Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

I. Course Outline (Structured)

➢ Description of.
➢ Cements.
• Manufacture of cement (Portland cement)
• Properties of cements
• Types of cements (including additives in cements)
➢ Aggregates.
• Classification/Types.
• Properties
- Moisture in aggregates.
- Sieve analysis,
- Specific gravity and Water absorption in aggregates.
➢ Plain concrete,
• Behavior of concrete.
✓ Consistency and flow of fresh concrete.
✓ Destructive and non-destructive tests on hardened concrete.
- Compressive, flexural, and tensile strength of concrete.
- Moduli of elasticity and Poisson's ratio.
• Mix design.
• Batching, Mixing, Transporting, placing, and compacting of concrete.
• Quality control tests of concrete
➢ Masonry:
• Building stone, blocks, and brick types; properties, uses, deterioration, design.
• Mixes and properties of mortar.
• Quality control tests in masonry and mortars.
Assessment
➢ Continuous Assessment = 30% (10% CAT's ( ≤ 2 No.) + 5% assign + 15% practicals)
➢ Main Exam= 70%
NOTE: Discussion of selected laboratory tests in these notes only gives brief theoretical
descriptions of the said tests to enhance understanding. Students should follow a step-by-step
procedure as outlined in the laboratory manual when conducting these tests (as guided by a lab
technician)

References

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

(1) Neville, Adam M., (2011) Properties of Concrete, 5th Edition, Pearson Education Ltd.
(2) Michael S. Mamlouk and John P. Zaniewski; Materials for Civil and construction Engineers.
2nd ed. 2005, Prentice Hall, ISBN:0131477145
(3) Neville, A. M., Brooks, J. J., (2010) Concrete Technology, 2nd Edition
(4) BRE manual for “Design of normal concrete mixes” 2nd Edition. (A must have)
(5) Journals and on-line materials (provided by the University's Library)
a) Africa journals online, Agora, Cambridge journals, OARE, Oxford journals, Wiley
Interscience UNESCO publications
b) Ebrary, Springerlink, Data World Bank
(6) Laboratory manuals

Preamble
A big proportion of this course will embark on understanding the major constituents of concrete,
its characteristics and use and finally a discussion on masonry construction. Concrete is a
composite material composed mainly of cement, aggregate, and water. This is referred to as
normal concrete. Other special concretes can be produced by incorporating other ingredients
apart from those used in normal concrete.
II. CEMENT
DEFINITIONS
Cement or cementitious material generally refers to a material with adhesive and cohesive
properties which make it capable of bonding minerals fragments into a compact whole.
The term "cement" in construction is restricted to the bonding materials used with stones, sand,
bricks, building stones, etc. The principal constituents of this type of cement are compounds of
lime, so that in building and civil engineering we are concerned with calcareous cements.
Hydraulic cements have the property of setting and hardening under water by virtue of a
chemical reaction with it. These are the cements of interest in the making of concrete. They
consist mainly of silicates and aluminates of lime. Broad classification of hydraulic cements;
Natural cements, Portland cements, High-alumina cements
'Pozzolanic cements' generally refers to cements obtained simply by grinding of naturals
materials at normal temperatures
Portland cements ... The name "Portland cement" given originally due to the resemblance of the
colour and quality of the hardened cement to Portland stone – Portland Island in England. The
definition of Portland cement is a kind of cement obtained by intimately mixing calcareous and
argillaceous, or other silica-, alumina-, and iron oxide bearing materials, burning them at a
clinkering temperature, and grinding the resulting clinker. Gypsum is added after burning i.e.,
during grinding the clinker.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Raw materials
1. Calcareous material – such as limestone or chalk, as a source of lime (CaO).
2. Clayey material – such as clay or shale (soft clayey stones), as a source of silica and
alumina.
The general process of manufacture of cement consists essentially of grinding the raw materials,
mixing them intimately in certain proportions and burning in a large rotary kiln up to about
14500C when the material sinters and partially fuses into balls known as clinker. The clinker is
cooled and ground to a fine powder, with some gypsum added, and the resulting product is the
commercial Portland cement so widely used throughout the world.
The mixing and grinding of raw materials can be done either in water or in a dry condition; hence
the names 'wet' and 'dry' processes. The choice of mixing method chosen is guided by some
considerations thus,
➢ Wet process – the percentage of the moisture in the raw materials is high.
➢ Dry process –
• The raw materials are so hard (solid) that they do not disintegrate by water
• Cold countries because the water might freeze in the mixture
• Shortage of the water needed for mixing process.

Figure 1: A flow diagram of Portland cement production.

Wet process (for softer materials-chalk or clay)
When chalk is used, it is finely broken up and dispersed in water in a washmill. The clay is also
broken up and mixed with water, usually in a similar washmill. The two mixtures are now
pumped to mix in predetermined proportions and pass through a series of screens. The resulting –
cement slurry – flows into storage tanks.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

The slurry is a liquid of creamy consistency, with water content of between 35 and 50%, and only
a small fraction of material – about 2% - larger than a 90 μm. The slurry mixes mechanically in
the storage tanks, and the sedimentation of the suspended solids being prevented by bubbling by
compressed air pumped from bottom of the tanks. The slurry analyze chemically to check the
achievement of the required chemical composition, and if necessary changing the mix
constituents to attain the required chemical composition.
Finally, the slurry with the desired lime content passes into the rotary kiln. This is a large,
refractory-lined steel cylinder, up to 8 m in diameter, sometimes as long as 230 m, which is
slightly inclined to the horizontal.
The slurry is fed in at the upper end while pulverized coal (oil or natural gas also might be used
as a fuel) is blown in by an air blast at the lower end of the kiln, where the temperature reaches
about 1450 oC.
The slurry, in its movement down the kiln, encounters a progressively higher temperature. At
first, the water is driven off and CO2 is liberated; further on, the dry material undergoes a series
of chemical reactions until finally, in the hottest part of the kiln, some 20 to 30% of the material
becomes liquid, and lime, silica and alumina recombine. The mass then fuses into balls, 3 to 25
mm in diameter, known as clinker. The clinker drops into coolers.
Dry process (for harder rocks- limestone, shale)
The raw materials are crushed and fed in the correct proportions into a grinding mill, where they
are dried and reduced in size to a fine powder. The dry powder, called raw meal, is then pumped
to a blending silo, and final adjustment is now made in the proportions of the materials required
for the manufacture of cement. To obtain a uniform mixture, the raw meal is blended in the silo,
usually by means of compressed air.
The blended meal is sieved and fed into a rotating dish called a granulator, water weighing
about 12% of the meal being added at the same time. In this manner, hard pellets about 15 mm in
diameter are formed.
The pellets are baked hard in a pre-heating grate by means of hot gases from the kiln. The pellets
then enter the kiln, and subsequence operations are the same as in the wet process of
manufacture.
Grinding of the clinker
The cool clinker (produced by wet or dry process), which is characteristically black and hard, is
interground with gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O, in order to prevent flash setting of the cement, and to
facilitate the grinding process. The grinding is done in a ball mill. The cement discharged by the
mill is passed through a separator, fine particles being removed to the storage silo by an air
current, while the coarser particles are passed through the mill once again.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

Chemical composition of Portland cement

Recall: The raw materials used in the manufacture of Portland cement consist mainly of lime,
silica, alumina and iron oxide. The four major constituents of the resulting cement are;
Name of the compound Oxide composition weight Percentage Abbreviation
Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 50% C3S
Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2 25% C2S
Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 10% C3A
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 10% C4AF

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

**5% Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) added during cement manufacture. Gypsum added to the cement
slows down the hydration rate of C3A.

• Influence of the main compound composition on properties of cement

C3S and C2S – are the most important compounds – responsible for strength.
C3S – contributes most to the strength development during the first four weeks. Hydrates and
hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and early strength
C2S – Hydrates and hardens slowly thus influences the gain in strength from 4 weeks onwards.
At the age or about one year, the two compounds, contribute approximately equally to the
ultimate strength.
C3A- Liberates a large amount of heat during the first few days of hydration and hardening. Also
contributes slightly to early strength development of the cement paste at one to three days, and
possibly longer, but causes retrogression at an advanced age, particularly in cements with a high
C3A or (C3A+C4AF) content. Cements with low percentages of C3A are especially resistant to
soils and waters containing sulfates. Gypsum added to the cement slows down the hydration rate
of C3A.
C4AF Its role in the development of strength of cement is not clear till now, but there certainly is
no appreciable positive contribution. It is likely that colloidal hydrated CaO.Fe2O3 is deposited on
the cement grains, thus delaying the progress of hydration of other compounds.

PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

(a) Hydration of Portland cement

It is the reaction (series of chemical reactions) of cement with water to form the binding material.
In other words, in the presence of water, the silicates (C3S and C2S) and aluminates (C3A and
C4AF) form products of hydration which in time produce a firm and hard mass – the hydrated
cement paste.
• Calcium silicate hydrates
Only the calcium silicates contribute to strength. Tricalcium silicate is responsible for most of the
early strength (first 7 days). Dicalcium silicate, which reacts more slowly, contributes only to the
strength at later times. The equation for the hydration of tricalcium silicate is given by:
Tricalcium silicate + Water--->Calcium silicate hydrate + Calcium hydroxide + heat
2 Ca3SiO5 + 7 H2O ---> 3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + 3 Ca(OH)2 + 173.6kJ
Upon the addition of water, tricalcium silicate rapidly reacts to release calcium ions, hydroxide
ions, and a large amount of heat. The pH quickly rises to over 12 because of the release of
alkaline hydroxide (OH-) ions. This initial hydrolysis slows down quickly after it starts resulting
in a decrease in heat evolved.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

The reaction slowly continues producing calcium and hydroxide ions until the system becomes
saturated. Once this occurs, the calcium hydroxide starts to crystallize. Simultaneously, calcium
silicate hydrate begins to form. Ions precipitate out of solution accelerating the reaction of
tricalcium silicate to calcium and hydroxide ions. (Le Chatelier's principle). The evolution of heat
is then dramatically increased.
The formation of the calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate crystals provide "seeds"
upon which more calcium silicate hydrate can form. The calcium silicate hydrate crystals grow
thicker making it more difficult for water molecules to reach the unhydrated tricalcium silicate.
The speed of the reaction is now controlled by the rate at which water molecules diffuse through
the calcium silicate hydrate coating. This coating thickens over time causing the production of
calcium silicate hydrate to become slower and slower.
Dicalcium silicate also affects the strength of concrete through its hydration. Dicalcium silicate
reacts with water in a similar manner compared to tricalcium silicate, but much more slowly. The
heat released is less than that by the hydration of tricalcium silicate because the dicalcium silicate
is much less reactive. The products from the hydration of dicalcium silicate are the same as those
for tricalcium silicate:
Dicalcium silicate + Water--->Calcium silicate hydrate + Calcium hydroxide +heat
2 Ca2SiO4 + 5 H2O---> 3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + Ca(OH)2 + 58.6 kJ
• Calcium Aluminates hydrates
Their hydration chemistry is more complicated as they involve reactions with the gypsum as well.
Their reactions do not contribute significantly to strength.
1. C3A-The reaction of pure C3A with water is very violent and leads to immediate stiffening
of the paste (flash setting). Gypsum, added to the clinker through grinding process cause
delaying the reaction of C3A with water by its reaction with C3A to form insoluble calcium
sulfoaluminate (3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO.32H2O) around C3A particles. This permits enough
time for the hydration of C3S since its reaction is slower than C3A thus permits the
occurring of natural setting. But eventually tricalcium aluminate hydrate is formed, although
this is preceded by a metastable 3CaO.Al2O3. CaSO.12H2O, produced at the expense of the
original high-sulfate calcium sulfoaluminate. The presence of C3A in cement is undesirable:
it contributes little to the strength of cement except at early ages (1-3 days) and, when
hardened cement paste is attacked by sulfates, expansion due to the formation of calcium
sulfoaluminate from C3A may result in a disruption of the hardened paste. But it is useful in
the cement industry – work as flux material – reduce the temperature needed to form the
clinker. Also it facilitates the combination of lime with silica. Gypsum reacts with C4AF to
form calcium sulfoaluminates and calcium sulfoferrite.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

