Module 2 Mathematical Language and Symbols

This lesson will introduce you to a mathematical way of thinking

that can serve you in a wide variety of situations. Often when you start
working on a mathematical problem, you may have only a vague sense
of how to proceed. You may begin by looking at examples, drawing pic-
tures, playing around with symbols, rereading the problem to focus on
more of its details, and so forth. The closer you get to a solution, how-
ever, the more your thinking has to crystallize. And the more you need
to understand, the more you need language that expresses mathemati-
cal ideas clearly, precisely, and unambiguously.

This lesson aims to give you some ideas about the characteristics and con-
ventions of mathematics as a language that is a foundation for dealing with
everyday life. It also focuses on sets, logical symbols, logical connectives,
truth tables, tautologies, and self-contradiction.

Did you know?

That, the symbol for division (÷) is called obelus and the
division slash (/) is called virgule.

1 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 Mathematics as Language
OBJECTIVES

After completing this module, students will be able to:

 Discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics;
 Explain the nature of mathematics as language;
 Translate verbal phrases into mathematical expression/equation
 Perform operations on mathematical expressions; and
 Use mathematical language to describe and solve problems with mathematics content.

Mathematical Language and Symbols

Mathematics as a body of knowledge has a structure, and all
elements and operations in it operate as a system. it contains a set of
axioms about the objects, rules of logic, and theorems which are conse-
quences of logic applied to axioms.
Characteristics of Mathematical language
1. It is non-temporal
It has no past, present, and future. There is no conjugation of words in mathematics in
WAS the manner that English has a conjugation of verbs. Mathematical statements are
presented simply as “is” .
In mathematics you cannot say 1 plus 1 was equal 2

2. It has no emotional content.

It has no equivalent words for joy, happiness, despair, or
sadness. The aesthetic experience students and mathematicians
feel about math is only a subjective experience. It also does not
speak values in the manner that people speak about human values
in society. If ever there is one implied value which is highly prized in
mathematics that could only be adherence to logic and reason,
possibly also to form, and nothing more.

3. It is precise and concise.

In mathematics, you cannot use
flowery words in explaining a content.
It is exact and accurate in its statements and, as a conse-
You cannot say that a beautiful 8 added quence, it has no need for unnecessary words. This is not
to a handsome 7 results to awesome 15. always helpful to students, because being novice in math
It is always direct to the point. they need a little more elaboration, more exploration, and
more explanation which can be achieved with more speech.
That speech, however, will come from teachers and writers
who will assist students in their studies and not from mathe-
matics itself.

2 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
3 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 Definition
MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION
A mathematical expression is a group of characters or symbols representing a quantity
and/or operation.
An algebraic expression is a mathematical expression which contains numbers,
variables represented by letters and operations that indicate addition, subtraction, multiplication
or division.

Example
Translate the following verbal
phrases into mathematical expressions. Solution

a. Three-fourths of 500 Php

b. The sum of two numbers less 11
c. Thirty percent of selling price
d. Double the quantity of sales less taxes
e. The difference of gross sales and total
cost

4 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 Definition
A mathematical sentence which is true or
Mathematical Sentence false depending on the value of unknown quantities
A mathematical sentence is a is called an open sentence. Thus, x - 5 = 20 and
x2 - 10x + 25 = 0 are examples of open mathemati-
mathematical expression which is either
cal sentences.
true or false.
A closed mathematical sentence is one
Example which is known to be either true or false. The sen-
tence ―x2 + 1= 0 has a solution in the set of real
1. 25 +1= 26 (TRUE) numbers‖ is a ―closed sentence because it is false.
1. -4 - 5 = 9 (FALSE)

Definition
Mathematical Equation
A mathematical equation, or simply equation, is a statement of equality between two
algebraic expressions which contain one or two unknown. For instance, is
an example of a mathematical equation.

