ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY

(Accredited with A+ Grade by NAAC (CGPA: 3.64) in the Third Cycle

and Graded as Category-I University by MHRD-UGC)
(A State University Established by the Government of Tamilnadu)

KARAIKUDI-630 003, TAMILNADU

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

M.A., (SOCIOLOGY)
III Semester
35134

RURAL AND URBAN SOCIOLOGY

Copy Right Reserved For Private use only

Author :
Dr. M. Suganthi
Assistant Professor
Alagappa University College of Education
Alagappa University
Karaikudi – 630 003.

“The Copyright shall be vested with Alagappa University”

All rights reserved. No part of this publication which is material protected by this copyright notice
may be reproduced or transmitted or utilized or stored in any form or by any means now known or
hereinafter invented, electronic, digital or mechanical, including photocopying, scanning,
recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission from
the Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu.

Reviewer:
Dr. MA. VELUSAMY
Assistant Professor ,
Department of Social Work,
Directorate of Distance Education,
Alagappa University,
Karaikudi -630003.
 SYLLABI BOOK MAPPING TABLE
RURAL AND URBAN SOCIOLOGY
Syllabi Mapping in Book
BLOCK I:
Rural Sociology - Nature and scope of rural sociology, importance of the study of
rural sociology and agrarian social structure and change
UNIT I Page1-13
Rural Sociology-Nature and Scope of Rural Sociology; History of Rural Sociology

UNIT II Page14-33
Importance of the study of Rural Sociology. Patterns of village settlements – Rural Urban
contrast - Rurbanism - Peasant Studies-Agrarian Class Structure.

UNIT III Page34-45

Agrarian Social Structure and Change -Village Social Structure; Land ownership pattern
in Rural Society
BLOCK II:
Jajmani systems, Factors Accounting for the changes and Rural Social problems.
UNIT IV Page46-60
Jajmani System; Tenancy Systems; Caste and social structure; Changing trends in inter
caste relations,
UNIT V Page 61-92
Factors accounting for the changes, dominant caste, ancestral worship. Factors of
Change; Agrarian Legislation; Land Reform programmes; Green Revolution; Rural
Development Programmes
UNIT VI Page93-117
Rural Social Problems - Agrarian Unrest and Peasant Movements- Untouchability; Rural
Violence; Landlessness; Rural Indebtedness
BLOCK III:
Poverty, Unemployment, Urban sociology, importance of the study of urban
Sociology, Urban planning
UNIT VII Page118-143
Poverty; Unemployment- Seasonal unemployment -Illiteracy-Superstitions- Drinking
water- housing- health and sanitation-Bonded and Migrant laborers.
UNIT VIII Page144-152
Urban Sociology-Nature and Scope of Urban Sociology
UNIT IX Page153-162
Importance of the Study of Urban Sociology; Urbanism as a way of life; Factors of
Urbanization.
UNIT X Page163-170
Urban Planning - Definition of urban locality, urban place - Urban agglomeration and
other related terms.
BLOCK IV: Urban renewal, planning for new settlements, trends of world urbanization
UNIT XI Page 171-182
Urban Renewal; Planning for New Settlements - Measuring Urbanization
UNIT XII Page183-195
Trends of world Urbanization - Growth of urban population in India
UNIT XIII Page 196-210
Location of cities - nature, culture, function, migration.
Block V: Location of cities – Nature, culture, function, India – Urban Social problems

UNIT XIV Page 211-234

India- Urban Social Problems-Crime; Juvenile Delinquency; Slums; Housing Problems;
Environmental Problems; Poverty; Unemployment
 CONTENTS

UNIT- I NATURE AND SCOPE OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY 1-13

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Rural Sociology
1.3.1Meaning of Rural Sociology
1.3.2Definition of Rural Sociology
1.4 Nature of Rural Sociology
1.5 Scope of Rural Sociology
1.6 History of Rural Sociology
1.6.1 Origin and development of Rural Sociology
1.6.2 Development of Rural Sociology in India
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Unit- End- Exercises
1.9 Answer to check your Progress
1.10 Suggested Readings

UNIT- II IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY 14-33

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Importance of the study of Rural Sociology
2.4 Patterns of village settlements
2.4.1 Factors affecting the types of Rural Settlements

2.5 Rural Urban contrast

2.6 Rurbanism
2.6.1 Philosophy of Rurbanism
2.7 Peasant Studies
2.7.1 Peasant: Meaning
2.7.2 Types of Peasants
2.7.3 Peasant Movement
2.7.4 Peasant Movements in India
2.8 Agrarian Class Structure
2.8.1 Model of Agrarian Class Structure
2.8.2 Classification of Agrarian Population
2.9 Let Us Sum Up
2.10 Unit- End- Exercises
2.11 Answer to check your Progress
2.12 Suggested Readings
UNIT III AGRARIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND CHANGE 34-45
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Agrarian Social Structure and Change
3.3.1 Agrarian Meaning
3.3.2 Agrarian System
3.3.3 Agrarian Social Structure
3.3.4 Agrarian Structures in India
3.3.5 Rural Stratification Pattern
3.3.6 Characteristics of Agrarian Society
3.3.7 Agrarian Changes during the British Colonial Rule
3.3.8 Agrarian Changes after Independence
3.4 Village Social Structure
3.4.1 The Nature of Rural Social Structure
3.4.2 Salient Features of Indian Rural Social Structure
3.5 Land ownership pattern in Rural Society
3.5.1 Land Ownership Systems
3.5.2 Land Reforms
3.5.3 Land Reform Legislations
3.6 Let us Sum up
3.7 Unit- End- Exercises
3.8 Answer to check your Progress
3.9 Suggested Readings

UNIT – IV JAJMANI SYSTEMS 46-60

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Jajmani System
4.3.1 Concept of Jajmani system
4.3.2 Main features of Jajmani system
4.4 Tenancy Systems
4.4.1 Tenancy systems of Land
4.4.2 Tenancy Reforms
4.5 Caste and social structure
4.5.1 Meaning of Caste
4.5.2 Definition of Caste
4.5.3 Characteristics of caste system
4.5.4 Origin of caste system
4.5.5 Merits of caste system
4.5.6 Demerits of caste system
4.5.7 Changes in the Caste System
4.6 Changing trends in inter caste relations
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 Unit- End- Exercises
4.9 Answer to check your Progress
 4.10 Suggested Readings

UNIT – V FACTORS ACCOUNTING FOR THE CHANGES 61-92

5.1. Introduction
5.2. Objectives
5.3. Factors accounting for the changes
5.4. Dominant caste
5.4.1 Meaning of Dominant Caste
5.4.2 Definition of Dominant Caste
5.4.3 Four Basic Levels of Dominant Castes
5.4.4 Factors on Which Dominant Caste Depends
5.4.5 Functions of Dominant Caste
5.5. Ancestral worship
5.5.1 Aspects of Ancestor Worship
5.5.1.1 Conceptual Issues
5.5.1.2 Paradigmatic Issues
5.6. Factors of Change
5.7. Agrarian Legislation
5.8. Land Reform programmes
5.9. Green Revolution
5.9.1 Impact of the Green Revolution
5.9.2 Features of the Green Revolution
5.10. Rural Development Programmes
5.10.1 Rural Development during pre-independence period
5.10.2 Rural Development since Independence
5.10.3 Community Development Programme
5.10.4 Present Rural Development Paradigm
5.10.5 Impact of globalization on farmers
5.10.6 Emphasis on People’s Participation
5.10.7 Role of Non-Government Organisations
5.11. Let Us Sum Up
5.12. Unit- End- Exercises
5.13. Answer to check your Progress
5.14. Suggested Readings

UNIT - VI RURAL SOCIAL PROBLEMS 93-117

6.1. Introduction
6.2. Objectives
6.3. Rural Social Problems
6.3.1 Social Problems in India
6.3.2 Definition of Social Problem
6.3.3 Characteristics of Rural Problems
6.3.4 Nature of Social Problems
6.4. Agrarian Unrest and Peasant Movements
6.4.1 Agrarian Unrest
 6.4.2 Peasant Movement
6.4.3 Peasant Movements in India
6.4.4 Agrarian Unrest and Peasant Movements
6.4.4.1 The Tebhaga Movement (1946–47)
6.4.4.2 The Telangana Movement (1946-52)
6.4.4.3 Naxalite Movement (1967–71)
6.4.5 Emerging Agrarian Social and Peasants Movements
6.5 Untouchability
6.5.1 Definition of Untouchability
6.5.2 Effect of Untouchability
6.5.3 Fundamental Causes of Untouchable
6.5.4 Efforts to Eradicate Untouchability
6.5.5 Economic Improvement
6.5.6 Non-Governmental Efforts
6.5.7 Suggestions for the Eradication of Untouchability
6.6. Rural Violence
6.6.1 Definitions of Violence
6.6.2 Different types of Violence
6.7 Landlessness
6.7.1 Marginalisation of Landholding
6.8 Rural Indebtedness
6.8.1 Measures of Indebtedness
6.9 Let Us Sum Up
6.10. Unit- End- Exercises
6.11. Answer to Check Your Progress
6.12. Suggested Readings

UNIT – VII POVERTY, UNEMPLOYMENT 118-143

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Poverty
7.3.1 Definition of Poverty
7.3.2 Type of Poverty
7.3.3 Rural Poverty
7.3.4 Poverty Alleviation Programmes
7.4 Unemployment
7.4.1 Definition of unemployment
7.4.2 Types of Unemployment
7.4.3 Causes of Unemployment
7.4.4 Impact of unemployment
7.4.5 Steps Taken by Government
7.5 Seasonal unemployment
7.5.1 Definition of seasonal unemployment
7.5.2 Causes of Seasonal Unemployment
7.5.3 Rural Employment Schemes
7.6 Illiteracy
7.7 Superstitions
7.8 Drinking water
7.8.1 Water Resources and Utilisation
7.8.2 Rural Water Supply
7.8.2.1 Early Independence (1947-1969)
7.8.2.2 Transition from Technology to Policy (1969-1989)
7.8.2.3 Restructuring Phase (1989-1999)
7.8.2.4 Consolidation Phase (2000 Onwards)
7.9 Housing
7.10 Health and sanitation
7.10.1 Rural Health
7.10.1. 1 History of rural health
7.10.1.2 National Rural Health Mission
7.10.2 Rural Sanitation
7.10.2.1 Monitoring and Evaluation
7.11 Bonded and Migrant labourers
7.11.1 Origins and Causes of India’s Bonded Labour Problem
7.11.2 Legal Restrictions and Enforcement
7.12 Let Us Sum Up
7.13 Unit- End- Exercises
7.14 Answer to check your Progress
7.15 Suggested Readings

UNIT- VIII URBAN SOCIOLOGY 144-152

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Urban sociology
8.3.1 Meaning of urban sociology
8.3.2 Definition of urban sociology
8.4 Nature of urban sociology
8.5 Scope of urban sociology
8.6 Let us sum up
8.7 Unit – end – exercises
8.8 Answer to check your progress
8.9 Suggested Readings

UNIT – IX IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF URBAN SOCIOLOGY 153-162

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Importance of the study of urban sociology
9.4 Urbanism as a way of life
9.4.1 Definition of urbanism
9.4.2 Characteristics of urbanism
9.4.3 Louis Wirth: Urbanism as a way of life
 9.4.4 World Urbanism Day
9.5 Factors of urbanisation
9.5.1 Urbanisation
9.5.2 Causes of urbanisation
9.5.3 Effect of urbanisation
9.5.4 Causes of urbanisation in India
9.6 Let us sum up
9.7 Unit – end – exercises
9.8 Answer to check your progress
9.9 Suggested Readings

UNIT-X URBAN PLANNING 163-170

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Urban planning
10.3.1 Meaning of urban planning
10.3.2 Definition of urban planning
10.3.3 Role of Sociologist in urban Planning
10.3.4 Role of urban planners
10.3.5 New approach to urban planning
10.3.6 Objectives of the National Urbanisation Policy
10.4 Definition of Urban locality and urban place
10.5 Urban Agglomeration and Other related terms
10.6 Let us sum up
10.7 Unit – end – exercises
10.8 Answer to check your progress
10.9 Suggested Readings

UNIT- XI URBAN RENEWAL, PLANNING FOR NEW SETTLEMENTS 171-182

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Urban renewal
11.3.1 Meaning of Urban Renewal
11.3.2 Definition of Urban Renewal
11.3.3 Urban Renewal Area
11.3.4 Reasons for Urban Renewal
11.3.5 Objectives of Urban Renewal
11.3.6 Goals of Urban Renewal
11.3.7 Process of Urban Renewal
11.3.8 Implementation of Urban Renewal
11.3.9 Benefits of Urban Renewal
11.3.10 Problems of Urban Renewal
11.4 Planning for new settlements
11.5 Measuring urbanisation
11.5.1 Measures of Urbanisation
 11.5.2 Level of Measuring Urbanisation in India
11.5.3 Ways to Measure Urbanisation
11.5.4 Degree of Urbanisation in India
11.5.5 Pace of Urbanisation
11.6 Let us sum up
11.7 Unit – end – exercises
11.8 Answer to check your progress
11.9 Suggested Readings

UNIT – XII TRENDS OF WORLD URBANIZATION 183-195

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Trends of world urbanisation
12.3.1 Urbanisation
12.3.2 Level of Urbanisation
12.3.3 The Level of Urbanisation in the World
12.3.4 Urban Population in the World
12.4 Growth of urban population in India
12.4.1 Urban Growth in India
12.4.2 Inter-State Variation in Urbanisation
12.4.3 Urbanised States in India
12.4.4 Component of Urban Growth
12.4.5 Basic Feature and Pattern of India's Urbanisation
12.5 Let us sum up
12.6 Unit – end – exercises
12.7 Answer to check your progress
12.8 Suggested Readings

UNIT- XIII LOCATION OF CITIES – NATURE, CULTURE, FUNCTION 196-210

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Location of cities
13.3.1 Meaning of City
13.3.2 Definition of City
13.3.3 Classification of Cities
13.3.4 Challenges of cities
13.4 Nature
13.4.1 Nature of City
13.4.2 Characteristics of City
13.5 Culture
13.5.1 City culture
13.5.2 Types of city culture
13.6 Function
13.6.1 Main functions of a city
13.7 Migration
 13.7.1 Meaning of Migration
13.7.2Migration in India
13.7.3 Types of Migration
13.7.4 Causes of Migration
13.7.5 Impact of Migration
13.7.6 Migration Trends
13.7.7 Advantages of Migration
13.7.8 Disadvantages of Migration
13.8 Let us sum up
13.9 Unit – end – exercises
13.10 Answer to check your progress
13.11 Suggested Readings

UNIT- XIV URBAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS 211-234

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 India – Urban social problems
14.3.1 Urban social problems
14.3.2 Definition of social problem
14.4 Crime
14.4.1 Definition of Crime
14.4.2 Characteristics of Crime
14.4.3 Crime in cities
14.5 Juvenile Delinquency
14.5.1 Definition of Juvenile Delinquency
14.5.2 Characteristics of Juvenile Delinquency
14.5.3 Factors in Juvenile Delinquency
14.5.4 Preventive Programmes
14.5.5 Types of Juvenile Delinquency
14.6 Slums
14.6.1. Nature of Slums
14.6.2. Types of Slums
14.6.3 Characteristics of the Slums
14.6.4 Functions of the Slums
14.6.5 Approaches to the Slum Problems
14.6.6 Urbanisation and Slums
14.7 Housing problems
14.7.1. Role of Housing
14.7.2. Magnitude of the housing problem
14.7.3. Measures to Solve the Problem of Housing in India
14.8 Environmental problems
14.8.1. Environmental problems of modern cities
14.8.2. Environmental problems of urban area
14.9 Poverty
14.9.1 Poverty in India
14.9.2 Urban Poverty in India
 14.9.3 Definition of Poverty
14.9.4 Absolute Poverty and Relative Poverty
14.10 Unemployment
14.10.1. Definition of Unemployment
14.10.2. Types of Unemployment
14.10.3. Urban unemployment in India
14.10.4. Unemployment Rate in Urban
14.10.5. Unemployment Rate of male and females in Urban
14.10.6 Causes of Unemployment at Urban Areas in India
14.10.7 Measures to Minimize Unemployment in India
14.11 Let us sum up
14.12 Unit – end – exercises
14.13 Answer to check your progress
14.14 Suggested Readings
Model Question Paper 235
 UNIT- I NATURE AND SCOPE OF
RURAL SOCIOLOGY Nature and Scope of
Rural Sociology
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
NOTES
1.3 Rural Sociology
1.3.1 Meaning of Rural Sociology
1.3.2 Definition of Rural Sociology
1.4 Nature of Rural Sociology
1.5 Scope of Rural Sociology
1.6 History of Rural Sociology
1.6.1 Origin and development of Rural Sociology
1.6.2 Development of Rural Sociology in India
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Unit- End- Exercises
1.9 Answer to check your Progress
1.10 Suggested Readings
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Rural Sociology has taken the shape of an independent social
science with its own characteristic standpoint and methods. The subject
matter of Rural Sociology, according to Nelson, is the description and
analysis of the progress of various groups as they exist in the rural
environment.
Similarly, Bertrand has treated Rural Sociology as the study of
human relationships in rural environment. This, again, emphasizes the
study of all types of social relationships existing in village setting.
It is a branch of sociology which studies rural society. Rural
sociology studies the relations of the people who live in the villages. India
is basically a land of villages. Rural sociology is the sociology of the
village or village society.
In this unit, you will learn the meaning and definitions of Rural
Sociology. You will learn nature, scope and history of Rural Sociology.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit you will be able to;
 understand the meaning, definitions of the Rural Sociology
 understand the nature and Scope of the Rural Sociology Self - Instructional Material
 understand the History of Rural Sociology
 gain the knowledge about the concept of Rural Sociology

1
 Nature and Scope of 1.3 RURAL SOCIOLOGY
Rural Sociology Rural Sociology is a specialized field of sociology. It is the study of
life in rural environment, which systematically studies rural communities
to discover their conditions and tendencies to formulate the principles of
progress. It is limited to various aspects of rural society in the study of
NOTES rural social relationships.
1.3.1. Meaning of Rural Sociology
Rural sociology is the study of social organization and social
processes that are characteristic of geographical localities where population
size is relatively small and density is low (Warner 1974). Thus, rural
sociology can be defined as the sociology of rural society. Since rural
societies do not exist in isolation, rural sociology also addresses the
relation of rural society to the larger society. Therefore, it deals also with
spatial organization and the processes that produce spatial allocations of
population and human activities (Newby 1980; Newby and Buttel 1980).
―Indian rural sociology or the science of the laws governing the
specific Indian rural and social organization has still to be created. Such a
science is, however, the basic premise for the renovation of the Indian rural
society, as indispensable for the renovation of the Indian society as a
whole.‖ — A.R.Desai
Rural sociology is a field of sociology that is connected with the
study of social life in rural areas. Rural sociology is centered on the rural
community life. Thus, rural sociology has been specially designed to study
the rural phenomena and it is a systematic study of the varied aspects of the
rural society. It is the study of the rural social networks and how they
operate for the smooth functioning of the society. The rural society is
generally rooted in the villages, and rural sociology studies the aspects
of the villages, the way it functions, the various problems it faces and
the how it tackles to face the imminent challenges. Rural sociology
offers viable solutions and ways of mitigating the problems that hound
over the villages.
1.3.2. Definition of Rural Sociology
Many Western and Indian sociologists have given their definitions
regarding rural sociology in their own point of view. Among the
sociologists, T.L. Smith, A.R. Desai, Dwight-Sanderson, Chapin etc. are
very important.
a. .According to Sanderson, ―Rural sociology is the sociology
of rural life in the rural environment‖.
b. Bertand says, ―Rural sociology is that study of human
relationships in rural environment‖.
c. A.R Desai defines rural sociology as, ―the science of rural
Self - Instructional Material society….It is the science of laws of the development of
rural society‖.

2
 d. ―The sociology of rural life is a study of rural population,
rural social organization and the rural social processes
operative in rural society.‖ —F. S. Chapin Nature and Scope of
e. ―Such sociological facts and principles as are derived from the study of Rural Sociology
rural social relationships may be referred to as rural sociology.‖ —T. L.
Smith
The above definitions have given a clear cut idea about rural
sociology. The definitions no doubt, include the theoretical as well as NOTES
applied aspect of rural sociology. Rural sociology clarifies the laws of rural
social life and points out the necessary conditions of its progress.
. In the words of N.L.Sims, ―The field of rural sociology is the
study of association among people living by or immediately depends upon
agriculture. Open country and village groupings and groups behavior are
its concern.‖
1.4 NATURE OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY
In India, rural sociology is treated as a part of sociology. Like
sociology it is also considered as a social science. It is precisely a
specialized field of sociology. Its nature is scientific. Actually to say, by
nature rural sociology is a science. Science in simple words refers to a
systematic body of knowledge. In case of rural sociology the rural
problems are systematically and logically studied.
The nature of Rural Sociology generally implies whether it can be
categorized under natural sciences or under arts. August Comte, the father
of Sociology, called Sociology as the queen of sciences. Some sociologists
have viewed sociology in terms of natural sciences. According to Pierre
Bourdieu, ―Sociology seems to me to have all the properties that define as
science…All sociologists worthy of the name agree on a common heritage
of concepts, methods and verification procedures‖. Most of the sociologists
opine that Sociology has all the characteristics of science and it is, no
doubt, a science. Since rural sociology is a specialized branch of
Sociology, therefore it is also a science.
Nevertheless, before furthering to elaborate rural sociology as a
science, it is essential to know what science is. Science is a method and
way of looking at things consisting of systematic steps like observation,
collection and classification of data, hypothesis, testing, theory and
conclusion. Science possesses six basic ingredients.
Firstly, science employs the scientific method. Secondly; it is a
study of facts. Thirdly scientific principles are universal. Fourthly,
scientific laws are vertical. Its validity can be examined at any time and it
proves true in every place. Fifthly, science discovers the cause-effect
relationship in its subject-matter and in this connection provides universal
and valid laws. Finally, science can make predictions on the basis of
universal and valid laws relating to the cause-effect relationship in any
subject. The function of science is based upon a faith in causality.
The nature or Rural Sociology as a science can be examined on the Self - Instructional Material
following grounds.

3
 1. Scientific Methodology: Rural Sociology utilizes scientific
Nature and Scope of methodology and hence, all the methods used in rural sociology are
scientific in nature.
Rural Sociology
2. Facts Accumulation: Rural Sociology is always founded on factual
study. It studies rural social relationship and activities in a factual manner.
It makes a scientific study of facts, general principles and theories involved
NOTES in them. It is also a known principle that science grows on the data
collected from the field and that a sociologist stands on the shoulders of
other sociologists as said by Robert Merton.
3. Empiricism: Unlike natural sciences that carry out experiments in the
closed laboratory for measurement and verification, rural sociology uses
the empirical method in the form of fieldwork. For a rural sociologist going
to the field carries immense significance as it helps him/her to gather
relevant data on the basis of which he will formulate theories and also it
provides an occasion for experimentation, observation and verification.
4. Precision and Accuracy: Two of the important features of scientific
investigation are precision and accuracy. The data that is collected should
reflect the exact existing situation at the time of observation. The principles
of rural sociology need to be proved true when verified. Their validity can
be examined by any one.
5. Discovery of cause-effect relationship: Like Sociology, Rural
Sociology also discovers a cause effect relationship between the
phenomena. For example, in the modern society, the rate of divorce
increases rapidly due to the family disorganization. Similarly, due to the
swift growth of population the rate of poverty and unemployment increases
in the rural society. In these examples, family disorganization and
population growth are two causes and divorce as well as poverty and
unemployment are their effects. Rural Sociology has discovered a cause
effect relation between the phenomena and population growth and divorce.
Thus Rural Sociology finds the causal relationship in social disorganization
and other incidents, activities and relationship in rural society and then
forms laws concerning them.
6. Predictions: Eventually, on the basis of cause-effect relationship rural
sociology becomes capable of anticipating the future and make predictions
concerning social relationship, activities, incidents etc. For example, if
disorganization in the families becomes pronounced, it can make
predictions concerning the number of divorces and many other things.
Knowing the cause-effect relationship, rural sociology can conclude ‗what
will be‘ on the basis of ‗what is‘.
Thus, it is evident from the above analysis that Rural Sociology, by
nature, is a science. It possesses all the essential characteristics of science.
However, there are plenty of objections against the scientific nature of
Self - Instructional Material rural sociology. Some sociologists have raised their views against the
nature of Rural Sociology as a science. They have vehemently objected to
the scientific nature of rural sociology on the basis of the following
grounds:
4
7. Lack of Objectivity: The first objection rose against the nature of rural
sociology being called a science is that, an unbiased and objective study
cannot be made in it. The chief reason of this is that the sociologists have Nature and Scope of
to play dual role of both the doctor and the patient in society. They are the Rural Sociology
members of that very society which they studies. From this point of view,
they have established a very secure relation with the contents, very
commencement of society. The sociologists study religion, family,
marriage, economic system etc. But hold their observation lacks the NOTES
ingredient of objectivity, which is so much indispensable to science.
8. Lack of experiment: There was also an objection that rural sociology
doesn‘t use Rural Sociology is not a science just because of the term,
science used in it. If science is used for physical sciences, then rural
sociology cannot assert to be a science. The term science is used for
physical sciences includes the dual process of experimentation and
prediction. Rural Sociology, in this context, is not a science because its
subject matter, the human relationship and behavior and they are abstract
in nature. One can neither see nor touch, neither weigh nor analyze in the
laboratory. It does not possess the instruments like the microscope and the
thermometer to measure the human behavior as science does. It is not
probable to validate and test the theory and the principles of rural
Sociology like science.
9. Lack of measurement: The third argument against the nature of Rural
Sociology as a science is that it is deficient in measurement. In natural
sciences, definite and standard measurement is used to measure and weigh.
The different measurements like units, grams, meters, centimeters etc, by
which the subject matter of natural sciences can be measured the units or
Rural Sociology. Due to the lack of measurement, the results of rural
sociology differ from time to time which is not in the case of natural
sciences.
10. Lack of Exactness: The fourth objection is that the discipline doesn‘t
provide exactness. It is not possible to follow the laws and principles of
rural sociology universally as the principles of natural science can be
followed. Its law and principles vary on the basis of time and place
concerned. For example, the rural social problems of one country may be
different from the other country. In India untouchability is a serious rural
problem but in America it is not so.
11. Lack of Prediction: The fifth and final objection against the nature or
Rural Sociology being called a science is that it is deficient in accurate
prediction. But due to the lack of objectivity and electivity, the principles
that are invented by rural sociology are not always acceptable.
Consequently, it becomes to predict any occurrence or phenomena or
forecast cannot be possible about the laws and principles of Rural
Sociology. For instance according to the standing principles of natural
science we can predict that the combination of two hydrogen molecules Self - Instructional Material
and one oxygen molecule produces water. But such type of prediction is
almost impossible in the field of Rural Sociology.
It is evident from the above analysis regarding the nature of Rural
Sociology, that it is very difficult to conclude whether, by nature it is
5
 science or not as there are dual and contrasting opinions both in favor and
Nature and Scope of against the scientific nature of rural sociology. There can be no doubt over
the question that rural sociology uses scientific techniques like observation,
Rural Sociology
experimentation, classification and tabulation in the collection and
interpolation of data systematically. The conclusion derived by the rural
sociology is based upon empirical realities. Therefore, rural sociology, no
NOTES doubt can definitely be a novel branch of science having the subject-matter
and methodology of its own.
Check your progress-1
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. What is meant by Rural sociology?
2. Name some Rural sociologists you know.

1.5 SCOPE OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY

Rural Sociology has taken the shape of an independent social science
with its own characteristic standpoint and methods. The subject matter of
Rural Sociology, according to Nelson, is the description and analysis of the
progress of various groups as they exist in the rural environment.
Similarly, Bertrand has treated Rural Sociology as the study of
human relationships in rural environment. This, again, emphasizes the
study of all types of social relationships existing in village setting.
There are two schools of thought on the scope of Rural Sociology.
According to the first school of thought, Rural Sociology provides only
scientific knowledge about rural society. It offers a composite picture of
rural life in its multifaceted dimensions.
So far as the second school of thought is concerned, Rural
Sociology addresses itself to the study of rural-urban contrast, rural-urban
continuum and acts as an instrument for bringing about rural
reconstruction.
The two schools of thought, however, have one point in common,
that is, they unanimously agree that Rural Sociology studies the various
aspects of rural life in a scientific and systematic manner. The scope of
Rural Sociology can be described as follows:
1. Rural Community
To quote Sanderson, ―A rural community consists of the social
interaction of the people and their institutions in the local area in which
they live…….‖ Rural Sociology is concerned with the study of the
characteristics, special features and ecology of the village community.
2. Rural Social Structure
Social structure is the most important basis of social life. Rural
Sociology studies the various components of rural social structure such as
Self - Instructional Material village community, family, caste etc. It also analyses the effect of religion,
customs and tradition on rural social structure.

6
3. Rural Social Institutions
Social, economic, political, educational and religious institutions in
the context of rural society constitute the subject matter of rural sociology. Nature and Scope of
Rural Sociology also analyses the sociological significance of these Rural Sociology
institutions.
4. Rural Culture
Culture is the total way of life shared by members of a society. It
can be conceived of as a tool kit that provides us with the ideas and NOTES
technology to deal with the common problems of everyday life. Rural
Sociology studies the various aspects of the cultural life of the ruralites
such as rural social customs, beliefs, values, attitudes, drives and interests.
5. Rural Social Change
Consequent upon the forces of industrialization, urbanization,
westernization, sanskritization and modernization, rural society is
undergoing profound changes. Rural Sociology studies the effect of these
processes of social change on rural life.
6. Rural Development Programmes
Rural Sociology evaluates the impact of various rural development
programmes such as Community Development Programme, Integrated
Rural Development Programme etc. It also studies the effect of various
social legislation measures on the life of the ruralites.
7. Agricultural Transformation
An important area of study for Rural Sociology is the process of
diffusion and adoption of agricultural technology among the rural farmers
and modernization of rural life as a result of improvement in the farming
technology.
Rural Sociology also deals with the extent of gains of the various
classes of rural community consequent upon the growth in the agricultural
economy.
8. Rural Demography
Demography is pre-eminently concerned with the statistical study
of the size, distribution and growth of population over a specific period of
time. Rural Sociology studies the causes of the growth of population and
its impact on rural development, rural to urban and rural to rural migration.
9. Rural-Urban differences
All rural sociologists recognize that the social life of the
community is divided into two distinct segments, rural and urban. Though
these segments interact among themselves, each is sufficiently distinct
from the other. Study of rural-urban differences, therefore, constitutes an
important aspect of the scope of rural sociology.
10. Rural Social Processes
Social processes refer to the repetitive forms of behaviour which
are commonly found in social life. Rural Sociology studies the various
social processes such as cooperation, accommodation, assimilation,
competition – and conflict which occur among individuals or groups in the Self - Instructional Material
rural context. It also deals with the effect of cooperation or conflict in
either uniting or dividing the various groups in the context of rural society.