2. C4AF – Gypsum reacts with C4AF to form calcium sulfoaluminates and calcium
sulfoferrite. C4AF works as flux material and it accelerates the hydration of silicates.
Using the optimum percentage of gypsum is very important because:
o It regulates the speed of the chemical reactions in the early ages.
o Prevent the local concentration of the hydration products.
The necessary gypsum content increase with the increase of:
o C3A content in the cement.
o Alkalis content in the cement.
o Fineness of cement.
Although we have treated the hydration of each cement compound independently, this is not
completely accurate. The rate of hydration of a compound may be affected by varying the
concentration of another. In general, the rates of hydration during the first few days ranked from
fastest to slowest are:
Tricalcium aluminate > tricalcium silicate > tetracalcium aluminoferrite > dicalcium silicate.
With time the rate of hydration decreases continuously and the size of unhydrated cement
particles decrease. The decrease is due to:
(1) Accumulation of hydration products around the unhydrated cement grains which lead to
prevent water from channeling to them.
(2) Reduction of the amount of water either due to chemical reaction or evaporation.
(3) Reduction of the amount of cement due to reaction.
The progress of hydration of cement can be determined by different means:
o The measurement of the amount of Ca(OH)2 in the paste resulted from the
hydration of the silicates.
o The heat evolved by hydration.
o The specific gravity of the paste.
o The amount of chemically combined water.
o The amounts of unhydrated cement present (using X-ray quantitative analysis)
o Also indirectly from the strength of the hydrated paste.
Heat of hydration of cement
Heat is evolved with cement hydration (exothermic). This heat of hydration is defined as the
quantity of heat, in joules per gram of unhydrated cement, evolved upon complete hydration at a
given temperature. This heat results from the breaking and making of chemical bonds during
hydration. The heat generated is shown below as a function of time.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

Figure : Rate of heat evolution during the hydration of Portland cement

➢ The stage I hydrolysis of the cement compounds occurs rapidly with a temperature
increase of several degrees.
➢ Stage II is known as the dormancy period. The evolution of heat slows dramatically in
this stage. The dormancy period can last from one to three hours. During this period, the
concrete is in a plastic state which allows the concrete to be transported and placed
without any major difficulty. This is particularly important for the construction trade who
must transport concrete to the job site. It is at the end of this stage that initial setting
begins.
➢ In stages III and IV, the concrete starts to harden and the heat evolution increases due
primarily to the hydration of tricalcium silicate.
➢ Stage V is reached after 36 hours. The slow formation of hydrate products occurs and
continues if water and unhydrated silicates are present.
The actual value of the heat of hydration depends on:
• The chemical composition of the cement-Heat of hydration of cement = sum of the heats
of hydration of the individual compounds when hydrated separately. Because in the early
stages of hydration the different compounds hydrate at different rates, the rate of heat
evolution, as well as the total heat depends on the compound composition of the cement.
It follows that by reducing the proportions of the compounds that hydrate most rapidly
(C3A and C3S) the high rate of heat evolution in the early life of concrete can be lowered.
• Ambient temperature – has great effect on the rate of heat evolution – The rate of heat
evolution increases with increase in the ambient temperature.
• Type of cement- Types of cement can be arranged in descending order with respect to
their rate of heat evolution, as follows:
- Rapid hardening Portland cement.
- Ordinary Portland cement.
- Modified Portland cement.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

- Sulfate resistant Portland cement.

- Low heat Portland cement.
• Fineness of cement- An increase in fineness speeds up the reactions of hydration and
therefore the heat evolved. It is reasonable to assume that the early rate of hydration of
each compound in cement is proportional to the surface area of the cement. However, at
later ages, the effect of the surface area is negligible, and the total amount of heat evolved
is not affected by the fineness of cement.
• Amount of cement in the mixture- The quantity of cement in the mix also affects the total
heat development: thus, the richness of the mix, that is, the cement content, can be varied
to help the control of heat development.
(b) Setting
Setting refers to a change from a fluid to a rigid stage
Cement + water → cement paste → lose its plasticity gradually→ when it loses its plasticity
completely → setting occurs.
It is important to distinguish setting from hardening, which refers to the gain of strength of a set
cement paste. There are four main stages during setting
a. First stage
- Takes only few minutes after the addition of water to the cement.
- The rate of heat generation is high, due to wetting of cement particles with water,
and the beginning of hydrolysis and reaction of the cement compounds. After that
the rate decreases to relatively low value.
b. Second stage (dormant period)
- Takes 1-4 hours with relatively low speed.
- The initial layer of the hydration begins slowly to build on the cement particles.
- Bleeding and sedimentation appear at this period.
c. Third stage
- Heat of hydration begins to rise again due to the dissolution of the weak gel layer
formed in the beginning (first) on the surface of C3S crystals – so the water able to
surround the particles surfaces again – and forming gel of calcium silicates with
enough amount to increase setting.
- The activity reaches its peak after about 6 hours for cement paste, with standard
consistency, and might be late for paste with higher w/c ratio.
- At the end of the stage, the paste reaches the final setting stage.
d. Fourth stage
- hardening and gain of strength
Tests to determine setting time of cement (Refer to lab manual for the procedure)

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

For the determination of the initial and final setting times and for the Le Chatelier soundness test
(discussed later), neat cement paste of a standard consistency must be used. It is, therefore,
necessary to determine for any given cement the water content of the paste which will produce
the desired consistency.
❖ Consistency of Standard Paste (Normal Consistency)
It's defined as the percentage by mass of water to dry cement required to produce cement paste of
desired consistency.
The consistency is measured by the Vicat apparatus. Standard consistency, as specified in BS EN
196-3: 2005, is defined as that consistency which will permit a Vicat plunger having 10 mm
diameter to penetrate the paste to a point (6±1 mm) from the bottom of the mould. The usual
range of values of water content for a standard paste is between 26 and 33 per cent.

Fig 1: Vicat's apparatus

❖ Setting time
The setting times of cement are measured using the Vicat apparatus (shown above) with different
penetrating attachments as described in BS EN 196-3: 2005. Both initial and final setting times
use similar penetration needles. However, for final setting times a metal attachment is fitted to the
penetrating needle. This hollowed out metallic attachment leaves a circular cutting edge 5mm in
diameter and set 0.5 mm behind the tip of the needle. When the paste stiffens sufficiently for the
needle to penetrate no deeper than to a point 5 ± 1 mm from the bottom, initial set is said to have
taken place. Initial set is expressed as the time elapsed since the mixing water was added to the
cement. Final set is said to have taken place when the needle, gently lowered to the surface of the
paste, penetrates it to a depth of 0.5 mm but the circular cutting edge fails to make an impression

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

on the surface of the paste. The final setting is reckoned from the moment when mixing water
was added to the cement paste.

• Initial setting time – refers to the beginning of the cement paste setting.
• Final setting time – refers to the beginning of hardening and gain of strength.

Factors affecting the setting

a. Water/cement (w/c) ratio – The setting time of cement increases with the increase
of w/c ratio.
b. Temperature and relative humidity - The setting time of cement decreases with a
rise in temperature and decrease of relative humidity.
c. Fineness of cement - The setting time of cement decreases with a rise in fineness
of cement.
d. Chemical composition
➢ False setting
It is abnormal premature stiffening of cement within a few minutes of mixing with water. It
differs from flash set in that:
- No appreciable heat is evolved.
- Remixing the cement paste without addition of water restores plasticity of the paste until it sets
in the normal manner and without a loss of strength.
Causes of false setting
(1) Dehydration of gypsum – when interground with too hot a clinker - formed:
o hemihydrates (CaSO4. 0.5H20) – when temperature between 100-190 0C
o or anhydrite (CaSO4) - when temperature >190 0C
And when the cement is mixed with water these hydrate to form gypsum, with a
result stiffening of the paste.
(2) Reaction of alkalis of the cement
During bad storage – alkalis in the cement react with CO2 (in the atmosphere) to form alkali
carbonates, which they react with Ca(OH)2 liberated by the hydrolysis of C3S to form CaCO3.
This precipitates and induces a rigidity of the paste.
K2O or Na2O + CO2 → K2CO3 or Na2CO3
K2CO3 or Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3
(3) Activation of C3S subjected to wet atmosphere
During bad storage – water is adsorbed on the grains of cement (the water stick on their
surfaces) and activates them, and these activated surfaces can combine very rapidly with more
water during mixing: this rapid hydration would produce false set.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

➢ Flash setting – Occurs when there is no gypsum added or exhausting the gypsum (added with
little amount), so C3A reacts violently with water causing liberation high amount of heat
causing rapid setting of cement and leading to form porous microstructure that the product of
hydration of the other compounds precipitate through, unlike the normal (ordinary) setting
that have much lower porosity microstructure.
(c) Fineness
The last step in the manufacture of cement is the grinding of clinker mixed with gypsum. Because
hydration starts at the surface of the cement particles, it is the total surface area of cement that
represents the material available for hydration. Thus, the rate of hydration depends on the
fineness of the cement particles.
The high fineness is necessary for:
➢ Rapid development of strength, although the long-term strength is not affected. A higher
early rate of hydration means, of course, also a higher rate of early heat evolution
➢ To cover surfaces of the fine aggregate particles at better manner – leading to better
adhesion and cohesion between cement mortar constituents.
➢ To improve the workability of the concrete mix, but it will increase the amount of water
required for the standard consistency.
➢ To reduce the water layer that separate on the mixture surface due to bleeding.
The disadvantage of high fineness, include:
➢ The cost of grinding to a higher fineness is considerable.
➢ The finer the cement the more rapidly it deteriorates on exposure to the atmosphere during
bad storage.
➢ Finer cement increases the surface area of its alkalis – leads to stronger reaction with alkali-
reactive aggregate – cracks and deterioration of concrete.
➢ Finer cement exhibits a higher shrinkage and a greater proneness to cracking.
➢ An increase in fineness increases the amount of gypsum required for proper retardation
because, in finer cement, more C3A is available for early hydration (due to the increase of
its surface area).
The determination of fineness of cement is described in BS EN 196-6: 2010, (refer to Laboratory
test manual for the procedure) where the permeability of cement layer-the resistance of layer of
cement to passage of air, gives a measure of fineness of cement. Its expresses as specific surface
i.e., m2/kg
(d) Soundness of cement
The cement is considered unsound if it undergoes a large change in volume (expansion) – that
cause cracking of hardened cement paste when it is under condition of restraint.
The unsoundness/ causes of expansion in cement is due to

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

(i) The delayed or slow hydration.

(ii) The presence of excess of lime than that could be combined in kiln.
(iii) Excessive proportion of magnesia (MgO).
(iv) Excessive proportion of calcium sulphates.
a) Free lime CaO- If the raw materials fed into the kiln contain more lime that can combine
with the acidic oxides, or if burning or cooling are unsatisfactory, the excess lime will
remain in a free condition. This hard-burnt lime hydrates only very slowly and, because
slaked lime occupies a larger volume than the original free calcium oxide, expansion takes
place. Cements which exhibit this expansion are described as unsound.
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
b) Free MgO- Cement can also be unsound due to the presence of MgO, which reacts with
water in a manner like CaO. However, only periclase, that is, 'dead-burnt' crystalline
MgO, is deleteriously reactive, and MgO present in glass is harmless, because it hydrates
quickly transforming to the stable state in the hardened paste.
MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2
Up to about 2 per cent of periclase, (by mass of cement) combines with the main cement
compounds, but excess periclase generally causes expansion and can lead to slow
disruption.
c) Calcium sulfates (gypsum)- Gypsum is added to the clinker during its grinding to
prevent flash set, but if gypsum is present in excess of the amount that can react with C3A
during setting, unsoundness is in the form of a slow expansion will result.