Exercise 2.1
I. Translate each verbal phrase into mathematical expression/equation.
Take note! (Let y be the number)

Verbal phrase Mathematical expression/equation

1. The sum of six and a number

2. Eight more than a number

3. A number plus five

4. A number increased by seven

5. A number decreased by nine

6,. Ten times a number

7. The sum of a number and three is twelve.

8. The difference of three and a number yields ten.

9. Four times a number is equal to thirty six.

10. Thrice a number decreased by thirteen is five.

5 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
11. One third of a number is nine.
12. The ratio of a number and two is equal to twenty.
13. Eight more than a number yields thirty-six.
14. A number subtracted from eighteen is nine.
15 Seven more than a number equals fourteen.
16. A number increased by twelve is thirty-two.

17. Twice a number decreased by ten results to two.

18. The sum of a number and eight is equal to forty.

19. The quotient of a number and three becomes

eleven.

20. Three-fifths of a number is fifty-four.

21. A number is added to sixteen

22. Three-fifths of a number is twenty-five.

23. A number decreased by two

24. Sixty-four divided by a number is sixteen.

25. A number less five

II. Answer the following questions. Show your neat solutions.

1. When 5 is added to the product of 18 and a certain number, the result is 113. What is the value
of the number?
2. Regine bought 6 pints of frozen yogurt and a tray of jumbo shrimp from The Food Place for a
total of $65. If the price of a tray of jumbo shrimp is $35, what is the price of a pint of frozen
yogurt?
3. At Mercury Drug Store, the price for surgical face mask is 99 pesos per box, with a minimum
purchase of 10 boxes. If Bobby paid 2,970 pesos, by how many pounds did Bobby's purchase
exceed the minimum?
4. The sum of two integers is 7. The square of second integer is subtracted from the square of the
first, and the result is 21. What are the integers?
5. Explain the nature of mathematics as language.

6 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 sets

To understand things around us, we must organize objects into their

proper categories. This allows us to produce generalizations about the charac-
teristics of objects in a class and, as a result, act on them based on those
characteristics.

A set is a collection of well-defined objects often denoted

by a capital letter in English Alphabet. We observe two methods
to define a set. We can define it using words, or we can define a
set by listing (roster method) its elements inside a pair of braces
{ }. Objects listed in a set are called elements, or members, of
the set. The symbol means an object is found in, or is an el-
ement of, a set. Thus, if A is the set of months in a year, then
January is an element of A. Since Monday is not a month, then
Monday A: Monday is not an element of A.

DEFINE SETS BY VERBAL DESCRIPTION AND ROSTER METHOD

Description Roster Method

A={Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday,

The set of all days in a week
Friday, Saturday, Sunday}
The set of all letters in the name ―MIRIAM
B= {m, i, r, a, g, c, e, l, b, n}
GRACE MALABANAN‖

When we list down elements of a set, we do not repeat the elements of the
set. Thus, even though letter A appears six times in Miriam’s full name, we
listed it only once in set B. As a convention we also use capital letters to
name sets.

FUNDAMENTAL NUMBER SETS

NATURAL NUMBERS OR COUNTING NUMBERS

WHOLE NUMBERS
INTEGERS
RATIONAL NUMBERS, the set of all terminating or repeating decimals.
IRRATIONAL NUMBERS the set of all non-terminating, non-repeating decimals.
REAL NUMBERS the set of all rational and irrational numbers.

7 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
MATHEMATICAL CONVENTIONS
There are several conventions used in mathematics. This is written to shorten a sentence.

means every element of A is also an

subset
element of B

means every element of B is also an

superset
element of A.
Upside down Means ―for all‖.
Means P(x) is true for all x.
Backward Means ―there exists.‖
Epsilon (looks like with horizontal
Means ―an element of‖ or ―in‖ or ―belongs to.‖
line in middle)
Means a is an element of the set S
Backwards epsilon Mean ―such that‖
Three dots triangle , point up Means ―therefore‖ or ―thus.‖

Three dots triangle point down means ―because‖ or ―due to‖

Means the set with no elements or a null set.