7
 11. Rural reconstruction
Nature and Scope of Rural reconstruction signifies radical changes in village life in
general and renovation or improvement in the economic system in
Rural Sociology
particular. Most of the scholars today agree that the aim of rural sociologist
is to suggest concrete methods for rural reconstruction so that all round
development of village life becomes possible.
NOTES 12. Rural religion
Religion is a system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things
that unites believers into a moral community. Rural Sociology studies the
characteristics of religion in the rural context and its impact on the rural its
impact on the ruralites.
13. Land and agriculture
Rural Sociology studies problems and structure related to land and
agriculture. It deals with issues concerning land reforms, land ceiling and
agrarian relations at a greater length.
14. Rural stratification pattern
Rural stratification pattern constitutes an important area of the
scope of Rural Sociology. Social differentiation occurs in the rural setting
in the form of big farmers, small farmers, marginal farmers and landless
labourers.
15. Rural Politics
Consequent upon the process of modernization and change in the
structure and functions of the Panchayati Raj system, the pattern of rural
leadership has undergone considerable changes. Rural Sociology deals
with rural leadership and analyses the working of village lobby and caste in
the context of local/state/national level politics.
16. Rural social control
Social control consists of the forces and processes that encourage
conformity, including self- control, informal control and formal control.
Rural Sociology employs informal means of social control in the form of
family, neighbourhood, praise, blame, religion, customs, folkways, mores
etc. in regulating the behaviour of the ruralites.
17. Village development programmes
Study of rural development programmes forms an interesting theme
of the scope of rural sociology. The objective of these programmes is to
bring about rural welfare on a holistic note. Secondly, the programmes
make the ruralites active agents in the task of nation-building.
18. Environmental crisis
Rural Sociology also deals with environmental decay and erosion
of ecology.
19. Rural Pathology
Rural Sociology is concerned with the study of several socio-
economic problems such as rural poverty, rural unemployment, illiteracy,
Self - Instructional Material rural indebtedness, and incidence of crimes in rural areas etc.-their causes,
effects and remedial measures.
In fine, from the above analysis it is evident that the scope of Rural
Sociology is both wide and comprehensive. It encompasses all the aspects
of rural life in a scientific and systematic manner.
8
Check your progress -2 Nature and Scope of
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. Rural Sociology
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
3. What are the two schools of thought in Rural Sociology? NOTES

4. Write note on rural religion.

1.6 HISTORY OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY

1.6.1 Origin and Development of Rural Sociology
Rural sociology is relatively novel branch of sociology. It is
originated in the United States of America in the form of systematic
science in the year 1820.
In the year 1907, rural sociology seems to be started its growth. At
that time, American President Roosevelt feared that if no steps were taken
to ameliorate the condition of the rural folk, the United States would face
deterioration in moral life. He emphasized on the study of rural sociology
and rural social problem. He appointed the Country Life Commission
(C.L.C.) to study the rural social problems and recommend remedial
measures.
In 1911, a Rural Sociology Department was established in
American Sociological Society. In 1912, the CLC findings were referred to
the American Sociological Society in its annual meeting held in 1912. In
1916 the first text book on sociology was published by J.N Gillettee. In
1917 Rural Sociology Department was opened in American Sociological
Institute for survey and research on rural societies. Consequently, huge
data on American rural life poured out in the form of dissertations and
research monographs.
In 1919, a Rural Sociology Department was established under the
auspices of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics under the leadership of
Dr. C.J. Golpin. The name was later changed to ―Rural Population and
Rural Life.‖ A quarterly named ―Rural Sociology‖ was published in 1936.
Between 1918 and 1925 several important books were published. A
research journal entitled Rural Sociology was brought out in 1935 and John
M. Gillette published a text book on rural sociology in 1960.
Eminent sociologists like James Michel Williams, Warren H.
Wilson, Newell L. Sims contributed significantly to the study of American
rural society. These sociologists used historical data and statistics along
field interview to find out empirical reality about American country life.
The efforts of these early sociologists resulted in the emergence of
rural sociology as a separate discipline of study. Evaluating the origin and
growth of rural sociology in the United States, A. R. Desai observes, ―In
the USA rural sociology, though, a new science and still in a state of Self - Instructional Material
immaturity, is commanding wider and wider interest among social thinkers
today. More than 800 professors and research workers are engaged in
developing that science in that country.‖

9
 The study of rural sociology was also introduced in the American
Nature and Scope of Universities. Reputed scholars like Charles Handerson of Chicago
University, Butterfield of Michigan University, H. Giddings of Columbia
Rural Sociology
University, Thomas Nixon Carver of Harvard University made significant
contribution in the field of rural sociology. American scholars of rural
sociology were sent to different countries for the study of rural problems.
NOTES The League of Nations sponsored a huge number of studies in the form of
monographs. Subsequently the UNO, UNESCO and FAO have profoundly
contributed to the rapid development of rural sociology.
A European Society for Rural Sociology was formed in 1957 and
similar organisations were started in Japan in 1957 for the study of rural
societies and their problems. Apart from the study of rural problems,
studies in rural social institutions, rural social change, rural education, rural
health and rural-urban relationship came under the scope of rural
sociology. In this way rural sociology gradually emerged as an important
discipline of sociological study in the USA.
The Second World War caused heavy destruction and damage to
human society which needed reconstruction. As a result rural sociology got
an impetus in USA.
In response to these critiques of rural sociology a new sub-
discipline of sociology emerged. The study of the community life of rural
peoples this sub-discipline known as sociology of agriculture. The
sociology of agriculture also distinguished itself from peasant studies on
the grounds. This conceptual shift during the early 1970s also helped in
bringing sociologists working on agrarian issues in the western countries.
1.6.2 Development of Rural Sociology in India
Rural sociology is a new branch of sociology with studies being
carried out from 19th century. The prominent scholars engaged in rural
sociology during this period were- Sir Henry Maine, Etton, Stemann,
Baden Powell, Slater and Pallock etc.
In the middle of nineteenth century society underwent a
metamorphic transformation. Rural society and rural economy had been
largely affected by urbanisation.
There was large scale migration of rural population to the cities.
Social problems rising alarmingly led to serious thinking by scholars. In
this regard A.R. Desai rightly observes, ―The impact of the capitalist –
industrial civilization upon the rural economy and the social structure in
various parts of the world forced the attention of scholars to the study of
the trends of rural social development.‖
Serious scholars like Maurer, Maine, Gierke, Elton, Stemann,
Baden Powell, Ashley, Pollok, Lewinski, and Guiraud have contributed
significantly to the study of rural sociology. Research scholars and
Self - Instructional Material university professors published books and research papers on the problems
of rural society and made rich contributions to the growth of rural
sociology.Before independence, also, many studies were conducted about
village life in India. In 1926, Royal Commission on Agriculture was set up.

10
World War I saw agrarian crisis and began to draw the attention of the
scholars towards rural India. George Keating‘s and Harold Mann in
Bombay, Gilbert Slater in Madras and E.V. Lucas in Punjab initiated Nature and Scope of
intensive studies of particular villages. Rural Sociology
In the meanwhile, Viswa Bharati set up a Rural Reconstruction
Board. In 1932 Scottish Church College, Calcutta published accounts of
village life. But all these studies before independence remained isolated.
Only after 1947, our nation decided to have planned development. NOTES
After independence, during the first five-year plan, strategies were
made for the upliftment of the condition of rural people and literature on
rural society has been on the increase.
Rural Sociology evolved into a systematic sub-discipline of
Sociology only in the middle of the nineteenth century. The pioneering
work in this field was The Systematic Source Book in Rural Sociology,
edited by Sorokin, Zimmerman and Galpin.
In the year 1955, prominent village studies by famous sociologists
were brought out in India. It was suggested that there was a need of rural
reconstruction and welfare. Therefore community development
programmes came into the scene. Planning Commission has introduced
several projects, land reforms, co-operative movement, five-year plans,
Panchayat Raj etc.
These plans and programmes have contributed a lot towards the
development of rural sociology in India. Different sociologists have made
their original contributions in the field of rural sociology in India. Among
them are Dr. D. N. Majumdar, Prof. N. K. Bose, Prof. M.N. Srinivas, S. C.
Dube etc. are the pioneers.
In the Indian context Sir Henry S. Maine is the pioneer in the field
of rural sociology. The beginning of a systematic study of Indian rural
society dates back to the publication of his two significant books on rural
life in India, viz, Ancient Law (1861) and Ancient Society (1877). Maine
who first made the systematic study of rural society in India and advanced
the theory that kinship is the mainstay of Indian rural society.
During the days of the British East India Company British
administrators turned sociologists and anthropologists made substantial
contribution to the study of rural society in India. On the basis of data
compiled by the East India Company‘s officials in Madras Presidency,
Holt Mackenzie reported about the existence of village communities in
Northern India.
Charles Metcalf, a member of the Governor General‘s Council gave
vivid description of Indian village life. The sociological studies of the
British officials revealed the village communities as autonomous
sociological isolates and highlighted patterns of land tenure, customary
laws and the functioning of peasants and artisans.
After the First World War the British Government in India,
provoked by recurrent famines, undertook serious studies on the Indian Self - Instructional Material
rural life. The report of the Royal Commission on Agriculture proved to be
a monumental work on the problems of village communities. Subsequent
studies on village communities were on economic perspectives.

11
 Economists like Gilbert Slater extended the idea of economic
Nature and Scope of survey of villages as a part of the academic activities of the University of
Madras in 1916. These villages were resurveyed in 1936 and 1961. Harold
Rural Sociology
Mann and G. Keatings in Bombay and E.V. Lucas in Punjab started
intensive survey of several villages and attempted an assessment of their
general agricultural problems.
NOTES Both sociologists and anthropologists contributed significantly to
the rural studies. Notable among them are D. N. Majumdar. N.K. Bose, R.
K. Mukherjee, S. C Dude, F. G. Bailey and G.S. Ghurye.
Of late Rural Sociology has been included in the syllabi for
undergraduate studies in Agriculture Engineering, Home Science,
Economics and Agriculture. It has also been introduced as a major field of
specialisation at the P.G. level in some Indian Universities.
Check your progress - 3
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
5. When and where Rural Sociology was originated?
6. What are the books published by Sir Henry S. Maine?
1.7 LET US SUM UP
Rural sociology is a field of sociology that is connected with the
study of social life in rural areas. Rural Sociology has taken the shape of an
independent social science with its own characteristic standpoint and
methods. There are two schools of thought on the scope of Rural Sociology
were: A) It provides only scientific knowledge about rural society. It offers
a composite picture of rural life in its multifaceted dimensions. B) It
addresses itself to the study of rural-urban contrast, rural-urban continuum
and acts as an instrument for bringing about rural reconstruction. Rural
sociology is relatively novel branch of sociology originated in the United
States of America in the form of systematic science in the year 1820.
American President Roosevelt emphasized on the study of rural sociology
and rural social problem and appointed the Country Life Commission
(C.L.C.) to study the rural social problems and recommend remedial
measures. It‘s a landmark in the history of rural sociology. In India, Before
independence, also, many studies were conducted about village life in
India. After independence, during the first five-year plan, strategies were
made for the upliftment of the condition of rural people and literature on
rural society has been on the increase. Rural sociology has been introduced
as a major field in Indian universities.
In this unit, you have studied the meaning and definition of Rural
Sociology. You have discussed the nature and scope of Rural Sociology in
a detailed manner. And also the history of Rural Sociology has been
discussed.
Self - Instructional Material
1.8 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. Define - Rural Sociology.
2. Write down the Nature of Rural Sociology.
3. Explain the Scope of Rural Sociology.
12
 4. Explain in detail about the History of Rural Sociology.
1.9 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Rural sociology is a field of sociology that is connected with the Nature and Scope of
study of social life in rural areas. Rural sociology is centered Rural Sociology
on the rural community life.
2. T.L. Smith, A.R. Desai, Dwight-Sanderson, Chapin
3. According to the first school of thought, Rural Sociology NOTES
provides only scientific knowledge about rural society. It offers
a composite picture of rural life in its multifaceted dimensions.
The second school of thought is concerned; Rural Sociology
addresses itself to the study of rural-urban contrast, rural-urban
continuum and acts as an instrument for bringing about rural
reconstruction.
4. Religion is a system of beliefs and practices related to sacred
things that unites believers into a moral community. Rural
Sociology studies the characteristics of religion in the rural
context and its impact on the rural its impact on the ruralites.
5. Rural Sociology is originated in the United States of America in
the form of systematic science in the year 1820.
6. Ancient Law (1861) and Ancient Society (1877).
1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Chitamber, JB (1990) Introduction to Rural Sociology. Wiley
Eastern Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
2. Desai, AR (1978) Rural Sociology in India. Popular Prakashan,
Bombay.
3. Sharan, AK (1999) Social Psychology. Commonwealth Publishers.
New Delhi
4. Desai, A.R. 1959 Social Background of Indian Nationalism.
Popular Prakashan, Bombay.
5. Dube, S.C. 1955. Indian Village. Cornell University Press: New
York
6. Bertrand, Alvin Lee, ed. Rural sociology: an analysis of
contemporary rural life. McGraw-Hill, 1958.
7. Gillette, John Morris. Constructive rural sociology. Sturgis &
Walton Company, 1915.
8. Mukherjee, Ramkrishna 1979. Sociology of Indian Sociology.
Allied Publishers, Bombay.
9. Singh, Yogendra. 1979. ―On the History of Sociology in India‖ in
Mohini Mullick (ed.) Social Enquiry: Goals and Approaches.
Manohar, Delhi.
10. Srinivas, M.N. and Panini 1986. ―The Development of Sociology
and Social Anthropology in India‖ in T.K. Oommen & Partha N.
Mukherji (eds) Indian Sociology Reflections of Introspections,
Popular Prakashan, Bombay. Emergence of Sociology in India. Self - Instructional Material

13
 UNIT II - IMPORTANCE OF THE
STUDY OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Importance of the study of Rural Sociology
2.4 Patterns of village settlements
2.4.1 Factors affecting the types of Rural Settlements

2.5 Rural Urban contrast

2.6 Rurbanism
2.6.1 Philosophy of Rurbanism
2.7 Peasant Studies
2.7.1 Peasant: Meaning
2.7.2 Types of Peasants
2.7.3 Peasant Movement
2.7.4 Peasant Movements in India
2.8 Agrarian Class Structure
2.8.1 Model of Agrarian Class Structure
2.8.2 Classification of Agrarian Population
2.9 Let Us Sum Up
2.10 Unit- End- Exercises
2.11 Answer to check your Progress
2.12 Suggested Readings
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The village society is characterized as a highly static society and
village people excessively immobile. The importance of rural sociology
has assumed greater significance to study and meet the challenges of rural
people. Generally the human settlements are considered as points of
population concentration. Settlement refers to the grouping of people and
houses into hamlets, village's towns, and cities." Daniel,P & Hopkinson.M.
Rural and urban areas are generally similar in terms of human interaction
but differ most widely when diversity and choice are issues. Rurbanism is a
silly buzzword for what one might call the ―urban-rural confluence.‖
Peasant movement is a social movement involved with the agricultural
policy. It has a long history that can be traced to the numerous peasant
uprisings that occurred in various regions of the world throughout human
history. In India peasant movements are generally classified into pre-
British, British or colonial and post-independence. However, the agrarian
social structure is still marked by diversities. The agrarian history of
different regions of India has been quite diverse and the trajectories of
development have also been varied during post-independence period.
In this unit you will learn the importance of the study of Rural
Sociology. You will study the patterns of village settlements, Rural Urban
contrast, Rurbanism, Peasant Studies with peasant movements and
Agrarian Class Structure in detail.

14
2.2 OBJECTIVES Importance of the Study of
Rural Sociology
After going through the unit you will be able to;
 understand the Importance of the study of Rural Sociology
 understand the Patterns of village settlements in Rural
NOTES
Sociology
 understand the Agrarian Class Structure of Rural Sociology
 Gain the knowledge about the concept of Rural Urban contrast
and Rurbanism in Rural Sociology.
2.3 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF RURAL
SOCIOLOGY
Some of the significance of rural sociology is as follows:
The village society is characterized as a highly static society and
village people excessively immobile. However, this kind of common
understanding has undergone a tremendous change with the introduction of
Five-Year Plans and the revolution in mass media.
The earlier village life, which did not have any political and
economic power, has now acquired adult franchise, democracy and
accelerating transformation. During the last five decades, rural societies
have witnessed massive changes. The village life today has reached a
stage, where the glamour of urban life has made inroads in villages. It is in
this context; we shall now evaluate and assess the significance of rural
sociology.
1. Formation of Class and Transformation of Power

The relevance and significance of rural sociology is largely due to

political transformation and the resultant class formation. This uneven
development has resulted in conflict and contradiction at village level,
besides giving rise to communalism and bringing non-secular into power.
2. Impact of Panchayati Raj
Yet another reason for the significance of rural sociology is that of
the new power given to Panchayati Raj. The structure and functioning of
Panchayati Raj and the policy of reservation to the scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes have led to transformation in village life. This needs the
application of scientific approach to the comprehension of village
community.
3. Poverty Elimination Programmes
A number of poverty removal programmes, both at the central and
state level, require an in-depth understanding of the village community.
The programmes introduced the need of new perspective on rural Self - Instructional Material
sociology for churning out successful stories of development.
4. Changing Eco-system and Environmental Dilemma
The forest and forest land is passing through environmental
erosion. The debate on development and sustainable environment has
assumed new significance in the country. It is argued that plans of

15
development should not be made at the cost of environmental degradation
and disequilibrium in eco-system.
There is a consensus in the country that development, in all
conditions, should be eco-friendly. The significance of rural sociology
assumes importance in the present situation of the vast development and
environmental decay in rural life. Rural sociology, like scientific social
science, uses concepts along with theoretical formats, which can be of
substantial importance for the development of rural life.
5. Multi-Ethnicities
Our world is a land of diversities and it is essential here to under-
stand the village life thoroughly. It is here that the branch of rural
sociology assumes crucial importance.
6. NGOs and their Role
NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) occupy a pivotal role in
the implementation of developmental plans. With the decentralization of
power, the role of NGOs in the developmental process has substantially
increased. Though the NGOs are not the professional holders of the
knowledge of rural sociology, they definitely apply the perspective of rural
sociology for the study of village life.
7. Widening Horizons of Rural Sociology
About 50 years back, rural sociology consisted of the study of rural
life and its composition. At present, these features of village life have
changed. In its new situation, village life includes agrarian relations, land
reforms, agricultural laborers, wage reforms, stratification, rural leadership,
environment, peasant movements and struggles. Such a widening zone of
rural sociology provides attractive feedback to an attractive rural
development.
8. Social Science Research as a Major Growth Industry towards
Village Economy
Sociologists and social anthropologists were conducted extensive
studies in the field of rural sociology in the beginning of 1950s. The main
concern of these studies was the examination of interrelationships between
different dimensions of rural organizations. We now have reached a stage
where some serious research is required. Whatever rich data we have in the
domain of rural sociology, should be put to theoretical construction.
Though, we have certain hypothetical formulations regarding rural
life such as caste, mobility, dominant caste, etc., efforts should be made to
bring these findings closer to students and social workers. This makes the
study of rural sociology all the more significant for developing certain
hypotheses and laws for improving the standard of life of rural people. It is
in this context people consider social science research as a major growth
industry in the world.
9. Growth in Urbanization, Industrialization and Migration
The speedy industrialization and urbanization have pushed the rural
people to urban market. The burden on land and unemployment at the rural
level has compelled the rural population to migrate to urban areas. The
importance of rural sociology has assumed greater significance to study
and meet the challenges of rural people.

16
Check your progress -1 Importance of the Study of
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. Rural Sociology
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. The significance of rural sociology is that of the new power NOTES
given to --------------
2. The speedy industrialization and urbanization have pushed the
rural people ---------
3. We have certain hypothetical formulations regarding rural life
such as ---------------
2.4 PATTERNS OF VILLAGE SETTLEMENTS
Generally the human settlements are considered as points of
population concentration. Entomologically the word fiends its roots in the
old English "Self" (Seat) or "Sedan" (to place) and is not a specialized
scientific term. It has as many as eleven meanings (Chamvers's -1961) of
which two important from geographer's point of view, "a settled colony"
(Group of houses where people dwell) and " the act of setting" (forming a
permanent residence). But as is evident from Stone's review, the term has
been employed to mean several things in geographical literatures.
However the human settlements are classified as Urban and Rural
on the basis of Socio-Economic characteristics, Occupational Structure,
Way of life and Population Size etc. The definitions given by some of the
scholars shed light on the meaning of settlements.
According to Brunches (1952) "Settlement is the topographic
expression of the grouping and arrangement of two fundamental elements,
houses, and highways." In his statement three things appear to be dominant
in defining a settlement viz, topographic expression this means the
settlements as a physical entity houses i.e., dwelling for man, highways this
appears to a network system for movement of people. This also shows that
Brunches observed such settlements which are / were connected by major
roads. Dicken and Pitts said, "Settlement refers to the grouping of people
and houses into hamlets, village's towns, and cities." Daniel, P &
Hopkinson .M.
The patterns of settlement identified are as given below:
1. Isolated Farmstead
In this form the individual lives on his farm with his
farmland surrounding him. “His neighbor may be a few miles
from him depending on the size of their respective farms.
Adjacent to his dwelling he keeps his livestock, bar, farm
equipment, harvested produce and other parts commodities.”
2. Village
This pattern of settlement comprises of dwellings of rural Self - Instructional Material
people “concentrated together with their farmland outlying
their cluster dwelling of village. The number of dwelling will
vary and will indicate the size of the village. Examples, of the
village pattern of settlement due to be found in most of the
countries of the East, where such predominates.”

17
 3. Line Village
In such a type of village houses are located along a road,
water way or artery of transportation, each with adjoining strips
of farm land belongs in shape extending away from the road.
Residences are thus close and easily accessible to one another
and at the same time are located on their respective farms. This
pattern of human settlement may be witnessed along canals in
“Thailand, in certain parts of Canada along the St. Lawrance
River, in French Canadian settlement in Maine and Louisiana
in the U.S.A. and is characteristic of the French land tenure
pattern, many villages in France and Germany are also of this
type.”
4. Round Village or Circular Pattern
In this type “houses are arranged in a circle enclosing a
central area with the houses and yard at the apex of triangular
plot. In this way, houses are closer together without creating a
corresponding greater length in the tract of farm land.” Such a
pattern can easily be seen in some villages in Israel where
irrigated land is very limited.‖
5. Cross-Roads and Market Center Settlements
This pattern of settlement is common in various places
trough out the world. It is “based on economic factors of location
for simply and distribution of goods, these settlement provide
needed products and commodities, such as prepared food stuffs,
refreshments services such as petrol station, repair shop, etc.
market center settlement, therefore, are predominantly is habited
by Merchants who handle agricultural products, bankers,
shopkeepers and other.” In such centers farmers usually do not
reside unless their farmland is adjacent. Generally it consists of
shops along the line of the road.
6. Hamlets
Small village located away from villages or on the fringes
of larger villages are called hamlets and they do not possess
adequate supplies usually and services that may be more
available in the larger village.
7. Other Patterns
In addition to these other types of settlements exist to serve
specific function. For, instance, in India at points of religious
pilgrimage or a church is usually built along with dwelling places
for those who visit and worship. Similarly, there are historical
and other places of tourist interest around which settlements have
come to exist.
2.4.1 Factors Affecting The Types of Rural Settlements
There are two factors, physical and cultural, responsible for various
settlement types in rural areas. They are also known as agglomerating
factors or deglomerating factors. In physical factors relief, fertility of soil,
amount of rainfall, dry land and defense are included, while in cultural
factors landuse, land tenure, cropping pattern, clan and caste system, social
relationships and means of transportation are included.
The compact farm villages are common features of great fertile
river valley plains. Similarly in flood affected area, few elevated sites are
18
also having compact settlements. Settlements are generally found near Importance of the Study of
water bodies. Availability of different sources of water gives rise to Rural Sociology
compact settlements. In low water table area where the construction of
wells is costly, settlements around these wells are compact. However in the
high water table area where wells can be dug easily, hamlets, semi-
NOTES
compact settlements are commonly found.
On uniform relief, the settlements tended to concentrate in compact
form, while in rugged land dispersed settlements are found. Also in the
areas of harsh climate and infertile soil dispersed settlements are more
common.
Cultural factors such as land tenure system of agriculture, peaceful
conditions, and social customs in relation to untouchable give rise to
dispersion. Rail road network attract the settlers to settle in dispersed
manner. Similarly modern technology, developments in agricultural,
political or administrative decisions, religious or social conditions are also
important in the study of settlement types.
The settlements of a region may be classified on the basis of their
size, shape, siting, time and function. Rural settlements are usually
classified into two extreme types i.e. compact and dispersed with number
of intermediate stages. In the former settlement type, houses are piled at
one place or well-knit along streets while in the latter every family
residence remains scattered in the village in association with its respective
form (Metizen, 1895
Check your progress - 2
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
4. What is Hamlets?
5. "Settlement refers to the grouping of people and houses into
hamlets, village's towns, and cities." Who said?
2.5 RURAL URBAN CONTRAST
Many families and individuals find themselves, at least at some
point, questioning the advantages of rural versus urban life. Quality of life
is one of the central issues to consider in any comparison between rural
versus urban living. While a case can be made for either location as being
the best place to live, it is worthwhile to consider how these two options,
rural versus urban, are similar and different. Important factors such as the
capacity to make general choices, diversity, health, and employment
concerns all influence both sides of the comparison and although each both
rural and urban living offer great benefits, they both have a seemingly
equal number of drawbacks. Rural and urban areas are generally similar in
terms of human interaction but differ most widely when diversity and Self - Instructional Material
choice are issues.

There are a number of positive as well as negative factors that

contribute the overall quality of life in urban centers and if there is any
general statement to be made about urban living, it is that there is a great
deal of diversity and choice. In urban areas, there are many more choices
19
people can make about a number of aspects of their daily lives. For
instance, in urban areas, one is more likely to be able to find many
different types of food and this could lead to overall greater health since
there could be a greater diversity in diet. In addition, those in urban areas
enjoy the opportunity to take in any number of cultural or social events as
they have a large list to choose from. As a result they have the opportunity
to be more cultured and are more likely to encounter those from other
class, cultural, and ethnic groups.
Pollution (noise and atmospheric) is an issue that could impact the
overall quality of life. In addition to this, overpopulation concerns can also
contribute to a decrease in the standard of living. Parents have a number of
choices available for the education of their children and can often select
from a long list of both public and private school districts, which leads to
the potential for better education. It is also worth noting that urban areas
offer residents the possibility to choose from a range of employment
options at any number of companies or organizations. Aside from this,
urbanites have better access to choices in healthcare as well and if they
suffer from diseases they have a number of specialists to choose from in
their area. According to one study conducted in Canada, rural populations
show poorer health than their urban counterparts, both in terms of general
health indicators (i.e. standardized mortality, life expectancy at birth, infant
mortality) and in terms of factors such as motor vehicle accidents and
being overweight. This could be the result of less reliance on vehicles in
urban areas as well as greater emphasis on walking. Despite the
conclusions from this study, however, there are a number of drawbacks to
urban living as well, although, the life expectancy in cities may be higher.
Rural places do not offer the same level of choice and in very
isolated areas and one might be forced to commute long distances to find
even a remote selection of the diversity found in urban centers. Still,
despite this lack of choice, there are a number of positive sides to rural
living in terms of quality of life. For instance, living in a rural area allows
residents to enjoy the natural world more easily instead of having to go to
parks. In addition, people do not have to fight with the daily stresses of
urban life such as being stuck in traffic, dealing with higher rates of crime,
and in many cases, paying higher taxes. These absences of stressors can
have a great effect on the overall quality of life and as one researcher notes,
―People living in rural and sparsely populated areas are less likely to have
mental health problems than those living in urban areas and may also be
less likely to relapse into depression or mental illness once they have
recovered from these in more densely populated areas‖.
The lack of daily stress found in cities from external factors (traffic,
long lines, feeling caged, etc) has much to do with this. While there may
not be a large number of stores and restaurants to choose from, those in
rural areas have the benefit of land upon which to grow their own food,
which is much healthier. Although urban populations have large numbers
of social networks and networking opportunities, rural communities offer
residents the ability to have long-lasting and more personal relationships
since they encounter the same people more frequently. While there are not
as many schools to choose from and sometimes rural schools are not
funded as well as some others, children can grow up knowing their
classmates and experience the benefits of smaller classrooms.
20
 One of the drawbacks to living in a rural area, however, is that Importance of the Study of
unlike urban areas, residents do not have the best opportunity to choose Rural Sociology
from a range of employment options. While they can commute to larger
towns, this gets expensive and is not as convenient as working close to
their residence. In general, if there is any statement to be made about the
NOTES
quality of life of rural living, it is that there is a greater ability to connect
with people and the landscape. The quality of life in urban areas is similar
to that in rural areas in that both involve a high degree of socialization,
even if on a cursory level. Where they differ most noticeably is in the
availability of choices and diversity, especially when vital factors
(healthcare, education, and employment options) are concerned.