Testing for soundness of cement

The testing of soundness of cement to ensure that the cement does not show any appreciable
subsequent expansion is of prime importance which could result in a disruption of the hardened
cement paste (namely the cement paste, once it has set, does not undergo a large change in
volume).
Because unsoundness of cement is not apparent until after a period of months of years, therefore
accelerated tests are required to detect the unsoundness of cement. The cement soundness could
be tested by two methods:
1) Autoclave Test, ASTM C 151-09 (detects unsoundness due to free lime and magnesia)
2) Le Chatelier Test, BS EN 196-3:2005 (detects unsoundness due to free lime only)

2- Le Chatelier Test, BS EN 196-3:2005-(refer to Laboratory test manual for the procedure)

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

Fig 2: Le Chatelier Apparatus

Le Chatelier apparatus consists of a small brass cylinder split along its generatrix. Two indicators
with pointed ends are attached to the cylinder on either side of the split; in this manner, the
widening of the split, caused by the expansion of cement, is greatly magnified and can easily be
measured. The cylinder is placed on a glass plate, filled with cement paste of standard
consistency, and covered with another glass plate. The whole assembly is then placed in a cabinet
at 20 ± 1 °C and a relative humidity of not less than 98 percent. At the end of that period, the
distance between the indicators is measured and the mould is immersed in water and gradually
brought to the boil in 30 minutes. After boiling for 3 hours, the assembly is taken out and, after
cooling, the distance between the indicators is again measured. The increase in this distance
represents the expansion of the cement, and for Portland cements is limited to 10 mm by BS EN
197-1: 2000.
(e) Strength of Cement
The compressive strength of hardened cement is the most important of all the properties for
structural use. The strength of mortar or concrete depends on the cohesion of the cement paste,
and its adhesion to the aggregate particles and to a certain extent on the strength of the aggregate
itself. The last factor is not considered at this stage and is eliminated in tests on the quality of
cement using standard aggregates. Strength tests are not made on a neat cement paste because of
difficulties of moulding and testing with a consequent large variability of test results. Cement-
sand mortar, and in some cases concrete of prescribed proportions and made with specific
materials under strictly controlled conditions, are used for the purpose of determining the strength
of cement. However, as far as concrete is concerned, it is an appropriate medium for tests, but the
strength of the concrete specimens is influenced by the properties of the aggregates used. It would
be difficult, or even impractical, to use a standard aggregate for tests on concrete in various parts

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

of the country, let alone in different countries. The use of mortar with a reasonable standard
aggregate is a sensible compromise.
There are several forms of strength tests:
• Direct compression
• Direct tension
• Flexure
Direct tension strength and flexure strength of concrete are generally of lesser interest than
compressive strength. In consequence, nowadays, it is the compressive strength of cement that is
crucial, and it is believed that the appropriate test on cement is that on sand-cement mortar.
Standard sand is used. The characteristic strengths for cements are specified from these tests.
There are three classes: 32.5, 42.5 and 52.5. These are values at 28 days, the latter two with a
normal or early strength at 2 days. (Refer to Laboratory test manual for the procedure)

TYPES OF CEMENTS

It is possible to manufacture different types of cement by changing the percentages of their raw
materials.
Types of Cement
(1) Portland cement...as defined earlier
(2) Natural cement- Any naturally occurring mixture of limestone and clay. Natural cement is
made by powdering the rock then calcining the limestone and then grinding the material
into a fine powder to produce hydraulic cement. This is the ancient method of cement
production that was used for Roman cement. Natural cement sets quicker than Portland
cement, but it is softer and weaker.
(3) Expansive cement.... Expands in its early life thus counteract contraction induced by
shrinkage
(4) High-alumina cement...resistant to sulphates attack

Types of Portland cement

a) Ordinary Portland cement – OPC
b) Rapid-hardening Portland cement – RHPC
c) Low heat Portland cement – LHPC
d) Sulphate-resisting Portland cement – SRPC
It is possible to add some additive to Portland cement to produce the following types:
e) Portland blast furnace cement
f) Portland pulverised-fuel ash cement
g) Pozzolanic cement
h) Air-entrained cement

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

i) Masonry cement
j) White Portland cement
k) Colored Portland cement
a) Ordinary Portland cement [OPC]

OPC is known as common or general-purpose cement. It is generally assumed unless another

type is specified. It is commonly used for general construction especially when making precast
and precast-prestressed concrete that is not to be in contact with sulfates in the soil or ground
water. The typical compound compositions of this type according to ASTM C150 are:
55% (C3S), 19% (C2S), 10% (C3A), 7% (C4AF), 2.8% MgO, 2.9% (SO3), 1.0% ignition loss, and
1.0% free CaO. A limitation on the composition is that the (C3A) shall not exceed 15%.

b) Rapid Hardening Portland cement [RHPC]

This type develops strength more rapidly than ordinary Portland cement. The initial strength is
higher, but they equalize at 2-3 months. Setting time for this type is similar for that of ordinary
Portland cement. The rate of strength gain occurs due to increase of C3S compound, and due to
finer grinding of the cement clinker. Rate of heat evolution is higher than in ordinary Portland
cement due to the increase in C3S and C3A, and due to its higher fineness.
Chemical composition and soundness requirements are like that of ordinary Portland cement
➢ Uses of RHPC
a. The use of this cement is indicated where a rapid strength development is desired (to develop
high early strength, i.e. its 3 days strength equal that of 7 days ordinary Portland cement), for
example:
(i) When formwork is to be removed for re-use
(ii) Where sufficient strength for further construction is wanted as quickly as practicable, such
as concrete blocks manufacturing, sidewalks and the places that cannot be closed for a
long time, and repair works needed to construct quickly.
b. For construction at low temperatures, to prevent the frost damage of the capillary water.
This type of cement does not use at mass concrete constructions.
➢ Special Types of RHPC
A-Ultra High Early Strength Cement

The rapid strength development of this type of cement is achieved by grinding the cement to a
very high fineness: 7000 to 9000 cm2/g. Because of this, the gypsum content has to be higher
(4 percent expressed as SO3). Because of its high fineness, it has a low bulk density. High
fineness leads to rapid hydration, and therefore to a high rate of heat generation at early ages
and to a rapid strength development (7 days strength of rapid hardening Portland cement can
be reached at 24 hours when using this type of cement). There is little gain in strength beyond

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

28 days. It is used in structures where early prestressing or putting in service is of importance.

This type of cement contains no integral admixtures.

B- Extra Rapid Hardening Portland Cement

ERHPC is prepared by grinding CaCl2 with rapid hardening Portland cement. The percentage
of CaCl2 should not be more than 2% by weight of the rapid hardening Portland cement.
By using CaCl2:
o The rate of setting and hardening increase (the mixture is preferred to be casted within
20 minutes).
o The rate of heat evolution increases in comparison with rapid hardening Portland
cement, so it is more convenient to be use at cold weather.
o The early strength is higher than for rapid hardening Portland cement, but their
strength is equal at 90 days.
o Because CaCl2 is a material that takes the moisture from the atmosphere, care should
be taken to store this cement at dry place and for a storage period not more than one
month so as it does not deteriorate.

c) Low Heat Portland Cement (LHPC)

➢ Composition
It contains less C3S and C3A percentage, and higher percentage of C2S in comparison with
ordinary Portland cement.
➢ Properties
• Reduce and delay the heat of hydration. British standard (BS. 1370: 1974) limit the heat
of hydration of this cement by:
✓ 60 cal/g at 7 days age
✓ 70 cal/g at 28 days age
• It has lower early strength (half the strength at 7 days age and two third the strength at 28
days age) compared with ordinary Portland cement.
• Its fineness is not less than 3200 cm2/g (according to B. S. 1370: 1974).
➢ Uses
It is used in mass concrete constructions: the rise of temperature in mass concrete due to
progression in heat of hydration -- cause serious cracks. So, it is important to limit the rate of heat
evolution in this type of construction, by using the low heat cement.

d) Sulfate- resisting Portland cement (SRPC)

➢ Composition
It contains:

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

• Lower percentage of C3A and C4AF – which considers as the most affected compounds
by sulfates.
• Higher percentage of silicates – in comparison with ordinary Portland cement.
• For this type of cement – C2S represents a high proportion of the silicates.
➢ Properties
• Low early strength.
• Its resulted heat of hydration is little higher than that resulted from low heat cement.
• Its cost is higher than ordinary Portland cement – because of the special requirements of
material composition, including addition of iron powder to the raw materials.

For the hardened cement, the effects of sulfates are on two types:
(1) Hydrated calcium aluminates in their semi-stable hexagonal form (before its transformation
to the stable state – C3AH6 as cubical crystal form – which have high sulfate resistance)
react with sulfates (present in fine aggregate, or soil and ground water), producing hydrated
calcium sulfoaluminate, leading to increase in the volume of the reacted materials by about
227% causing gradual cracking.
(2) Exchange between Ca(OH)2 and sulfates resulting gypsum, and leading to increase in the
volume of the reacted materials by about 124%.
The cure of sulfates effect – is by using sulfate-resisting cement. The resultant of reaction C4AF
with sulfates is calcium sulfoaluminate and calcium sulfoferrite, leading to expansion. But an
initial layer will form which surround the free C3A leading to reduce its affect by sulfates, so
C4AF is more resistant to sulfates effect than C3A.

e) Portland Blastfurnace Cement

➢ Production
This type of cement consists of an intimate mixture of Portland cement and ground granulated
blastfurnace slag.
Slag – is a waste product in the manufacture of pig iron.
Chemically, slag is a mixture of 42% lime, 30% silica, 19% alumina, 5% magnesia, and 1%
alkalis, that is, the same oxides that make up Portland cement but not in the same proportions.
The maximum percentage of slag use in this type of cement is limited by British standard BS.
146: 1974 to be 65%, and by American standard ASTM C595-76 to be between 25-65%.
➢ Properties
- Its early strength is lower than that of ordinary cement, but their strength is equal at late
ages (about 2 months).