Example Solution
Use roster method to define each
of the given sets. 1. A= {13, 14, 15, 16, . . .}

1. The set of integers greater than 12. 2. B= {-6, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1}
2. The set of negative integers greater than -7.
3. The solution set to 5x—8 = 12 3. C= { 4 }

EXAMPLES OF RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL NUMBERS

Rational numbers Irrational numbers

Pi

Euler‘s number

Golden Ratio

Square root of all natural numbers

EXCEPT SQUARE ROOT OF PERFECT
SQAURES 1.23223222322223…

8 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 Definition
Interval Notation

The interval notation is used to describe the set of real numbers in an interval. Because any
interval of real numbers contain infinitely many real numbers, it is not feasible to list down its
elements. Thus, we use interval notation or the rule method to describe such sets. Under rule
method, we define the essential property of the elements of a set through the set builder
notation.

INTERVAL NOTATION AND RULE METHOD TO DEFINE SETS

Rule Method or Set Builder

Interval Notation Verbal description
Notation
Set of real numbers greater than -1 but less
than or equal to 5.
Set of real numbers greater than or equal
to -0.99.
Set of real numbers less than or equal to 0.
Set of real numbers greater than 3.5 but less
than 10.

Well Defined Sets

A set is well defined if it is possible to establish without doubt that an object is an element
of that set. Otherwise, it is not well defined. The set of integers greater than -6 but less than 0 is
an example of a well-defined set, because its elements are -5, -4, -3, -2, -1. The integer 1 is not
an element of thus set. The set of virtuous persons is not a well-defined set, because people do
not agree on the characteristics of virtuous people.

Example
Use set builder notation to describe the following sets.
a. The set of real numbers less than 0.
b. The set of counting numbers greater than 5 but less than 12.
Solution

a. or A = {x : x is a real number less than 0}

b. or A = {x : x is a counting number greater than 5 but less than 12}

CARDINALITY OF SET

The cardinality of a set A is a measure of a set's size, meaning the number of elements in
the set denoted by n(A). For instance, the set A = { 1 , 2 , 4 } has a cardinality of 3 for the three
elements that are in it

9 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 Kinds of Set

Sets are defined based on their characteristics and elements.

1. Null Set – A set having no elements or an empty set denoted by { } or Ø.

Example: A = {x : 9 < x < 10, x is a natural number}
This will be a null set because there is NO natural number between numbers 9 and 10. Therefore, A={ }

2. Singleton Set – Sets having only one element or singleton.

Example: W = {v: v is a vowel letter and v is the first alphabet of English}
This is a singleton set with just one element {a}.

3. Finite Set – Set having countable elements.

Example: V= {a, e, i, o, u}
This is a finite set that contains 5 elements. The set represents the vowel letters in the English alphabetical series.

4. Infinite Set – A set having elements which cannot be counted.

Example: C = {x: x is an even number}
This is an infinite set which contain uncountable elements, {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . .}
Note: The three dots are called ellipses which means “and so forth”

5. Equal Set – Two sets X and Y are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements
(irrespective of the order of appearance in the set). Equal sets are represented as
X=Y. Otherwise, the sets are referred to as unequal sets, which are represented as X ≠ Y.
Example: X = {a, e, i, o, u} and H = {o, u, i, a, e} then both of these sets are equal, X = H.
C = {1, 3, 5, 7} and D = {1, 3, 5, 9} then both of these sets are unequal, C ≠ D.

6. Equivalent Set – Two sets X and Y are said to be equivalent if the have the same
cardinality denoted by ~ .
Example: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {x : x is a vowel letter}
Thus, A ~ B because both sets have 5 elements each.

COMPLEMENTS, SUBSETS AND SET OPERATION

Definition
Universal Set
When we are interested to know the performance of students in your class in a major ex-
am, the set of all students in your class is the same as the universal set. When we throw a pair of
dice, and are interested in the probability of outcomes, all possible outcomes in this experiment
compose the universal set, and there are 36 elements in it. The set of all elements we are consid-
ering in our investigation is called the universal set, and is denoted by

10 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 Definition
SET COMPLEMENT
The complement of a set A, denoted by A’ or Ac, is the set of
all elements in the universal set U that are not elements of A.