2.6 RURBANISM
Rurbanism is a silly buzzword for what one might call the ―urban-
rural confluence.‖ In other words, it‘s what happens when city dwellers
leave their metropolitan environments for the country and bring their
cultural interests with them.
Belief in or advocacy of the interaction and inseparability of urban
and rural life. The New Rurbanism," investigates the dialectical
relationship between city and countryside.
The term Rurbanism was coined by Ann Marie Gardner to describe
the urban-rural confluence, she saw the new culture merging rural and
urban seems to work out fine in food, fashion and interior design.
Conversion of rural to "Rurban" and "peri-urban" settlements is the
most rapid form of urbanization in India and other historically rural areas
of the world. Rurbanism has the progressive aim of bringing urban
amenities to rural people and places; however there is a limited record of
successful design accomplishments in this realm.
Rurbanism the concept is based on the idea of being a hybrid
between town and country (Rural). According to philosopher Armen
Avanessian, to whom this issue‘s special feature is dedicated, ―Today, city
and country (side) must by necessity be thought as technological and
computational.‖ He argues that cities today should be viewed more from
the perspective of the countryside, and that this countryside is as far from
―natural‖ as the rest of nature.
The concept of Rurban living or ―Rurbanism‖ evolved with the
growing need for developing and living in an environment devoid of all the
negative aspects of urbanism such as bad air quality, water quality, heat
island effects, green house effects and a disconnect with nature.
2.6.1 Philosophy of Rurbanism
The need for this has arisen because of the urban people's want to Self - Instructional Material
enjoy a rural atmosphere while not having to give up on most of the
comforts and commodities of their urban life. Rurbanism has evolved as a
hybrid solution which connects the positive aspects of both worlds. The
enthusiasts of Rurbanism believe that the current model of industrialization
and urbanisation is not sustainable. A change in the way of living is

21
necessary to negate effects such as unnecessary consumerism, stress and
unhealthy life styles - just to name a few. They believe that this not only
brings people close to nature, but also creates a future for our subsequent
generations, making certain that they too can reap the same benefits that
we have enjoyed from nature.
A typical rural community strives to attain sustainability in some or
all of the following areas without compromising on basic comforts and
luxuries of life:
Air
Rurban communities strive to preserve and improve both indoor
and outdoor air quality. To improve outdoor air quality, a rurban
community design may include lots of plantations and landscape planning
without disturbing the natural topography of the surrounding area.
Water
One of the prime facets of Rurbanization is conservation and
responsible usage of domestic water. There are typically two sources from
which water is collected - underground and rain water. Before designing
any Rurban community, its water needs are properly assessed as per local
or national building codes. Then, groundwater table assessments are
carried out through proper surveying. At the same time, rain water
harvesting capacity is also taken into account. Finally, the total rain water
harvested and ground water extraction is equated to the total water
requirement.
To minimize the total requirement of water needed within the
communities, highly efficient plumbing fixtures, plus proper storm water
drainage design, Hydroponics combined with systematic techniques for
growing plants, and water metering at the source are some of the ways to
reduce the demand. But the eventual goal of Rurbanization is to instill the
sense of responsibility towards the usage of water in the minds of the
community members.
Water sustainability measures may include treating Sewage water
with techniques such as bio-remediation or Phytoremediation and using the
treated water for agricultural purposes within the community.
Earth
Farming is something that is partly or fully incorporated into the
everyday life of the residents in a rurban community. Permaculture is an
essential part of Rurbanization and Rurban systems. Farming and
agriculture activities are carried out within the site. The agricultural
produce may be divided within the residents for consumption. Some
communities also incorporate natural or Organic farming into their farming
techniques.
Energy
Another goal of Rurbanization is Reducing carbon emissions and
using Renewable energy to satisfy part or all of the energy needs in the
community. To achieve this, an energy analysis is carried out to measure
energy requirements and consumption patterns throughout a typical year
and renewable energy systems are designed accordingly. Alternative

22
energy sources such as solar photovoltaic technology, bio- Importance of the Study of
gas generation, wind and hydel power may be used. Rural Sociology
Shelter
Shelters in these communities will not necessarily mean it will be in
the exact style or use the same materials as a rural home. Remember, this is NOTES
a "Rurban Community" - a place where both worlds collide and try to
adjust as much as possible with each other‘s' spheres.
Shelters in rurban communities are usually pertain to a proper and
appropriate design of living habitats and homes. Appropriate design
implies the design of homes to minimize the built up area without
compromising on comfort and luxury. It is a type of architectural design
which takes into consideration comfort, luxury and expectations factors of
the residents yet also other environmental factors such as: sun path,
shading design, protecting local landscape and trees to reduce the heat
island effect, and building habitats which complement the existing ground
features. Usage of Appropriate technology and reducing exaggerated living
is what these communities strive to achieve.
Food
This aspect of Rurbanization includes cultivating, harvesting and
consumption of agricultural produce of farming by the residents of the
community, thereby reducing reliance upon external sources of food, while
- at the same time, maintaining the quality of the food by using organic
farming methods and appropriate food preservation techniques. Also,
domesticating farm animals such as cows and goat for milk is a part of this
system.
People
It is believed by the proponents of Rurbanization that, though, there
may be many methods of achieving the above mentioned goals, what is
needed first and foremost is a change in the mindset of the people. It is
people that have to think in a responsible and sustainable way. To achieve
this mission, these communities normally conduct workshops and training
sessions where community members are informed about technologies and
what it means to be responsible and also local farmers and workmen are
trained to undertake methods such as organic farming and other
technologies that are incorporated into a rurban community.
Check your progress - 3
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
6. In what way rural contrast with urban?
7. What is called rurbanism? Self - Instructional Material

23
2.7 PEASANT STUDIES
2.7.1 PEASANT: MEANING
People who depend on agriculture are differentiated in terms of
their relationship with the land such as owners of the land, absentee
landlords, supervisory agriculturists, owner-cultivators, share-croppers,
tenants, and landless laborers. In general, and in local language, they are
known as ―Kisans‖. The word ―kisan‖ is often translated as ―peasant‖ in
the academic literature that is published in English.
According to Gough, Peasants are ―people who engage in
agriculture or related production with primitive means and who surrender
part of their produce to landlords or to agents of state‖.
From the mid-1980s a few scholars have started using the term
―farmer‖ instead of ―peasant‖. According to Jan Breman, a peasant is one
who tills the land.
2.7.2 TYPES OF PEASANTS
According to Doshi and Jain rural sociologists have given different
classification of peasants. The classification varies from situation to
situation.
One of the modest categorizations of the peasants is discussed
below:
i. On the Basis of Land Ownership
Daniel Thorner has taken land ownership as the basis for
classifying the peasants. The peasants who have the document of land
ownership in their name are the Maliks, those who do not own the land
ownership document (patta) but cultivate the land are the Kisans and the
tillers of the land, i.e., the agricultural laborers, are known as the
Mazdoors.
ii. On the Basis of the Size of the Land Holdings
Some State Governments have classified the types of peasants on
the basis of the size of their landholdings.
Accordingly, the classification is as follows:
a. Rich Peasants
Peasants who own more than 15 acres of land.
b. Small Peasants
Peasants who possess land between the size of 2.5 and 5 acres.
c. Marginal Farmers
Farmers who own land which is less than 2.5 acres.
d. Landless Peasants
These peasants earn their livelihood by working as manual laborers
in agricultural lands of others as they do not possess any land. They work
as sharecroppers and sub-tenants.
iii. Class-based Classification of Peasants
According to Utsa Patnaik, class differentiation exists within
peasantry. Growth of capitalism in rural peasantry has resulted in the
exploitation of peasantry that has taken a class character. According to her,
there are two categories of peasants: one the big landlords and the second
the agricultural laborers, who also include the sharecroppers.

24
iv. Peasant Classification on the Basis of Resource Ownership Importance of the Study of
Some sociologists have categorized the peasants on the basis of Rural Sociology
several other resources such as utilization of loans, tenancy, ownership of
assets, credit from bank, and repayment capacity of loans.
There are five types of peasant groups according to K.L. Sharma:
NOTES
i. Owner-cultivator.
ii. Largely owner-cultivator.
iii. Largely tenant-cultivator.
iv. Tenant-cultivator.
v. Totally poor peasant.
In addition to the classification of sociologists, there are economists
who have classified peasants into (i) landlords, (ii) rich peasants, (iii)
middle class peasants, (iv) poor peasants and (v) agricultural peasants.
However, in any classification of peasants, land tenancy and land size play
an important role. Thus, both these combined together play an important
role in determining the criteria for peasant classification.

2.7.3 PEASANT MOVEMENT

Peasant movement is a social movement involved with the
agricultural policy. It has a long history that can be traced to the numerous
peasant uprisings that occurred in various regions of the world throughout
human history.
Anthony Pereira, a political scientist, has defined a peasant
movement as a "social movement made up of peasants (small landholders
or farm workers on large farms), usually inspired by the goal of improving
the situation of peasants in a nation or territory".
A peasant movement is defined as a relatively organized and
continuous collective action involving violence, or the threat of violence
for securing more share in the control or ownership of land and its produce
and to abolish injustices, which have arisen thereof.
2.7.4 PEASANT MOVEMENTS IN INDIA
According to Ghanshyam Shah, in India peasant movements are
generally classified into pre-British, British or colonial and post-
independence. According to Oommen there are certain movements which
continue despite the changes in the political power.
These are the movements which started in the pre-independence era
and are still continued though with different goals. The classification is
also based on time span as the structure of agrarian system also differs
from time to time so also the peasant movements.
The economic policies of British adversely affected the Indian Self - Instructional Material
peasants the British Govt. used to protect the landlords and money lenders,
they exploited the peasants. The peasants rose in revolt against this
injustice on many occasions .The peasants in Bengal formed their union
and revolted against the compulsion of cultivating indigo.
Peasant movement in India was arose during the British colonial
period, when economic policies characterized in the ruin of traditional
25
handicrafts leading, change of ownership and overcrowding of land, and
massive debt and impoverishment of peasantry. This led to peasant
uprisings during the colonial period, and development of peasant
movements in the post-colonial period. The Kisan Sabha movement started
in Bihar under the leadership of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati who had
formed in 1929 the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS) in order to
mobilise peasant grievances against the zamindari attacks on their
occupancy rights. Gradually the peasant movement intensified and spread
across the rest of India. All these radical developments on the peasant front
culminated in the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) at the
Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress in April 1936 with
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati elected as its first President. D. D. Kosambi
and R.S. Sharma, together with Daniel Thorner, brought peasants into the
study of Indian history for the first time."
A.R. Desai classified the colonial India into the following areas
under the British rule as Ryotwari, the areas under the princely authority as
Zamindari and tribal zones. A.R. Desai calls the movements as ―peasant
struggles‖ in the colonial period and those of post-independence era as
―agrarian struggles‖. The phrase ―agrarian struggles‖ according to A.R.
Desai refers not only to include peasants but also others.
He further divides the post-independence agrarian struggles into
two categories—the movements launched by the newly emerging
proprietary classes comprising rich farmers, viable sections of the middle
peasant proprietors and the streamlined landlords; and second, the
movements launched by various sections of the agrarian poor in which the
agrarian proletariat have been acquiring central importance.
The post-independent India there was a centralized political
authority and a capitalist mode of production acting as driving forces, there
has not yet evolved a unified agrarian pattern. The capitalist mode of
agriculture has developed in a few states such as Gujarat, Maharashtra, and
Punjab. The classification also varies in accordance with the theoretical
framework. Kathleen Gough classifies the peasant revolts into five
categories.
They are:
1. Restorative rebellions to drive out the British and restore
earlier rulers and social relations.
2. Religious movements for the liberation of a region or an
ethnic group under a new form of government.
3. Social banditry.
4. Terrorist vengeance with the idea of meting out
collective justice.
5. Mass insurrections for the redressal of particular
grievances.

This classification is based on the apparent goals of the revolts

rather than on the classes of the peasants involved and the strategies that
they adopted for attaining their goals. However, it ignores some of the
important peasant movements, which were linked to the nationalist
movement in some form or the other.

26
 Pushpendra Surana classifies peasant movements into eight types, Importance of the Study of
mainly based on issues such as the movements against forced cultivation of Rural Sociology
a particular type of crop, exploitation by moneylenders, price rise, outside
invaders, and dynasties. The limitation of such a classification is obvious,
as more than one issue is often involved in many revolts.
NOTES
Ranajit Guha looks at the peasant movements in a different way.
He examines peasant insurgency from the perspective of peasant
consciousness for revolt. He delineates the underlying structural features of
tribal consciousness of the peasants, namely, negation, solidarity,
transmission, territoriality, etc. This can help us understand how and why
the peasants rebel.

Check your progress - 4

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
8. Define Peasant according to Gough.
9. What is called peasant movement?
2.8 AGRARIAN CLASS STRUCTURE
The traditional Indian society was organized around caste lines.
The agrarian relations were governed by the norms of jajmani system.
However, the jajmani relations began to disintegrate after the colonial
rulers introduced changes in Indian agriculture. The process of
modernisation and development initiated by the Indian State during the
post-independence period further weakened the traditional social structure.
While caste continues to be an important social institution in the
contemporary Indian society, its significance as a system of organising
economic life has considerably declined. Though agricultural land in most
parts of India is still owned by the traditional cultivating caste groups, their
relations with the landless menials are no more regulated by the norms of
the caste system. The landless members of the lower caste now work with
the cultivating farmers as agricultural labourers. We can say that, in a
sense, caste has given way to class in the Indian countryside.
However, the agrarian social structure is still marked by diversities.
As pointed out by D.N. Dhanagare, „the relations among classes and social
composition of groups that occupy specific class position in relation to
land-control and land-use in India are so diverse and complex that it is
difficult to incorporate them all in a general schema‟. However, despite the
diversities that mark the agrarian relations in different parts of country,
some scholars have attempted to club them together into some general
categories. Amongst the earliest attempts to categorize the Indian agrarian
population into a framework of social classes was that of a well-known
economist, Daniel Thorner (1956). Self - Instructional Material

In the modern period, the British land revenue system propelled a

more or less comparable agrarian class structure in villages in India. They
were the three classes of the landowners (zamindars), the tenants and the
agricultural labourers. The landowners (zamindars) were tax gatherers and
non-cultivating owners of land. They belonged to the upper caste groups.
27
The agricultural labourers were placed in a position of bondsmen and
hereditarily attached labourers. They belonged to the lower caste groups.
There has been a noteworthy impact of land reforms and rural development
programmes introduced after independence. Land reforms led to the
expulsion of small and marginal tenants on a large scale. But the
intermediate castes of peasants, e.g., the Ahir, Kurmi etc. in Bihar and
Uttar Pradesh benefited. Power of the feudal landed families started
declining all over the country. The commencement of the Green
Revolution in the 1960s led to the emergence of commercially oriented
landlords. Rich farmers belonging normally to upper and intermediate
castes prospered. But the fortune of the poor peasantry and the agricultural
labourers did not improve. This has led to inflection of class conflicts and
tensions. Agrarian unrest in India became a common feature in various
parts of the country. P.C. Joshi (1971) has summarized in the following
manner the trends in the agrarian class structure and relationships:
(i) It led to the decline of feudal and customary types of tenancies. It was
replaced by a more exploitative and insecure lease arrangement.
(ii) It gave rise to a new commercial based rich peasant class who were
part owners and part tenants. They had resource and enterprise to carry out
commercial agriculture.
(iii) It led to the decline of feudal landlord class and another class of
commercial farmers emerged for whom agriculture was a business. They
used the non-customary type of tenancy.
The Issue of Village Autonomy: The Indian village was depicted as a
‗closed‘ and ‗isolated‘ system. In a report of the Select Committee of the
House of Commons, Charles Metcalfe (1833), a British administrator in
India, depicted the Indian village as a monolithic, atomistic and
unchanging entity. He observed, ―The village communities are little
republics, having nearly everything that they want within themselves and
almost independent of any foreign relations‖. Current historical,
anthropological and sociological studies have however revealed that Indian
village was hardly ever a republic. It was never self-reliant It has links with
the wider society migration, village exogamy, movement for work and
trade, administrative connection, interregional market, inter-village
economic and caste links and religious pilgrimage were prevalent in the
past, connecting the village with the neighbouring villages and the wider
society.
The Jajmani System: A very significant characteristic of conventional
village life in India is the ‗Jajmani‘ system. It has been studied by various
sociologists, viz., Willian Wiser (1936), S.C. Dube (1955), Opler and
Singh (1986), K. Ishwaran (1967), Lewis and Barnouw (1956). The term
‗jajman‘ refers to the patron or recipient of specialized services and the
term ‗jajmani‘ refers to the whole relationship. In fact, the jajmani system
is a system of economic, social and ritual ties among different caste groups
in a village. Under this system some castes are patrons and others are
serving castes. The serving castes tender their services to the landowning
upper and intermediate caste and in turn are paid both in cash and kind.
The patron castes are the landowning dominant castes, e.g., Rajput,
Bhumihar, Jat in the North, and Kamma, Lingayat and Reddi in Andhra
Pradesh and Patel in Gujarat. The service castes comprise Brahmin (priest),
barber, carpenter, blacksmith, water-carrier, leatherworker etc. The jajmani
28
relations essentially operate at family level. A Rajput land-owning family Importance of the Study of
has its jajmani ties with one family each from Brahmin, barber, carpenter Rural Sociology
etc., and a family of service caste offers its services to specific families of
jajmans. However, jajmani rules are enforced by caste panchayats. But the
jajmani system also possesses the elements of dominance, exploitation and
NOTES
conflict. There is a vast difference in exercise of power between
landowning dominant patrons and poor artisans and landless labourers who
serve them. The rich and powerful jajmans exploit and coerce the poor
‗kamins‘ (client) to uphold their supremacy. In fact, there is reciprocity as
well as dominance in the jajmani system.
Changes in Village Power Structure and Leadership: Marginal changes
of adaptive nature have occurred in power structure and leadership in
villages after gaining independence due to various factors e.g. land
reforms, panchayat raj, parliamentary politics, development programmes
and agrarian movements. According to Singh (1986), upper castes now
exercise power not by traditional legitimisation of their authority but
through manipulation and cooption of lower caste people. The traditional
power structure itself has not changed. New opportunities motivate the less
powerful class to aspire for power. But their economic backwardness
thwarts their desires. B.S. Cohn (1962), in his comparative study of twelve
villages of India, found a close fit between land-ownership and degree of
domination of groups. Now younger and literate people are found
increasingly acquiring leadership role. Moreover, some regional variations
also have been observed in the pattern of change in power structure in rural
areas.
2.8.1 MODEL OF AGRARIAN CLASS STRUCTURE
Thorner suggested that one could divide the agrarian population of
India into different class categories by adopting three criteria. First, type of
income earned from land (such as „rent‟ or „fruits of own cultivation‟ or
„wages‟). Second, the nature of rights held in land (such as „proprietary‟ or
„tenancy‟ or „share-cropping rights‟ or „no rights at all‟). Third, the extent
of field-work actually performed (such as „absentees who do no work at
all‟ or „those who perform partial work‟ or „total work done with the
family labour‟ or „work done for others to earn wages‟). On the basis of
these criteria he suggested the following model of agrarian class structure
in India.

1) Maliks, whose income is derived primarily from property rights in the

soil and whose common interest is to keep the level of rents up while
keeping the wage-level down. They collect rent from tenants, sub-tenants
and sharecroppers. They could be further divided into two categories, a)
the big landlords, holding rights over large tracts extending over several
villages; they are absentee owners/rentiers with absolutely no interest in Self - Instructional Material
land management or improvement; b) the rich landowners, proprietors with
considerable holdings but usually in the same village and although
performing no field work, supervising cultivation and taking personal
interest in the management and improvement of land.

29
2) Kisans are working peasants, who own small plots of land and work
mostly with their own labour and that of their family members. They own
much lesser lands than the Maliks. They too can be divided into two sub-
categories, a) small landowners, having holdings sufficient to support a
family; b) substantial tenants who may not own any land but cultivate a
large enough holding to help them sustain their families without having to
work as wage labourers.
3) Mazdoors, who do not own land themselves and earn their livelihood
primarily by working as wage labourers or sharecroppers with others.

2.8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF AGRARIAN POPULATION

Another classification that has been more popular among the
students of agrarian social structure and change in India is the division of
the agrarian population into five classes. In terms of categories these have
all been taken from Lenin-Mao schema, but in terms of actual
operationalisation, they are invariably based on ownership of land, which
invariably also determines their relations with other categories of
population in the rural setting, as also outside the village.
1. Big landlords
Big landlords still exist in some parts of the country. They own
very large holdings, in some cases even more than one hundred acres.
However, unlike the old landlords, they do not always give away their
lands to tenants and sharecroppers. Some of them organize their farms like
modern industry, employing a manager and wage labourers and producing
for the market. Over the years their proportion in the total population of
cultivators has come down significantly. Their presence is now felt more in
the backward regions of the country.
2. Big farmers
The size of their land holdings varies from 15 acres to 50 acres or
in some regions even more. They generally supervise their farms
personally and work with wage labour. Agricultural operations in their
farms are carried out with the help of farm machines and they use modern
farm inputs, they invariably belong to the local dominant castes and
command a considerable degree of influence over the local power
structure, both at the village level as well as at the state level. While the big
landlords command more influence in the backward regions, the power of
the big farmers is more visible in the agriculturally developed regions of
the country.
3. Middle farmers
Middle farmers who own relatively are smaller holdings (between 5
acres to 10 or 15 acres). Socially, like the big farmers, they too mostly
come from the local dominant caste groups. However, unlike the big
farmers, they carry out most of the work on farms with their own labour
and the labour of their families. They employ wage labour generally at the
time of peak seasons, like harvesting and sowing of the crops. Over the
years, this category of cultivators has also begun using modern inputs.
4. Small and Marginal farmers
Their holding size is small (less than five acres and in some cases
even less than one acre). They carry out almost all the farm operations with
their own labour and rarely employ others to work on their farms. In order

30
to add to their meager earnings from cultivation, some of them work as Importance of the Study of
farm labourers with other cultivator. Over the years, they have also come Rural Sociology
to use modern farm inputs and begun to produce cash crops that are grown
for sale in the market. They are among the most indebted category of
population in the Indian countryside. As the families grow and holdings get
NOTES
further divided, their numbers have been increasing in most part of India.
5. Landless labourers
A large majority of them belong to the ex-untouchable or the dalit
caste groups. Most of them own no cultivable land of their own. Their
proportion in the total agricultural population varies from state to state.
While in the states like Punjab and Haryana they constitute 20 to 30
percent of the rural workforce, in some states, like Andhra Pradesh, their
number is as high as fifty per cent. They are among the poorest of the poor
in rural India. They not only live in miserable conditions with insecure
sources of income, many of them also have to borrow money from big
cultivators and in return they have to mortgage their labour power to them.
Though the older type of bondage is no more a popular practice, the
dependence of landless labourers on the big farmers often makes them
surrender their freedom, not only of choosing employers, but invariably
also of choosing their political representatives.
The agrarian history of different regions of India has been quite
diverse and the trajectories of development have also been varied during
post-independence period.

Check your progrerss - 5

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
10. Write down the criteria given by Thorner in dividing agrarian
population in India.
11. Who are called Mazdoors?

2.9 LET US SUM UP

The earlier village life, which did not have any political and
economic power, has now acquired adult franchise, democracy and
accelerating transformation. The village life could be change in this
period; it is need to study the life of rural people. The human
settlements are classified as Urban and Rural on the basis of Socio-
Economic characteristics, Occupational Structure, Way of life and
Population Size etc. Quality of life is one of the central issues to
consider in any comparison between rural versus urban living. When
city dwellers leave their metropolitan environments for the country and Self - Instructional Material
bring their cultural interests with them is called rurbanism. A peasant
movement is defined as a relatively organized and continuous
collective action involving violence, or the threat of violence for
securing more share in the control or ownership of land and its produce
and to abolish injustices, which have arisen thereof. Peasant movement
in India was arose during the British colonial period, when economic
31
 policies characterized in the ruin of traditional handicrafts leading,
change of ownership and overcrowding of land, and massive debt and
impoverishment of peasantry. Thorner suggested that one could divide
the agrarian population of India into different class categories by
adopting three criteria. The agrarian history of different regions of
India has been quite diverse and the trajectories of development have
also been varied during post-independence period. Caste has given way
to class in the Indian countryside.
In this unit, you have learnt the importance of the study of Rural
Sociology. You have studied the patterns of village settlements, Rural
Urban contrast, Rurbanism, Peasant Studies with peasant movements
and Agrarian Class Structure in detail.
2.10 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. State the Importance of the study of Rural Sociology.
2. Enumerate the Rural Urban contrast.
3. Briefly explain the philosophy of rurbanism.
4. Explain the Patterns of village settlements.
5. Write about the essay on Agrarian Class Structure.
2.11 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Panchayati Raj
2. urban market
3. caste, mobility, dominant caste, etc
4. Small village located away from villages or on the fringes of larger
villages are called hamlets and they do not possess adequate
supplies usually and services that may be more available in the
larger village.
5. Dicken and Pitts
6. Education, Health, quality of life, no of choices, culture etc.
7. It is called urban-rural confluence. It‘s what happens when city
dwellers leave their metropolitan environments for the country and
bring their cultural interests with them.
8. According to Gough, Peasants are ―people who engage in
agriculture or related production with primitive means and who
surrender part of their produce to landlords or to agents of state‖.
9. Peasant movement is a social movement involved with the
agricultural policy. It made up of peasants usually inspired by the
goal of improving the situation of peasants in a nation.
10. a) type of income earned from land b) the nature of rights held in
land c) the extent of field-work actually performed
11. Mazdoors, who do not own land themselves and earn their
livelihood primarily by working as wage labourers or sharecroppers
with others.
2.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Pereira, Anthony W 1997. The End of the Peasantry. Pittsburgh:

University of Pittsburgh Press.
2. Henry A Landsberger, Rural protest : peasant movements and
social change, Barnes and Noble, 1973, ISBN 0-06-494029-2

32
3. Bhaduri, A. 1984 The Economic Structure of Backward Importance of the Study of
Agriculture. Macmillan, Delhi. Rural Sociology
4. Desai, A.R. 1959 Social Background of Indian Nationalism.
Popular Prakshan, Bombay.
5. K.L. Sharma, (1986) Agrarian Stratification : Old Issues, New
NOTES
Explanations and New Issues, Old Explanations', Caste, Class and
Social Movements, Rawat Publications, Jaipur, First Published,.
6. Dipankar Gupta (ed.), (1992) 'The Model of Agrarian Classes in
India, Social Startification (Excerpted from D.N. Dhanagare, The
Model of Agrarian Classes in 'India', in Peasant Movements in
India, 1920-50), Oxford University Press, Delhi, First Published,.
7. B.C. Rai, (1982) ‗Social Class', Social PsychoJogy, Prakashan
Kcndra Lucknow, First Published,.I.N. Tewary and S.P. Singh,
(1984) Villagial Class". Formations in Indian Villages, Shree
Publishing House. New Delhi, First Edition

Self - Instructional Material

33
 UNIT III AGRARIAN SOCIAL
Agrarian Social
Structure and Change
STRUCTURE AND CHANGE
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Agrarian Social Structure and Change
NOTES 3.3.1 Agrarian Meaning
3.3.2 Agrarian System
3.3.3 Agrarian Social Structure
3.3.4 Agrarian Structures in India
3.3.5 Rural Stratification Pattern
3.3.6 Characteristics of Agrarian Society
3.3.7 Agrarian Changes during the British Colonial Rule
3.3.8 Agrarian Changes after Independence
3.4 Village Social Structure
3.4.1 The Nature of Rural Social Structure
3.4.2 Salient Features of Indian Rural Social Structure
3.5 Land ownership pattern in Rural Society
3.5.1 Land Ownership Systems
3.5.2 Land Reforms
3.5.3 Land Reform Legislations
3.6 Let us Sum up
3.7 Unit- End- Exercises
3.8 Answer to check your Progress
3.9 Suggested Readings
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Agrarian means anything related to land, its management or
distribution. The study of peasant societies and cultures is called agrarian
system. Agrarian system, have very strongly argued that changes in land
relations have affected the stratification pattern of villages. The crucial
aspect of agrarian structure is the control over land. Indian rural social
structure formed by family, caste system, internal organization, religion
and economic system. Various land ownership and transfer systems were
introduced by the British. Indian leaders promised landless and
marginalised farmers that once the British left the country, there would be
equal distribution of land.
In this unit you will learn agrarian social structure and change,
village social structure and land ownership pattern in rural sociology in an
elaborate manner.

3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit you will be able to;
 Identify various elements of rural social structure in India,
 State and explain the important changes in the Agrarian
Self - Instructional Material Social Structure
 understand the Land ownership pattern in Rural Society
 Gain the knowledge about the Village Social Structure.
34
3.3 AGRARIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND CHANGE
Agrarian Social
3.3.1 AGRARIAN MEANING
Structure and Change
The dictionary meaning of ‗agrarian‘ means anything related to
land, its management or distribution. Related to land distribution is also the
aspect of ‗equitable division of land‘. It refers to the political movement in
favour of change in conditions of propriety in land. It is called NOTES
‗agrarianism‘.
3.3.2 AGRARIAN SYSTEM
The agrarian problem also dwells on a new ground wherein a
movement has been started in some of the Asian countries NOTES which stands for
the ownership of land in favour of women. Agrarian system also includes
land tenure system. Beteille has defined agrarian social structure. To him
agrarian system does not mean only peasantry. NOTES

The meaning of the phrase (agrarian system) may not be

immediately clear but what is implied is something more specific than the
study of peasant societies and cultures, as this is generally understood by
anthropologists… The term ‗peasantry‘ has variety of referents. But it is
most meaningfully used to describe a more or less homogeneous and
undifferentiated community of families characterised by small holdings
operated mainly by family labour.
The study of agrarian system has been taken up as mentioned ear-
lier by anthropologists, sociologists and economists. On a broader plane,
the agrarian system as is conceived by social scientists in general has been
related to:
(i) Land and its utilisation; and
(ii) Productive purposes.
The study of agrarian systems will centre round the problem of land
and its utilisation for productive purposes. In a land-based social and
economic system the significance of this kind of study hardly requires
emphasis.
3.3.3 AGRARIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Beteille, to refer to him again, it would be said that the land prob-
lem in India and for that matter the study of agrarian social structure
revolves round two major issues as under:

1. Technological arrangements, and

2. Social arrangements.
Technological arrangement means the management of land. It in-
cludes landownership, control and use of land. Technological arrangement
is discussed in relation to variations in ecological conditions. In other
words, land is looked in terms of the geography which surrounds the land.
The ecological setting of agriculture in India is highly variable. The diverse
nature of ecological conditions in India has been described by Beteille as
under: Self - Instructional Material

There are areas of heavy rainfall and areas with hardly any rainfall.
There are irrigated and unirrigated areas. Irrigated areas themselves differ
35
 according to the dependability of irrigation…. The different regions show
different patterns of diurnal and seasonal variations in humidity,
Agrarian Social temperature and sunlight. All these factors have a direct bearing on the
Structure and Change kinds of crops that can be cultivated and the technology employed in their
cultivation.
The technological arrangements, thus, include ecological conditions
along with the new agriculture technology, such as water pumps, thresher,
NOTES chemical manure, improved seeds, etc. Another aspect of agrarian system
is that of social management.