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

- The requirements for fineness and setting time and soundness are similar for those of
ordinary cement (although its fineness is higher than that of ordinary cement).
- The workability is higher than that of ordinary cement.
- Heat of hydration is lower that of ordinary cement.
- Its sulfate resistance is high.
➢ Uses
- Mass concrete
- It is possible to be use in constructions subjected to sea water (marine constructions).
- May not be use in cold weather concreting.

f) Pozzolanic Cement
➢ Production
This type of cement consists of an intimate mixture of Portland cement and pozzolana. American
standards limit the pozzolana content by 15-40% of Pozzolanic cement. Pozzolana, according to
American standard ASTM C618, can be defined as – a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous
material which possesses little or no cementitious value but will, in finely divided form and in the
presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form
compounds possessing cementitious properties.
It is essential that pozzolana be in finely divided state as it is only then that silica can combine
with calcium hydroxide (produced by the hydrating Portland cement) in the presence of water to
form stable calcium silicates which have cementitious properties.
➢ Types of Pozzolana
- Natural Pozzolanic materials, such as – volcanic ash, rice husk
- Artificial Pozzolanic materials, such as – fly ash
➢ Properties & Uses
They are like those of Portland blast furnace cement.

g) White Cement
White Portland cement is made from raw materials containing very little iron oxide (less than
0.3% by mass of clinker) and magnesium oxide (which give the grey color in ordinary Portland
cement). China clay (white kaoline) is generally used, together with chalk or limestone, free from
specified impurities.
- Its manufacture needs higher firing temperature because of the absence of iron element that
works as a catalyst in the formation process of the clinker. In some cases, kreolite (sodium-
aluminium fluoride) might be added as a catalyst
- The compounds in this cement are similar for those in ordinary Portland cement, but C4AF
percentage is very low.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

- Contamination of the cement with iron during grinding of clinker has also to be avoided.
For this reason, instead of the usual ball mill, the expensive nickel and molybdenum alloy
balls are used in a stone or ceramic-lined mill. The cost of grinding is thus higher, and this,
coupled with the more expensive raw materials, makes white cement rather expensive.
- It has a slightly lower specific gravity (3.05-3.1), than ordinary Portland cement.
- The strength is usually somewhat lower than that of ordinary Portland cement.
- Its fineness is higher (4000-4500 cm2/g) than ordinary Portland cement.

h) Masonry cement, used in mortar in brickwork, is made by integrinding Portland cement,

limestone and an air-entraining agent, or alternatively Portland cement and hydrated lime,
granulated slag or inert filler, and an air entraining agent; other ingredients are usually also
present. Masonry cements make a more plastic mortar than ordinary Portland cement; they
also have a greater water-retaining property and lead to lower shrinkage. The strength of
masonry cement is lower than that of ordinary Portland cement, particularly because a high
air content is introduced, but this low strength is generally an advantage in brick construction.
Masonry cement must not be used in structural concrete.

i) Other Cements
(i) Colored Portland Cement
It is prepared by adding special types of pigments to the Portland cement. The pigments
added to the white cement (2-10% by weight of the cement) when needed to obtain light
colours, while it added to ordinary Portland cement when needed to obtain dark colours.
The 28-day compressive strength is required to be not less than 90% of the strength of a
pigment-free control mix, and the water demand is required to be not more than 110% of
the control mix. It is required that pigments are insoluble and not affected by light. They
should be chemically inert and don't contain gypsum that is harmful to the concrete.
(ii) Anti-bacterial Portland cement It is a Portland cement interground with an anti-
bacterial agent which prevents microbiological fermentation. This bacterial action is
encountered in concrete floors of food processing plants where the leaching out of cement
by acids is followed by fermentation caused by bacteria in the presence of moisture.
(iii) Hydrophobic Cement It is prepared by mixing certain materials (stearic acid, oleic acid,
… etc by 0.1-0.4%) with ordinary Portland cement clinker before grinding, to form water
repellent layer around the cement particles, so as the cement can be store safely for a long
period. This layer is removed during mixing process with water.
(iv) Expansive Cement It has the property of expanding in its early life to counteract
contraction induced by drying shrinkage.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

III. AGGREGATES

Introduction

Aggregates generally occupy 65 - 80% of a concrete’s volume. Aggregate is cheaper than cement
and it is, therefore, economical to put in the concrete mix as much of the aggregates as possible.
But economy is not the only reason for using aggregates: it confers considerable technical
advantage on concrete, which has a higher volume stability and better durability than hydrated
cement paste alone.

Why use aggregate

• Reduce the cost of the concrete - 1/4 - 1/8 of the cement price
• Reduce thermal cracking - 100 kg of OPC produces about 12oC temperature rise
• Reduces shrinkage - 10% reduction in aggregate volume can double shrinkage
• Imparts unit weight to concrete

Aggregate Classification

Aggregates are broadly classified as either naturally occurring (natural aggregates) or

manufactured aggregates. Classification of natural aggregates can be based on parent rock type
(petrological characteristics) or the type of mineral composition of a particular aggregate
(mineralogical characteristics). Further classifications of can be based on,
(i) Size: - F.A & C.A.
• Fine Aggregate
- Sand and/or crushed stone.
- < 4.75 mm.
- F.A. content usually 35% to 45% by mass or volume of total aggregate.
• Coarse Aggregate
- Gravel and crushed stone.
- ≥4.75 mm.
- typically, between 9.5 and 37.5 mm.

(ii) Specific Gravity: -

• Light Weight,
- Expanded e.g., Shale, Clay, Slate, Slag
- Produce structural lightweight concrete 1350 to 1850 kg/m3 e.g., Pumice, Scoria,
Perlite, Vermiculite, Diatomite
- Produce lightweight insulating concrete— 250 to 1450 kg/m3

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

• Normal Weight
- Includes the most common aggregates e.g., Sand, Gravel, Crushed stone
- Produce normal-weight concrete 2200 to 2400 kg/m3
• Heavy Weight aggregates
- Includes barite, limonite, magnetite, ilmenite, hematite, iron, steel punchings or
shot
- Produce high-density concrete up to 6400 kg/m3
- Used for Radiation Shielding
(iii) Availability: - Natural Gravel and Crushed Aggregates.
(iv) Shape: - Round, Cubical, Angular, Elongated and Flaky Aggregates.
(v) Texture: - Smooth, Granular, Crystalline, honeycombed and Porous.

Aggregate sampling

Before aggregates can be accepted for use in concrete production, tests are conducted on them to
ascertain their suitability. Tests on various properties of aggregate are performed on samples of
the material and not on the whole batch of materials. Therefore, a representative sample should
be so selected in such a way that it represents the average properties of the whole batch.
Depending on the maximum size present in substantial portion in a batch, BS 812:102:1989
(replaced by BS EN 932-1: 1997), gives the minimum mass of samples to be selected for testing.
Two methods of sampling are widely used; Quartering and riffling (Refer to Laboratory test
manual for the procedure).

Aggregate Characteristics

(1) Grading and Fineness of Aggregates

➢ Grading is the particle-size distribution of an aggregate as determined by a sieve analysis
using wire mesh sieves with square openings. According to the European standard, BS EN
933- 1:1997 there are two methods employed; wet (for materials less than 75 μm) and dry
sieving using a standard set of sieves. The results are usually plotted on a graph with a
logarithmic scale where the abscissa is the sieve size, and the ordinate is the percentage of
aggregate particles passing this sieve size.
✓ Fine aggregate_6 standard sieves with openings from 150 μm to 4.75 mm.
✓ Coarse aggregate_5 sieves with openings from 4.75mm to 80 mm.
✓ Good Gradation is associated with the following advantages
– Concrete with good gradation will have fewer voids to be filled with cement paste
(economical mix)

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

– Concrete with good gradation will have fewer voids for water to permeate
(durability)
In general, the grading affects the following:
• Relative aggregate proportions (i.e., FA/CA and FA/TA ratios)
• Cement and water requirements
• Workability and pumpability of fresh concrete: very coarse sands and coarse aggregate can
produce harsh, unworkable mixes
• Uniformity of concrete from batch to batch
• Porosity, shrinkage, and durability of hardened concrete
• Economy in concrete production: very fine sands are often uneconomical
➢ Fineness Modulus (FM)
The results of aggregate sieve analysis are expressed by a number called Fineness Modulus. The
FM can be looked upon as a weighted average size of a sieve on which the material is retained,
the sieves being counted from the finest. FM is obtained by adding the sum of the cumulative
percentages by mass of a sample aggregate retained on each of a specified series of sieves and
dividing the sum by 100. The specified sieves are: 150 μm, 300 μm, 600 μm, 1.18 mm, 2.36 mm,
4.75 mm, 9.5 mm, 19.0 mm, 37.5 mm, 75 mm, and 150 mm.
Example: Results of Sieve Analysis and calculation of FM of Sand
Mass % % Cumulative
Sieve size (mm) % Passing
retained (g) Retained retained
10 0 0 100 0
4.75 12 1 99 1
2.36 14 1 97 3
1.18 170.5 17 80 20
0.6 260.5 26 54 46
0.3 404.5 40 14 86
0.15 117.5 12 2 98
Pan 20.5 2 - -
Total 999.5 253

Fineness modulus = 253 ÷ 100 = 2.53

❖ FM is the index of fineness of an aggregate.
❖ The fineness modulus of the fine aggregate is required for mix design since sand
gradation has the largest effect on workability. Fine sand (low FM) has much higher
effect paste requirements for good workability.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

❖ The FM of the coarse aggregate is NOT required for mix design purposes.
❖ Note: The higher the FM, the coarser the aggregate.
❖ It is important to note that the fineness modulus is just one number which only
characterizes the average size of the aggregate, and different grading may have the same
fineness modulus.
(2) Absorption and water content of aggregate
Moisture States:
Aggregates have two types of moisture:
1. Absorbed moisture – retained in pores
2. Surface moisture – water attached to surface.
The following four moisture states are defined:
o Oven-dry (OD): All moisture is removed from the aggregate by heating in an oven at
105 0C to constant weight (overnight heating usually is sufficient). All pores are empty.
o Air-dry (AD): All moisture removed from surface, but internal pores partially full.
o Saturated-surface-dry (SSD): All pores filled with water, but no film of water on the
surface.
o Wet: All pores filled with water with a film on the surface.
Of these four states, only OD and SSD states correspond to specific moisture contents and either
of these states can be used as reference states for calculating moisture contents. The AD and wet
states represent the variable moisture contents that will exist in stockpiled aggregates. The SSD
state is the best choice as a reference state for the following reasons:
o It represents the "equilibrium moisture" state of the aggregate in concrete; that is, the
aggregate will neither absorb water nor give up water to the paste.
o The moisture content of aggregates in the field is much closer to the SSD state than the
OD state.
o The bulk specific gravity (BSG) of aggregates is more accurately determined by the
displacement method in the SSD condition.
o The moisture content can be calculated directly from measurements of (BSG) using the
displacement method.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

Diagrammatic representation of moisture in aggregate

The water content of the aggregate is the amount of water which is held within the particle pores
as well as that which adheres to the surface of the aggregate. In BS EN 1097-6:2000 the water
absorption and content are expressed as a percentage of oven dry aggregate mass.
Absorption Capacity:
Absorption capacity (AC or water absorption) represents the maximum amount of water the
aggregate can absorb or can hold within its pores to reach a saturated but surface dry state. It is
calculated from the difference in weight between the SSD and OD states, expressed as a
percentage of the OD weight:
• AC = (WSSD - WOD) / (WOD) x 100%
The absorption capacity is used in mix proportioning calculations and can be used to convert
from SSD to OD system or vice versa.
Effective Absorption:
The effective absorption (EA) represents the amount of water required to bring an aggregate from
the AD state to the SSD, expressed as a fraction of the SSD weight:
• EA = (WSSD – WAD) / WSSD x 100%
The effective absorption is used to calculate the weight of water absorbed (Wabs) by the weight of
aggregate (Wagg) in the mix:
• Wabs = (EA) Wagg
If the aggregate is close to the OD condition when batched, it takes the aggregate some time to
absorb all the water necessary to reach the SSD condition.
Surface Moisture:
The surface moisture (SM) represents water in excess of the SSD state, also expressed as a
fraction of the SSD weight:
• SM = (Wwet – WSSD) / WSSD x 100%
It is used to calculate the additional water (Wadd) added to the concrete with the aggregate.
• Wadd = (SM) Wagg

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

(3) Specific gravity

Is the ratio of the mass of a substance relative to the mass of an equal volume of water at a
specified temperature. Different types of specific gravities.
(i) Absolute specific gravity - ratio of the mass of solid (excluding all pores i.e., vacuum) to
the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water, both taken at a stated temperature.
This value is not normally required in concrete technology work due to the difficulty in
eliminating all pores in the aggregates.
(ii) Apparent S.G - ratio of the mass of the aggregates dried in an oven at 100 to 110 oc for 24
hrs to the mass of water occupying a volume equal to that of the solid including the
impermeable pores.
Calculations with reference to concrete are generally based on the saturated and surface-dry
(SSD) condition of the aggregates because the water contained in all the pores does not take part
in the chemical reaction of cement and can, therefore, be considered as part of the aggregate.
Majority of natural aggregates have specific gravity of between 2.6 and 2.7