Example
You might be curios, what is the complement of
Given, U= {a, b, c, d, e, x, y, z} ; the universal set? What is the complement of an
A= {a, x} ; and empty set? What are the elements in U which is
B={d, e, x, y, z} not in U ?
It is empty. Thus, U’ = Ø
What are the elements of the universal set which are in the
Then, A’ = {b, c, d, e, y, z} ; and empty set?
B’ = {a, b, c} All elements in U so Ø’ = U

Definition
SUBSET OF A SET
Set A is a subset of set B, denoted by if and only if all elements of A are
also elements of B.
PROPER SUBSET OF A SET SUBSET RELATIONSHIPS
Set B is a proper subset of set B if For any set A,
and only if all elements of A are also elements A is a subset of itself,
of B but The empty set is a subset of

Example
ENUMERATE THE SUBSETS OF A SET
Thus, if A has n elements,
Consider List down all the subsets of set A.
the number of subsets A
SOLUTION has is 2n.
Subsets of set A:

All in all, set A has eight subsets which, interestingly, is equal to

If has B 4 subsets, which is In general, if A has n
elements, the number of subsets of A is 2n.

Example Solution
A sports utility vehicle a. Let be the set containing all
manufacturing company offers 6 upgrade possible upgrades. Since there are 6 upgrade options, a
options to their standard SUV. customer can pick any contributions of those upgrades
or not get an upgrade at all. The total number of different
a. How many different versions of the versions of SUV is the total number of subsets of A. This
SUV can the company produce? is
b. If the company aims to produce a 512
b. Using the concept of subsets, if there are 512
versions of the SUV, how many up-
grade options must it offer? versions of the SUV, then the total number of upgrade
options is such that Using logarithm base
2,

11 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 Set Operation

1. Set Union
The union of two sets is a set containing all
elements that are in A or in B (possibly both).
For example, {1,2}∪{2,3}={1,2,3}. Thus, we can write
x ∈ (A∪B) if and only if (x∈A) or (x∈B). Note that A∪B=B∪A.

2. Set Intersection
The intersection of two sets A and B, de- 3. Set Difference
noted by A∩B, consists of all elements that The difference (subtraction) is defined as
are both in A and B. follows. The set A−B consists of elements that
For example, {1,2}∩{2,3}={2}. are in A but not in B. For example if A={1,2,3}
and B={3,5}, then A−B={1,2}.
Note that, A – B ≠ B – A.

4. Cartesian Product
A Cartesian product of two sets A and B, written as A×B, is the set contain-
ing ordered pairs from A and B. That is, if C=A×B, then each element of C is of the form (x,y),
where x∈A and y∈B.
A×B={(x,y)|x∈A and y∈B}.
For example, if A={1,2,3} and B={H,T} then
A×B={(1,H),(1,T),(2,H),(2,T),(3,H),(3,T)}. Note that, the pairs are ordered,
for example, (1,H)≠(H,1). Thus, A×B is not the same as B×A.

Definition
Venn Diagrams

Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets within an enclosing rectangle. The

rectangle represents the entire universal set . Circles, squares, and other geometric figures
represent some subsets of the universal set. Regions that overlap represent elements that are
common to sets. See next page for example.

12 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 Example
Shaded region in each Venn Diagram represents the following sets given below.

VENN DIAGRAM APPLICATION

In a survey of 500 investors, it was reported that 270 invested in stocks, 300
invested in bonds, and 100 invested in both stocks and bonds. Use Venn diagram to
answer the following.
a. How many invested in stocks only?
b. How many invested in bonds only?
c. How many invested in neither stocks nor bonds?
SOLUTION
We begin by filling up region there are 100 investors who invested in both
stocks and bonds. In set notation this means Three hundred investors
invested in bonds. Since 100 already invested in stocks and bonds, 200 investors
invested in bonds only. Two hundred seventy investors invested in stocks only.
The Venn diagram shows the number of investors who invested in either stocks or bonds
( is 470. This leaves us with 30 investors who did not invest in either stocks or
bonds .