It includes land control and landownership. It is found that the

Indian agricultural communities have recently been highly stratified. It
shows that there is close relationship between the system of stratification
and the division of work.

3.3.4 AGRARIAN STRUCTURES IN INDIA

K.L. Sharma has discussed the problem of agrarian stratification
and argues that agrarian structures in India have always been uneven. Fie
observes that despite the abolition of intermediaries not much substantive
change in agrarian relations has come. The uneven structures of
landholdings have also resulted in ‗diverse land tenure systems‘. The land
tenure system, according to Sharma, has greatly affected the social
structure. He writes:
The variations in the relationship between land tenure system and
social structure created an uneven feudal order in the pre-British and
British periods. The shadow of the colonial and feudal inequality is still
seen by us in various aspects of society.
Sociologists and anthropologists, who have recently studied agrar-
ian system, have very strongly argued that changes in land relations have
affected the stratification pattern of villages. The crucial aspect of agrarian
structure is the control over land.
It is the basis of agrarian stratification. When agrarian social
structure is discussed invariably we refer to landownership, land control
and use of land. Such an approach to land helps us to find out agrarian
hierarchy. What has happened so far is that the dominant castes who, have
control over major portions of land, suppress and exploit the subordinated
classes.

3.3.5 RURAL STRATIFICATION PATTERN

Oliver Mendelsohn and Marika Vicziany, who have discussed the
rural land reform with reference to untouchables, argue that the
subordinated people have gained nothing out of land reforms. The present
social stratification of the village is due to our failure to settle land reforms.
The authors observe as under:
Land control is the basis of the agrarian hierarchy and, therefore,
Self - Instructional Material
the means by which the dominants have subordinated untouchables the
village. Small resources like a home site of one‘s own and even a very
36
small plot of productive land can affect a powerful liberation of the
subordinate untouchables from total and arbitrary dependence on their Agrarian Social
oppressor. Structure and Change
Yet, another aspect of rural stratification is the pattern of cultivation
adopted by the peasantry. If the cultivators take to crops which require hard
labour, naturally it would require larger number of agriculture labourers.
In the states of Punjab and Bihar where paddy is grown, larger
NOTES
number of labourers is hired. Even landless labourers migrate from Bihar
to Punjab for transplanting paddy. The agrarian hierarchy, therefore, is the
resultant of the crops grown by the peasantry.
Beteille has discussed the rural stratification patternNOTESin terms of
land control and land management. The productive organisation of land
consists of three main patterns: the first is based on family labour, the
second on hired labour and the third on tenancy conceived NOTES in a broad
sense.
The three patterns of production have several variants. And it is
interesting to note that the production which requires hard manual labour
such as that of transplanting paddy the pattern may change. Beteille has
categorised the peasantry on the basis of production system.
For in talking about production based on family labour, wage
labour and tenancy, we are talking also about landlords, owner-cultivators,
tenants, sharecroppers and the agricultural labourers. These categories and
their mutual relations constitute the heart of what may be described as the
agrarian hierarchy… the most crucial features of India‘s rural social system
and unless we understand its nature and forms, our understanding of caste
itself will remain incomplete.

The rural India‘s basic problem today is the understanding of

agrarian system. Control over land determines the rural hierarchy. What is
interesting is that the state does not impose any income-tax on the far
production.
As a result of this state policy, those who control larger portions of
land, benefit the most. The rural agrarian hierarchy has today become more
complicated owing to the land policy adopted by the state. But the state
land policy, as we have in India today, has not evolved overnight.
It is the result of the colonial land policy which we have inherited
and have carved it in post-independent India in such a way that it has taken
a capitalistic mode of production instead of minimising the hiatus between
the big farmer and landless labourer. We have intensified the social
inequality. We now trace the land policy adopted by the colonial rulers and
later, the nationalist government.

3.3.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF AGRARIAN SOCIETY

Agrarian social structure may be thought of as the characteristics of
agrarian society. Agrarian class structure in a given society evolves over a
long period of time. It is shaped historically by different socio-economic Self - Instructional Material
and political factors. These historical factors vary from region to region.
Thus though one can use the concept of class to make sense of agrarian

37
 structures in different contexts, one must also take the specific context into
account while doing so.
Agrarian Social As mentioned above, the traditional Indian ―rural communities‖ and
Structure and Change the agrarian social structures were organised within the framework of
‗jajmani system‘. This was a peculiarly Indian phenomenon. The different
caste groups in the traditional Indian village were divided between jajmans
(the patrons) and kamins (the menials). The jajmans were those caste
groups who owned and cultivated lands. The kamins provided different
NOTES
kinds of services to the jajmans. While the kamins were obliged to work
for the jajmans, the latter were required to pay a share from the farm
produce to their kamins. The relationship was based on a system of
reciprocal exchange.
However, participation in this system of reciprocal exchange was
not on an equal footing. Those who belonged to the upper castes and
owned land were obviously more powerful than those who came from the
menial caste groups. The structure of agrarian relations organised within
the framework of jajmani system reinforced the inequalities of the caste
system. The caste system in turn provided legitimacy to the unequal land
relations.
Within this general framework, the actual structures of agrarian
relations differed from region to region. While in some parts of the sub-
continent, the influence of Brahmanical ritualism was strong; in some other
regions the peasant values were stronger. This had a direct influence on the
relative position of Brahmins and landowning castes in the given agrarian
setting.
Over the years, the jajmani system has disintegrated and rural
society has experienced profound changes in its social structure. The
agrarian class structure has also changed. These changes have been
produced by a large number of factors.

3.3.7 AGRARIAN CHANGES DURING THE BRITISH COLONIAL

RULE
The agrarian policies of the British colonial rulers are regarded as
among the most important factors responsible for introducing changes in
the agrarian structure of the sub-continent. In order to maximize their
revenues from land, they introduced some basic changes in the property
relations in the Indian countryside. These agrarian policies of the colonial
rulers had far reaching consequences. In Bengal, Bihar, and in parts of
Madras and the United Province, they conferred full ownership rights over
the erstwhile zamindars who were only tax collecting intermediaries during
the earlier regimes. The vast majority of peasants who had been actually
cultivating land became tenants of the new landlords. Similarly, they
demanded revenues in the form of a fixed amount of cash rather than as a
share from what was produced on the land. Even when bad weather
destroyed the crop, the peasants were forced to pay the land revenue.

These changes led to serious indebtedness among the peasantry.

Self - Instructional Material The poorer among them were forced to mortgage their land in order to
meet the revenue demands. In the long run it led to peasants losing their
lands to moneylenders and big landowners. The big landowners and
38
moneylenders emerged as a dominant class in the countryside while the
ordinary peasants suffered. In the new agrarian class structure that emerged Agrarian Social
during the colonial rule, peasants had no motivation for working hard to Structure and Change
improve their lands. As a result the agricultural production declined. The
colonial rulers also enforced changes in the cropping pattern and made the
local peasant produce cash crops like cotton rather than food grains as they
needed cotton for textile mills in England. All this led to frequent famines
NOTES
and general misery of the peasantry. The big landowners gained at the cost
of the small and poor peasants.
3.3.8 AGRARIAN CHANGES AFTER INDEPENDENCE
The nationalist leadership during the struggle for freedom from
NOTES
colonial rule had mobilized peasantry on the promise of a better life.
Leaders of the Indian National Congress had started talking about the
urgent need of agrarian reforms even before they took over NOTESthe reins of
power from the colonial rulers in 1947.
The process of Land Reforms was initiated almost immediately
after Independence. The central government directed the state governments
to pass legislations that would abolish intermediary landlords, the
zamindars, and would grant ownership rights to the actual tillers of the
land. Some legislation was intended to grant security to the tenants. The
states also fixed an upper ceiling on the holding size of land that a single
household could possess. The surplus land was to be surrendered to the
state and was to be redistributed among those who had no land.
However, though the legislations were passed by all the states, only
in some parts of the country the desired effects could be achieved. The
evaluative studies of Land Reforms have often pointed out that only in
those parts of the country where peasants were politically mobilized and
the local state government had the right kind of „political will‟, the land
reforms could be effectively implemented. Similarly, some legislation,
such as those on zamindari abolition was much more successful than those
on the ceilings (Joshi 1976).
The government of free India also initiated several other
developmental programmes intended to encourage the cultivators to
increase productivity of their lands. These included the Community
Development Programme (CDP), the Co-operatives and the Green
Revolution technology. These programmes were designed to introduce
modern methods of cultivation in the Indian countryside. The cultivating
farmers were provided with new technology, seeds and fertilizers at
subsidized rates. The state agencies also provided them cheap credit.
Though in principle these schemes were meant for everybody, studies
carried out in different parts of India tend to reveal that the benefits of the
state support to agriculture were not equally shared by all the sections of
rural society. Most of the benefits went to those who were already rich and
powerful. However, despite this bias, these initiatives have been able to
bring about a significant change in the agrarian economy at least in some
parts of the country. This is particularly true about the regions like Punjab,
Haryana, Western U.P., Coastal Andhra, and parts of Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Self - Instructional Material
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Apart from increasing productivity of land, these changes have
transformed the social framework of Indian agriculture. Agriculture in
most parts of India is now carried out on commercial lines. The old
39
 structure of jajmani relations has more or less completely disintegrated,
giving way to more formalized arrangements among the land owning
Agrarian Social cultivators and those who work for them. Some scholars have argued that
Structure and Change these changes indicate that capitalist form of production is developing in
agriculture and a new class structure is emerging in the Indian countryside.
Check your progress - 1
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
NOTES b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. What is the meaning of ‗agrarian‘?
2. What are the main patterns of productive organization of land?
3. Write down the two major issues related to agrarian social
structure.

3.4 VILLAGE SOCIAL STRUCTURE

3.4.1 THE NATURE OF RURAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE
‗Social structure‘ is one of the central and basic concepts of
sociology. After World War II, the concept of social structure became
popular in social anthropological studies and since then, it is applied to
almost any ordered arrangement of social phenomena. Social structure is a
pattern or arrangement of elements of a society in an organized and collec-
tive way. The interactions and behaviour of the members of a society are
stable and patterned. These stable patterns of interaction are called ‗social
structures‘.
Social structure is the framework of society that sets limits and
establishes standards for our behaviour. It is, thus, defined simply as any
recurring pattern of social behaviour. A social structure includes or is
made-up of elements of society, such as institutions, statuses, roles, groups
and social classes. Sociologists study social structure by examining the
elements or parts that comprise it.
The study of social structure with the principal form of social
organization, that is, types of groups, associations and institutions and the
complex of these which constitutes societies. – Ginsberg
The term ‗social structure‘ applies to the particular arrangement of
inter-related institutions, agencies and social patterns as well as the statuses
and roles, which each person assumes in the group. – Talcott Parsons
As now we have discussed about the concept of social structure, let
us now proceed with the rural social structure of Indian villages that is
unique and maintains a separate culture of their own, away from urban
societies. Though the influence of urban areas is felt on rural areas, there
are some specific aspects, which occupy a significant place in the rural
society. Some of them are caste, kinship, family, marriage, religion,
economy and polity.
3.4.2 SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN RURAL SOCIAL
STRUCTURE
In Indian Rural Society, different villages are the units and they
Self - Instructional Material have geographical, moral and other types of structures. Their behavior
pattern, there believes ideas, faiths etc. are also different from one another.
The structure formed out of the following units:-
40
1) The family
Family is the basic unit of Indian social structure. It occupied an Agrarian Social
important place in the Rural Society. Apart from performing various basic Structure and Change
and important tasks, the family also brings about socialisation social
control and also performs various basic and important tasks; the family
also brings about socialaisation, social control and also performs various
economic activities. It is the agency that controls the religion activities
NOTES
particularly in the Rural Society. It has the following characteristics:
 Patriarchal family structure,
 joint family system,
 extended family structure. NOTES
2) Caste-System
Through the institution, the functions status, occupation role and
NOTESor reverse
social position are determined. In fact it is an inverse system
system or traditions. The caste system is based on endogamy and
sometimes has common economic position or linkage.

It is a perverts from of old economic classification. The following

extract throws light on the origin of the Indian Caste System. The origin of
Indian caste sometimes is traced from the penetration of the Aryans, who
devised the system for the division of labor in their society. The traditional
divisions have long since been complicated over laid by innumerable sub-
division into multitude of several thousand different castes which marred
the social structure of India.
Indian caste system is the result of different caste units. There is
social stratification on the Rural Society which give birth the caste-system.
The caste system is based on certain customs and traditions. As a result of
those customs and tradition various factors are determined, which in their
form determine the Caste System as such is an endogamous group.
Normally it has the following characteristics:-
 Limited to the persons born within that caste.
 Endogamous group,
 Determined occupation.
3) The internal organisation
This internal organisation governs and determines the social and
individual life of the people living in a particular village. Normally every
village has a Panchayat and its head; it is elected with the consent of
almost all the adult members of the village. Such as revenue, law and order
etc, generally there is a village Panchayat, a village Nyay Panchayat,
Panchayat of different castes and certain other social, religious and
political group‘s voluntary groups.
That are indented at helping the villagers are maintaining the
religious customs and traditions play a vital role in determining the internal
organisation and working of the villagers and village life.
4) Religion and religious organisation
In fact religion means worship of the super natural power. This
super natural power means god and other gods and deities, worship of
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supernatural power and the ditties form an important part of village life.
Villages have their own gods and deities.

41
 In fact all those patrons of behaviors that are helpful in removing
uncertainties of man‘s everyday lie are known as religion. Indian life
Agrarian Social represented only by the village life based on religion.
Structure and Change 5) Economic system
Economic system has now come to occupy an important place in
every social structure. It includes the means and the system of production
system of distribution, sharing of profit etc, according to Raymond forth;
social and economic activities are inter-related have a mutual relationship.
NOTES
They are interring dependent. In fact economic system very much
determines the social structure. According to economic conditions the
activities of a man are determined. This is true of the village society as
well. The economic system of the villages is based on the following two
factors:-
 A) Functional specialisation and
 B) Inter-dependence.
In village society as we have seen earlier different castes have
different occupations and functions. In other words their economic
activities are determined by their social conditions. A particular social
group has performed particular type of economic activities. For example
the social group or the caste that is known as washer man is responsible for
washing the clothes; no one can be to that profession.
They have monopoly over the washing of clothes and they are
prohibited taking to any other thing. In this manner they have a functional
specialisation.
But in villages functional specialisation is not free from
interdependence of people of a particular caste do a particular thing,
members of other castes or social groups have to depend on them for
fulfillment of their economic needs of earning their livelihood but also help
the member of other social group to do their livelihood but also help
members of other social group to do their job. Because of the
backwardness of the economic position the social structure of the villages
is also backward. It has to be studied in proper prospective so that real
progress can be made.

Check your progress - 2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
4. List down the units to form rural social structure.
5. Define social structure.

3.5 LAND OWNERSHIP PATTERN IN RURAL SOCIETY

Before British rule there was no formal individual ownership of
land in India. However, during the two centuries of British rule (1757–
1947), India‘s traditional land ownership and land use patterns were
changed with the introduction of the concept of ―private property‖.
3.5.1 LAND OWNERSHIP SYSTEMS
Various land ownership and transfer systems were introduced by
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the British

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Zamindari system
It prevailed in most of northern India whereby feudal lords Agrarian Social
(zamidars) became owners of large tracts of land. They had to pay fixed Structure and Change
revenue payments to the government and so peasants became tenant
farmers and had to pay rent on the land they farmed.
Ryotwari‟ system
It was followed in south and west parts of India. Individual
NOTES
cultivators (ryots or raiyats) were proprietors of land against revenue
payments. They had rights to sub-let, mortgage and transfer land.

Mahalwari system NOTES

It was a third system whereby entire villages had to pay revenue,
with farmers contributing their share in proportion to their holdings.
The Indian Forest Act NOTES
It was passed in 1920, making all forest land government-owned.
This de-legitimised the traditional community ownership systems in
adivasi (tribal) societies.

3.5.2 LAND REFORMS

Land distribution under these systems became extremely unequal -
rural society was polarised: landlords and rich peasants versus tenants and
agricultural labourers. By the time of Independence in 1947, about 40% of
India‘s rural population was working as landless agricultural labour.
Post-independence land reforms
In the lead up to Independence, Indian leaders promised landless
and marginalised farmers that once the British left the country, there would
be equal distribution of land.
3.5.3 LAND REFORM LEGISLATIONS
India has indeed brought in many land reform legislations
including:
Articles 23, 38 and 39 under the Indian Constitution – these Articles
allow states to make their own Zamindari Abolition Acts, abolish Begari
(free labour) and redistribute land and community resources (such as
ponds, lakes and forests).
The Agricultural Land Ceiling Act - these state-wise Acts limit the
maximum area that one landholder can own to minimise inequality in land
ownership. All surplus land should be distributed among landless and
marginal farmers.
The Forest Rights Act (2006) – this Act overrides the 1920 Indian Forest
Act, allowing tribal communities and forest dwellers to apply for the rights
to forest land that they have been living on and using for generations.
However, this legislation has not led to substantial progress towards
equitable land distribution. Most landowners still belong to the upper
castes, cultivators to the middle castes and agricultural labourers to the
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dalit and adivasi (tribal) socially excluded groups.

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 Check your progress - 3
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
Agrarian Social b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
Structure and Change unit.
6. Who are zamidars?
7. What is Mahalwari System?

NOTES 3.6 LET US SUM UP

The study of agrarian systems will centre round the problem of land
and its utilisation for productive purposes. The agrarian social structures
were organised within the framework of ‗jajmani system‘. The jajmani
system has disintegrated and rural society has experienced profound
changes in its social structure. The agrarian class structure has also
changed. These changes have been produced by a large number of factors.
By the time of Independence in 1947, about 40% of India‘s rural
population was working as landless agricultural labour. This legislation has
not led to substantial progress towards equitable land distribution. Most
landowners still belong to the upper castes, cultivators to the middle castes
and agricultural labourers to the dalit and adivasi (tribal) socially excluded
groups.
In this unit, we have made an effort to understand rural social structure
in India. We have begun with the concept of social structure and then
identified the important institutions of rural social structure in India viz.,
family, caste, class and village. Further, important features and types of
family in India have been discussed along with change in them. Then
salient features of the caste system have been discussed. Moreover the
nature of agrarian structure has been described. Lastly, we have discussed
the issue of various land ownership and transfer systems in the rural
society.

In this unit you have studied agrarian social structure and change,
village social structure and land ownership pattern in rural sociology in
detail.

3.7 UNIT- END- EXERCISES

1. Discuss in detail about Agrarian Social Structure and Change
2. Explain about the Village Social Structure
3. Write down the Land ownership pattern in Rural Society

3.8 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. ‗Agrarian‘ means anything related to land, its management or

distribution
2. a) family labour b) hired labour c) tenancy
3. Technological arrangements and Social arrangements.
4. Family, caste, internal organisation, religion and economic
Self - Instructional Material system.

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 5. The term ‗social structure‘ applies to the particular arrangement
of inter-related institutions, agencies and social patterns as well Agrarian Social
as the statuses and roles, which each person assumes in the Structure and Change
group. – Talcott Parsons
6. Feudal lords
7. Mahalwari system means the entire villages had to pay revenue,
with farmers contributing their share in proportion to their
NOTES
holdings
3.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
NOTES
1. Bhaduri, A. 1984 The Economic Structure of Backward
Agriculture. Macmillan,
Delhi. NOTES
2. Desai, A.R. 1959 Social Background of Indian Nationalism.
Popular Prakshan,
Bombay.
3. Beteille, Andre 1986. Studies in Agrarian Social Structure. Oxford
University Press: Delhi
4. Chauhan, Brij Raj 1968. A Rajasthan Village. Vir Publishing
House: Delhi
5. Dube, S.C. 1955. Indian Village. Cornell University Press: New
York
6. Madan, Vandana (ed.) 2002. The Village in India. Oxford
University Press: New Delhi
7. Sharma.K.L. 1997. Rural Society in India. Mittal Publications:
New Delhi
8. Srinivas, M.N. (ed.) 1978. India‘s Villages. Media Promoters:
Bombay
9. Beteille, A. 1974 Studies in Agrarian Social Structure. Oxford
University Press, Delhi.

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 UNIT – IV JAJMANI SYSTEMS
Jajmani Systems Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Jajmani System
4.3.1 Concept of Jajmani system
4.3.2 Main features of Jajmani system
NOTES
4.4 Tenancy Systems
4.4.1 Tenancy systems of Land
4.4.2 Tenancy Reforms
4.5 Caste and social structure
4.5.1 Meaning of Caste
4.5.2 Definition of Caste
4.5.3 Characteristics of caste system
4.5.4 Origin of caste system
4.5.5 Merits of caste system
4.5.6 Demerits of caste system
4.5.7 Changes in the Caste System
4.6 Changing trends in inter caste relations
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 Unit- End- Exercises
4.9 Answer to check your Progress
4.10 Suggested Readings
4.1. INTRODUCTION
In this chapter deals with Jajmani System, Tenancy Systems, Caste
and social structure and changing trends in inter caste relations. The
Jajmani System, Jajmani is more than a relationship between families than
between castes. Jajmani is sort of mutual give and take form of relationship
in which one family is hereditarily entitled to supply goods and render
services to the other in exchange of the same. The person rendering the
services or supplying the goods is known as kameen or prajan and the
person to whom the services are rendered is called a jajman. Thus under
jajmani system a permanent informal bond is made between jajman and
kameen to meet each other's need for good and services. The Tenancy
Systems, Tenant farming is an agricultural production system in which
landowners contribute their land and often a measure of operating capital
and management. The caste system which emerged out of the Varna
system as a form of social stratification is peculiar to India and is an
inseparable aspect of the Indian society. There is no comparable institution
elsewhere in the world for the caste system.
From this unit, you will learn about Jajmani System, Tenancy
Systems, Caste and social structure and changing trends in inter caste
relations in a detailed manner.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit you will be able to;
 understand the Jajmani System
Self - Instructional Material  Identify the Changing trends in inter caste relations
 understand the Tenancy Systems
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  gain the knowledge about the Caste and social structure.
4.3 JAJMANI SYSTEM Jajmani Systems
The notion of the jajmani system was popularized by colonial
ethnography. It tended to conceptualize agrarian social structure in the
framework of exchange relations. In its classical construct, different caste
groups specialized in specific occupations and exchanged their services NOTES
through an elaborate system of division of labor.
Though asymmetry in position of various caste groups was
recognized what it emphasized was not inequality in rights over land but
NOTES
the spirit of community. Wiser argued, each served the other. Each in turn
was master. Each in turn was servant. This system of inter relatedness in
service within Hindu community was called the Jajmani system.
NOTESCentral to
such a construction of exchange is the idea of reciprocity (Gouldner) with
the assumption that it was a non-exploitative system where mutual
gratification was supposed to be the outcome of the reciprocal exchange.
4.3.1 CONCEPT OF JAJMANI SYSTEM
Inter-caste relations at the village level constitute vertical ties. They
may be classified into economic, ritual, political and civic ties. The castes
living in a village are bound together by economic ties. Generally peasant
castes are numerically preponderant in villages and they need the
carpenter, blacksmith and leather worker castes to perform agricultural
work. Servicing castes such as priest, barber, and washer man and water
carrier cater to the needs of everyone except the Harijans. Artisan castes
produce goods which are wanted by everyone. Most Indian villages do not
have more than a few of the essential castes and depend on neighboring
villages for certain services, skills and goods.
In rural India with it‘s largely subsistence and not fully monetized
economy the relationship between the different caste groups in a village
takes a particular form. The essential artisan and servicing castes are paid
annually in grain at harvest time. In some parts of India the artisan and
servicing castes are also provided with free food, clothing, fodder and
residential site. On such occasions as birth, marriage and death, these
castes perform extra duties for which they are paid customary money and
some gifts in kind. This type of relationship is found all over India and is
called by different names-jajmani in north, barabatute in Maharashtra,
mirasi in Tamil Nadu and adade in Karnataka.
Oscar Lewis defined jajmani system as that under which each caste
group within a village is expected to give certain standardized services to
the families of other castes. Jajmani is more than a relationship between
families than between castes. Jajmani is sort of mutual give and take form
of relationship in which one family is hereditarily entitled to supply goods
and render services to the other in exchange of the same. The person
rendering the services or supplying the goods is known as kameen or
prajan and the person to whom the services are rendered is called a jajman.
Thus under jajmani system a permanent informal bond is made between
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jajman and kameen to meet each other's need for good and services.
4.3.2 MAIN FEATURES OF JAJMANI SYSTEM
The jajmani system is characterized by the following features:

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 1. Unbroken relationship
Under the jajmani system the kameen remains obliged to render the
Jajmani Systems services throughout his life to a particular jajman and the jajman in turn has
the responsibility of hiring services of a kameen.
2. Hereditary relationship
Jajmani rights are enjoyed hereditarily. After the death of a man his
son is entitled to work as kameen for the same jajman family of families.
The son of a jajman also accepts the son of the kameen as his kameen.
NOTES
3. Multidimensional relationship
Due to the permanency of relationship both the jajman and kameen
families become mutually dependent on each other. The relationship
becomes very deep. They often take part in the personal and family affairs,
family rituals and ceremonies.
4. Barter exchange
Under jajmani system the payments are made mainly in terms
of goods and commodities. The kameen gets his necessities from the
jajmani in return of his services.
The jajmani system has gradually decayed in modern society. There are
many reasons responsible for it. Modern economic system that measures
everything in terms of its monetary value. The decline of belief in caste
system and hereditary occupation has given a strong blow to the system.
Growth of better employment opportunities outside the village and
introduction of new transport options are also the reason.

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is the Jajmani system?
2. What is Barter exchange?

4.4 TENANCY SYSTEMS

Tenant farming is an agricultural production system in which

landowners contribute their land and often a measure of operating capital
and management, while tenant farmers contribute their labor along with at
times varying amounts of capital and management.

4.4.1 TENANCY SYSTEMS OF LAND

At the time of independence, there existed many types of
proprietary land tenures in the country.
A. Ryotwari
It was started in Madras since 1772 and was later extended to other
states. Under this system, the responsibility of paying land revenue to the
Government was of the cultivator himself and there was no intermediary
between him and the state. The Ryot had full right regarding sale, transfer
and leasing of land and could not be evicted from the land as long as he
pays the land revenue. But the settlement of land revenue under Ryotwari
Self - Instructional Material system was done on temporary basis and was periodic after 20, 30 or 40
years. It was extended to Bombay Presidency.

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B. Mahalwari
This system was initiated by William Bentinck in Agra and Oudh
and was later extended to Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. Under this system, Jajmani Systems
the village communities held the village lands commonly and it was joint
responsibility of these communities to make payments of the land revenue.
The land ownership is held as joint ownership with the village body. The
land can be cultivated by tenants who can pay cash / kind / share. NOTES
C. Jamindari
Lord Cornwallis gave birth to Zamindari system in India. He
introduced this system for the first time in 1793 in West NOTES
Bengal and was
later adopted in other states as well. Under this system, the land was held
by a person who was responsible for the payment of land revenue. They
could obtain the land mostly free of charge from the government
NOTESduring the
British rule and it is called estate. Landlords never cultivated the land they
owned and rented them out to the cultivators. The amount of land revenue
may either be fixed once one for all when it was called permanent
settlement or settlement with regard to land revenue may only be
temporary and may, therefore, be revised after every 30-40 years, as the
practice may be. The Zamindari system is known as absentee landlordism.
Under this system the whole village was under one landlord. The persons
interested can work in the Jamindar's land as tenant / labourer based on the
agreement with the jamindar. The jamindari system was known to be more
exploitive, as the jaminder used to fix / hike the prices of land according to
his desire.
D. Jagirdari
It is similar to Jamindari system. The jagirdar is powered to control
the unproductive masses of village by engaging them in agricultural
activities. Because land is controlled by state in India and the relationship
between production and land tenure varies from state to state, the national
policy recommendations resulted in differing tenancy reform laws in each
state.
Tenancy is completely banned in some states but completely free in
others. Punjab and Haryana have not forbidden tenancy whereas Karnataka
has a near complete ban on tenancy. Some states have discussed ownership
rights on tenant cultivators except for sharecroppers, whereas West Bengal
chose to provide owner-like rights only to the sharecroppers. Tenancy
reforms may have indirect effects in the form of reduced tenancy shares if
poorly implemented. Most tenancy reform laws also contained provisions
concerning the ability of tenants to surrender the land back to the landlord
voluntarily. These provisions were used by landlords to wane the impact of
the laws. In most states the surrender of land falls under the jurisdiction of
the revenue authorities.

4.4.2 TENANCY REFORMS

Tenancy cultivation is quite common in rural India whereby the land
is cultivated by small farmers and share crop with owners as payment of Self - Instructional Material
rent for using land. There are two types of tenants prevalent: i) occupancy
or permanent tenants‘ ii) tenants-at-will or temporary tenants. Occupancy
tenants enjoy permanent right of cultivation which is heritable i.e.
transferred to the next generation. Tenants- at-will can be ejected from the
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 land at any time at will of landlords. These peasants are subject to
insecurity and exploitation in terms of huge rent. The legislative and
Jajmani Systems administrative measures were taken by the Government to provide security
tenants and regulated the rent payable by them. Tenancy reforms included
the following measures:
(i) Rent Ceiling
The maximum rent payable by the tenant has been fixed. It cannot
NOTES exceed one fourth to one fifth in most states.
(ii) Tenure Security
The security of tilling of land is provided whereby the tenants now
cannot be ejected at will except for self-cultivation provided the rent is
paid.
(iii) Conferring Ownership Rights to Peasants
The legislative changes have been made to provide for conferment
of ownership rights on all the cultivating farmers on the payment of
specified amount to the landlords.
Critical Appraisal
Tenancy reforms progressed in a large number of states though with
varied degree of success with quite a number of peasants and landless
laborers were given ownership rights. However, the reform process
suffered from ineffective implementations of enormous legislations due to
the following reasons:
(i) Misuse of Exemptions and Escape Clauses: In the legislation escape
clauses were provided that were misused by big land-owners. For example
land-owners resorted to ejection of tenants on the pretext of self-
cultivation. In fact, tenancy-at-will with no formal contract was increased.
The term self-cultivation was defined very loosely. In this manner the
owners were able to resume a substantial part of the land. These owners
don‘t cultivate land but informally lease it out on the basis of sharing of
crop. The cultivators under these informal leases are under constant threat
of ejection.
(ii) Fictitious surrender of land by tenants to landowners‟: Land-
owners on paper showed that the tenants have been voluntarily given up
right on the land in favor of landowners.
(iii) Lack of Information and Economic Support among Poor
Tenants: The policy required the payment of specified amount to the
owners to obtain ownership rights but the cultivators lack resources to
acquire land from owners.
(iv)Non-Availability of Updated records of Land-Ownership: also
created problems in proper implementation of land reforms.
(v) Lack of Political will to rigorously implement Tenancy Reforms:
As large politicians were big land owners so the slow progress of reforms
was in their self-interest.
(vi)Higher Rent: The efforts were made to fix rent rather than to reduce
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traditionally.