(4) Shape and surface texture of aggregates

The shape of aggregate is an important characteristic since it affects the workability of concrete.
It is difficult to measure the shape of irregular shaped aggregates. Shape of aggregate depends on,
✓ Type of parent rock
✓ Type of crusher used.
BS 812-1:1975 classifies aggregates particle shape as rounded, irregular, flaky, angular,
elongated as well as flaky and elongated. The mass of flaky particles, as determined in a
laboratory test, expressed as a percentage of the mass of the sample is called the flakiness index
(FI). Elongation index is similarly defined
The shape of the aggregate has the following influence on the resulting concrete
✓ workability of concrete,
✓ Cement requirement - From the standpoint of economy in cement requirement for a given
water cement ratio rounded aggregates are preferable to angular aggregates. On the other
hand, the additional cement required for angular aggregates is offset to some extent by the
higher strengths and sometimes greater durability because of greater interlocking.
✓ strength
✓ Durability.
In general, excessively flaky aggregates make poor concrete.
While discussing the shape of the aggregates, the texture of the aggregate also enters the
discussion because of its close association with the shape. Generally round aggregates are smooth

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

textured and angular aggregates are rough textured. Therefore, some engineers argue against
round aggregates from the point of bond strength between aggregates and cement. But the
angular aggregates are superior to rounded aggregates from the following two points:
(a) Angular aggregates exhibit a better interlocking effect in concrete which makes it superior
in concrete used for road and pavements.
(b) The total surface area of rough textured angular aggregate is more than smooth rounded
aggregates for the given volume. By having greater surface area, the angular aggregates
may show higher bond strength than rounded aggregates.
Surface texture is the property, the measure of which depends upon the relative degree to which
particle surface are polished or dull, smooth or rough. Surface texture depends upon hardness,
grain size, pore structure, structure of the rock and the degree to which the forces acting on it
have smoothened the surface or roughened. Experience and laboratory experiments have shown
that the adhesion between cement paste and the aggregate is influenced by several complex
factors in addition to the physical and mechanical properties. As surface smoothness increases,
contact area decreases, hence a highly polished particle will have less bonding area with the
matrix than a rough particle of the same volume. A smooth particle, however, will require a
thinner layer of paste to lubricate its movements with respect to another aggregate particle. It will
therefore permit denser packing because of enhanced workability.

(5) Strength of aggregates

The compressive strength of concrete cannot significantly exceed that of the major part of the
aggregate contained therein. The strength and elasticity of aggregates depend on its composition,
texture and structure. It is difficult to determine crushing strength of individual aggregate
particles, and the required information is usually obtained from indirect tests such as crushing
value of bulk aggregates, force required to compact bulk aggregates and performance of
aggregates in concrete. A test on the crushing properties of bulk aggregates is the so-called
aggregate crushing value (ACV) test of BS 812-110: 1990, which measures resistance to
pulverization (pulverize = reduce to fine particles)

(6) Soundness of aggregates

Is the ability of the aggregates to resist excessive changes in volume as a result of changes in
physical conditions. It is distinct from the expansion caused by chemical reaction between the
aggregates and the alkalis in the cement. The physical causes of large or permanent volume
changes of aggregate are freezing and thawing, thermal changes at temperatures above
freezing and alternate wetting and drying. Aggregate is said to be unsound when volume
changes, induced by the above causes, result in deterioration of the concrete.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

(7) Deleterious substances in aggregates

Three broad categories of deleterious substances that may be found in aggregates are,
• Impurities- Interfere with the process of hydration of cement e.g., organic matter
• Coatings - prevent the development of good bond between aggregates and the hydrated
cement paste, e.g, clay and other fine materials such as silt and crusher dust
• Weak or unsound aggregate parties- are of two types: those that fail to maintain their
integrity, and those that lead to disruptive expansion on freezing or even on exposure to
water.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

IV. WATER

Quality of mixing water

Water is majorly necessary for,

(i) Make the concrete mix adequately workable
(ii) For hydration of cement
Other important influences of water, apart from on workability and strength, are those on: setting,
hydration, bleeding, dry shrinkage, creep, ingress of salts, explosive failure of concrete with a
very low water-cement ratio, autogenous healing, staining of surface, thermal properties,
corrosion of reinforcement, freezing and thawing, among others.
The quality of mixing water may be different from that of curing water. The following gives a
guideline on the quality of mixing water,
➢ Mixing water should not contain undesirable organic substances or inorganic constituents
in excessive proportions.
➢ Mixing water with high content of suspended solids should be allowed to stand in a
settling basin before use. However, water used to wash trucks is suitable provided it was
satisfactory to begin with.
➢ Natural waters that are slightly acidic are harmless, but water containing humic or other
organic acids may adversely affect the hardening of concrete. Such water should be tested
before use.
➢ Presence of algae in mixing water results in air entrainment with a consequent loss of
strength and such water should be tested before use.
➢ The level of salts (chlorides and sulphates) in the mixing water should be within the
acceptable limits
➢ However, for unreinforced concrete construction the requirements of mixing water are not
very strict
➢ Curing water, apart from satisfying the requirement of mixing water, should be free from
substances that attack hardened concrete.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

V. CONCRETE

Introduction

Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse granular material (the aggregate or filler)
embedded in a hard matrix of material (the cement or binder) that fills the space between the
aggregate particles and glues them together. We can also consider concrete as a composite
material that consists essentially of a binding medium within which are embedded particles or
fragments of aggregates.

Advantages and limitations of using concrete

Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world. Concrete is neither as strong
nor as tough as steel, so why is concrete so popular?
• Economical: Concrete is the most inexpensive and the most readily available material.
The cost of production of concrete is low compared with other engineered construction
materials. Three major components: water, aggregate and cement. Comparing with steel,
plastic and polymer, they are the most inexpensive materials and available in every corner
of the world. This enables concrete to be locally produced anywhere in the world, thus
avoiding the transportation costs necessary for most other materials.
• Ambient temperature hardened material: Because cement is a low temperature bonded
inorganic material and its reaction occurs at room temperature, concrete can gain its
strength at ambient temperature.
• Ability to be cast: It can be formed into different desired shape and sizes right at the
construction site.
• Energy efficiency: Low energy consumption for production, compare with steel
especially. The energy content of plain concrete is 450-750 kWh / ton and that of
reinforced concrete is 800-3200 kWh/ton, compared with 8000 kWh/ton for structural
steel.
• Excellent resistance to water. Unlike wood and steel, concrete can harden in water and
can withstand the action of water without serious deterioration. This makes concrete an
ideal material for building structures to control, store, and transport water. Contrary to
popular belief, pure water is not deleterious to concrete, even to reinforced concrete: it is
the chemicals dissolved in water, such as chlorides, sulphates, and carbon dioxide, which
cause deterioration of concrete structures.
• High temperature resistance: Concrete conducts heat slowly and can store considerable
quantities of heat from the environment (can stand 6-8 hours in fire) and thus can be used
as protective coating for steel structure.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

• Ability to consume waste: Many industrial wastes can be recycled as a substitute for
cement or aggregate. Examples are fly ash, ground tire and slag.
• Ability to work with reinforcing steel: Concrete and steel possess similar coefficient of
thermal expansion (steel 1.2 x 10-5; concrete 1.0-1.5 x 10-5). Concrete also provides good
protection to steel due to existing of CH (this is for normal condition). Therefore, while
steel bars provide the necessary tensile strength, concrete provides a perfect environment
for the steel, acting as a physical barrier to the ingress of aggressive species and preventing
steel corrosion by providing a highly alkaline environment with pH about 13.5 to passivate
the steel.
• Less maintenance required: No coating or painting is needed as for steel structures.
However, use of concrete in construction is coupled by several challenges.
• Quasi-brittle failure mode: Concrete is a type of quasi-brittle material. (Solution:
Reinforced concrete)
• Low tensile strength: About 1/10 of its compressive strength. (Improvements: Fiber
reinforced concrete; polymer concrete)
• Low toughness: The ability to absorb energy is low. (Improvements: Fiber reinforced
concrete)
• Low strength/BSG ratio (specific strength): Steel (300-600)/7.8. Normal concrete (35-
60)/2.3. Limited to middle-rise buildings. (Improvements: Lightweight concrete; high
strength concrete)
• Formwork is needed: Formwork fabrication is labour intensive and time consuming, hence
costly (Improvement: Precast concrete)
• Long curing time: Full strength development needs a month. (Improvements: Steam
curing)
• Working with cracks: Most reinforced concrete structures have cracks under service load.
(Improvements: Prestressed concrete).

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

Concrete Mix Design

Introduction
Concrete mix design is best defined as a process of selecting suitable ingredients, i.e., cement, water,
coarse aggregate, and fine aggregate with admixtures if any, and determining their relative
proportions to give the required strength, workability, and durability. The process is appropriately
referred to as concrete mix proportioning, in some textbooks, to avoid confusing with the normal
structural concrete design. Workability is specified as an important property of concrete in the
fresh state. In hardened state, compressive strength and durability are of great significance.
Objectives of mix design
(1) To achieve required minimum concrete strength (Safety

(2) To make concrete in the most economical manner (economy)

Concept of concrete mix design

• Concrete strength is limited by the strength of cement, sand plus water (paste).
• Permeability and dry shrinkage are governed by the quality of this paste.
• Therefore, proper proportioning of coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, cement and water
is essential to achieve all requirements.
Factors considered in mix design
(a) Grade of concrete: This gives the characteristic strength requirements of concrete.
Depending upon the level of quality control available at the site, the concrete mix has to
be designed for a target mean strength which is higher than the characteristic strength.
(b) Type of cement: The type of cement is important because of its influence on the rate of
development of compressive strength of concrete as well as durability under aggressive
environments. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and Portland Pozzolona cement (PPC)
are the generally used cements in reinforced concrete construction.
(c) Type and grading of aggregate: Particle shape affects the workability of concrete while
surface texture mainly affects the bond between the matrix and the aggregate particles
and thus the strength of the concrete. Generally, crushed aggregates consist of angular
particles having a rough surface texture resulting in concrete of lower workability, but
higher strengths compared with a mix made with uncrushed aggregates. It is found that
the larger the size of aggregate, the smaller is the amount of cement required for a
particular water cement ratio. Aggregates having a maximum nominal size of 20mm or
smaller are generally considered satisfactory.
(d) Minimum water cement ratio: The minimum w/c ratio for a specified strength depends
on the type of cement.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

(e) Workability: The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is
related to the size and shape of the section to be concreted and is mainly influenced by
the free water content available for cement hydration.
Methods of concrete mix design
The mix design methods being followed in different countries are mostly based on empirical
relationships, charts and graphs developed from extensive experimental investigations. Two of
the most used methods namely, American Concrete Institute (ACI) method and the British
research establishment (BRE) method are described below.
1. ACI Mix design method
This method is based on determining the coarse aggregate content based on, dry-rodded coarse
aggregate bulk density and FM of sand. Thus, this method considers the actual voids in
compacted coarse aggregates that are to be filled by fine aggregates, cement and water. The
method also gives separate tables for air-entrained and non-air-entrained concrete and is most
suited for the design of air-entrained concrete. The method gives separate values of water and
sand content for maximum size of aggregate up to 150 mm. Hence this is most suitable method
for designing plum concrete. It also gives separate values for 12.5 and 25 mm down coarse
aggregate.
This method suffers from following limitations: -
(a) It gives coarse aggregate contents for sand with FM range of 2.4 to 3.0. It thus ignores
extremely coarse aggregates with FM more than 3.2.
(b) In this method the density of fresh concrete is not given as function of specific gravity of
its ingredients. In IS (Indian Standards) and British mix design method the plastic density
or yield of concrete is linked to specific gravity of ingredients.
(c) The values of density of fresh concrete given in this method range from 2285kg/m3
for10mm down aggregate to 2505kg/m3 for 150mm down coarse aggregate. It is found
that in many countries, the density of fresh concrete (plastic density) of 20 and 10 mm
down aggregates vary from 2400 to 2600kg/m3. The weights calculated from the given
densities often result in high cement contents.
(d) The ACI method does not consider the effect of the surface texture and flakiness of
aggregate on sand and water content, neither does it distinguish between crushed stone
aggregates and natural (uncrushed) aggregates.
(e) The ACI method does not have a specific method of combining 10mm aggregates with 20
mm aggregates.
(f) The fine aggregate content cannot be adjusted for different cement contents. Hence the
richer mixes and leaner mixes may have same sand proportion, for a given set of
materials.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