a. 170 invested in stocks only

b. 200 invested in bonds only
c. 30 did not invest in either stocks or bonds

Given two finite sets and , the inclusion-exclusion helps us count accurately the number of elements
contained in the union of set We add the elements contained in each set and subtract the elements found
in their intersection. We do this to prevent the double counting of elements. In symbols we have,

13 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 EXERCISE 2.2 (SETS)
I. Direction: Rewrite the following sets using rule method/Set-Builder notation and
indicate its interval notation.

1. Set of integers greater than but less than or equal to 10.

_______________________________________________________________________
2. Set of real numbers greater than or equal to
_______________________________________________________________________
3. Set of real numbers less than but greater than or equal to
_______________________________________________________________________
4. Set of real numbers greater than 7 but less than 12.
_______________________________________________________________________
5. Set of real numbers less than or equal to 5.
_______________________________________________________________________
6. Set of real numbers greater than or equal to but less than or equal to 8.
_______________________________________________________________________
7. Set of real integers less than or equal to 5 but greater than 0.
_______________________________________________________________________
8 Set of real numbers less than or equal to
_______________________________________________________________________
9. Set of real numbers greater than but less than 3.
_______________________________________________________________________
10. Set of integers greater than or equal to
_______________________________________________________________________

II. A. Classify the following as finite or infinite set.

________________1. C = {x : x ∈ N and 3x –3 = 0}
________________2. E = {The set of numbers which are multiples of 3}
________________3. H = {The set of persons living in a house}
________________4. I = {x | x ∈ Z, x < -2}
________________5. K = {The set of fractions with numerator 3}
B. Identify the following as null or singleton set.
________________6. A = {x | x ∈ N, 1 < x < 2}
________________7. C = {x : x is an even prime number greater than 2}
________________8. Q = {x | x is an even prime number}
________________9.R = {The set of whole numbers lying between 0 and 2}
________________10. B = {0}

14 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
C. Classify the following pairs of set whether they are equivalent (~) or equal (=) set?
11. A = {x : x ∈ N, x ≤ 6} ______ B = {x : x ∈ W, 1 ≤ x ≤ 6}

12. P = {The set of letters in the word ‗plane‘} _____ Q = {The set of letters in the word ‗plain‘}

13. X = {The set of colors in the rainbow) _______ Y = {The set of days in a week}

14. M = {4, 8, 12, 16} _____ N = {8, 12, 4, 16}

15. A = {x | x ∈ N, x ≤ 5} _____ B = {x | x ∈ N, 5 < x ≤ 10}

III. Answer the following:

1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} . Find:
a. A ∪ B = ________________________________________

a. A ∩ B =_________________________________________

2. Let M = {letters in the word ‗COMPUTER‘} N = {letters in the word ‗CALCULATOR‘}. Find:
a. M ∪ N = ________________________________________

a. M ∩ N =________________________________________

3. Let U= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15}

A = set of natural numbers less than 8
B = {even natural numbers less than 12}
C = {Multiples of 3 between 5 and 15}
Find:
a. C x B =
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
b. A ∩ B ∩ C=
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

a. Bc =
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

15 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 Relations and Functions
Definition
A relation is any set or ordered pairs of any real numbers. The set of
values of is called the domain (denoted by D) and the set of values of is called the
range (denoted by R) of the relation.

ILLUSTRATION
A relation defined by has the domain
and the range .
The set of input is the domain and the set of output is the range.

A function is a relation such This is a function because This is just a mere relation
that no two ordered pairs there is only one arrow because there are two val-
have the same first element. coming from each , ues of that has the same
indicating that there is only
one for each value, 1.

A function can be distinguished from a relation using a vertical line test. When a graph is
given, a vertical line can be drawn and if that line crosses the graph in more than one point, it is
not a function, only a relation.

This graph This graph is does not

shows a function, represent a function,
because a vertical because a vertical line
line passes the graph intersects the oval twice.
only once.