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 Thus the implementation of tenancy reforms left much to be desired.
The land favored well-off land lords and created greater insecurity of
tenure in the form of informal leasing of land. The resource constraint of Jajmani Systems
the tenants also prevented the large transfers of land in their favor.
Check your progress - 2
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. NOTES
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
3. What is the meaning of Tenant? NOTES
4. What is Jamindari system?
NOTES
4.5. CASTE AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE

The social structure of Indian society is characterised by a unique

social institution called caste. The Indian caste system is a system of social
stratification and social restriction in India in which communities are
defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups called Jātis. The
Jātis were hypothetically and formally grouped by the Brahminical texts
under the four well known categories: Brahmins, Vaishyas, Kshatriyas and
Sudras. Certain people like foreigners, nomads, forest tribes and the
chandalas were excluded altogether and treated as untouchables. The caste
system which emerged out of the Varna system as a form of social
stratification is peculiar to India and is an inseparable aspect of the Indian
society. There is no comparable institution elsewhere in the world for the
caste system. Although evidences of caste are to be found in many parts of
the world, the most perfect instance is that which exists in India.
4.5.1 MEANING OF CASTE
The word, ‗caste‘ is of Spanish and Portuguese origin. The term,
‗caste‘ originated from the Spanish word ‗casta‘, meaning ‗lineage‘ or
‗race‘ or ‗a group having hereditary quality‘. It is derived from the Latin
word ‗Castus‘, which means pure. The Spaniards were the first to use it,
but its Indian application is from the Portuguese, who had so applied it in
the middle of the fifteenth century. The current spelling of the word is after
the French word ‗Caste‘, which appears in 1740 in the academies, and is
hardly found before 1800. Before that time it was spelt as ‗cast‘. In the
sense of race or breed of man it was used as early as 1555 AD. The
Spanish word ‗Casta‘ was applied to the mixed breed between Europeans,
Indians (American) and Negroes. But ‗caste‘ was not used in its Indian
sense till the 17th century. The Indian use is the leading one now, and it
has influenced all other uses.
4.5.2 DEFINITIONS OF CASTE
Andre Beteille - "Caste may be defined as a small and named
group of persons characterized by endogamy, hereditary membership, and
a specific style of life which sometimes includes the pursuit by tradition of Self - Instructional Material
a particular occupation and is usually associated with a more or less
distinct ritual status in a hierarchical system".

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 MacIver- "When status is wholly predetermined, so that men are born to
their lot without any hope of changing it, then class takes the extreme form
Jajmani Systems of caste".
A. Green- "Caste is a system of stratification in which mobility up and
down the status ladder, at least ideally may not occur".
H. Cooley- "When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it a
caste".
E. A. Gait- "caste is an endogamous group or collection of such groups
NOTES
bearing a common name, having the same traditional occupation claiming
descent from the same source, and, commonly regarded as forming a single
homogeneous community".
Caste can be defined as hereditary endogamous group, having a
common name, common traditional occupation, common culture, relatively
rigid in matters of mobility, distinctiveness of status and forming a single
homogeneous community. However, in the changing situation caste has
adapted too many new features like having formal organizations, becoming
less rigid and having a link with politics.
4.5.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF CASTE SYSTEM
1. Segmental division of society
The caste system gives to the Hindu society a segmentary character.
The society is divided into various castes, the membership of which is
determined by the consideration of birth. The status of a person does not
depend on his wealth but on the traditional importance of the caste in
which he is born. The caste status is rigidly maintained throughout life and
nobody can escape from his caste identity, irrespective of his potentialities
or capabilities.
2. Hierarchy
The caste system is hierarchical with a definite scheme of
precedence. The whole society is divided into distinct classes with a
concept of high and low. Thus Brahmans in India stand at the apex of the
social ladder while the Sudras occupied the lowest rank with manifold
disabilities.
3. Restrictions on food habits
Taboos are observed by the higher castes with regard to cooking,
vessels, food and commensality. They abstain from food cooked by a
member of a lower caste and also food cooked and served in vessels which
are considered impure. The Brahmans do not accept food or water from
any other castes or sub-castes or interline with them during ceremonies and
abstain from any kind of drinks and remain teetotalers.
4. Occupational restrictions
Traditionally, specific occupations are assigned to each of the four
castes. Members of any caste are not allowed to take to any occupation
which are degrading or impure.
5. Religious disabilities
There are many rituals which the lower castes are not allowed to
perform. They are also not allowed to study the sacred literature and are
not given prasadan (consecrated food) until and unless the high caste
members receive it.
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6. Endogamy
A caste is an endogamous unit in that members of a caste must
marry only persons belonging to their caste in order to maintain the purity Jajmani Systems
and identity of the caste. The rule of endogamy is observed not only at the
caste level but also at the sub-caste and sub-sub-caste level.
7. Maintenance of social distance, untouchability and settlement
pattern NOTES
A social distance is maintained because of the fear among the
higher castes of pollution which results from proximity to or contact with
the lower castes. The untouchables are not allowed to useNOTES public roads or
public wells, to enter Hindu temples or to attend public school. Generally,
the impure castes are made to live in the outskirts of the city.
8. Concept of purity NOTES
The concept of purity is closely linked to caste and is inherently
obvious in the caste system. Opposite to the concept of purity is the
concept of pollution. Caste groups in the topmost rungs of the caste
hierarchy are `pure' while those at the bottom rungs are `impure'.

4.5.4 ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM

India‘s caste system is a social structure that divides different
groups into ranked categories. Members of ―higher‖ castes have a greater
social status than individuals of a ―lower‖ caste. Indian law prohibits
discrimination by caste, although caste identities remain of great
significance at the local level, especially in relation to marriage. A survey
in 2005 found that only 11 per cent of women had married a man of
different caste.
The system appears to have had ancient roots. Sanskrit texts from
the second millennium BC refer to a practice of dividing individuals into
social groups called ―varnas‖— the term‘s precise meaning is unclear, but
is seems not only to suggest classification, but also colour. The Varnas,
which are associated with early Hinduism, are the first recorded
manifestation of India‘s caste system. Four principal classes emerged, in
descending order of prestige: the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas
and the Shudras. Myth holds that these groups were created from the
mouth, arms, thighs and feet of an ancient character called Purusha.
Brahmins
The highest of all the castes, and traditionally priests or teachers,
Brahmins make up a small part of the Indian population. The British
colonial authorities gave Brahmins influential clerical jobs. They now
dominate the key positions in science, business and government.
Kshatriyas
Meaning ―protector[s] of the gentle people,‖ Kshatriyas were
traditionally the military class. They are now predominantly a land-owning
caste and are diminished in power.
Vaishyas
A caste that is influential in trade, the Vaishyas were traditionally
cattle-herders, agriculturalists, artisans and merchants. They are now Self - Instructional Material
associated with the middle-class and social advancement and make up
around one fifth of India‘s population.

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 Shudras
The lowest of the four ancient social classes, or Varnas-, the
Jajmani Systems Shudras were considered so low as to be prohibited from the study of the
―Vedas,‖ the earliest texts of sacred Indian literature. Shudras are now
considered to be a ―scheduled caste‖ by the Indian Government, meaning
that they are historically disadvantaged. The government‘s 2011 census
showed that over 200m Indians belong to a scheduled caste.
Adivasi
NOTES
The term is used to refer to a collection of ethnic and tribal groups
regarded as India‘s aboriginal people. More than 95 per cent of Adivasis
live in rural areas. Sixty-eight per cent do not reach high school. More than
half of all Adivasi are dependent on forest produce, especially the tendu
leaf, used in the production of Indian cigarettes, for their livelihoods.

Dalits
The word ―Dalit,‖ derived from Sanskrit, means ―ground,‖
―suppressed‖ or ―crushed.‖ Considered the lowliest people of all the castes,
Dalits are typically associated with occupations regarded as ritually
impure, such as those involving waste or carcasses. They are a people
traditionally regarded as ―untouchable.‖

4.5.5 MERITS OF CASTE SYSTEM

a) Unity in diversity: It has achieved a graded racial and cultural
harmony in India.
b) Co-operation: It has fostered the spirit of co-operation and fellow-
feeling among members of the same caste.
c) Economic security: By guaranteeing different types and fixed
types of occupations for every man and social group, the caste
system has given economic security and psychological security.
d) Defines economic pursuits: By defining occupations and
distributing economic pursuits between different groups, the caste
system has ensured for the provision of all functions necessary for
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life from the social, economic, political, religious and other points
of view.

54
 e) Racial and ethnic purity: Through the enforcement of endogamy,
the caste system has contributed to the preservation of racial and
ethnic purity. It has also fostered the habits of cleanliness Jajmani Systems
byinsisting on ritual purity.
f) Cultural diffusion: The customs, beliefs, skills, behaviour and
trade are passed on from one generation to another and further,
from the upper castes to the lower castes who have also gradually NOTES
adopted some ritually clean and hygienic practices as well.
g) Integration of the country: Class consciousness develops without
breeding class struggle. It has created an efficientNOTES
organisation of
Hindu society without giving any chance to class frictions and
factions.
4.5.6 DEMERITS OF CASTE SYSTEM NOTES
a. Mobility of labour: By restricting change of occupation, it denies
mobility of labour and consequently leads to stagnation.
b. Wrong occupation: An individual may not be skilled or interested
in his caste trade but may be talented and capable of some other
pursuit which by caste conventions may be prohibited.
c. Obstacle to national unity: Discontentment felt by the lower caste
groups at the behaviour meted out to them in society is an obstacle
to national unity.
d. Undemocratic: The caste system denies equal rights to all
irrespective of their caste, creed or colour.
e. Untouchability: The worst consequence of the caste system is the
plight of the `untouchables' who are shunned, despised and
prevented from social intercourse with higher caste groups.
f. Promotes casteism: The members belonging to a caste carry
castefeelings and manifest blind and over-riding loyalty to their
caste. This makes them ignore the healthy social standards of
justice, fair play, equity and brotherhood.

4.5.7 CHANGES IN THE CASTE SYSTEM

The caste system has undergone many changes due to modern
education, industrialization, means of communication, new legal
machinery provided by the British government for punishing all castes in
the same way for similar offences, legalizing inter-caste marriages,
political awakening, independence of India, abolition of untouchability,
democratic form of government, movements of social emancipation,
constitutional guarantees provided for the welfare of the backward castes
and ex-untouchable castes. During the initial days of British East India
Company's rules, caste privileges and customs were encouraged. However,
the British law courts disagreed with the discrimination against the lower
castes.

Check your progress - 3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
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b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
5. Casteis derived from the Latin word ……………….
6. The caste system which emerged out of the ………system

55
 4.6 CHANGING TRENDS IN INTER CASTE RELATIONS
Jajmani Systems
Of late, the pattern of inter-caste relations has undergone profound
changes. The mutual rights and obligations characterising inter-caste
relations have crumbled down. Members of the low castes no longer obey
the orders of the members of high castes. They do not come forward to
perform forced labour for the members of the upper caste.
NOTES Further, efforts made by the lower castes to rise in the social ladder
have annoyed the upper castes. All these factors have led to inter-caste
conflicts. Such inter-caste conflicts are gradually increasing. However,
these are more for achieving power than on grounds of ritual status.

Caste constitutes both a super-structure and a social reality rooted

deep into the social and cultural milieu of Indian society. The latter,
however, being in transition, is characterised by both continuity and
change, especially when one finds social cleavages based on caste and
ethnicity. It may be noted that the most formidable social evil, which a
society can have, has been the practice of untouchability, which was
rationalized by way of justifications both historical and mythological. To
perpetuate the system, the 'Varna System' was invoked. Each of the Varna
divisions, although functional in nature, was destined to follow a different
social and economic life ordained in Hindu Texts, especially Manu Smriti
and Dharamshastra. Later on, with compartmentalization of total social life
of different Varnas it developed a rigid caste system, in which the patterns
of interaction were restricted first within one's own caste, then between
castes described as high low. The ex-untouchable castes were kept outside
the four Varnas.
The change in the inter-caste relationships beside the legal
enactments was also affected by the increasing social, economic and
political actions of the ex-untouchables themselves. The case of Jatava, an
untouchable caste of leather workers in the city of Agra, is an evidence of
how their social and economic status could change through enhancing
skills in the trading in hides and skins, shoe-making etc. Along with
shoemaking, taking contracts of constriction work, stone-cutting, supply of
hides and skin etc. (Lynch 1974). The other adding factor was change in
the life style under the influence of Arya Samaj. The acquisition of
knowledge of Sanskrit symbols following Hindu rites and beliefs.
Jatavas political activities took off with their demand for including
one of their caste members into State Legislative Council. The demand was
materialised in 1920. In 1944-45, a Scheduled caste federation of Agra was
formed which was linked with Ambedkars Scheduled Caste Federation. In
1958, Republican Party was formed by Jatavas at Agra after departure
from Congress Party. These developments added to formation of new
political structure. It was realised by them that for the achievement of
higher social status, political participation is more important as compared
to Sanskritization.
Another evidence of change in the inter- caste relations can be cited
from Satnamis of Chhattisgarh district of Madhya Pradesh where the
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scarcity of labour in the last century benefited the Chamars by enabling
them to enter the cultivators' class. The betterment of their economic
56
conditions encouraged them to break the humiliating Hindu caste tradition
and raise high in the social hierarchy. This ambition was fostered by Ghasi
Das who proclaimed the equality among all men, irrespective of their caste Jajmani Systems
and creed.
Mahars an untouchable caste of Maharashtra seem to have accepted
different reference groups in different periods with the intention of
acquiring upward social mobility Vithal cult of Maharashtra followed by NOTES
Mahar in reality was a Buddhist cult, but because of its adoption by Vedic
religion, it lost its distinct Buddhist way of life. However it did propagate
equality of all human beings, but it was not practiced. Therefore
NOTESattempt of
Mahars for upward social mobility by adopting what is called Warkari sect
did not help them. During medieval period particularly of Peshwa Rule,
Mahars were worst oppressed because they were staunch NOTESfollowers of
Buddhism which was treated as antagonistic to Vedic religion.
Apart from worker movement in Maharashtra, others socio-
religious movement which attracted Mahars were Lingayat and
Mahanubhan movement. During 12" century, lingayat movement was
started by Basaveshware in South of Maharashtra. One of tenet of Lingayat
religion was equalities before God, so there was no place for caste
discrimination before God. Some of Mahars who were making attempts to
achieve upward mobility became Lingayats. But this movement was partly
successful. Further, during 13th century, Mahanubhav movement was
started by Harpal Deo, afterwards known as Chakradhar. Followers of this
sect believed in Lord Krishna. They had no faith in caste system. Many
Mahars followed it but attempts of Mahars to achieve upward social
mobility by way of accepting and following Mahanubhav religion failed.
After Muslim invasion of India, many Mahars were forced to
embrace Islam after seeing their elevated social status. Similarly, some
cases hold true for Christian of India. After coming to India, Christian
missionaries took interest in people belonging to low caste on
compassionate ground as well as for converting them into Christianity.
Therefore Mahars became Christian.
After having failed in attaining upward social mobility by way of
sanskritization, adoption of Brahmanical values and joining various
religions and social movements, they realised that they cannot succeed in
achieving upward social status in caste hierarchy. In order to get rid of
caste hierarchy and oppressive social system they realised that embracing
Buddhism in 1956 was the only way left out for them.
Embracing of Buddhism by Mahars has brought about significant
social, cultural political, economic transformation among them. They
became free from caste liabilities. They declined to be even called as
Mahars and protested against anything that was attached to them as
Mahars. It leads to many conflicts between Buddhism and Hinduism and
consequently they had to pay huge price. Awareness among Mahars, their
large scale forced out immigrations to developed region or urban centers,
for work, helped them in improving their socio-economic conditions. They Self - Instructional Material
adopted norm of modernization through education and discarded
profession looked down upon by the societies.
Another systematic attempt of a low South Indian caste to raise its
status in the last hundred years is that of Nadars, "toddy tappers" of
57
 Tamilnadu. Nadars, are generally ranked between the main village castes
and other untouchables. The reason being they were distillers at the
Jajmani Systems beginning of nineteenth century a unique resource for a very low caste; a
territorial homeland. In this homeland, Nadars formed vast majorities of
population; thus they were not accustomed to being treated collectively as
near untouchable by powerful higher castes. In this homeland, Nadars were
differentiated internally. Two most important internal divisions were
between high ranking Nadars, on endogamous division of landowners and
NOTES
tax-officials for royal overlords outside the territory and the lower ranking
Shanars or Toddy tappers. Other specialized sub-divisions may he included
Priest and Barber. Finally, the main body of Shanars, a group of traders
(mobile), who moved around home territory trading the Shanars' products
(Country liquor and jaggery sugar) for salt, fish and garden produce.
In early nineteenth century, both the trading and Toddy-tapping
Shanars moved to north in large numbers into a region where they were
faced with fully developed non Nadar caste hierarchy. The Toddy-tappers
were relegated to village hamlets halfway between main caste habitation
sites and untouchables sites whereas traders retreated into fortified
enclosures, Petrais which became "Six Nadar Towns of Ramnad". Traders
prepared enormously and built well financed caste association in these
towns. But local dominant castes of these villages i.e. Maravars, Tevars,
Kulawais attempted to assimilate them in status with still polluted Toddy-
tapping Shanars.
Further Shnanars extended the resources of their wealthy caste
organization into country side, and send out regular 'touring agents'. Their
aim was to organise the poorest members of caste. On behalf of village
Shanars they also fought courts cases to win them formerly devoid
prerogatives such as entry into certain public places, use of village roads
etc. Finally, they carried out successful campaign with British census
officials to have the name the name of their entire caste changed from
'Shanars' to 'Nadar'.
The foregoing brief accounts of caste system and caste relationships
from time to time indicate that both have not been static. There has been a
definite change in which not one but many factors mattered significantly.
It is noted that as far as developed villages are concerned, in one
village, namely Dalan, there were only two castes i.e. Rajputs and Koli in
the past which continues to beinhabited by the same castes. Another village
namely Shathla had six castes i.e. Rajput, Goldsmith, Carpenter,
Blacksmith, Koli and Rehar. One major change that has taken place is that
now marriages take place between Rajput and Goldsmith which was not
there earlier. Another change is that now a day in many houses carpenters
(Badi) are allowed in the kitchen of high caste people but in the past they
were not allowed to enter in the kitchen. Rest of the castes is same in
Shathla village.
Though changes are taking place in the caste system, it still plays
an important role in shaping the Indian societal structure. The system
underwent fast changes due to industrialization, urbanization,
modernization, education, secularization etc., yet it could neither be
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in the rural areas. Various social reformers have made attempts to stop

58
discrimination based on caste and because of their movements against this
discrimination, there has been an improvement in the status of the so-called
untouchables or harijans or dalits. Jajmani Systems

Check your progress - 4

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the NOTES
unit.
7. Write about lingayat movement.
8. Who was called Badi? NOTES
4.7 LET US SUM UP

The jajmani system was popularized by colonialNOTES ethnography. It

tended to conceptualize agrarian social structure in the framework of
exchange relations. In its classical construct, different caste groups
specialized in specific occupations and exchanged their services through an
elaborate system of division of labor. Tenant farming is an agricultural
production system in which landowners contribute their land and often a
measure of operating capital and management, while tenant farmers
contribute their labor along with at times varying amounts of capital and
management. The social structure of Indian society is characterised by a
unique social institution called caste. The pattern of inter-caste relations
has undergone profound changes. The change in the inter-caste
relationships beside the legal enactments was also affected by the
increasing social, economic and political actions of the ex-untouchables
themselves. Various social reformers have made attempts to stop discrimination
based on caste and because of their movements against this discrimination, there
has been an improvement in the status of the so-called untouchables or harijans or
dalits.
From this unit, you have been learnt Jajmani System; Tenancy
Systems; Caste and social structure and changing trends in inter caste
relations elaborately.
4.8 UNIT- END- EXERCISES

1. Explain the jajmani system.

2. Write short note on Tenancy Systems.
3. Describe Caste and social structure.
4. Explain about Changing trends in inter caste relations.

4.9 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. This system of inter relatedness in service within Hindu
community was called the Jajmani system
2. Under jajmani system the payments are made mainly in
terms of goods and commodities. The kameen gets his
necessities from the jajman in return of his services.
3. Farming is an agricultural production
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4. The jamindari system was known to be more exploitive, as
the jaminder used to fix / hike the prices of land according
to his desire
5. ‗Castus‘

59
 6. Varna
7. Lingayat movement was started by Basaveshware in South
Jajmani Systems of Maharashtra. One of tenet of Lingayat religion was
equalities before God, so there was no place for caste
discrimination before God.
8. Carpenters

NOTES 4.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Béteille, André. Caste, Class, and Power: Changing Patterns of
Stratification in a Tanjore Village. Berkeley: University of
California, 1965. Print.
2. Bouglé, Célestin. Essays on the Caste System. London: Cambridge
UP, 1971. Print.
3. Daniel, Aharon. "Caste System in Modern India." Adaniel's Info
Site. Web. 4 Nov. 2010.
4. Ghurye, G. S. Caste and Race in India. Bombay: Popular
Prakashan, 1969. Print.
5. Hutton, J. H. Caste in India: Its Nature, Function and Origins.
Bombay: Indian Branch, OxfordUP, 1963. Print.
6. "Kshatriya , Indian Caste." Free Encyclopedia & Web Portal on
Indian Culture & Lifestyle. 28Jan. 2009. Web. 11 Oct. 2010.
7. Pyakurel, Sourav. "Caste System in India | Articles." Rajput
Brotherhood: A Blog Focused on Technology and Web-
development. Web. 29 Nov. 2010.
8. https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/how-does-indias-
caste-system-work
9. Dumont,L.,1988 Homo Hierachicus: The Caste System and its
Implications. Oxford University Press: Delhi
10. Ghurye,G.S.,1950, Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan,
Bombay
11. Kolenda, P., 1997, Caste in Contemporary India: Betond Organic
Solidarity,Rawat Publications. Jaipur
12. Saraswati,B.N.,1977, Brahmanic Ritual Traditions. Indian Institute
of AdvancedStudy: Simla

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 UNIT – V FACTORS ACCOUNTING
Factors Accounting for
FOR THE CHANGES the Change
Structure
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Objectives
5.3. Factors accounting for the changes NOTES
5.4. Dominant caste
5.4.1 Meaning of Dominant Caste
5.4.2 Definition of Dominant Caste
NOTES
5.4.3 Four Basic Levels of Dominant Castes
5.4.4 Factors on Which Dominant Caste Depends
5.4.5 Functions of Dominant Caste NOTES
5.5. Ancestral worship
5.5.1 Aspects of Ancestor Worship
5.5.1.1 Conceptual Issues
5.5.1.2 Paradigmatic Issues
5.6. Factors of Change
5.7. Agrarian Legislation
5.8. Land Reform programmes
5.9. Green Revolution
5.9.1 Impact of the Green Revolution
5.9.2 Features of the Green Revolution
5.10. Rural Development Programmes
5.10.1 Rural Development during pre-independence period
5.10.2 Rural Development since Independence
5.10.3 Community Development Programme
5.10.4 Present Rural Development Paradigm
5.10.5 Impact of globalization on farmers
5.10.6 Emphasis on People‘s Participation
5.10.7 Role of Non-Government Organisations
5.11. Let Us Sum Up
5.12. Unit- End- Exercises
5.13. Answer to check your Progress
5.14. Suggested Readings
5.1INTRODUCTION

In this unit begins with factors accounting for the changes. Many
factors responsible for change can be studied rural sociology. The concept
of dominant caste has been used for the first time in sociological literature
by an eminent sociologist. He defined it as a particular caste economically,
spiritually and politically above any other castes. Ancestral spirits that are
worshiped also vary in distance of time from the living. In some societies,
only the spirits of the recently deceased are worshiped, while in others, all
ancestors are included. Indian agriculture has made tremendous strides since
Independence. A country with recurring food shortages and dependence on food
imports is now not only self-sufficient but a net exporter also. Land reform Self - Instructional Material
programmes got the special attraction in the successive Five Year Plans to
remove the defects of tenurial system prevailing at the eve of independence
The Green Revolution in India refers to a period when Indian agriculture
61
 was converted into an industrial system due to the adoption of modern
methods and technology such as the use of high yielding variety (HYV)
Factors Accounting for seeds, tractors, irrigation facilities, pesticides, and fertilizers. It was mainly
the Changes found by M.S. Swaminathan. The new methods in agriculture increased the
yield of rice and wheat, which reduced India's dependence on food
imports. Rural development is the process of improving
the quality of life and economic well-being of people living in rural areas,
often relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas.
NOTES In this unit the students will learn factors accounting for the
changes, Dominant caste, Ancestral worship, factors of change, Agrarian
Legislation, Land Reform programmes, Green Revolution Rural
Development Programmes.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit you will be able to;
 Relate the Factors accounting for the changes
 gain the knowledge about dominant caste
 understand the ancestral worship
 Identify the Factors of Change
 gain the knowledge about the Agrarian Legislation
 acquire the knowledge about the Land Reform programmes
 understand the Green Revolution
 discuss the Rural Development Programmes
5.3 FACTORS ACCOUNTING FOR THE CHANGES

Many factors responsible for change can be studied under the

following heads:
Natural Factors
The factors conditioning place where the rural community exists
are treated as natural factors. For instance, a village near a river bears the
effects of rivers and similarly the villages prospering in the lap of
mountains are even close to the mountains are seen affected by the
mountains. In the similar way the social, economic, cultural and religious
life of the communities settled in bamboo forests bear the effects of
bamboo in their life. Animals and cattle‘s are employed in their natural
places and for other places they are treated strange creatures. Cottage
industries developing in a particular region much depend upon the minerals
available in that area. In the similar way, the mountains, rivers, animals,
minerals and vegetation around a village, are the natural factors that
influence the life of people in the villages. Whenever there is a change in
these natural factors, rural life around it also experience change.
Technological Factors
Man does not live only with, what nature has provided but
substantial part of it is created by him through various means. Technical
assistance is taken by man to construct a favorable condition for him, much
within the permission of the natural environments. The availability of
electricity to the villages has altered many aspects of their life. The
invention of radio and other instruments have played a remarkable role in
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62
changes were brought into the way of rural life by the invention of radio
only. Installation of machines in the villages has changed the taste of the
villagers towards their traditional and customary techniques and Factors Accounting for
instruments, steam and electrical power is in no way lagging behind in the Change
creating a change in the life of the people. Technological changes have
revolution the everyday life of the rural people.
Social Factors
NOTES
In view of the changes take around, many practices pertaining to
social life have either been changed or faced threat to their very existence.
British rule has influenced to a very great extent many social practices
prevalent among the people living in the rural India.NOTES These changes
included abolition of sati system, child marriages, regularization of
marriage and restoration of rights to women has brought an appreciable
NOTES form the
change in the rural life. The effects of these changes are apparent
better conditions of women, in the society. In addition to these, many
systems have lost their effect. These include system of joint family, jajmani
custom have lost their place in the life of rural India. Caste panchayats are
outdated now, and so is the rigidity in the caste-feelings. Backward classes,
hitherto treated as downtrodden are being looked after by the special
machinery of government and new laws have been made to bring up
scheduled caste and scheduled tribe‘s people. There has been tremendous
decline in the influence of the caste system also.
Economic Factors
Increase in population has compelled the rural folks to migrate to
industrial and urban area for their livelihood. Agriculture cannot employ
and feed everyone and this urgency has been very well noticed which quite
clear form pace of migration to urban areas. When the rural youth
approaches urban area, his way of thinking, living in influenced by the
urban life. This has affected not only the life of the people living in villages
but also changed the existing values.
Cultural Factors
Cultural life comprises the beliefs, assumption and taboos of a
community. In India, village life is much influenced by the religious
contacts. Westernization has changed the attitude of village youth towards
their ancient customs and values. In tribal areas, once the dominator
dominated the life of tribal youth, but with the impact of westernization
brought into by Christianity, the place of dormitory is fading away from
the tribal culture. Western beliefs in individualism and materialism have
been accepted by the village youth. Because of these changes has been
changing attitude of people regarding casteism, family and marriage.
Political Factors
Post independence period has led to the politicization of the village
life. Now the villages have become the hub of political activities. Thus the
various political forces like party activities, elections and propaganda have
caused changes in various communities living in the rural areas. Now the
rural people are much aware of their rights and like the urban people the Self - Instructional Material
villagers also take part in political processes with due sense of judgment.

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 5.4 DOMINANT CASTE
The concept of ‗dominant caste‘ was propounded by M.N. Srinivas.
Factors Accounting for
It was for the first time appeared in his essay on the social system of a
the Changes
Mysore village. While constructing the concept, perhaps Srinivas was
unconsciously influenced by African studies on the dominant clan and
dominant lineage. Srinivas developed the concept in his study of Rampura
village which is a little away from Mysore city in Karnataka state. Srinivas,
in fact, wanted to give a comprehensive study of Rampura.
NOTES To write down the details of the village he had gone to Stanford for
writing down a monograph on Rampura. But there ―by a strange quirk of
fate all the three copies of my fieldwork notes, processed over a period of
eighteen years‖ were destroyed when a fire took place in his Stanford
office. Everything was destroyed for Srinivas. Whatever he remembered
about Rampura, later on came in the form of The Remembered Village
(1976).

