antique finish Matte finish
Eggshell Dull
Vellum Gloss or enamel finish
Embossed
Producing watermarks
European papermakers were the first to use watermarks. It served as a way of identifying the paper
with the members of the trade organization that manufactured it. It indicates that the paper is a
product of a trained artisan’s labour. Serves as a security feature.

Recycled pulp
Made from repulped waste paper. Hydropulper reduces paper back to fibers. Ink and contaminants
are removed. Pulp is bleached. Repeated repulpings result in fines.

Paper requirements
 Offset paper is made specifically for lithography.
 Sheet fed – offset paper:
1. Must have strong fiber to fiber bond to reduce picking.
2. Paper surface must be exceptionally clean.
 Web fed – offset paper:
1. Need high tear strength to prevent breaks.
2. Rolls with proper splicing are essential.

Types of Pulp
 Mechanical pulping: no chemicals are used in production.
 Ground wood pulping: is simple and cheap. Produces short and damaged pulp. Result in weak
paper subject to fiber puffing. All other methods begin with chipping. Refiner ground wood
produces stronger paper.
 Thermal – mechanical pulping: heat soften chip. Chips goes into refiners. Soften chip comes
apart easily. Results in less fiber damage.
 Chemical – mechanical pulping: heat and chemical soften chips. Produces soften chip than
TMP. Generates pulp with less fiber damage.
 Chemical pulp: chips are pressure cooked in a digester. Produces stronger paper. Comparatively
expensive. Paper is essentially lignin free. Used for applications requiring high – quality paper.

Characteristics of lithographic paper

1. Grain direction
2. Fiber length
3. Whiteness and brightness
4. Opacity
5. Flatness
6. Pick resistance
7. Finish
8. Absorbency
9. Squareness
10. Dimensional stability s
11. Moisture