16 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 A function can also be distinguished from a relation by solving for the value of A function
has only one unique value of while a relation has more than one value of

An equation is considered a function If the solution to an equation does not result

when you can solve for a unique value of y. in a unique value of it is not a function.

Example
Answers
Domain Range

1. What is the domain and range of the following

relations?

2. What is the domain and range of the following

relations?

3. Which relations below are functions? Relation 1 and Relation 3 are

Relation 1 functions.
Relation 2
Relation 3
4. Which relations below are functions? Relation 1 and relation 4 are
Relation 1 functions.
Relation 2
Relation 3
Relation 4

EXERCISE 2.3 (Functions and Relations)

Direction: Write the letter in the blank provided.

______________ 1. Which of these tables represents a function?

Table A Table B Table C Table D

0 0 3 3
0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 3 3 1
3 2 0 2 5 5 2

17 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
______________ 2. Do the ordered pairs below represent a relation, a function, both a relation
and a function, or neither a relation a function?

______________ 3. Which figure/s represents a function?

_______________ 4. Which of the following figure/s is not a function?

_______________ 5. Which of the following relations describes a function?

a. b.
C. d.

_______________ 6. Which of the following table represents a relation and not a function?

Table A Table B

32 32

Table C Table D

2
32 32

7. Find the domain and the range of the following functions.

a. Domain:__________________ Range:____________________
b. Domain:__________________ Range:____________________
c. Domain:__________________ Range:____________________

d. Domain:__________________ Range:____________________

18 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 Mathematics as Symbols
Definition
The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F). The truth
value of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements and its
connectives. A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all
possible truth values of its simple statements.

Example 1. A statement like ― 7  10‖ is true.

2. A statement like ―A cat is a fish‖ is false.
3. A statement like ―x  5 ‖ is true for some values of and false for others.
Examples of statements include the following:
1. Taft is a barangay of Surigao City. (True)
2. Metro Manila is the largest city of the Philippines in population. (False)
3. 2 + 3 = 5. (True)
4. 3 < 0. (False)
The following are not statements:
1. Surigao City is the best city. (Subjective)
2. Help! (An exclamation)
3. Where were you? (A question)
4. The rain in Cabadbaran. (Not a sentence)
5. This sentence is false. (Neither true nor false!)

Definition
Logical Connectives
If two or more statements are joined, or connected, then we can form compound
statements. These compound statements are joined by logical connectives ―and‖, ―or‖, ―if
then‖, and ―if and only if‖.

Symbolic form of compound statements with p and q as simple statements.

Statement Connective Symbolic Form Type of Statement
not p not ~p Negation
p and q and pq Conjunction
p or q or pq Disjunction

If p, then q If . . . then pq Conditional

p if and only if q If and only if pq Bi-conditional

Statements are represented symbolically by lowercase letters (e.g., p, q, r ,and s ) and new statements can be
created from existing statements in many ways.

19 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 1. NOT (⌐)
p p
If p represents the statement ―Today is Monday,‖ then the nega-
tion of p, written ~ p and read ―not p,‖ is the statement ―Today is not
Monday.‖ When a statement is true, its negation is false and when a T F
statement is false, its negation is true; that is, a statement and its nega-
tion have opposite truth values. This relationship between a statement
and its negation is summarized in Table. F T

p q pq 2. AND (^)

If p is the statement ―It is raining‖ and q is
T T T the statement ―The sun is shining,‖ then the
conjunction of p and q is the statement ―It is
T F F raining and the sun is shining‖ or, in symbol, ―p  q.‖
F T F The conjunction of two statements p and q is true
when both p and q are true.
F F F
3. OR (V)
p q pq The disjunction of statements p and q is the
statement ―p or q,‖ denoted by p  q and is defined
T T T through its truth table.
T F T The statement ―It will rain or the sun will shine‖ is true if
F T T it rains, the sun shines, or it rains and the sun shines.
That is, the inclusive ―or‖ in p  q allows for both
F F F p and q to be true.

p q pq
4. IF THEN (→)
T T T
The statement ―If p , then q ‖, denoted by
p  q (read as ‖If p implies q ‖), is T F F
called an implication or conditional statement; F T T
p is called the hypothesis, and q is
F F T
called the conclusion.