5.4.1 Meaning of Dominant Caste

The concept of dominant caste has been used for the first time in
sociological literature by an eminent sociologist.Prof. M.N. Srinivas in his
essay ―The Social System of a Mysore Village‖, which was written after
his study of village Rampura.
Dumont and Pocock believed that Srinivas has adopted the term
from the study of African society where the concepts of dominant clan and
dominant lineage were used. The term dominant caste is used to refer to a
caste which yields economic or political power and occupies a fairly high
position in the hierarchy.
M.N Srinivas defined it as a particular caste economically,
spiritually and politically above any other castes. For example in
India, Brahmin caste is considered as a dominant caste, thus it is having a
superior frame over other castes.
Since 1987 Srinivas definition of dominant caste was of greater
impact over societies. This concept given by M.N Srinivas holds that a
caste is dominant when it is numerically higher than the other castes. In the
Mysore village he described the peasant Okkalinga composed of nearly
half of the population made up of nineteenth jati group. The Okkalinga
were the biggest land owner. The chief criteria of domination of a caste are
1. Economic strength
2. Political power
3. Ritual purity
4. Numerical strength
The dominant caste also wields economic and political power over
the other caste groups. It also enjoys a high ritual status in the local caste
hierarchy. The dominant caste may not be ritually high but enjoy high
status because of wealth, political power and numerical strength. The
presence of educated persons and high occupation rate also play an
important role in deciding its dominance over other caste groupings.
Sometimes a single clan of dominant caste controls a number of villages in
areas. The dominant caste settle dispute between persons belonging to their
own and other jati. The power of the dominant caste is supported by a
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norm discouraging village from seeking justice from area, govt official,
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court or police located outside the village. The members of the dominant
caste particularly those from the wealthy and powerful families are
representative of this village in dealing with the officials. Factors Accounting for
Here is a list of dominant castes the Change

S.No Name of the state or The Dominant caste

locality
1 In Mysore Villages Lingayats and Okkaligas NOTES

2 In Andhra Pradesh Reddy and Kamma

3 In Tamilnadu Gounder, Padayachi and Mudaliar
NOTES
4 In Kerala Nayar
5 In Maharashtra Maratha
NOTES
6 In Gujarat Bania, Palidar
7 In Northern India Rajput, Jat, Giyar and Ahir
5.4.2 Definition of Dominant Caste
―A caste may be said to be dominant when it preponderates
numerically over other castes and when it also wields preponderant
economic and political power. A large and powerful caste group can be
more easily dominant if its position in the local caste hierarchy is not too
low.‖ —M.N. Srinivas
McKim Marriott viewed that the concept of dominant caste in
various studies of anthropological research lies on the political power
which traditionally called as juridical power in village community and at
times yields religious and quasi-divine power and the power to employ
physical force.
―A caste to be dominant, it should own a sizable amount of the
arable land locally available, have strength of numbers and occupy a high
place in the local hierarchy. When a caste has all the attributes of
dominance, it may be said to enjoy a decisive dominance.‖ —M.N.
Srinivas
5.4.3 Four Basic Levels of Dominant Castes
1. The ruler
2. The regionally dominant caste
3. The locally dominant caste
4. The village level landed pattern of dominant caste.
David Pocock observes that Sanskritizatlon is outside the pale of
pan-Indian culture and it is a manifestation of highly localised process of
cultural change. At the micro-structural level of villages and other
territorial groups there were functional equivalents of the kingly role
represented by what Srinivas called ―dominant-castes‖.
With the land reforms, big landowning class has ceased to be an
important element of dominance. Andre Beteille observes that in place of
big landowning class, the strength of numerical support has become a
decisive factor in the formation of a dominant caste.
Dominant caste is not always numerically a preponderant caste.
D.N. Majumdar observes that the scheduled castes preponderate in many Self - Instructional Material
villages. But the people belonging to the upper caste exercise power and
authority in such villages.

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 5.4.4 FACTORS ON WHICH DOMINANT CASTE DEPENDS
1. ECONOMIC STRENGTH: The Economic condition of a person
Factors Accounting for played an important role in deciding its Dominance. Suppose a
the Changes person is not dominant by its ascribed status, but through its
economic condition, a person is seen as a dominant figure in society.
2. POLITICAL POWER: Political power is getting the power to
rule over a clan thus making it‘s a dominant thing in the society
sometimes irrespective of their caste. For example, India‘s prime
minister is a dominant figure in India irrespective of his caste.
NOTES
3. RITUAL PURITY: In India, it is a saying that Brahmin caste is
equivalent to God, thus they are ritually the most powerful caste.
Thus this factor also plays an important role in deciding Dominant
caste.
4. NUMERICAL STRENGTH: A specific group of people high in
number than any other group or caste will be considered as a
dominant caste in society.
5.4.5 FUNCTIONS OF DOMINANT CASTE
1. Dominant castes habits, norms, behavior are seen as the only thing
to copy by lower caste inhabitants. This is also seen as transferring
the habits of dominant caste to lower castes. Dominant castes are
seen as role models for lower castes.
2. Dominant castes safeguard the cultural and social phenomenon of
society. Hence they act as a watchman of the cultural development
of society. And if anybody is found guilty of breaking the rules is
severely punished.
3. As Dominant castes are dominant in society thus they play an
important role in expanding their relationship with political parties.
They play an important role in the political process of a country.
4. Due to their dominance in the society, they are the pillars of socio-
economic development of the society. It is not necessary that their
steps are always for the betterment of a society; sometimes they use
their power for only their greed. Example the trailing corruption is
an example that not every time the dominant castes were fair in
every aspect.
5. Due to dominant position in rural society, they control the rural
economy in various ways and means.
6. Dominant castes play a greater role in the process of modernisation.

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the factors accounting for the changes?
2. Who was the propounded of ‗dominant caste‘?

5.5 ANCESTRAL WORSHIP

The term ancestor worship, coined in 1885 by the British

philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer, refers to a ritualized
Self - Instructional Material invocation of dead kin. It is based on the belief that the spirits of the dead
have the power to influence the affairs of the living. Ancestors who are
66
respected and remembered by elaborate rites include members of the
family, clans, and tribes. Ancestral spirits that are worshiped also vary in
distance of time from the living. In some societies, only the spirits of the Factors Accounting for
recently deceased are worshiped, while in others, all ancestors are the Change
included.
Two forms of ancestor worship can be identified in the
anthropological literature. One is a domestic cult, which is observed by the
family in dedication to its recent ancestors rather than remote ones. The NOTES
other is observed by the descent group in dedication to its common
ancestors in the remote past. As a cult of the descent group, ancestor
worship functions to prescribe the principle of rights and obligations
NOTES (jural
authority) and the rules of conduct for the living, who form a property-
holding corporate group. In short, they serve to keep up the social relations
of the living world. NOTES
5.5.1 Aspects of Ancestor Worship
5.5.1.1 Conceptual Issues
Ancestor worship, or ―the worship of the Manes,‖ is no ordinary
cult of the dead. It is, for example, not applicable to children who die
young or to dead elders who belong to a different kin group, because
neither qualify as ancestors.
The concept of ancestor becomes more complicated when
parenthood is not based on natural conception and gestation. In adoptions,
ancestor hood is created by jural action where natural offspring are lacking.
Chinese parents, for example, have the right to manipulate the filiation of
their children jurally and put them up for adoption by either partner‘s
patrilineage in case its continuity of succession and inheritance is tenuous
or in danger of a breakdown. It enables close relatives without biological
heirs to receive ancestor worship after death and avoid becoming
―orphaned ghosts‖ that would harass the living. In all adoptions, ancestor
worship is made to continue on the jural manipulation of filiation.
5.5.1.2 Paradigmatic Issues
Since the mid-19th century, a number of paradigms have been
proposed for the analysis of ancestor worship. Among them are the body-
soul model, the psychoanalytical model, the Africans model, the
multifunctionalist model, and the divine ownership model.
The Body-Soul Model
The dichotomy of body and soul dominated the early studies of
ancestor worship, as in Ancient Law, by Henry Sumner Maine (1861); La
cite antique, by Fustel de Coulanges (1864); Primitive Culture, by Edward
B. Taylor (1874); The Principle of Sociology, by Herbert Spencer (1875-
1876); and so on.
The body-soul paradigm was built on what appeared to be a
universal belief, namely, the belief that after the death of the body, the soul
continued to exist, as evidenced by its appearance in dream or in an altered
state of consciousness. The worship of the ancestral souls turned the family
or gens (agnatic kinsmen) into a corporate group perpetuated by the system
of collective property holding. With a legal fiction, ancestor worship
invested in the patriarch the qualities of a corporation so that he enjoyed Self - Instructional Material
rights in governing the family, or gens, but stood under the duty to hold its
collective possessions in trust for future generations. For Herbert Spencer,
ancestor worship was the root of every religion.
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 The Psychoanalytic Model
The primacy of the family was reinstated in Sigmund Freud‘s
Factors Accounting for psychoanalytic model (1913). Within its framework, ancestor worship is a
the Changes ritual of atonement for the ―original sin.‖ Presumably driven by the
Oedipus complex, the first sons committed the sin against their father for
his wives. Then overcome by profound remorse and fear of a vengeful
dead father, the sons held the first totemic sacrifice, identifying the animal
with the dead ancestor and giving him the status of divinity. Thus, ancestor
worship arose in response to deep emotional conflicts and weaknesses.
NOTES
Despite its sheer speculation about the original sin, the psychoanalytic
model has been influential in the study of attitudes toward the dead
ancestor cross-culturally.
The Africanist Model
This model is intellectually indebted to Radcliffe-Brown, for whom
the social needs for continuity are sui generis. For society to maintain its
existence and stability there must be a formulation of rights over people
and things that serve to regulate social relationships. Their conclusion was
that ancestor worship is a crucial unifying force in the African segmentary
lineage system.
This culture allows for duel descent systems. By farming for his
own father, a man obtains the right to the goods he needs for bride wealth
payments, but not to the property accumulated by his father. In contrast, he
stands to gain property (and possibly wives) from his maternal uncle. It is
between these two that the hostility is considerable. Upon the uncle‘s
death, however, guilt prevails, prompting the heir to sacrifice to the dead
ancestor, who continues to be perceived as the property holder, capable of
trouble making unless the ritual obligations are fulfilled.
The Multifunctionalist Model
With The Common Descent Group in China and Its Functions
(1948), Hu Hsien-chin was the first to explore the multifunction-ality of
the Chinese descent group zu in sociological terms. She presented it as a
descent-based kin group, a property-holding entity, and a body politic. Hu
concluded that historically, the development of the zu was the strongest
where the government control was the weakest.
The multifunctionalist paradigm has impacted the study of the
Chinese lineage for decades. Nevertheless, implicit in its analysis is the
idea that the significance of corporate land is to be interpreted in economic
terms. This is likely to create serious problems for the investigation of
ancestor worship. When lineage members are viewed as utilitarian
individuals, each seeking to maximize his own gain at the cost of agnatic
brothers, ancestor worship becomes merely a perfunctory product of
ancestral estates. But such an analysis leaves many questions unanswered.
In reality, most lineage members worship their ancestors in the absence of
land inheritance.
The Divine Ownership Model
Allen Chun developed his model as a reaction to the Eurocentric
utilitarianism of the multifunctionalist paradigm. In his view, the utilitarian
analysis of Chinese lineage property betrays a total disregard of the native
distinction between ―ownership‖ and ―possession‖ in the traditional
Self - Instructional Material Chinese property concepts. The Chinese terms used to describe the

68
inheritance of property connote neither ownership nor possession, but
rather productiveness, as in chanye (―productive enterprise‖) and zuchan
(―lineage productive medium‖). Because of divine ownership, corporate Factors Accounting for
land has little intrinsic value in itself. What makes land indispensable is its the Change
capacity to serve as a means of sustaining production and procuring wealth
for the survival of a kin group.
5.6 FACTORS OF CHANGE NOTES
Some of the most important factors of social change are as under:
1. Physical Environment
Certain geographic changes sometimes produce great social
change. Climate, storms, social erosion, earthquakes, floods, NOTES
droughts etc.,
definitely affect social life and induce social change. Human life is closely
bound up with the geographical conditions of the earth.
Human history is full of examples that flourishingNOTEScivilisations fell
prey to natural calamities. The distribution of population over various
regions, the variations in the population densities, the agricultural
production, flora and fauna, the joys and hardships—all indicate a change
when a change in the physical environment occurs.
Now man is in the position to affect change in his physical
environment. Men adapt themselves to their environment but they have the
capacity to transform their physical environment according to their needs
and requirements. Bennett and Tumin (1949) aptly remarked: ―It is perhaps
as reasonable, if not more so to insist that man modifies his physical
environment rather than the environment modifies man.‖
2. Demographic (biological) Factor
Broadly speaking, demography is concerned with the size and
structure of human population. The social structure of a society is closely
related with the changes in the size, composition and distribution of
population. The size of the population is based mainly upon three factors—
birth rate, death rate and migration (immigration and emigration).
The composition of population depends upon variables like age,
sex, marital status, literacy etc. The size of population affects each of us
quite personally. Whether we are born into a growing or a shrinking
population has a bearing on our education, the age at which we marry our
ability to get a job, the taxes we pay and many other factors.
3. Cultural Factor
It is an established fact that there is an intimate connection between
our beliefs and social institutions, our values and social relationships.
Values, beliefs, ideas, institutions are the basic elements of a culture.
Certainly, all cultural changes involve social change.
Social and the cultural aspects are closely interwoven. Thus, any
change in the culture (ideas, values, beliefs etc.) brings a corresponding
change in the whole social order. Social institutions cannot live on life
shells within which life is extinct.
Cultural change in society has two major aspects:
(a) Cultural change by discovery and invention, and
(b) Cultural change by diffusion and borrowing. Self - Instructional Material
The first comes from within a society and culture, and the second
from another culture outside of the society. A discovery or an invention
adds to the fund of our verified knowledge which later on becomes a factor
69
 of social change. Knowledge of bacterial infection brought about many
changes in the behaviour of people in the form of prevention and cure of
Factors Accounting for disease.
the Changes 4. Ideational Factor
Among the cultural factors affecting social change in modern times,
the development of science and secularisation of thought have contributed
a lot to the development of the critical and innovative character of the
modern outlook. We no longer follow many customs or habits merely
because they have the age-old authority of tradition. On the contrary, our
NOTES
ways of life have increasingly become on the basis of rationality.
For instance, after independence, the directive principles—equality,
fraternity, liberty and justice laid down in our constitution—have not only
revolutionised the Indian society but it has even affected greatly the
relations between the members of the family. Social philosophers, who
believed in the force of ideas, argued that no material or social factors can
produce change unless there is also a change in ideas within society or
ideas about society and nature.
5. Economic Factor
Of economic influences, the most far-reaching is the impact of
industrialisation. It has revolutionised the whole way of life, institutions,
organizations‘ and community life. In traditional production systems,
levels of production were fairly static since they were geared to habitual,
customary needs. Modern industrial capitalism promotes the constant
revision of the technology of production, a process into which science is
increasingly drawn. The impact of industrialisation (science and
technology) we can easily see on Indian family system (joint family) and
caste system.
6. Political Factor
State is the most powerful organisation which regulates the social
relationships. It has the power to legislate new laws, repeal old ones to
bring social change in the society. Laws regarding child marriage, widow
remarriage, divorce, inheritance and succession, untouchability are some of
the examples which have brought many changes in the social structure of
Indian society.
The type of political leadership and individuals in power also
influences the rate and direction of social change. In many societies the
political leadership controls the economy also. Scientific-technological and
non-technological change are also dependent on political development
which indirectly affects social change.
Check your progress -2
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
3. Who was coined by the term ancestor worship?
4. What are the geographic changes affect human social life?
5.7. AGRARIAN LEGISLATION

Indian agriculture has made tremendous strides since

Self - Instructional Material Independence. A country with recurring food shortages and dependence on
food imports is now not only self-sufficient but a net exporter also. The
70
agriculture has slowly shifted from subsistence to semi-commercial, and
the traditional systems have been replaced by improved production
systems, which are technology-driven. Factors Accounting for
the Change
This transformation in Indian agriculture has been possible by
technology development, adoption, policies, and hard work of farmers,
supported by the legislative measures with codified laws for observation in
agricultural and allied activities. Although agricultural legislations in the NOTES
country were the legacy of British, real efforts were commenced only after
1947 to alter the economic condition of farmers and status of farming
through legislative measures.
NOTES
The democratic governments of states and centre had moved in a
large way to remove the unhealthiest impediments to the progress of the
agrarian sector. Since Five-Year Plans became an integral NOTES
part of the
development process, agricultural legislations also became portion of a
purposeful national effort for changing the socio-economic condition of the
society.

In the early period, the legislations could be categorized into main

four groups such as: Abolition of the intermediaries, Tenancy Reforms,
Ceiling of Land holdings and laws relating to Gramdan and Bhoodan. The
abolition of Zamindari and similar measures helped actual cultivators to
co- ordinate directly with the state. Similarly, the foremost cause of
enhanced productivity was reforms in tenancy laws in most states. The
land reforms measures in the country adopted the principle of conferring
ownership on the tenants, although the laws varied from state to state.
Similarly, to achieve social justice and redistribution of agricultural
land, laws were passed in almost all states to restrict the size of agricultural
holdings. As a result, more than 1 million ha of agricultural land was
declared surplus with the government for distribution to those who needed
it the most. For facilitating the implementation of these laws, most of them
have been included in the Ninth Schedule of the Constitution of India, to
place these laws above challenge in the courts of law, by necessary
amendments. In addition to these, the Bhoodan Movement, started in early
fifties by Acharya VinobaBhave to collect the donation of land for
distribution among the landless was subsequently supported by legislative
sanction and approval by states through series of laws and rules.
Act and Laws for Indian Agriculture

The agriculture produce Act-1937.

Relief of agriculture indebtedness act-1989
Protection for plant varieties and farmers right Act-2001.
The national biodiversity Act-2001.
Self - Instructional Material
Food, conservation and Energy Act-2008.

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 5.8 LAND REFORM PROGRAMMES
Land reform programmes got the special attraction in the
Factors Accounting for
successive Five Year Plans to remove the defects of tenurial system
the Changes
prevailing at the eve of independence. Let us now consider briefly the main
land reform measures undertaken by the Government of India.

They are:
A. Abolition of the Zamindari System
NOTES B. Tenancy Reforms.
C. Fixation of Ceiling of Land Holdings.
D. Consolidation of Land Holdings.
E. Co-operative Farming.
A. Abolition of Zamindari System (Intermediaries)
Before independence, intermediary tenures like Zamindari,
Talukdaris, Malguzars, Jagirs and Inamdars etc. prevailed in about 40 per
cent of the area in the country. This system manifested in the absentee
landlordism resulting in high renting, is security of tenure exploitation and
backwardness of agriculture. On one side, absentee landlord paid no heed
to raise agricultural production.
On the other side, even tenants were disinterested to improve
agricultural productivity and failed to cultivate surplus land for economic
growth. As a result, landlords and intermediaries, flourished at the cost
cultivators while tenants lived a miserable life. Thus, absentee landlordism
(Zamindars) was greatly responsible for continuously deteriorating
conditions of small cultivators, tenants and share croppers etc.
B. Tenancy Reforms
Tenancy system, in simple words is called the system of cultivation
in which the cultivator takes land from landlord or zamindar for the
purpose of cultivation under pre-determined conditions.
Broadly, this system can be classified into three parts as:
 Occupancy or permanent tenants,
 Tenants at will and
 Sub-tenants. All these three types of tenants are always at
the mercy of landlords.
Under this system, twin problems of insecurity of tenure and
exorbitant rents are common. Tenants took no interest to improve the
agricultural sector. In this regard Arthur Young Observed, ―Give a man the
secure possession of black rock, and he will turn it into a garden, give him
a nine years lease of a garden and he will convert it into a desert.‖
This opinion proved true in this case. In fact, land system reduced
him to a state of misery. The tenant was the victim of exploitation. Such an
injustice bread mass mis-contentment. In order to save the tenants from
exploitation, reform became inevitable in different parts of the country.
Objectives
The main objectives of tenancy reforms are as under:
1. Regulation of Rent
Before 1951, from 50 per cent to 70 per cent of the produce was
used to pay the rent. Besides, cultivators had to render certain free services
to owners of land (Begar). In most of the places rent was paid in kind and
Self - Instructional Material
not in cash. In the First Five Year Plan, it laid down a guideline that the
72
rent should not exceed 20 per cent to 25 per cent of the total produce of
land. As a result of different guidelines, all states have enacted laws for
regulating the rent payable by cultivating tenants. Factors Accounting for
But rates of rent vary from state to state. In Gujarat, Maharashtra the Change
and Rajasthan, the rate fixed at l/6th of the total produce while in the states
of Assam, Orissa rates vary from 20 per cent of 25 per cent. In Punjab and
Haryana, it is l/3rd of the gross produce. In Tamil Nadu it varies from 33.3
to 40 per cent of the gross produce. In some parts of the country, rents are NOTES
differentiated on the basis of difference in land revenue.
2. Right of Ownership
Legislations have been passed in all states for providing
NOTESownership
right on payment of compensation fixed by the state Governments. They
were allowed to purchase their holdings at fair prices determined by
tribunals on the basis of payment of land revenue. NOTES
3. Security of Tenure
The states have enacted legislation to enable the tenants to get
security of tenure of land cultivated by them on payment of compensation
fixed by the state Govt. This was necessary that tenants would take
personal interest to increase productivity.
However, this fixation is not beyond the paying capacity of the
tenants. In Punjab, tenant is entitled to retain 5 standard acres unless he is
allotted alternative land by the state. In Himachal Pradesh, tenants or
owners paying more than Rs. 125 as land revenue have been brought into
direct contact with the state.
In Assam, the landlord can resume land up to an area of 33.5 acres
provided that a tenant is left with a minimum area of 3.3 acres. Similarly,
in West Bengal also, legislation was enacted in 1970 conserving in
heritable and permanent rights of cultivation on begars whose position was
insecure.
4. Compensation
The State governments have made provision for the compensation
to be paid by the owner at the time of resumption of land. This has been
done to stimulate the interests of tenant-cultivators in the form of fencing,
tube wells, wells, drainage, farm building, reclamation or planting trees etc.
5. Remission of Land Revenue
In case of famines, floods, droughts or any other natural calamity,
government provides the relief through the remission of land revenues,
certainly the same facility of rent remission is passed on to the tenants and
share-croppers as well.
6. Exemption
The Govt., has given the exemption of standing crops, tools,
implements and cattle in case of arrears of rent of tenants.
C. Ceiling of Land Holding
Ceiling on land refers to the fixation of the maximum size of a
holding that an absolute cultivator may hold. Prof. D.R. Gadgil justified an
absolute limit to the land to be held by each individual on the plea that
among all resources, the supply of land is the most limited and the
claimants for its possession are extremely numerous. Self - Instructional Material

Therefore, it is unjust to allow the exploitation of any large surface

of land by a single individual, unless other overwhelming reasons make it
73
 highly desirable. Moreover, in the context of the current socio-political
climate, redistribution of land would rather appear to be more imperative.
Factors Accounting for Similarly, National Commission on Agriculture observed, ―Such a
the Changes measure is urgently called for in view of the acute overpressure on land,
the meagre prospect of population transfer from agriculture to non-
agriculture and the need for stepping up agricultural output with increasing
employment.‖ Thus, it became requisite to impose ceiling in the country
like India which provides justice to the downtrodden and poor tenants at
large.
NOTES
Objectives
The ceilings of holding have the under-noted objectives:
 To reduce inequalities in agrarian structure.
 To enlarge the sphere of self-employment.
 To meet the widespread desire that land must belong to the tiller.
 To eliminate exploitation and to promise of equal opportunities to
all.
Types of Ceiling: Ceiling of land holding has two aspects:
 Ceiling on existing holdings.
 Ceiling on future acquisition of land.
D. Consolidation of Land Holding
The major cause for low agricultural productivity is the sub-
division and fragmentation of land holdings. Sub-division of land means
distribution of land of an ancestor among his successors. While
fragmentation refers to a way in which the land owned by individual is
scattered at different places.
In other words, a farmer‘s land may not have in one compact block
but scattered into small pieces at different places. Therefore, the average
size of holding can be raised through consolidation of holdings for making
it viable unit for cultivation. In our country consolidation has been adopted
to restrict sub-division and to prevent fragmentation.
In the pre- independence period also, legislation for consolidation
of holdings was made in 1905 on voluntary basis. Later on, similar
measures were enacted in Punjab under the Co-operative Societies Act
1912 and United Provinces in 1925-26. During the period 1920 to 1940,
many provinces like Central Province, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir also
made efforts to consolidate, holdings.
After independence, compulsory consolidation was replaced by
voluntary consolidation in almost all states. The National Commission of
Agriculture has recommended that consolidation schemes should be made
compulsory in all areas of the country.
E. Co-Operative Farming
The term ―co-operative farming‖ is used differently by different
economists. In simple words, it implies to an organization of cultivators of
land on the basis of common efforts for common interest. For example, a
number of small landowners organize themselves into a co-operative
society, especially for the cultivation of land.

According to Nijalingappa Committee, ―It is a voluntary

organisation of the farmers in which the manpower, land and other means
Self - Instructional Material of production are pooled in order to put them into a better and fuller

74
utilization.‖ Planning Commission of India considers co-operative farming
unification of land and joint management. Dr. Otto Schiller explained the
term of co- operative farming as often used as form of farm management in Factors Accounting for
which land is jointly cultivated. the Change
All India Co-operative Planning Committee (1946) has classified it into
four categories as:
1. Co-operative better farming
2. Tenant farming NOTES
3. Joint farming and
4. Collective farming.
Main Features of Co-operative Farming: NOTES
The following are the main features of co-operative farming:
1. The land is cultivated as one single unit.
2. The holdings of all member farmers are pooled. NOTES
3. Each member remains the owner of the land but the right of
cultivation is surrendered by him to the society.
4. Supervision and control over management of the farm
strictly remains in the hands of the society.
5. The society is responsible for the sale of the total produce.
6. Each member gets share of profit in accordance to his land.

New Agency for Land reforms: Government is planning to

establish a separate agency for land reforms & upgradation of wasteland.
New agency named; ―Jai Prakash Narayan Mission for Land Reforms &
Wasteland Management‖ will work under the ministry of rural
development. This body will be authorized for making policies and
implementing them for land reforms & wasteland upgradation.
Check your progress - 3
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
5. What are the Act and Laws for Indian Agriculture?
6. What is the Ceiling of land holding?
5.9GREEN REVOLUTION

The Green Revolution in India refers to a period when Indian

agriculture was converted into an industrial system due to the adoption of
modern methods and technology such as the use of high yielding variety
(HYV) seeds, tractors, irrigation facilities, pesticides, and fertilizers. It was
mainly found by M.S. Swaminathan. This was part of the larger Green
revolution endeavor initiated by Norman Borlaug, which leveraged
agricultural research and technology to increase agricultural productivity in
the developing world.
The Green Revolution within India commenced in the early 1960s
that led to an increase in food grain production, especially in Punjab,
Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh. Major milestones in this undertaking were the Self - Instructional Material
development of high-yielding varieties of wheat, and rust resistant strains
of wheat. However, agricultural scientists like M.S.Swaminathan and
social scientists like Vandana Shiva are of the opinion that it caused greater
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 long term sociological and financial problems for the people of Punjab and
Haryana.
Factors Accounting for
the Changes The main development was higher-yielding varieties of wheat, for
developing rust resistant strains of wheat. The introduction of high-
yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds and the increased quality of fertilizers
and irrigation technique led to the increase in production to make the
country self-sufficient in food grains, thus improving agriculture in India.
The methods adopted included the use of high-yielding varieties (HYVs)
NOTES of seeds with modern farming methods.

The production of wheat has produced the best results in fueling

self-sufficiency of India. Along with high-yielding seeds and irrigation
facilities, the enthusiasm of farmers mobilized the idea of agricultural
revolution. Due to the rise in use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers,
there was a negative effect on the soil and the land (e.g., land degradation).
Marginal farmers found it very difficult to get finance and credit at
economical rates from the government and banks and hence, fell as easy
prey to the money lenders. They took loans from landlords, who charged
high rates of interests and also exploited the farmers later on to work in
their fields to repay the loans (farm labourers). Proper financing was not
given during the Green Revolution period, which created a lot of problems
and sufferings to the farmers of India. Government also helped those under
loans.
Due to traditional agricultural practices, low productivity, and a
growing population, often food grains were imported — draining scarce
foreign reserves. It was thought that with the increased production due to
the Green Revolution, the government could maintain buffer stock and
India could achieve self-sufficiency and self-reliability.
Agriculture was basically for subsistence and, therefore, less
agricultural product was offered for sale in the market. Hence, the need
was felt to encourage the farmers to increase their production and offer a
greater portion of their products for sale in the market. The new methods in
agriculture increased the yield of rice and wheat, which reduced India's
dependence on food imports.

5.9.1 Impact of the Green Revolution

 Increase in Agricultural Production: Food grains in India saw a
great rise in output. It was a remarkable increase. The biggest
beneficiary of the plan was the Wheat Grain. The production of
wheat increased to 55 million tonnes in 1990 from just 11 million
tonnes in 1960.
 Increase in per Acre Yield: Not only did the Green Revolution
increase the total agricultural output, it also increased the per
hectare yield. In case of wheat, the per hectare yield increased from
850 kg/hectare to an incredible 2281 kg/hectare by 1990.

Self - Instructional Material

76
  Less Dependence on Imports: After the green revolution, India
was finally on its way to self-sufficiency. There was now enough
production for the population and to build a stock in case of Factors Accounting for
emergencies. We did not need to import grains or depend on other the Change
countries for our food supply. In fact, India was able to start
exporting its agricultural produce.
 Employment: It was feared that commercial farming would leave a
lot of the labour force jobless. But on the other hand, we saw a rise NOTES
in rural employment. This is because the supporting industries
created employment opportunities. Irrigation, transportation, food
processing, marketing all created new jobs for the workforce.
NOTES
 A Benefit to the Farmers: The Green Revolution majorly
benefited the farmers. Their income saw a significant raise. Not
only were they surviving, they were prospering. It NOTES
enabled them to
shift to commercial farming from only sustenance farming.