2. British Mix design method

This design procedure is applicable to concrete for most purposes. The method is restricted to
designing concrete mixes to meet workability, compressive strength and durability requirements
using Portland cements complying with BS or BS 4027and natural aggregates complying with BS
882 or coarse air-cooled slag complying with BS 1047. It does not deal with special materials or
special concretes such as lightweight aggregate concrete, or with flowing or pumped concrete.
This method is based on data obtained at the Building Research Establishment, the Transport
Research Laboratory and by the British Cement Association.
The design process is divided into five stages. Each of these stages deals with a particular aspect
of the design and ends with an important parameter or final unit proportions. (Student should
have a copy of BRE manual for reference)
Stage 1: Selection of target water/cement ratio
(i) The required characteristic strength (fc) for each concrete mix is specified at 28 days, in
for instance, 20 N/mm2, 25 N/mm2, 30 N/mm2, etc.
(ii) The margin, which is the target mean strength less specified characteristic strength
because of variability in concrete production, is calculated as follows.

M =k x s.......................................................................................................... (2.1)

Where, M is the margin

k is a value appropriate to the ‘percentage defectives’ permitted below the
characteristic strength.
s is the standard deviation. (Obtained from line A in Figure 3)
(iii) The target mean strength, fm, is then calculated as follows.

fm = fc+ M......................................................................................................... (2.2)

Where fm is the target mean strength

fc is the specified characteristic strength
M is the margin between the target mean strength and the specified
characteristic strength of concrete
(iv) Given the cement strength class and type of aggregates used, a value of compressive
strength for a mix made with a free water/cement ratio of 0.5 is read from table 2. The
value of compressive strength obtained is then plotted on figure 4 and a curve drawn from
this point and parallel to the printed curves until it intercepts a horizontal line passing
through the ordinate representing the target mean strength, fm. The corresponding value

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

for the free-water/cement ratio is read from the abscissa and compared with the specified
maximum free-water/cement ratio and the lower value is adopted.
Stage 2: Selection of free-water content
The value of free-water content required for both fine and coarse aggregates are read from table
3. The value depends on the type, i.e., crushed/uncrushed and maximum size of the aggregate and
this gives a concrete of the specified slump. The total free water content is then calculated as
follows.

2 1
W = Wf+ Wc...............................................................................................(2.3)
3 3

Where; Wf is the free-water content appropriate to type of fine aggregates

Wc is the free-water content appropriate to type of coarse aggregates
Stage 3: Determining the Cement Content
The cement content is then calculated as follows.

free water content

Cement content= ..................................................... (2.4)
freewater/cement ratio

The resulting value is checked against maximum and minimum value that may be specified based
on the following criteria; Minimum cement content required for plain concrete to meet durability,
under mild exposure, with coarse aggregates nominal size 20 mm as read from Table 1
Table 1Equivalent grades for cement content and w/c ratio for 20 mm aggregate concrete
(Murdock, et. al., (1991)
Minimum cement content Maximum free
Equivalent grade
(kg/m3) water/cement ratio
200 - 210 _ C15
220 - 230 0.80 C20
240 - 260 0.70 C25
270- 280 0.65 C30

Stage 4: Determining the Total Aggregate Content

An estimate of the density of the fully compacted concrete is obtained from Figure 5. The density
depends on the free-water content and the relative density of the combined aggregate in the
saturated surface-dry condition (SSD). From this estimated density of the concrete the total
aggregate content is calculated as follows.

TA = D — C — W............................................................................................ (2.5)

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

Where: TA is the total aggregate content (kg/m3)

D is the wet density of concrete (kg/m3)
C is the cement content (kg/m3)
W is the free-water content (kg/m3)
Stage 5: Selection of fine and coarse aggregate contents
The recommended value for the proportion of fine aggregate is obtained from figure 6. The value
depends on the maximum size of aggregate, workability level, the grading of the fine aggregate
(defined by its percentage passing a 600 μm sieve) and the free water/cement ratio. The
proportions are then calculated as follows.

FA = TA x Proportion of Fines.
............................................................. (2.6)
CA = TA – FA

Where: FA is the fine aggregate content (kg/m3)

CA is the coarse aggregate content (kg/m3)
For the coarse aggregate, the proportioning is 1:2 for combination of 10- and 20-mm single size
materials.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

Fresh Concrete

Fresh concrete is that stage of concrete in which concrete can be moulded and it's in plastic state.
This is also called "Green Concrete". Another term used to describe the state of fresh concrete is
consistency, which is the ease with which concrete will flow.
Following are the important properties of fresh concrete
1. Setting
2. Workability
3. Bleeding and Segregation
4. Hydration
5. Air Entrainment

1. Setting of Concrete

The hardening of concrete before its hydration is known as setting of concrete. OR

The hardening of concrete before it gains strength. OR
The transition process of changing of concrete from plastic state to hardened state. Setting of
concrete is based or related to the setting of cement paste. Thus, cement properties greatly affect
the setting time.

Factors affecting setting:

Following are the factors that affect the setting of concrete.

(i) Water Cement ratio
(ii) Suitable Temperature
(iii) Cement content
(iv) Type of Cement
(v) Fineness of Cement
(vi) Relative Humidity
(vii) Admixtures
(viii) Type and amount of Aggregate

2. Workability of Concrete

Workability is often referred to as the amount of useful internal work required to overcome the
frictional forces between concrete ingredients for full compaction. It is obvious that no single test
can evaluate all these factors. In fact, most of these cannot be easily assessed even though some
standard tests have been established to evaluate them under specific conditions.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

In the case of concrete, consistence is sometimes taken to mean the degree of wetness; within
limits, wet concretes are more workable than dry concrete, but concrete of same consistence may
vary in workability.
Because the strength of concrete is adversely and significantly affected by the presence of voids
in the compacted mass, it is vital to achieve a maximum possible density. This requires sufficient
workability for virtually full compaction to be possible using a reasonable amount of work under
the given conditions. Presence of voids in concrete reduces the density and greatly reduces the
strength: 5% of voids can lower the strength by as much as 30%.

Measurement of workability

Several indirect tests exist for measuring the workability of concrete. These include the
compacting factor test, the slump test, flow table test, ball penetration test and vebe test among
others. Slump test is used extensively in site work all over the world.
▪ Slump test
The slump test is a means of assessing the consistency of fresh concrete. It is used, indirectly, as a means
of checking that the correct amount of water has been added to the mix. The test is carried out in
accordance with BS EN 12350-2, Testing fresh concrete. Slump test. The 300 mm high steel slump
cone is placed on a solid, impermeable, level base and filled with the fresh concrete in three equal
layers. Each layer is rodded 25 times to ensure compaction. The third layer is finished off level
with the top of the cone. The cone is carefully lifted, leaving a heap of concrete that settles or
‘slumps’ slightly. The upturned slump cone is placed on the base to act as a reference, and the
difference in level between its top and the top of the concrete is measured and recorded to the
nearest 5 mm to give the slump of the concrete.
When the cone is removed, the slump may take one of three forms. In a true slump the concrete
simply subsides, keeping more or less to shape. In a shear slump the top portion of the concrete
shears off and slips sideways. In a collapse slump the concrete collapses completely. Only a true
slump is of any use in the test. If a shear or collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be
taken and the test repeated. A collapse slump will generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it
is a high workability mix, for which the flow test (see separate entry) is more appropriate.

Further reading (Assignment): Compaction test and flow table tests, vebe test

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

Factors affecting concrete workability:

i. Water content or Water Cement Ratio

The more the water cement ratio the more the workability of concrete since by simply adding
water the inter particle lubrication is increased. High water content results in a higher fluidity and
greater workability. However, very high-water content results in bleeding of concrete. Another
effect of increased water content can also be that cement slurry will escape through joints of
formwork.
ii. Amount and type of Aggregate
Since larger Aggregate sizes have relatively smaller surface areas (for the cement paste to coat)
and since less water means less cement, it is often said that one should use the largest practicable
Aggregate size and the stiffest practical mix. Most building elements are constructed with a
maximum Aggregate size of 20 to 25 mm larger sizes being prohibited by the closeness of the
reinforcing bars.
Because concrete is continuously shrinking for years after it is initially placed, it is generally
accepted that under thermal loading it will never expand to its originally placed volume. More the
amount of aggregate implies less workability.
The following summarizes the influence that the aggregate characteristics has on concrete
workability
▪ Using smooth and round aggregate increases the workability. Workability reduces if
angular and rough aggregates are used.
▪ Greater size of Aggregate- less water is required to lubricate it, the extra water is available
for workability
▪ Angular aggregates increase flakiness or elongation thus reduces workability. Round
smooth aggregates require less water and less lubrication and greater workability in each
w/c ratio
▪ Porous aggregates require more water compared to non-absorbent aggregates for
achieving same degree of workability.
iii. Aggregate Cement ratio
More A/C ratio, less workability. Since less cement mean less water, so the paste is stiff.
iv. Weather Conditions
▪ Temperature If temperature is high, evaporation increases, thus workability decreases.
▪ Wind: If wind is moving with greater velocity, the rate of evaporation also increase
reduces the amount of water and ultimately reducing workability.
v. Admixtures

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

Chemical admixtures can be used to increase workability. Use of air entraining agent produces air
bubbles which acts as a sort of ball bearing between particles and increases mobility, workability
and decreases bleeding, segregation. The use of fine pozzolanic materials also have better
lubricating effect and more workability.

Further reading (Assignment): Write brief notes on the different types of admixtures.

vi. Sand to Aggregate ratio

If the amount of sand is more the workability will reduce because sand has more surface area and
more contact area causing more resistance. The ingredients of concrete can be proportioned by
weight or volume. The goal is to provide the desired strength and workability at minimum
expense. A low water-cement ratio is used to achieve a stronger concrete. It would seem therefore
that by keeping the cement content high one could use enough for good workability and still have
a low w/c ratio. The problem is that cement is the costliest of the basic ingredients.

3(a). Concrete Bleeding

Bleeding in concrete is sometimes referred as water gain. It is a particular form of segregation, in

which some of the water from the concrete comes out to the surface of the concrete, being of the
lowest specific gravity among all the ingredients of concrete. Bleeding is predominantly observed
in a highly wet mix, badly proportioned and insufficiently mixed concrete. In thin members like
roof slab or road slabs and when concrete is placed in sunny weather show excessive bleeding.
Due to bleeding, water comes up and accumulates at the surface. Sometimes, along with this
water, certain quantity of cement also comes to the surface. When the surface is worked up with
the trowel, the aggregate goes down and the cement and water come up to the top surface. This
formation of cement paste at the surface is known as “Laitance”. In such a case, the top surface
of slabs and pavements will not have good wearing quality. This laitance formed on roads
produces dust in summer and mud in rainy season.
Water while traversing from bottom to top, makes continuous channels. If the water cement ratio
used is more than 0.7, the bleeding channels will remain continuous and unsegmented. These
continuous bleeding channels are often responsible for causing permeability of the concrete
structures. While the mixing water is in the process of coming up, it may be intercepted by
aggregates. The bleeding water is likely to accumulate below the aggregate. This accumulation
of water creates water voids and reduces the bond between the aggregates and the paste.
The above aspect is more pronounced in the case of flaky aggregate. Similarly, the water that
accumulates below the reinforcing bars reduces the bond between the reinforcement and the
concrete. The poor bond between the aggregate and the paste or the reinforcement and the paste

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

due to bleeding can be remedied by re vibration of concrete. The formation of laitance and the
consequent bad effect can be reduced by delayed finishing operations.
Bleeding rate increases with time up to about one hour or so and thereafter the rate decreases but
continues till the final setting time of cement.