To determine the truth table for p  q consider the following conditional promise given to a
math class: ―If you average at least 90% on all tests, then you will earn an A.‖ Let p represent
―Your average is at least 90% on all tests‖ and q represent ―You earn an A.‖ Then there are four
possibilities:

AVERAGE AT EARN AN
LEAST 90% “A”
PROMISE KEPT Notice that the only way the promise can be broken is in line 2. In
lines 3 and 4, the promise is not broken, since an average of at
Yes Yes Yes
least 90% was not attained. (In these cases, a student may still
Yes No No earn an A—it does not affect the promise either way.) This
No Yes Yes example suggests the following truth table for the conditional.
No No Yes

20 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 Given conditional : ―if p , then q ‖ pq ;
The converse : ―if q , then p ‖ q p ;
The inverse : ―if not p , then not q ‖ ~ p   ~ q  ;
The contrapositive : ―if not q , then not p ‖ ~ q   ~ p  .

Example
Consider again the conditional ―If it is raining, then there are clouds in the sky.‖
It seems reasonable to assume that this is true.

 The converse would be ―If there are clouds in the sky, then it is raining.‖ This is not always
true.

 The inverse would be ―If it is not raining, then there are not clouds in the sky.‖ Likewise, this is
not always true.

 The contrapositive would be ―If there are not clouds in the sky, then it is not raining.‖ This
statement is true, and is equivalent to the original conditional.

The next truth table displays the various truth values for the four conditionals.

Conditional Contrapositive Converse Inverse

p q ~p ~q pq ~ p ~ q q p ~ p ~ q
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F F T T
F T T F T T F F
F F T T T T T T

Notice that the columns of truth values under the conditional p→q and its contrapositive are the
same. When this is the case, we say that the two statements are logically equivalent. In general,
two statements are logically equivalent when they have the same truth tables. Similarly, the
converse of p→q and the inverse of p→q have the same truth table; hence, they, too, are logically
equivalent.

A conditional statement and its contrapositive are logically equivalent. The converse and
inverse of a conditional statement are logically equivalent.

Negation of a Conditional

The negation of a conditional statement is logically equivalent to a conjunction of the antecedent

and the negation of the consequent.

~  p  q  is equivalent to p ~ q .

21 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 5. IF AND ONLY IF ( ↔ )
The connective ― p if and only if q ,‖ called a bi-conditional and written p  q , is the
conjunction of p  q , and its converse q  p . That is, p  q is logically equivalent to
   
p  q  q  p . The truth table of p  q follows.
p q pq q p  p  q   q  p  pq
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T

Notice that the bi-conditional p  q is true when p and q have the same truth
values and false otherwise. Often in mathematics the words necessary and sufficient are used
to describe conditionals and bi-conditionals. For example, the statement ―Water is necessary for
the formation of ice‖ means ―If there is ice, then there is water.‖ Similarly, the statement ―A rectan-
gle with two adjacent sides the same length is a sufficient condition to determine a square‖ means
―If a rectangle has two adjacent sides the same length, then it is a square.‖ Symbolically we have
the following:
p→q means q is necessary for p
p→q means p is sufficient for q
p↔q means p is necessary and sufficient for q

Statement Negation
All X are Y. Some X are not Y.
No X are Y. Some X are Y.
Some X are not Y. All X are Y.

Some X are Y. No X are Y.

Example Solution
Write the negation of each of the
following statements. a. No airports are open.
a. Some airports are open. b. Some movies are not worth the price of
b. All movies are worth the price of admission. admission.
c. No odd numbers are divisible by 2. c. Some odd numbers are divisible by 2.

Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols

If a compound statement is Symbolic form The parentheses indicate that:
written in symbolic form, then p  q ~ r  q and ~r are grouped together.
parentheses are used to indicate which  p  q  r p and q are grouped together.
simple statements are grouped p ~q
 p ~ q   r  s 
and are grouped together.
together.
r and s are also grouped together.

22 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 English sentence The comma indicates that:
If a compound
statement is written as p and q or not r . q and ~r are grouped together because they are
an English sentence, both on the same side of the comma.
then a comma is used to p and q , or p and q are grouped together because they are
indicate which simple r . both on the same side of the comma.
statements are grouped
p and ~q are grouped together because they are
together. Statements on
the same side of a If p and not q , both to the left of the comma.
comma are grouped then r or s . r and s are grouped together because they are both to the
together. right of the comma.

Example

A tautology is a statement that is always true. A contradiction is a statement that is always false.
A contingency is neither a tautology nor a contradiction. Thus the previous example is a contingency.

Exercise 2.4: Construct Me!

I. Construct a truth table of [(p^q)v~p]→ [(pvq)^~q]. (Write your answer in a short
bond paper)
Follow-up questions:
1. What can you say about your final results of the truth table, is it a tautology, contradiction or
contingency?
______________________________________________________________________________
2. How will you apply this concept of activity in real-life setting? What is its value to you as a
student?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________.

23 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
 II. A. Write the following in symbolic .
P: Pres. Duterte is a good president.
Q: Government officials are corrupt.
R: People are happy.
Write your answers on the space provided.
1. If Pres. Duterte is a good president, then government officials are not corrupt.
_____________________________________________________________________
2. If government officials are not corrupt, then the people are happy.
_____________________________________________________________________
3. If Pres. Duterte is a good president and people are happy, then government officials
are not corrupt.
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Pres. Duterte is not a good president if and only if government officials are corrupt
and the people are not happy.
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Pres. Duterte is not a good president or the people are not happy.
____________________________________________________________________
B. Write the given statement in symbolic form.
p: The sun is shining
q: It is raining
r: The ground is wet
The sun is shining and it is raining. ___________________________________
The ground is not wet if and only if the sun is shining. ____________________
The ground is wet and the sun is shining. ______________________________

C. Translate the following logic symbols into words.

s: Lebron James will be joining in Los Angeles Lakers
t: Anthoy Davis will be traded in Los Angeles Lakers
u: The Los Angeles Lakers team will be the Champion for this season.
1. s ↔ t
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. u ↔ ( s ˄ t )
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

24 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.
REFERENCES

Richard T. Earnhart, Edgar M. Adina, Mathematics in the Modern World, 2018

Ethel B.,Carmelita R.,Justina E., Mathematics in the Modern World, 2018

Burns Carol JVF One Mathematical Cat, Please (A First Course in Algebra) [Journal]. - Massachusetts : [s.n.], 2004.
Orlando O., Marilyn M., E-Math 10 Worktext, 2015
[Journal]. - Clemson University : [s.n.], 2000.
Dana, Charles A. Advanced Mathematical Decision Making. Center at The University of Texas at Austin, 2010
Harary, Frank. Graph Theory. Addison Wesley, Reading, MA, 1969
Aufmann, Richard, et.al., Mathematical Excursion. Brooks/Cole CENGAGE Learning, 2013
Juan Apolinario C. Reyes, Mathematics in the Modern World, 2018
Winston S. Sirug, Mathematics in the Modern World,2018
Caraga State University -MMW TG, 2019
Rosen, K.H. Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 4th ed. Philippine Copyright: WBC/McGraw-Hills Book, Co.,
1999.
Kolman, B. et. al. Discrete Mathematical Structures for Computer Science, 2nd ed. Philippine Copyright: Prentice-Hall
International, Inc., 1987.
Guillermo, Raflyn M. Phd., et al.” Mathematics in the modern world”, Nieme Publishing Co. LTD.
https://youtu.be/itrXYg41-V0

https://youtu.be/qV4htTfow-E

25 I Page Mathematics in the Modern World AZARCON, C., JURALBAR M., & ORCEJOLA, M.