5.9.2 Features of the Green Revolution

 The introduction of the HYV seeds for the first time in Indian
agriculture. These seeds had more success with the wheat crop and
were highly effective in regions that had proper irrigation. So the
first stage of the Green Revolution was focused on states with
better infra – like Punjab and Tamil Nadu.
 During the second phase, the HYV seeds were given to several
other states. And other crops than wheat were also included into the
plan
 One basic requirement for the HYV seeds is proper irrigation.
Crops from HYV seeds need alternating amounts of water supply
during its growth. So the farms cannot depend on monsoons. The
Green Revolution vastly improved the inland irrigation systems
around farms in India.
 The emphasis of the plan was mostly on food grains such as wheat
and rice. Cash crops and commercial crops like cotton, jute,
oilseeds etc were not a part of the plan
 Increased availability and use of fertilizers to enhance the
productivity of the farms
 Use of pesticides and weedicides to reduce any loss or damage to
the crops
 And finally the introduction of technology and machinery like
tractors, harvesters, drills etc. This helped immensely to promote
commercial farming in the country.

5.10 RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

Rural development is the process of improving

the quality of life and economic well-being of people living in rural areas,
often relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas.
The United Nations defines ―Rural Development is a process of Self - Instructional Material
change, by which the efforts of people themselves are united, those of
Government authorities to improve their economic, social and cultural
conditions of communities into the life of the nation and to enable them to
77
 contribute fully to national programme. Rural Development is a process of
bringing change among rural community from the traditional way of living
Factors Accounting for to progressive way of living. It is also expressed as a movement for
the Changes progress‖.
The famous sociologist, James H. Crops has defined rural
development as a process through collective efforts, aimed at improving
the wellbeing and self-realisation of people living outside the urbanised
area. He further contends that the ultimate target of Rural Development is
people and not infrastructure and according to him, one of the objectives of
NOTES
rural development should be to widen people‘s range of choice.
Rural development is a multi-dimensional process which includes
the development of socio-economic circumstances of the people living in
the rural areas. According to the 2011 census, India has 1.21 billion
population. Out of that 833 million, 68.84% population lives in India‘s 6,
40,867 villages. Majority of these people are farmers or rely on agriculture
for their livelihood. Since independence, many rural development
programmes have been undertaken by the Government of India and various
state governments which are implemented through Five Year Plans. Some
of these programmes are:
 Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP- Package
Programme)
 Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP)
 High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP- Green Revolution)
 Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP)
 Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA)
 Hill Area Development Programme
 Operation Flood I, II and III (White Revolution)
 Fisheries Development (Blue Revolution)
 Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
 JawaharRojgarYojna (JRY).

5.10.1 Rural Development during pre-independence period

In the pre-independence period, numbers of rural development
programmes were started by the Social Reformers. Some of these
programmes were gradually disappeared and some merged with
Government sponsored schemes later. Here let us see some popular rural
development programmes:
1) Sriniketan
The initial attempts at rural development were initiated by Shri.
Rabindranath Tagore in 1908 by establishing youth organization in the
Kaligram Progana of his Zamindari, He tried to generate a class of
functionary workers who could be trained to identify themselves with the
people. In 1921 he established a Rural Reconstruction Institute at
Shantiniketan in West Bengal. A group of eight villages was the centre of
the programme.
The programme aimed at:
o To create a real interest in people for rural welfare work.
o To study rural problems and to translate conclusions into
action.
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78
 o To help villagers develop their resources and to improve
village sanitation.
These objectives were preferred to be achieved by generating a Factors Accounting for
spirit of self-help, developing village leadership, organizing village scouts the Change
called Brati Balika, establishing training centers for handicrafts and
establishing a demonstration centre at Shantiniketan. These demonstration
centers organized demonstration or farmer‘s holding for improved
practices. NOTES
2) Marthandam
The work was started by Dr. Spencer Hatch an American
Agricultural expert in Travancore under the auspicious NOTES of young Men‘s
Christian Association (YMCA) in 1921. The primary objective of the
project was to fetch copious life for rural people. The vital technique of the
centre was ‗Self-help with intimate expert counsel‘. NOTES From the
demonstration centre at Marthandam, about hundred villages were
enclosed through Y.M.C.A. centers in villages. The extension secretary
was appointed to monitor the activities of the group. Marthandam was in a
tactical position to serve the villages. It kept prize bulls and goats, model
bee-lives, demonstration plots for improving grain and vegetable seeds,
poultry runs with prize laying-hens, a weaving shed, etc. Inside the centre,
there was equipment like honey extractors, health charts and the items
needed for other cottage vocations. At the centre, cottage vocations were
taught and agricultural implements tested. The emphasis throughout was
on self-help and co-operation. The triumphant yield of this project was the
Egg-selling Club, which eventually became a self-governing body.
Another co-operative society was honey club, where the villagers were
trained the utility of modern bee-hives and extracted honey scientifically.
The honey was cured and marketed co-operatively. There were Bull clubs,
weaver‘s blub also. The activities conducted at centre could meet the
mental, physical and spiritual needs of the villagers. The major deficiencies
of the project were insufficient funds and governmental help. The activities
were mainly organized the Marthandam and the village workers did not
stay in villages. The religious bias of the institution was also a chief
obstruction in its activities.
3) Gurgaon Experiment
Rural upliftment movement on a huge scale was first commenced
by Mr. F. L. Brayne, Deputy Commissioner in the Gurgaon district of
Punjab state. He was quite moved by the backwardness, poverty and
desolation of the people. A village guide was posted to serve as a
mediating link for flowing any information and advice of the experts in
various departments on to the villagers. The programme of introducing
improved seeds, implements, the methods of cultivation etc. was started all
through the district. As the village guides were not technical men, very
modest everlasting value was achieved in fact.
4) Gandhian Constructive Programme / Sewagram
Mahatma Gandhi always dreamt of self-contained and self-
sufficient village life in India. He was conscious about the grassroots‘
problems of India, rural set up and he sought to resolve these tribulations Self - Instructional Material
without interference of any exterior group. He wanted to solve these
problems by local people and through local resources. People know
Gandhiji not only as a Mahatma or political agitator, but also as a social
79
 and economic reformer. He made people to comprehend that India lives in
villages and that the common man‘s upliftment is the upliftment of the
Factors Accounting for country. Concerning development work in the country, he emphasized that
the Changes the ―salvation of India lies in cottage industries.‖ The key-words of his
economy are:
1. Decentralized production
2. Equal distribution of wealth
3. Self-sufficiency of Indian villages.
For equal distribution of wealth, cruel process of extermination was
NOTES
not followed but throughout the heart of the owners by persuasion and
appeal to the better sense of man. According to him self-sufficiency of
Indian villages can be achieved by eliminating middlemen, so that the
farmer could get the full price for his produce. He wanted that the tiller
should be able to consume his own products like fruits, milk, vegetables
etc.
Truly speaking, the Gandhian constrictive Programme became big
institutions and simple ideas became philosophies. His emphasis on Khadi
became the Charka movement and then, the All India Khadi a Village
Industries Board. His thought, against untouchability and caste system,
resulted in the organization of Harijan Sewak Sangh and many like this. He
created leaders like VinobaBhave, Nehru, Jayaprakash Narayan, Mira Ben
etc. who came from common stock, but got inspiration from Gandhi. All
the people engaged in reconstructive programme felt that their work was
needed in a great programme for their country reconstruction.
5.10.2 Rural Development since Independence
Without much delay after attainment of independence, the central
government had undertaken some important programmes of rural
reconstruction. These are: Community Development Programme (1952),
National Extension Services (1953) and Panchayat Raj (1959) on the
recommendation of Hon‘ble Balwant Rai Mehta Committee‘s report. The
objectives of Panchayat Raj are intensely occupied in tradition and culture
of rural India and are by no means a new concept. Panchayat Raj offered a
system of self-governance at the village level. The objective also aimed
mostly alteration of the traditional rural India with self-local governance.
The Community Development Programme (CDP) was launched as an
educational and organizational programme to reach rural people. It aimed
to inspire self-help and public co-operation. But due to several
implementation level problems and lack of local organization
effectiveness, CDP could not make much away.
Besides these, some social reformers had also launched rural
development programmes. These are: (a) The Etawah Pilot Project (b) The
Nilokheri Experiment and (C) The Bhoodan Movement. Among these the
Bhoodan Movement became popular.
Acharya VinobaBhave, one of the profound social reformers in
India was the founder of the Bhoodan Movement. The motivation for
Bhoodan came to Vinobaji in 1951 when he was touring the Telangana
District of Hyderabad. ―The basic objective of Bhoodan Campaign was to
avoid the surfacing of bloody revolution by solving the land problem in a
peaceful way. The real purpose was to generate the right atmosphere so
Self - Instructional Material that progressive land reform could follow‖.

80
 The various five-year plans have witnessed more investments in
rural areas in terms of number of development programmes implemented
by the central and state Government. These programmes have assisted rural Factors Accounting for
people to alter their life-styles somehow. These programmes are related the Change
with agriculture and allied activities but there are certain other policies
which are specially intended to lift the standard of the rural people in the
field of health, education, sanitation etc. After the commencement of
economic reforms in 1991, the Government has been given exceptional NOTES
consideration to the rural India by providing certain developmental
schemes to augment the existing programmes and to initiate some new
schemes for the rural areas. The following are some of the NOTES
schemes:
1) THE INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
(IRDP)
The Integrated Rural Development ProgrammeNOTES (IRDP) is an
organised effort to develop the likelihood of developing infrastructural
facilities along with emphasized upon growing the earnings of the under-
privileged strata of rural India. The commitment of the Government under
this programme was to attain the objectives of bringing down the
percentage of population below the poverty line to less that 10 percent by
1995. In spite of the achievements made during the Sixth Plan, there
continued to exist certain serious lacunae in the implementation of these
programmes identified by the various researchers, educationist,
government and non-government organizations.
MAIN FEATURES OF IRDP
The focus of IRDP was also mainly on the same target group as
under SFDA, i.e. small and marginal farmers, agricultural labourers and
rural artisans. There was, however, considerable deviation/difference in its
operational strategy. The main features of the programme were:
 For the first time the concept of Poverty Line Income was applied
for the identification of the beneficiaries and therefore land was no
more the criteria for the identification and selection of
beneficiaries.
 The Poverty Line Income (for definition see Unit 1) was fixed at
Rs. 3500 per year for an average family of five persons. The
families with annual incomes below Rs. 3500 were identified as
Below Poverty Line (BPL) families and were eligible for benefits
under IRDP.
 The identification of beneficiaries was done through the Base Line
Survey of Family Income.
 The subsidy rates were the same as used for the SFDA
beneficiaries, i.e. 25 % for small farmers, 33.33 % for others and 50
% for SC/ST beneficiaries. In addition, the beneficiaries of any
category in a group scheme were also eligible for 50 % subsidy.
 At least 30 percent of the total beneficiaries were supposed to be
the SCs and STs. This was later increased to 50 %.
 Women beneficiaries from all categories were supposed to be 33.33
per cent which was later increased to 40 %.
 The self-employment projects would cover all the following areas: Self - Instructional Material
 Programmes of agricultural development including efficient
utilization of land and water resources with the help of
technology;
81
  Programmes of animal husbandry as a subsidiary
occupation directed mainly to the small peasant and
Factors Accounting for agricultural labour households;
the Changes  Programmes of marine fishery including harvesting of
natural resources through trawlers, mechanized boats and
country boats;
 Programmes of inland water and brackish water fisheries to
maximize output of fish per unit of water;
 Programmes of social forestry;
NOTES
 Programmes of farm forestry through small peasant
households;
 Village and cottage industries including handlooms,
sericulture and bee-rearing as important occupations for the
artisan classes of the rural population;
 Service sector of the rural economy as self-employment for
poorer families; and
 Programmes for skill formation and mobility of labour to
meet the needs of organised labour for development works.
For the implementation of IRDP it was made essential to formulate
Comprehensive Block Plans. These in turn were proposed to be linked to
the district and state plans. In all of the above, people were sought to be
actively involved. Also, the help of voluntary agencies was sought.

2) SWARNJAYANTI GRAM SWAROZGAR YOJANA (SGSY)

This programme was started with effect from 01.04.1999 after
review and restructuring of the erstwhile IRDP and its allied programmes
namely TRYSEM (Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment)
DWCRA (Development of Women & Children in rural areas) and GSY
(Gramin Samriddhi Yojana). The earlier programmes are no longer in
operation with the launching of the SGSY. The SGSY was somewhat
intended to provide self-employment to millions of villagers. Poor families
living below the poverty line were organised into Self-help Groups (SHGs)
established with a mixture of government subsidy and credit from
investment banks. The main aim of these SHGs was to bring these poor
families above the poverty line and concentrate on income generation
through combined effort. The scheme recommended the establishment of
activity clusters or clusters of villagers grouped together based on their
skills and abilities. Each of these activity clusters worked on a specific
activity chosen based on the aptitude and skill of the people, availability of
resources and market potentiality. The SHGs are aided, supported and
trained by NGOs, CBOs, individuals, banks and self-help promoting
institutions. Government-run District Level Development Agencies
(DRDA) and the respective State governments also provided training and
financial aid. The programme focusses on establishing microenterprises in
rural areas. The SHGs created may have a varying number of members
based on the terrain and physical abilities of the members. It goes through
three stages of creation:
 Group formation
 Capital formation through the revolving fund and skill
Self - Instructional Material development and

82
  Taking up of economic activity for skill generation.

The SHGs are usually created by selecting individuals from the Factors Accounting for
Below poverty-line (BPL) list provided by the Gram sabha. The SHGs are the Change
divided into various blocks and each of these blocks concentrated on 4-5
key activities. The SGSY is mainly run through government-run DRDAs
with support from local private institutions, banks and Panchayat raj
institutions. The Government also assists villagers in marketing their NOTES
products by organizing melas or fairs, exhibitions, etc. The Swarna Jayanti
SwarozgarYojna (SGSY) has been renamed as National Rural Livelihood
Mission (NRLM).With this scheme will be made universal, more focused
NOTES
and time bound for poverty alleviation by 2014. Government subsidy
allocated for SGSY per individual is 30% of the total capital investment if
the total investment is less than Rs. 7,500 and 50% of the investment for
NOTES
SC/STs if the investment is less than Rs.10,000. For self-help groups, the
government offers a subsidy of 50% if the total investment is less than Rs.
1.25 lakhs. There are no monetary ceilings on subsidy in the case of
irrigation projects. The SGSY concentrates on the marginalized sections of
society. Accordingly, SC/STs comprise 50 percent, women 40% and the
physically challenged make up 3% of the total beneficiaries from the
scheme. Government funding for the scheme is divided between the Center
and State on a 75-25 basis.
3) NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEES ACT-2005
(NREGA)
The National Rural Employment Guarantees Act.-2005 was
launched by the Govt. of India on 2nd Feb. 2006. This Act guarantees 100
days of employment in a financial year to any rural household whose adult
members are wishing to do unskilled manual work. But now a day, reports
available from various states, the scheme is not functioning in proper way.
The programme was renamed as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Scheme.
Objective:
The objective of the Act is to enhance livelihood security in rural
areas by providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in a
financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do
unskilled manual work. Strong social safety net for the vulnerable groups
by providing a fall-back employment source (when other employment
alternatives are scarce or inadequate growth engine for sustainable
development of an agricultural economy). Through the process of
providing employment on works that address causes of chronic poverty
such as drought, deforestation and soil erosion, the Act seeks to strengthen
the natural resource base of rural livelihood and create durable assets in
rural areas. Effectively implemented, NREGA has the potential to
transform the geography of poverty. New ways of doing business, as a
model of governance reform anchored on the principles of transparency
and grass root democracy. Thus, NREGA fosters conditions for inclusive
growth ranging from basic wage security and recharging rural economy to
a transformative empowerment process of democracy. The Act was Self - Instructional Material
notified in 200 districts in the first phase with effect from February 2nd
2006 and then extended to additional 130 districts in the financial year
2007-2008 (113 districts were notified with effect from April 1st 2007, and
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 17 districts in UP were notified with effect from May 15th 2007). The
remaining districts have been notified under the NREGA with effect from
Factors Accounting for April 1, 2008. Thus NREGA covers the entire country with the exception
the Changes of districts that have a hundred percent urban population.
4) THE DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (DRDA)
The District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) has traditionally
been the main organ at the District Level to supervise the implementation
of different anti-poverty programmes. But due to infrastructural lacunae of
local administration the available report is not satisfactory.
NOTES
5) NATIONAL BANK FOR AGRICULTURE AND RURAL
DEVELOPMENT (NABARD)
NABARD is set up as an apex Development Bank with an aim for
facilitating credit flow to poor peasants and development of agriculture,
small scale industries, cottage and village industries, handicrafts and other
rural crafts. It also has the mandate to support all other allied economic
activities in rural areas, promote integrated and sustainable rural
development & secure prosperity of rural areas.
6) GREEN REVOLUTION PROGRAMME
The much published Green Revolution Programme of the late-60‘s
had a very holistic design of bringing prosperity to the masses of the rural
India but it could not reach up to the mark. No, doubt, it provided some
self-reliance in food, yet it was not able to change the overall socio-
economic conditions of the Indian mass peasantry.
7) INDIRA AWAAS YOJANA
Housing is one of the basic requirements for human survival. For a
shelter-less person, possession of a house brings about a profound change
in his existence, endowing him with an identity, thus integrating him with
his immediate social milieu. With a view to meeting the housing needs of
the rural poor, Indira AwaasYojana (IAY) was launched in May, 1985 as a
sub-scheme of JawaharRozgarYojana. It is being implemented as an
independent scheme since 1 January 1996. The IAY aims at helping rural
people below the poverty line belonging to SC/ST, freed bonded labourers
in construction of dwelling units and upgradation of existing unserviceable
kutcha houses by providing assistance in the form of full grant.

5.10.3 Community Development Programme

The concept of community development in India was set off well
before independence. Even throughout the freedom struggle, under the
guidance of Mahatma Gandhi, substantial thought was given to rural
upliftment and reconstruction. He emphasized on a nineteen point
constructive programme for complete independence by truthful and non-
violent means. He often counselled the leaders that real independence
could be enjoyed only when the rural economy was reinforced and poverty
eradicated. He promoted communal harmony, economic equity, social
equality, de-addiction from alcohol and narcotics, promotion of ‗khadi’
(hand spun and hand woven cloth) and village industries, sanitation, health
care, education and empowerment of women. The aim was to generate
lucrative employment in rural areas and to perk up the quality of life. The
Government of India Act, 1935 under the British Rule, while confirming
Self - Instructional Material sovereignty on the provinces, incorporated rural development as an

84
imperative programme for the welfare of the people. With the outburst of
World War II and Bengal Famine of 1943, food supply was a critical
problem in the majority parts of the country. Stress on food production was Factors Accounting for
provided through ‗Grow More Food Campaign‘ which incorporated the the Change
supply of free seeds, subsidies for construction of wells and embankments,
supply of manure, fixing a minimum price for grain, etc. However, there
was limited scope under the ‗Zamindari‘ system where a small number of
rich farmers owned the agriculture lands and the rest of the villagers NOTES
worked as labourers.
Post-independence of India in 1947, community development
assumed elevated priority. In 1948, a pilot community development
NOTES project
was launched through the Etawah Project. Soon in 1952, the Government
of India launched 55 Community Development Projects, each covering
about 300 villages or a population of 30,000. Though theNOTES
programme was
multi-dimensional, the chief weight was placed on agricultural production,
as the areas selected for launching the project were located in irrigated
areas or where rainfall wasn‘t a deterrent. In 1953, the National Extension
Service Project was launched with similar aims to envelop bigger areas,
including the rain fed regions. This project of three-year duration,
distinguished the blocks of 150-300 villages as convenient units for
starting community development programmes. The objectives and
activities of the Project were modified from time to time and continued as
an enduring multi-function extension agency in each block. These
community development blocks were taken care of as usual administrative
units for planning and development with standard budgetary allocations.
By the end of the First Five Year Plan (1952-57), 1114 blocks
covering 163,000 villages were in function and by the 60s, the CDP
covered the entire country. The programme was characterized by the
following features:
 Comprehensive in content;
 Economic progress as the core objective;
 Flexible programmes and
 Posting of a multipurpose worker at the village level.

The plan defined the vital objective of planning as creation of

conditions in which living standards are rationally high and the citizens
have full and equal opportunity for growth and justice. The programme
aimed at upliftment of the rural poor, covered agriculture, animal
husbandry, roads, health, education, housing, and employment, social and
cultural activities. While aiming at economic development through
agriculture and cottage industries, efforts were made to improve literacy,
health, sanitation, housing, transport and communication. To execute the
multi-facet programme, an extension organization, headed by a Block
Development Officer (BDO) was established at each block or the revenue
tehsil, with a team of subject specialists and village level workers (VLW).
Each VLW covered a population of 5000-6000, spread over 5-10 villages
to implement various development programmes launched by different
departments. The VLWs were expected to meet the farmers and persuade Self - Instructional Material
them to take part in various development schemes. The BDO was assisted
by eight Extension Officers, one each for agriculture, animal husbandry,
Panchayat, cooperation rural industries, rural engineering, social education
85
 and women and child welfare. Additionally, a medical officer with support
staff was posted in every block to offer medical assistance. The extension
Factors Accounting for officers reported primarily to the BDO and to their senior as well, in the
the Changes respective department, based at the district headquarters. The BDOs
reported to the District Collector, who is the administrator of the district.
The Development Commissioner, at the state level was responsible
for co-ordinating community development through the District Collectors.
At the National level, the administration of the community development
programme was handed over to the Planning Commission. The resources
NOTES
allotted for community development during 1952-67 were also so low that
it worked out to barely Rs.10 per head over this period.
Panchayat Raj Institutions
In 1957, five years after launching the community development
programme, the Government appointed the Balvantrai Mehta Committee to
propose measures to eliminate obstructions in implementing the
programme. The Committee recommended the configuration of a three-
tier-system of rural local Government, to be called ‗Panchayat Raj‘ (Rule
by Local Councils). These were Gram Panchayat (Village level),
Panchayat Samiti (Block level) and Zilla Parishad (District level). The plan
was to decentralize the process of decision making and to shift the decision
making centre nearer to the people, support their participation and situate
the bureaucracy under the local people‘s control. Under the Fourth and
Fifth Five Year Plans (1969-74 and 1974-79), the central government
introduced independent administrative hierarchies to carry out special
programmes, bypassing the Panchayat Raj institutions. Special
programmes like Small Farmers‘ Development Agency (SFDA), Intensive
Agricultural Areas Programme (IAAP), Intensive Agricultural District
Programme (IADP), Tribal Development Agency (TDA), Marginal, Small
Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agency (MFAL) and
area development agencies such as Command Area Development, Drought
Prone Area and Hill area Development Programmes were financed and
operated directly by the Central Government.
Salient features of the Act
 A 3-tier system of Panchayat Raj for all States having a population
of over 20 lakhs
 Regular Panchayat elections every 5 years
 Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes in
proportion to their population and not less than 113 seats for
women
 State Finance Commission to make recommendations on financial
powers of the Panchayats
 Independent State Election Commissions
Powers and responsibilities of Panchayats
 Preparation of plan for economic development and social justice.
 Implementation of schemes for economic development and social
justice in relation to 29 subjects given in Eleventh Schedule of the
Constitution.
 To levy, collect and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees.

Self - Instructional Material

86
Gram Sabha
The 73rdAmendmentAct gives Constitutional status to the Gram Factors Accounting for
Sabhas -the general assembly of villagers. In the Gram Sabha the rural the Change
poor, women and the marginalized get an opportunity to participate in
decision making on matters affecting their lives. Actively functioning
Gram Sabhas ensure vibrant grass-roots democracy with transparency,
accountability and achievement. NOTES
The provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled areas)
Act, 1996
This Act extends Panchayats to the tribal areasNOTES of nine States,
namely, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan. This law
vests Gram Sabhas and Panchayats with significant powersNOTES of control over
natural resources as well as the social and cultural spheres of their lives.
Panchayat or Panchayat Raj is a system of governance in which
gram panchayats are the basic units of administration. It has 3 levels:
village, block and district.
The term ‗panchayat raj‘ is relatively new, having originated during
the British administration. 'Raj' literally means governance or government.
Mahatma Gandhi advocated Panchayat Raj, a decentralized form of
Government where each village is responsible for its own affairs, as the
foundation of India's political system. His term for such a vision was
"Gram Swaraj" (Village Self-governance).
It was adopted by state governments during the 1950s and 60s as
laws were passed to establish Panchayats in various states. It also found
backing in the Indian Constitution, with the 73rd amendment in 1992 to
accommodate the idea. The Amendment Act of 1992 contains provision for
devolution of powers and responsibilities to the panchayats to both for
preparation of plans for economic development and social justice and for
implementation in relation to twenty-nine subjects listed in the eleventh
schedule of the constitution.
The panchayats receive funds from three sources – (i) local body
grants, as recommended by the Central Finance Commission, (ii) funds for
implementation of centrally-sponsored schemes, and (iii) funds released by
the state governments on the recommendations of the State Finance
Commissions.
In the history of Panchayat Raj in India, on 24 April 1993, the
Constitutional (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 came into force to provide
constitutional status to the Panchayat Raj institutions. This Act was
extended to Panchayats in the tribal areas of eight States, namely Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa and Rajasthan from 24 December 1996. Now panchayat raj system
exists in all the states except Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram. Also all
the UTs except Delhi.
The Act aims to provide 3-tier system of Panchayat Raj for all
States having population of over 2 million, to hold Panchayat elections
regularly every 5 years, to provide reservation of seats for Scheduled Self - Instructional Material
Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Women, to appoint State Finance
Commission to make recommendations as regards the financial powers of
the Panchayats and to constitute District Planning Committee to prepare
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 draft development plan for the district. The 3-tier system of Panchayat Raj
consists of a) village level panchayat b) block level panchayat c) district
Factors Accounting for level panchayat.
the Changes Powers and responsibilities are delegated to Panchayats at the appropriate
level:-
 Preparation of plan for economic development and social justice.
 Implementation of schemes for economic development and social
justice in relation to 29 subjects given in Eleventh Schedule of the
Constitution.
NOTES
 To levy, collect and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees.
Village level panchayat
It is called a Panchayat at the village level. It is a local body
working for the good of the village. The number of members usually
ranges from 7 to 31; occasionally, groups are larger, but they never have
fewer than 7 members.
The block-level institution is called the Panchayat Samiti. The
district-level institution is called the Zilla Parishad. it should provide good
security.
Intermediate level panchayat
Panchayat samiti is a local government body at the tehsil or Taluka
level in India. It works for the villages of the Tehsil or Taluka that together
are called a Development Block. The Panchayat Samiti is the link between
the Gram Panchayat and the district administration. There are a number of
variations of this institution in various states. It is known as Mandal Praja
Parishad in Andhra Pradesh, Taluka panchayat in Gujarat, Mandal
Panchayat in Karnataka, etc. In general it's a kind of Panchayat raj at
higher level.
Constitution
It is composed of ex-officio members (all sarpanchas of the
panchayat samiti area, the MPs and MLAs of the area and the SDO of the
subdivision), coopted members (representatives of SC/ST and women),
associate members (a farmer of the area, a representative of the cooperative
societies and one of the marketing services) and some elected members.
The samiti is elected for 5 years and is headed by the chairman and
the deputy chairman.
Departments
The common departments in the Samiti are as follows:
1. General administration
2. Finance
3. Public works
4. Agriculture
5. Health
6. Education
7. Social welfare
8. Information Technology and others.
There is an officer for every department. A government appointed
block development officer is the executive officer to the samiti and the
chief of its administration.
Functions
Self - Instructional Material 1. Implement schemes for the development of agriculture.