Prevention of Bleeding in concrete

▪ Bleeding can be reduced by proper proportioning and uniform and complete mixing.
▪ Use of finely divided pozzolanic materials reduces bleeding by creating a longer path for
the water to traverse.
▪ Air-entraining agent is very effective in reducing the bleeding.
▪ Bleeding can be reduced using finer cement or cement with low alkali content. Rich
mixes are less susceptible to bleeding than lean mixes.
The bleeding is not completely harmful if the rate of evaporation of water from the surface is
equal to the rate of bleeding. Removal of water, after it had played its role in providing
workability, from the body of concrete by way of bleeding will do good to the concrete.
Early bleeding when the concrete mass is fully plastic, may not cause much harm, because
concrete being in a fully plastic condition at that stage, will get subsided and compacted. It is the
delayed bleeding, when the concrete has lost its plasticity, which causes undue harm to the
concrete. Controlled re vibration may be adopted to overcome the bad effect of bleeding.

3(b). Segregation in concrete

Segregation can be defined as the separation of the constituent materials of concrete. A good
concrete is one in which all the ingredients are properly distributed to make a homogeneous
mixture. There are considerable differences in the sizes and specific gravities of the constituent
ingredients of concrete. Therefore, it is natural that the materials show a tendency to fall apart.
Segregation may be of three types
1. Coarse aggregate separating out or settling down from the rest of the matrix.
2. Paste separating away from coarse aggregate.
3. Water separating out from the rest of the material being a material of lowest specific
gravity.
A well-made concrete, taking into consideration various parameters such as grading, size, shape
and surface texture of aggregate with optimum quantity of waters makes a cohesive mix. Such
concrete will not exhibit any tendency for segregation. The cohesive and fatty characteristics of
matrix do not allow the aggregate to fall apart, at the same time; the matrix itself is sufficiently
contained by the aggregate. Similarly, water also does not find it easy to move out freely from the
rest of the ingredients.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

The conditions favourable for segregation are:

1. Badly proportioned mix where sufficient matrix is not there to bind and contain the
aggregates
2. Insufficiently mixed concrete with excess water content
3. Dropping of concrete from heights as in the case of placing concrete in column concreting
4. When concrete is discharged from a badly designed mixer, or from a mixer with worn out
blades
5. Conveyance of concrete by conveyor belts, wheelbarrow, long distance haul by dumper,
long lift by skip and hoist are the other situations promoting segregation of concrete
Vibration of concrete is one of the important methods of compaction. It should be remembered
that only comparatively dry mix should be vibrated. It too wet a mix is excessively vibrated; it is
likely that the concrete gets segregated. It should also be remembered that vibration is continued
just for required time for optimum results. If the vibration is continued for a long time,
particularly, in too wet a mix, it is likely to result in segregation of concrete due to settlement of
coarse aggregate in matrix.

4. Hydration in concrete

Concrete derives its strength by the hydration of cement particles. The hydration of cement is not
a momentary action but a process continuing for long time. Of course, the rate of hydration is fast
to start with, but continues over a very long time at a decreasing rate. In the field and in actual
work, even a higher water/cement ratio is used, since the concrete is open to atmosphere, the
water used in the concrete evaporates and the water available in the concrete will not be sufficient
for effective hydration to take place particularly in the top layer. If the hydration is to continue,
extra water must be added to refill the loss of water on account of absorption and evaporation.
Therefore, the curing can be considered as creation of a favorable environment during the early
period for uninterrupted hydration. The desirable conditions are a suitable temperature and ample
moisture. Concrete, while hydrating, releases high heat of hydration. This heat is harmful from
the point of view of volume stability. Heat of hydration of concrete may also shrinkage in
concrete, thus producing cracks. If the heat generated is removed by some means, the adverse
effect due to the generation of heat can be reduced. This can be done by a thorough water curing.

5. Air Entrainment

Air entrainment reduces the density of concrete and consequently reduces the strength. Air
entrainment is used to produce several effects in both the plastic and the hardened concrete. These
include:
1. Resistance to freeze–thaw action in the hardened concrete.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

2. Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic concrete.
3. Compaction of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.
4. Stability of extruded concrete.
5. Cohesion and handling properties in bedding mortars.

Mixing Transporting, Placing and Compacting of fresh concrete

Proper mixing of the constituents of concrete is of utmost importance in ensuring the surface of
all the aggregate particles is coated with cement paste and that the cement paste produced is
homogenous and therefore possessing uniform properties. Mixing is effected through mechanical
mixers or hand mixing (limited to small concreting works). For hand mixing, the aggregate
should be spread in uniform layer on a hard, clean and non-porous base; cement is then spread
over the aggregates and the dry materials are mixed by turning over from one end of the tray to
the other and 'cutting' with a shovel until the mix appears uniform. Turning three times is usually
required. Water is then gradually added so that neither water by itself nor with cement can
escape. The mix is turned over again, usually three times, until it appears uniform in colour and
consistency. For mechanical mixing concrete mixers are used. They are of two types: tilting and
non-tilting mixers. Tilting mixers have got a good discharge action and are thus preferred for
mixes of low workability and those containing large-size aggregates.

Curing of concrete

Concrete should be placed as close to its final position as possible to minimize segregation. After
concrete is placed in the formwork, it must be compacted to remove entrapped air. Compaction
can be carried out by hand rodding or tamping or using mechanical vibrators. For concrete to
develop strength, the chemical reactions need to proceed continuously.
Curing refers to procedures for the maintaining of a proper environment for the hydration
reactions to proceed. It is therefore very important to produce strong, durable and watertight
concrete. In concrete curing, the critical thing is to provide sufficient water to the concrete, so
that the chemical reaction will not stop. Moist curing is provided by water spraying, ponding or
covering the concrete surface with wet sand, plastic sheets, burlaps or mats. Curing compounds,
which can be sprayed onto the concrete surface to form a thin continuous sheet, are also
commonly used. Loss of water to the surrounding should be minimized. If concrete is cast on soil
subgrade, the subgrade should be wetted to prevent water absorption. In exposed areas (such as a
slope), windbreaks and sunshades are often built to reduce water evaporation. For Portland
cement concrete, a minimum period of 7 days of moist curing is generally recommended. Under
normal curing (at room temperature), it takes one week for concrete to reach about 70% of its
long-term strength. Strength development can be accelerated with a higher curing temperature. In

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

the fabrication of pre-cast concrete components, steam curing is often employed, and the 7-day
strength under normal curing can be achieved in one day. The mould can then be re-used, leading
to more rapid turnover. If curing is carried out at a higher temperature, the hydration products
form faster, but they do not form as uniformly. As a result, the long-term strength is reduced.
This is something we need to worry about when we are casting under hot weather. The concrete
may need to be cooled down using chilled water or crushed ice. In large concrete structures,
cooling of the interior (e.g., by circulation of water in embedded pipes) is important, not only to
prevent the reduction of concrete strength, but also to avoid thermal cracking because of non-
uniform heating/cooling of the structure.

Hardened Concrete

Following are the properties of hardened concrete:

1. Strength of concrete
2. Concrete Creep
3. Shrinkage
4. Modulus Of Elasticity
5. Water tightness (impermeability)
6. Rate of Strength gain of Concrete

Strength:

The strength of concrete basically referred to here is the compressive strength and it depends
upon three factors.
a. Paste Strength
b. Interfacial Bonding
c. Aggregate Strength

1. Paste strength:

It is mainly due to the binding properties of cement that the ingredients are compacted together. If
the paste has higher binding strength, higher will be strength of concrete.

2. Interfacial bonding:

Interfacial bonding is very necessary regarding the strength. Clay hampers the bonding between
paste and aggregate. The aggregate should be washed for a better bonding between paste and
aggregate.

3. Aggregate strength:

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

It is mainly the aggregate that provide strength to concrete especially coarse aggregates which act
just like bones in the body. Rough and angular aggregate provides better bonding and high
strength.

Factors affecting Strength of concrete:

Following are the factors that affect the strength of concrete:

1. Water-Cement ratio
2. Type of cementing material
3. Amount of cementing material
4. Type of aggregate
5. Air content
6. Admixtures
▪ 1. Water-Cement ratio:
It is water cement ratio that basically governs the property of strength. Lesser the water cement
ratio, greater will be strength.
▪ 2. Type of cement:
The type of cement used affect the hydration process and therefore strength of concrete. Amount
of cementing material: it is the paste that holds or binds all the ingredients. Thus greater amount
of cementing material greater will be strength.
▪ 3. Type of Aggregate:
Rough and angular aggregates are preferable as they provide greater bonding.
▪ 4. Admixtures:
Chemical admixtures like plasticizers reduce the water cement ratio and increase the strength of
concrete at same water cement ratio. Mineral admixtures affect the strength at later stage and
increase the strength by increasing the amount of cementing material.

The Compression Test

The compression test is used to determine the compressive strength of hardened concrete. The
compression test shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in perfect conditions. The
compression test measures concrete strength in the hardened state. The testing is done in a
laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make a concrete cylinder or cubes for the
compression test. The strength is measured in Megapascals (MPa)/ N/mm2 and is commonly
specified as a characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing. The
compressive strength is a measure of the concrete’s ability to resist loads which tend to crush it.
▪ Apparatus for compression test

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

1. Cylinders (100 mm diameter x 200 mm high or 150 mm diameter x 300 mm high) (The
small cylinders are normally used for most testing due to their lighter weight)
Cubes (100 mm x100 mm x 100 mm or 150 mm x150 mm x 150 mm)
2. Small scoop
3. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm)
4. Steel float
5. Steel plate
▪ Procedure for compression test of concrete
1. Clean the cylinder/cube mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil, then place on a
clean, level and firm surface, ie the steel plate. Collect a sample.
2. Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by rodding 25 times.
Cylinders may also be compacted by vibrating using a vibrating table.
3. Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first layer, then top up the
mould till overflowing.
4. Level off the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from around the mould.
5. Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it in a cool dry place to set for at least 24 hours.
6. After the mould is removed, the cylinder is sent to the laboratory where it is cured and
crushed to test compressive strength

Creep in concrete

Definition:

Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under sustained load. Basically, long term
pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This deformation usually occurs in the
direction the force is being applied. Like a concrete column getting more compressed, or a beam
bending. Creep does not necessarily cause concrete to fail or break apart. Creep is factored in
when concrete structures are designed. Factors affecting creep include,
1. Aggregate
2. Mix Proportions
3. Age of concrete

1. Influence of Aggregate

Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really the paste which is responsible for the creep.
However, the aggregate influences the creep of concrete through a restraining effect on the
magnitude of creep. The paste which is creeping under load is restrained by aggregate which do
not creep. The stronger the aggregate the more is the restraining effect and hence the less is the

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

magnitude of creep. The modulus of elasticity of aggregate is one of the important factors
influencing creep. It can be easily imagined that the higher the modulus of elasticity the less is the
creep. Light weight aggregate shows substantially higher creep than normal weight aggregate.

2. Influence of Mix Proportions:

The amount of paste content and its quality is one of the most important factors influencing
creep. A poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep. Therefore, it can be said that creep
increases with increase in water/cement ratio. In other words, it can also be said that creep is
inversely proportional to the strength of concrete. Broadly speaking, all other factors which are
affecting the water/cement ratio are also affecting the creep.

3. Influence of Age:

Age at which a concrete member is loaded will have a predominant effect on the magnitude of
creep. This can be easily understood from the fact that the quality of gel improves with time.
Such gel creeps less, whereas a young gel under load being not so stronger creeps more. What is
said above is not a very accurate statement because the moisture content of the concrete being
different at different age also influences the magnitude of creep.

Effects of Creep on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

▪ In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with time and may be a
critical consideration in design.
▪ In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can load to buckling.
▪ In case of statically indeterminate structures and column and beam junctions creep may
relieve the stress concentration induced by shrinkage, temperatures changes or movement
of support. Creep property of concrete will be useful in all concrete structures to reduce
the internal stresses due to non-uniform load or restrained shrinkage.
▪ In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential temperature
conditions at the interior and surface, creep is harmful and by itself may be a cause of
cracking in the interior of dams. Therefore, all precautions and steps must be taken to see
that increase in temperature does not take place in the interior of mass concrete structure.
▪ Loss of prestress due to creep of concrete in prestressed concrete structure.

Shrinkage in Concrete

Concrete is subjected to changes in volume either autogenous or induced. Volume change is one
of the most detrimental properties of concrete, which affects the long-term strength and
durability. One of the most objectionable defects in concrete is the presence of cracks,

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

particularly in floors and pavements. One of the important factors that contribute to the cracks in
floors and pavements is that due to shrinkage. It is difficult to make concrete which does not
shrink and crack. It is only a question of magnitude. Now the question is how to reduce the
shrinkage and shrinkage cracks in concrete structures. The term shrinkage is loosely used to
describe the various aspects of volume changes in concrete due to loss of moisture at different
stages due to different reasons.

Types of Shrinkage in Concrete

To understand this aspect more closely, shrinkage can be classified in the following way:
(a) Plastic Shrinkage
(b) Drying Shrinkage
(c) Autogeneous Shrinkage
(d) Carbonation Shrinkage
▪ a. Plastic Shrinkage
Shrinkage of this type manifests itself soon after the concrete is placed in the forms while the
concrete is still in the plastic state. Loss of water by evaporation from the surface of concrete or
by the absorption by aggregate or subgrade, is believed to be the reasons of plastic shrinkage. The
loss of water results in the reduction of volume. The aggregate particles or the reinforcement
comes in the way of subsidence due to which cracks may appear at the surface or internally
around the aggregate or reinforcement. In case of floors and pavements where the surface area
exposed to drying is large as compared to depth, when this large surface is exposed to hot sun and
drying wind, the surface of concrete dries very fast which results in plastic shrinkage. Sometimes
even if the concrete is not subjected to severe drying, but poorly made with a high water/cement
ratio, large quantity of water bleeds and accumulates at the surface. When this water at the
surface dries out, the surface concrete collapses causing cracks.
Plastic concrete is sometimes subjected to unintended vibration or yielding of formwork support
which again causes plastic shrinkage cracks as the concrete at this stage has not developed
enough strength. From the above it can be inferred that high water/cement ratio, badly
proportioned concrete, rapid drying, greater bleeding, unintended vibration etc., are some of the
reasons for plastic shrinkage. It can also be further added that richer concrete undergoes greater
plastic shrinkage.
Plastic shrinkage can be reduced mainly by preventing the rapid loss of water from surface. This
can be done by covering the surface with polyethylene sheeting immediately on finishing
operation; by fog spray that keeps the surface moist; or by working at night. Use of small
quantity of aluminium powder is also suggested to offset the effect of plastic shrinkage.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

Similarly, expansive cement or shrinkage compensating cement also can be used for controlling
the shrinkage during the setting of concrete.
▪ b. Drying Shrinkage
Just as the hydration of cement is an everlasting process, the drying shrinkage is also an
everlasting process when concrete is subjected to drying conditions. The drying shrinkage of
concrete is analogous to the mechanism of drying of timber specimen. The loss of free water
contained in hardened concrete, does not result in any appreciable dimension change. It is the loss
of water held in gel pores that causes the change in the volume. Under drying conditions, the gel
water is lost progressively over a long time, as long as the concrete is kept in drying conditions.
Cement paste shrinks more than mortar and mortar shrinks more than concrete. Concrete made
with smaller size aggregate shrinks more than concrete made with bigger size aggregate. The
magnitude of drying shrinkage is also a function of the fineness of gel. The finer the gel the more
is the shrinkage.
▪ c. Autogeneous Shrinkage
In a conservative system i.e. where no moisture movement to or from the paste is permitted,
when temperature is constant some shrinkage may occur. The shrinkage of such a conservative
system is known as autogeneous shrinkage. Autogeneous shrinkage is of minor importance and is
not applicable in practice to many situations except that of mass of concrete in the interior of a
concrete dam.
▪ d. Carbonation Shrinkage
Carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere reacts in the presence of water with hydrated cement.
Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] gets converted to calcium carbonate and also some other cement
compounds are decomposed. Such a complete decomposition of calcium compound in hydrated
cement is chemically possible even at the low pressure of carbon dioxide in normal atmosphere.
Carbonation penetrates beyond the exposed surface of concrete very slowly.
The rate of penetration of carbon dioxide depends also on the moisture content of the concrete
and the relative humidity of the ambient medium. Carbonation is accompanied by an increase in
weight of the concrete and by shrinkage.
Carbonation shrinkage is probably caused by the dissolution of crystals of calcium hydroxide and
deposition of calcium carbonate in its place. As the new product is less in volume than the
product replaced, shrinkage takes place.
Carbonation of concrete also results in increased strength and reduced permeability, possibly
because water released by carbonation promotes the process of hydration and also calcium
carbonate reduces the voids within the cement paste. As the magnitude of carbonation shrinkage
is very small when compared to long-term drying shrinkage, this aspect is not of much
significance

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

Factors Affecting Shrinkage

One of the most important factors that affect shrinkage is the drying condition or in other words,
the relative humidity of the atmosphere at which the concrete specimen is kept. If the concrete is
placed in 100 per cent relative humidity for any length of time, there will not be any shrinkage;
instead, there will be a slight swelling. The rate of shrinkage decreases rapidly with time. Another
important factor which influences the magnitude of shrinkage is water/cement ratio of the
concrete. The richness of the concrete also has a significant influence on shrinkage. Aggregate
plays an important role in the shrinkage properties of concrete. The quantum of an aggregate, its
size, and its modulus of elasticity influence the magnitude of drying shrinkage. Harder aggregate
with higher modulus of elasticity like quartz shrinks much less than softer aggregates such as
sandstone.
Moisture Movement Concrete shrinks when allowed to dry in air at a lower relative humidity and
it swells when kept at 100 per cent relative humidity or when placed in water.
Just as drying shrinkage is an ever-continuing process, swelling, when continuously placed in
water is also an ever-continuing process. If a concrete sample subjected to drying condition, at
some stage, is subjected to wetting condition, it starts swelling. It is interesting to note that all the
initial drying shrinkage is not recovered even after prolonged storage in water which shows that
the phenomenon of drying shrinkage is not a fully reversible one.
Just as the drying shrinkage is due to loss of adsorbed water around gel particles, swelling is due
to the adsorption of water by the cement gel. The water molecules act against the cohesive force
and tend to force the gel particles further apart because of which swelling takes place. In addition,
the ingress of water decreases the surface tension of the gel.
The property of swelling when placed in wet condition and shrinking when placed in drying
condition is referred as moisture movement in concrete.

Rate of Strength Gain of Concrete

Strength can be defined as ability to resist change. One of the most valuable properties of the
concrete is its strength. Strength is most important parameter that gives the picture of overall
quality of concrete. Strength of concrete usually directly related to cement paste. Many factors
influence the rate at which the strength of concrete increases after mixing. Before coming toward
the factors that influence the strength gain of concrete, it is important to have concept of these
terminologies:
Hardening is the process of growth of strength. This is often confused with 'setting' but setting
and hardening are not the same.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

Setting is the stiffening of the concrete after it has been placed. Hardening may continue for
weeks or months after the concrete has been mixed and placed.

Factors affecting strength gain & rate of strength gain of concrete

▪ Concrete porosity
Voids in concrete can be filled with air or with water. Broadly speaking, the more porous the
concrete, the weaker it will be. Probably the most important source of porosity in concrete is the
ratio of water to cement in the mix, known as the 'water to cement' ratio.
▪ Water/cement ratio
This is defined as the mass of water divided by the mass of cement in a mix. In mixes where the
w/c is greater than approximately 0.4, all the cement can, react with water to form cement
hydration products. At higher w/c ratios it follows that the space occupied by the additional water
above w/c = 0.4 will remain as pore space filled with water, or with air if the concrete dries out.
Consequently, as the w/c ratio increases, the porosity of the cement paste in the concrete also
increases. As the porosity increases, the compressive strength of the concrete will decrease.
▪ Soundness of aggregate
If the aggregate in concrete is weak, the concrete will also be weak. Rocks with low strength,
such as chalk, are clearly unsuitable for use as aggregate.
▪ Aggregate paste bond
The compactness of the bond between the paste and the aggregate is critical. If there is no bond,
the aggregate effectively represents a void & voids are a source of weakness in concrete.
▪ Cement-related parameters
Many parameters relating to the composition of the cement constituents and their proportions in
the cement can affect the rate of strength gain and the final strength achieved. These include:
1. Alite content (Tri-Calcium silicates) & Belite contents (Di-calcium silicates)
2. Alite & belite reactivity
3. Sulfate contents
Alite is the most reactive cement mineral that contributes significantly to concrete strength. More
Alite should give better early strengths ('early' means up to about 7 days). Sulfate in cement, both
the clinker sulfate and added gypsum, retards the hydration phase. If there is insufficient sulfate, a
flash set (rapid hardening of freshly mixed cement paste with noticeable heat evolution) may
occur. on the other hand too much sulfate contents can cause false-setting(rapid hardening of
freshly mixed cement paste with minimum heat evolution)
Some physical parameters of cement also play role in strength gain of concrete like Cement
surface area and particle size distribution.

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 Lecture notes for Bsc Civil Eng (Yr 2, sem 1); Civil Engineering Materials I

Fineness is often expressed in terms of total particle surface area. More fine is cement; greater
will be its hydration rate. Particle size distribution is also very important prospect in strength gain
of concrete. Cement with very finely-ground gypsum and clinker particles results in slower
hydration.

Tests to Determine the Strength Gain & Rate of Strength Gain of Concrete

In concrete practice the strength of concrete is characterized by the 28-day value and some other
properties are also related to the 28-day strength. After 28 days, different tests are usually
performed to determine the strength gain of the concrete. These are as under:
▪ For Strength Gain:
❖ Destructive Tests
✓ Laboratory tests
• Compressive Strength Test
1. Cylinder test
2. Cube test
• Tensile Strength Test
• Split cylinder test
• Flexural Strength Test
1. Four-point loading test
2. Three (centre) point loading test
✓ In situ tests
Test cores...Determines the strength of the concrete in the actual structure.
❖ Non-Destructive Tests
• Rebound hammer test

(Above tests to be covered through lab work)

▪ Rate of strength gain of concrete:

To determine the rate of gain of strength of concrete, there is a need to select period shorter than
28 days, as 28 day is the reference time. In concrete practice, it is accepted that after 28 days
concrete usually gains most of its strength. Strength determined at an early stage say after 7th day
of placing of concrete can be compared to strength determined after 28 days, which is the
reference time. In this way, rate of gain of strength of concrete can be determined.

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