88
 2. Establishment of primary health centres and primary schools.
3. Supply of drinking water, drainage, construction/repair of roads.
4. Development of cottage and small-scale industries and opening of Factors Accounting for
cooperative societies. the Change
5. Establishment of youth organizations.
Sources of income
The main source of income of the panchayat samiti is grants-in-aid
and loans from the State Government. NOTES
District level panchayat
In the district level of the panchayat raj system you have the "zilla
parishad". It looks after the administration of the rural area of the district
NOTES
and its office is located at the district headquarters. The Hindi word
Parishad means Council and Zilla Parishad translates to District Council. It
is headed by the "District Collector" or the "District Magistrate"
NOTES or the
"Deputy Comminissioner". it is the link between the state government and
the panchayat samiti (local seld government at the block level)
Constitution
Members of the Zilla Parishad are elected from the district on the
basis of adult franchise for a term of five years. Zilla Parishad has
minimum of 50 and maximum of 75 members. There are seats reserved for
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, backward classes and women.
The Chairmen of all the Panchayat Samitis form the members of
Zilla Parishad. The Parishad is headed by a President and a Vice-President.
Functions
1. Provide essential services and facilities to the rural population and
the planning and execution of the development programmes for the
district.
2. Supply improved seeds to farmers. Inform them of new techniques
of training. Undertake construction of small-scale irrigation
projects and percolation tanks. Maintain pastures and grazing lands.
3. Set up and run schools in villages. Execute programmes for adult
literacy. Run libraries.
4. Start Primary Health Centers and hospitals in villages. Start mobile
hospitals for hamlets, vaccination drives against epidemics and
family welfare campaigns.
5.10.4 Present Rural Development Paradigm
India implemented the New Economic Policy in 1991 which was
closely associated with Globalization. At this stage, the paradigm of rural
development was meant to speed up country‘s economic growth, but in
doing so it was found that the system widened greater socio-economic
inequality amongst the people of rural India. The government has incurred
a huge expenditure on the long term policies for other including urban
development but has inadequately spent on health, education, food,
environment which is the fundamental need of the common people,
especially for the rural people in India.
The Global Hunger Index, India ranks 66th amongst 88 countries.
As per UNDP, Multi-dimensional Poverty Index (MPI), 65 cores of Indian
people are Poor. They are mostly rural folk. The report of National Self - Instructional Material
Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector mentions that 77
percent of Indian population live on rupees 20/- or less per day. The
poverty ratio in rural areas as found by the Prof. Tendulkar Committee set
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 up by the Planning Commission and the Prof. N.C. Saxena Committee set
up by the Ministry of Rural Development was to 41.8 percent and
Factors Accounting for 50percent respectively. At present, in India conflicts between peasant
the Changes sections and the State have become frequent. The government is grabbing
their lands, forests, water forcibly and curbing their basic rights. Many a
times, these conflicts results in a bloody war as seen in Singur, Nandigram
in West Bengal, Kashipur in Orissa and Dantewara in Chhattisgarh etc.
5.10.5 Impact of globalization on farmers
In India, approximately 80 percent of the rural population is
NOTES
engaged in agriculture. As a result, the cost of agricultural production has
amplified because cost of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation etc. has
increased substantially. The capital intensive and import based agricultural
activity have eventually started displacing mostly poor, small and marginal
peasants from land. Multinational agri-business companies like Cargill,
Pepsico, Monsanto, ITC etc. are already in the field to dominate this
profitable market. A novel class has appeared in rural India during the
period of globalization that has been benefited by this globalization
process. These are mainly the rich and high middle class farmers. Majority
of the owners themselves do not cultivate the land, they oversee the
agricultural activities and such supervising families are basically engaged
in services in the government or private sector or business especially
related to agribusiness. In some places they also act as moneylenders and
lend money to poor peasants at a high interest and control the local
political power. Basically, these classes have more purchasing power and
are the main customers for durable and other luxurious goods in rural
India. Ironically, the residual poor and marginal peasants comprise the
large segment in rural areas and have been subjected to unfathomable
dilemma in the era of globalization. Small farmers, in particular, are hardly
benefited by this globalization epoch while big farmers with their
economic and political pressure, are able to harvest the benefits of
globalization as they can get best technologies, grow cash crops, negotiate
agreements, and market their products.
On the other hand distressed peasants who are feeding the nation
are mostly indebted. According to the National Crime Bureau record, in the
ten years period between 1998 and 2008 as many as 2 lakh farmers have
committed suicide in India. According to Report of the Comptroller and
auditor General of India ―Out of 89.35 million farmer households, 43.42
million (48.6%) were reported to be indebted. Estimated number of
indebted farmer households was highest in Uttar Pradesh (6.9 million), to
be followed by Andhra Pradesh (4.9 million) and Maharashtra (3.6
million)‖.
5.10.6 Emphasis on People‟s Participation
In spite of different programmes initiated for rural development,
there is yet to be any major advantage to the poor to sustain their
livelihood. The two major concerns have been centralization of power and
non-involvement of people in the process of development since the
introduction of Panchayat Raj.
5.10.7 Role of Non-Government Organisations
The major reason influencing the thriving implementation of rural
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90
active participation. Development of appropriate people‘s organisations is
also essential to access the benefits of various schemes, particularly by the
illiterate poor. To ensure people‘s involvement in the development process Factors Accounting for
and to take them into confidence, they should be involved in the the Change
programme, right from the stage of planning.
The voluntary organizations or non-government organisations
(NGOs) in general center their voluntary action and service to embark
upon the troubles of the common people or to assist them face their NOTES
challenges. The main characteristic of voluntary agencies is human-touch.
During the 1970s the government recognized the crucial role of voluntary
agencies in complementing government‘s effort in rural development.
NOTES
Earlier, the NGOs formed by religious institutions and liberal public were
involved in operating hospitals and educational institutions. With
assistance from international donor agencies, the Ministry of Agriculture
NOTES
formed an independent organization called ‗Freedom from Hunger
Campaign‘ to sustain the voluntary organizations involved in rural
development. This organization was re-organized and renamed as
‗People‘s Action for Development-India (PAD-I). PAD-I was merged with
Council for Advancement of Rural Technology in 1986 and renamed as
Council for Advancement of People‘s Action and Rural Technology
(CAPART). Since then, CAPART has been financially assisting the
voluntary agencies involved in rural development.
With better opportunities for promoting self-employment through
investment in agriculture and micro-enterprise, services were formed for
availing soft loans from banks and other financial institutions. The Reserve
Bank of India issued guidelines to all the bankers not to be adamant on
collateral security up to Rs.25, 000 drawn by the poor for investment in
development activities. As a result, over Rs.250 billion was distributed as
rural credit in 1995-96, of which 50% amount was from the co-operatives
and the rest from other banking institutions. Nevertheless, as the formal
banking operations were not expedient for many villagers because of their
inflexibility, distance and high cost of operation, quite a lot of pioneering
banking institutions have been established by the NGOs.
Check your progress - 4
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
7. Who was the founder of Green Revolution?
8. Give the expansion of TRYSEM.
5.11 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed factors accounting for the changes
and Dominant caste in Indian society. Ancestral worship and factors of
change have also touched upon briefly. The process of Agrarian
Legislation and Land Reform programmes is also analyzed. In this unit
Green Revolution and Rural Development Programmes are discussed in
detail.
Self - Instructional Material
5.12 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. What are the functions of dominant caste?
2. Write short notes on ancestral worship.
91
 3. Write an essay on Agrarian Legislation.
4. Explain the impact of Green Revolution.
Factors Accounting for 5. Enumerate the Land Reform programmes?
the Changes 6. Elucidate the Rural Development Programme of Swarnjayanti
Gram SwarozgarYojana" (SGSY)
5.13ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Natural Factors, Technological Factors, Social Factors, Economic
Factors, Cultural Factors, Political Factors
NOTES 2. M.N. Srinivas
3. Herbert Spencer
4. Climate, storms, social erosion, earthquakes, floods, droughts etc.
5. The agriculture produce Act-1937, Relief of agriculture
indebtedness act-1989, Protection for plant varieties and farmers
right Act-2001, The national biodiversity Act-2001, Food,
conservation and Energy Act-2008.
6. Ceiling on existing holdings, Ceiling on future acquisition of land.
7. M.S. Swaminathan
8. Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment
5.14 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Bloch, M., & Parry, J. (1982) Death and regeneration oflife.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2. Goody, J. (1962). Death, property, and the ancestors. Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press.
3. Newell, W. H. (1976), Ancestors. The Hague, the Netherlands:
Mouton.
4. Hsu, l. k. (1948). Under the ancestors' shadow. newyork: columbia
university press.
5. Desai, AR (1978) Rural Sociology in India. Popular Prakashan,
Bombay.
6. Chitamber, JB (1990) Introduction to Rural Sociology. Wiley
Eastern Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
7. AGGARWAL, PARTAP C. 1971 ―Impact of Green Revolution on
Landless Labor: A Note.‖ Economic and Political Weekly 6
(November 20):
8. DASGUPTA, BIPLAB 1977 ―India‘s Green Revolution.‖
Economic and Political Weekly 12 (February)
9. Moseley, Malcolm J. (2003). Rural development : principles and
practice (1. publ. ed.). London [u.a.]: SAGE.
10. Van Assche, Kristof. &Hornidge, Anna-Katharina. (2015) Rural
development. Knowledge & expertise in governance. Wageningen
Academic Publishers, Wageningen

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UNIT - VI RURAL SOCIALPROBLEMS
Structure Factors Accounting for
6.1. Introduction the Change
6.2. Objectives
6.3. Rural Social Problems
6.3.1 Social Problems in India
6.3.2 Definition of Social Problem NOTES
6.3.3 Characteristics of Rural Problems
6.3.4 Nature of Social Problems
6.4. Agrarian Unrest and Peasant Movements NOTES
6.4.1 Agrarian Unrest
6.4.2 Peasant Movement
6.4.3 Peasant Movements in India NOTES
6.4.4 Agrarian Unrest and Peasant Movements
6.4.4.1 The Tebhaga Movement (1946–47)
6.4.4.2 The Telangana Movement (1946-52)
6.4.4.3 Naxalite Movement (1967–71)
6.4.5 Emerging Agrarian Social and Peasants Movements
6.5 Untouchability
6.5.1 Definition of Untouchability
6.5.2 Effect of Untouchability
6.5.3 Fundamental Causes of Untouchable
6.5.4 Efforts to Eradicate Untouchability
6.5.5 Economic Improvement
6.5.6 Non-Governmental Efforts
6.5.7 Suggestions for the Eradication of Untouchability
6.6. Rural Violence
6.6.1 Definitions of Violence
6.6.2 Different types of Violence
6.7 Landlessness
6.7.1 Marginalisation of Landholding
6.8 Rural Indebtedness
6.8.1 Measures of Indebtedness
6.9 Let Us Sum Up
6.10. Unit- End- Exercises
6.11. Answer to Check Your Progress
6.12. Suggested Readings
6.1 INTRODUCTION

The social problem is connected with majority of the members of

society. Social problems often involve problems that affect the real world.
Peasant movement is a social movement involved with the agricultural
policy. It has a long history that can be traced to the numerous peasant
uprisings that occurred in various regions of the world throughout human
history. The evil practice of untouchability has been a universal
phenomenon throughout Indian society. The concept of violence Self - Instructional Material
encompasses physical violence, psychological violence and structural
violence. Landlessness is increasingly becoming endemic in India's rural
belt, as over 56 percent of the rural population has no landholdings.
93
 Indebtedness has been acknowledged as one of the most infamous
stumbling blocks in the way of rural prosperity.
Factors Accounting for In this unit, you will learn the Rural Social Problems, Agrarian
the Changes Unrest and Peasant Movements. You will learn Landlessness and Rural
Indebtedness. You will study the Untouchability and Rural Violence in
detail
6.2 OBJECTIVES

NOTES After going through the unit you will be able to;
 understand the Rural Social Problems
 gain the knowledge about Agrarian Unrest and Peasant
Movements
 discuss about the Untouchability and Rural Violence
 Identify Rural Indebtedness
6.3 RURAL SOCIAL PROBLEMS
Social problems are the general factors that affect and damage society.
A social problem is normally a term used to describe problems with a
particular area or group of people in the world. Social problems often
involve problems that affect the real world. It also affects how people react
to certain situations. Examples are include: Anti-social behaviour, Poverty,
Drug abuse, Prostitution, Alcohol abuse, Economic Deprivation,
Unemployment, Sexual abuse – Rape, Early pregnancy, Female genital
mutilation
6.3.1 SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN INDIA
The major social problems in India are: Population problems,
casteism, untouchability, regionalism, linguism and communalism,
beggary, unemployment, poverty, labour problems, rural problems,
problems of industrialization and urbanization, prostitution, crime, suicide,
juvenile delinquency, youth tensions and student unrest and finally the
problems of democracy.
6.3.2 DEFINITION OF RURAL SOCIAL PROBLEM
A more precise, though broad, definition is given by E. Raab and
G.J.Selznick. According to them, a social problem is ―a problem in human
relationship which seriously threatens society itself or impedes the
important aspirations of many people.‖ In regard to the first aspect they
say, ―A social problem exists when organized society‘s ability to order
relationship among people seems to be failing; when its institutions are
faltering, its laws are being flouted, the transmission of its values from one
generation to the next is breaking down, and the framework of expectations
is being shaken‖. A social problem being thus defined, juvenile
delinquency is to be seen ―as a breakdown in society itself‖.
6.3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL SOCIAL PROBLEMS
The significant characteristics of the rural areas in India which are
associated with certain social problems are:
(a) People are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture and a
large number of landowners have small and medium-sized
landholdings.
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94
 (b) The upper caste people still hold large lands while people of the
lower castes own either marginal land or work as landless
labourers. Factors Accounting for
(c) Rural people are scattered in comparison to the urban people. the Change
(d) Not only the norms and values but the practices of the rural people
too continue to be traditional.
(e) The price the farmers get for their produces is less in relation to the
work they put in. NOTES
The standard of living of the rural farmers is very low and their
exploitation by big landlords, intermediaries and moneylenders is far
greater. The other rural problems are due to the fact thatNOTESsince the rural
people do not live in concentrated masses, the availability of specialized
services to them is minimal. This is true for medical, market, banking,
transport, communication, education, recreation and manyNOTES other necessary
services for modern living. Thus, in a general way, people in the rural areas
are at a great disadvantage and have to suffer many social problems.
6.3.4 NATURE OF RURAL SOCIAL PROBLEMS
The social problem is connected to majority of the members of
society. According to Bernad, the repressive and tense condition
consequent of social problems may be involving three types of elements―
(i) Tension factors which challenge some values of
society,
(ii) Social values which are being challenged and
(iii) Intense reaction of individuals and groups to
challenge.
The following characteristics exhibit the nature of social problems:
a. Disintegrative: Social problems, directly or indirectly disintegrate
social system. Social problem causes dissatisfaction, suffering and
misery. It seriously affects the values of the society. It is always
disintegrating and disorganizing. It is pathological. It is harmful for
the society.
b. Multiple Causes: The social problems have no single or simple
cause. Each problem has a complex history and is usually not due
to one but too many causes. War, poverty, unemployment or crimes
do not offer single or simple explanation of their occurrence.
Sometimes one problem is so interwoven with other problems that
it cannot be solved apart from them.
c. Inter-Connected: Social problems are inter-connected due to
which these become serious. For example, unemployment, poverty
and crime are inter-connected.
d. Many Remedies: The solution of the complex social problem
requires various multisided remedies.
e. Relative Concept: Social problem has relative concept. What we
call a social problem in our society may not be a problem in other
society. Similarly, a social problem of today may not be a problem
of tomorrow.
f. Functional Value: Social problem, though disintegrative, has Self - Instructional Material
functional value since its cure leads to social development.
However, the rural people are also facing some environmental
problems due to their ignorance, illiteracy, poverty and superstitions.
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 Some environmental problems faced by rural people are outlined
below:
Factors Accounting for 1. Poor sanitation
the Changes Because of the illiteracy and poverty of the people in rural area,
they do not know the importance of sanitation and hygiene. Such an
ignorance causes environmental pollution leading to the break out of a
number of epidemics like cholera, typhoid etc.
2. Conversion of Farm land to housing land
To provide shelter to the increased population in rural areas, more
NOTES
and more agricultural lands are being utilized for housing purposes by rural
people. This results in decreased per capita availability of cultivated land
which ultimately induces over cultivation.
3. Lack of drainage facilities
Lack of drainage facilities and open defecation make the rural areas
Filthy and unhygienic which directly or indirectly help in spreading of a
number of diseases.
4. Indiscriminate use of pesticides and fertilizers
To increase the crop productivity for providing food to increased
population, the illiterate rural farmers used a number of pesticides and
fertilizers, not in proper amount. The excess of pesticides and
agrochemicals accumulate in water bodies and soil causing potential health
hazards in humans and other aquatic and terrestrial living organisms
(animals).
5. Salination, desertification and degradation of Lands
The over cultivation of farm lands in rural area and misuse of water
meant for irrigation lead to salination, desertification and land degradation.
6.4 AGRARIAN UNREST AND PEASANT MOVEMENTS
6.4.1 AGRARIAN UNREST
The old stable social structure of the village community with its
varied institutions had experienced a severe jolt during the British period
and is undergoing a very rapid, almost hectic transformation after
Independence. The impact of elections based on universal franchiseof
increasing competitive profit-oriented production by peasants and of the
emergence of various new institutions and associations-political, economic,
social and administrative. The causes of these great conflicts and tensions
have to be located instead in the rapid structural transformation of rural
society and the impact it is making on the various strata of the rural people
and not in the goodwill or ill will of the individual or the groups. This point
has to be emphasised and a profounder analysis of the roots of unrest have
to be made because a massive propaganda advocating ethical explanations
and panaceas as well as stricter coercive law and order measures by the
government have been launched to overcome the growing agrarian unrest.
It should be noted here that there are types and types of conflicts.
6.4.2 PEASANT MOVEMENT
Peasant movement is a social movement involved with the
agricultural policy. It has a long history that can be traced to the numerous
peasant uprisings that occurred in various regions of the world throughout
human history.
Anthony Pereira, a political scientist, has defined a peasant
Self - Instructional Material
movement as a "social movement made up of peasants (small landholders
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or farm workers on large farms), usually inspired by the goal of improving
the situation of peasants in a nation or territory".
A peasant movement is defined as a relatively organized and Factors Accounting for
continuous collective action involving violence, or the threat of violence the Change
for securing more share in the control or ownership of land and its produce
and to abolish injustices, which have arisen thereof.
6.4.3 PEASANT MOVEMENTS IN INDIA
NOTES
According to Ghanshyam Shah, in India peasant movements are
generally classified into pre-British, British or colonial and post-
independence. According to Oommen there are certain movements which
NOTES
continue despite the changes in the political power.
These are the movements which started in the pre-independence era
and are still continued though with different goals. The NOTES
classification is
also based on time span as the structure of agrarian system also differs
from time to time so also the peasant movements.
The economic policies of British adversely affected the Indian
peasants the British Govt. used to protect the landlords and money lenders,
they exploited the peasants. The peasants rose in revolt against this
injustice on many occasions .The peasants in Bengal formed their union
and revolted against the compulsion of cultivating indigo.
Peasant movement in India was arose during the British colonial
period, when economic policies characterized in the ruin of traditional
handicrafts leading, change of ownership and overcrowding of land, and
massive debt and impoverishment of peasantry. This led to peasant
uprisings during the colonial period, and development of peasant
movements in the post-colonial period. The Kisan Sabha movement started
in Bihar under the leadership of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati who had
formed in 1929 the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS) in order to
mobilise peasant grievances against the zamindari attacks on their
occupancy rights. Gradually the peasant movement intensified and spread
across the rest of India. All these radical developments on the peasant front
culminated in the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) at the
Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress in April 1936 with
Swami SahajanandSaraswati elected as its first President. D. D. Kosambi
and R.S. Sharma, together with Daniel Thorner, brought peasants into the
study of Indian history for the first time.
A.R. Desai classified the colonial India into the following areas
under the British rule as Ryotwari, the areas under the princely authority as
Zamindari and tribal zones. A.R. Desai calls the movements as ―peasant
struggles‖ in the colonial period and those of post-independence era as
―agrarian struggles‖. The phrase ―agrarian struggles‖ according to A.R.
Desai refers not only to include peasants but also others.
He further divides the post-independence agrarian struggles into
two categories—the movements launched by the newly emerging Self - Instructional Material
proprietary classes comprising rich farmers, viable sections of the middle
peasant proprietors and the streamlined landlords; and second, the

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 movements launched by various sections of the agrarian poor in which the
agrarian proletariat have been acquiring central importance.
Factors Accounting for The post-independent India there was a centralized political
the Changes authority and a capitalist mode of production acting as driving forces, there
has not yet evolved a unified agrarian pattern. The capitalist mode of
agriculture has developed in a few states such as Gujarat, Maharashtra, and
Punjab. The classification also varies in accordance with the theoretical
framework. Kathleen Gough classifies the peasant revolts into five
categories.
NOTES
They are:
6. Restorative rebellions to drive out the British and restore
earlier rulers and social relations.
7. Religious movements for the liberation of a region or an
ethnic group under a new form of government.
8. Social banditry.
9. Terrorist vengeance with the idea of meting out
collective justice.
10. Mass insurrections for the redressal of particular
grievances.
6.4.4 AGRARIAN UNREST AND PEASANT MOVEMENTS
The primary aim of the permanent settlement was to extract
maximum public revenue through zamindars. Until the first half of the
nineteenth century, no attention was paid to mitigate the deteriorating
condition of actual cultivators. Each successive government regulations
strengthen the zamindars to realise their demands on the tenants [Ray, S.C.,
1915]. The Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 recognised for the first time some
rights of tenants. However, mere declaration of the Act annoyed the
zamindars and raised the expectations of the tenants. This sharply
increased the agrarian tensions.
The first of the series of 'new' agrarian movements in Bihar was the
celebrated "Champaran Satyagraha" of 1917. This marked the beginning of
the process whereby, the 'traditional' peasantry was drawn into the vortex
of contemporary agitation under the 'modern' leadership. But in this
movement, the local peasant elites played a major role and the majority of
peasantry remained passive. The movement itself was an attempt by the
rich peasantry to remove hurdles which had been imposed on them by the
English planters. However, the very nature of the leadership placed
limitations on the movement. It remained directed against the European
planters and did not touch the local exploitative elements; neither could it
take the poor peasantry into its fold. But in the rest of Bihar agrarian
tension was brewing over in a wider sphere, which was channelised by the
Kisan Sabha.
Agrarian struggles, under the Kisan sabha, were at its peak in the
couple of years before and after 1947. Some old issues together with new
ones were taken up. Bakasht struggle, anti-eviction movement, taccavi
loans issue, minimum wage struggle, canal rent, were some of the issues
which rocked the post-independence agrarian society. Meanwhile, CPI was
banned due to its engagement in Telangana struggle. Other parties came
under the perview of the Public Safety Act imposed in 1947. However,
Self - Instructional Material there was absolute confusion about the character of 'Independence'.
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 Movement of agricultural labourers sharply increased in the post-
war period. From 1946 onwards, CPI waged many struggles of agricultural
labourers, encompassing wage demands and the issue of homestead Factors Accounting for
tenancy. In the thirteenth conference of the AIKS in 1953, a call was issued the Change
to establish firm unity between Khet Mazdoors and the Kisans. By uniting
local organisations, Bihar State Khet Mazdoor Sabha (later renamed the
Bihar Rajya Khet Mazdoor Union) was formed in 1956 by the CPl. In
1958, the National Council of the CPI adopted a resolution to separate NOTES
agricultural labourers from the Kisans and form an organisation separate
from the AIKS. The Socialists also formed Khet Mazdoor Panchayat.
Congress formed an All India Khetihar Mazdoor Sangha. NOTES
The struggle of the agricultural labourers got fillip after the
formation of the Khet Mazdoor Union by the CPl. Struggles waged against
social oppression and for higher wages. By 1957, struggles NOTES had spread
throughout Gaya District under the able leadership of Karyanand Sharma.
In few places wages had been enhanced. But the movement slackened after
1958 when the CPI changed its policy. Further, drought condition had
already set in by 1965 and Karyanand Sharma, the moving spirit of the
movement, died in the same year. This movement could last only for a
short time.
By the middle of the 1960s, situation took a new turn. Due to
enactment of various legislations and number of rights and privileges to the
rural poor, expectation of the agricultural labourers was rising higher. But
in actuality, neither the minimum wage legislation nor the Homestead
Tenancy Act served any purpose. This further heightened the tension of the
agrarian proletariat. On the other hand, landlords were becoming more
apprehensive and aggressive. To suppress the rising demands of the
downtrodden, they acted much in excess of the 'crime'. Vengeance of the
landlords was unheard of even during Zamindari Rule. Between 1972-77,
the landlords in Nalanda district killed 142 landless labourers and
perpetrated innumerable cases of assault, torture, fine, eviction,
molestation and rape of women [Sinha, 1977]. In Rupaspur - Chandwa
village of Purnea district, the local landlord along with his hundreds of
hooligans burnt down all huts of Adivasi bataidars, shot dead everyone
including women and children. The landlord was. a stalwart of the
Congress Party. In yet another incident, landlord of Madhuban village of
Monghyr district paraded six harijan women naked and marked their
private parts with red hot irons. The ghastly crime was committed in broad
day light and in front of villagers, just to teach the agricultural labourers a
lesson.
However, prices began to rise sharply after the War with China in
1962. Situation further deteriorated due to severe drought of 1966 in which
13 out of 17 districts of Bihar were officially declared under famine. This
further sharpened the agrarian contradiction. The agrarian poor started
sporadic struggles. Their apathy and passivity turned into activism. The
most striking feature of this phase of the movement, particularly of the
1960s and 1970s, was that the main participants were the lower orders of
the peasantry - the poor peasants, sharecroppers, and agricultural labourers Self - Instructional Material
belonging mainly to the Harijan-Adivasi section. They were fighting not
absentee landlordism as in ·the zamindari period, but the new rich
peasantry. Zamindari abolition had made the erstwhile upper sections of
99
 the tenantry the new exploiters. Many parties were formed to guard the
interest of the agrarian poor. Left Parties played significant role, yet they
Factors Accounting for failed to redress the basic economic hardship of the agrarian proletariat.
the Changes This in turn, prepared ground for rise and development of ultra-left parties
in rural India. Let us dwell up on the role of the left parties in the agrarian
structure.
Peasant movements led by Marxist and Socialists- such as
Telangana Movement (1946-51), Tebagha movement (1946-1949),
Kagodu Satyagraha (1951), Naxalbari Movement (1967) and Lalgarh
NOTES
movement (2009).
6.4.4.1 The Tebhaga Movement (1946–47)
The Tebhaga movement was manifested in the undivided Bengal in
mid 1940s centering around a demand for tebhaga (two-third shares) by
share croppers of their produce for themselves, instead of one-half
traditionally given to them by the jotedars—a class of intermediary land
owners. This movement grew against the backdrop of the flourishing
interest of the intermediary class of land owners on the one hand and that
of the deterioration of the economic status of the agricultural labourers,
share croppers and poor peasants on the other. The deteriorating economic
condition of the lowest strata was reflected in the rapid expansion in the
number of the share croppers and agricultural labourers in the Bengal
agrarian society of the time. Report of the Land Revenue Commission in
1940 observed that of 8,547,004 inquired acres all over the Bengal
Province undivided Bengal 592,335 acres were transferred, of which 31.7
per cent was turned over to barga (sharecropping) and 24.6 per cent to
under-tenants (LRC 1940, Vol. 2: 120). The traders, moneylenders and
intermediary landowners exploited to the hilt the poverty of the poor
peasant and lent him money at usurious rates of interest. When the poor
peasant was unable to repay the debt and lost his land to the creditor, he
was resettled on the same land on condition that he handed over half of the
produce to the creditor. The peasants who were not settled on it as
sharecroppers became agricultural labourers. The Land Revenue
Commission pointed out in 1940 that agricultural labourer constituted 22.5
per cent of the total number of families of Bengal.
The exploitative intermediacy systems of land tenure, which was
introduced through the Permanent settlement, had furthered the process of
downward mobilisation of the peasantry of Bengal. The emerging patterns
of exploitation and social oppression, impoverishment and pauperization of
the peasantry got institutionalized during the British rule (Rasul 1974).
Questions pertaining to the deteriorating economic condition of the
peasantry received organized focus since early 1920s with the formation of
the Communist Party of India (CPI) 1921, the Workers and Peasants Party
(WPP) 1922 and the Krishak Praja Party (KPP) in 1929. The Bengal Kisan
Sabha (VKS), a provincial branch of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS)
was formed in 1936. The KPP won the provincial election with promise to
abolish the intermediary system of land ownership. In November 1946, the
BKS passed a resolution in Calcutta for ‘Tebhaga’ (two thirds share of the
produced crops) for the share croppers and ‗langal jar janin tar’ (land to
the tiller).
Self - Instructional Material

100
 North Bengal, especially the Dinajpur district became centre of the
BKS activism because of the high intensity of the share cropping system of
land cultivation there. The poor peasantry of Khanpur village, who were Factors Accounting for
mostly from the scheduled castes (Rajbansi, Polia, and Mali), the the Change
scheduled tribes (the Oroan, ColkamarSantal) and ex-tribes (Mahato)
responded spontaneously to this movement. When the movement escalated
into mass action, the share croppers began to harvest paddy and carry it to
their own kholan (courtyard) under the instructions of the local leaders. In NOTES
a surcharged situation of heightening tension the local landowner filed a
FIR against the share croppers. Early on the morning of 20 February 1947
police entered the village and arrested a few share croppers. A vast mass of
NOTES
poor peasants and share croppers from both Khanpur and its neighbouring
villages, armed with bows and arrows, lathisand axes, surged on the police.
They demanded the release of their share croppers. But NOTESthe police were
adamant and ended up firing 119 rounds, injuring hundreds and killing 22
share croppers, including two women.
The episode of Khanpur triggered off the Tebhaga movement very
quickly in most part of Bengal. Poor peasants ignoring their conventional
ties with the landowners declined to share half of their produce with the
land owners.
6.4.4.2 The Telangana Movement (1946-52)
The Telangana Movement (1946-52) of Andhra Pradesh was fought
against the feudal oppression of the rulers and local land owners. The
agrarian social structure of Hyderabad emerged to be very oppressive in
1920s and thereafter. The process of the sub-in feudation in the
landholding accentuated the insecurity of the tenants and the poor peasants.
The Harijans and the tribal were the worst sufferers under this system
(Dhanagare, 1983). Besides the unbridled feudal exploitation, the Muslim
ruler also maintained the utter isolation of from the vast masses of his
Hindu subjects (Sundarayya, 1985).
The Indian National Congress, Andhra Jana Sangam and Andhra
Maha Sabha (AMS) raised the issue of poor condition of the peasantry of
Telangana since late 1920s. Several resolutions were passed against the
jagirdari and the vetti system by the AMS. Under the auspices of the AMS
the JagirRyotu Sangham was formed in 1940 to bring pressure upon the
government to solve the problems of the jagir peasants working under the
jogirdars. Significantly the Andhra Communist Party was established in
1934. After the ban on the Communists was lifted in 1942, they captured
the leadership of AMS. They raised the issues of ‗abolition of vetti’,
‗prevention of rack-renting and eviction of tenants‘, ‗reduction of taxes,
revenue and rents‘, ‗confirmation of occupancy (patta) rights of the
cultivating tenants‘, and so on. All these processes of mobilisation of the
peasantry increased tensions in the rural areas of Telengana, which
ultimately culminated into the political consciousness of the peasants, and
gradually there was a new awakening.
It was against such forced labour and illegal exaction and against
eviction of the poor tenants that the peasantry of the Telangana region of
Hyderabad State waged innumerable struggles. The beginnings of the Self - Instructional Material
Telangana armed struggles were against the atrocities of Vishnur
Ramchandra Reddy, the deshmukh in Jangaon tehsil of Nalgonda district,
in 1946.
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 The movement took a new turn with India attaining independence
in 1947, and the subsequent refusal of the Nizam to join the Indian Union.
Factors Accounting for The CPI openly called for a guerrilla struggle against the razakars (state
the Changes paramilitary wing) and the government forces by forming village defense
committees and by providing arms training to the dalams (armed squads).
The administrative machinery of the Nizam came to a standstill in nearly
4000 villages. In its place were established gram rajyas (village
administrative units). Vetti was abolished, and some 1.2 million acres of
land was redistributed very quickly. Unpaid debts were cancelled, tenants
NOTES
were given full tenancy rights, toddy tappers got back rights over trees,
untouchability was abolished and a new social awareness became visible.
Armed women defended themselves against the razakars. With the Nizam
refusing to merge with the independent Indian Union, the Indian
government initiated army action against the Nizam, and subsequently
against the CPI in September 1948.
Several lakhs of people in thousands of villages were subjected to
police and military raids and to cruel lathi-charges; the people in the course
of these military and police raids lost property worth millions of rupees,
which were either looted or destroyed; thousands of women were molested
and had to undergo all sorts of humiliations and indignities‘.
6.4.4.3 Naxalite Movement (1967–71)
The agrarian society of independent India experienced a new epoch
in the history of peasant movements with the peasant uprising of May 1967
under the Naxalbari thana of Darjeeling district of West Bengal.
Immediately after the country‘s independence, the Govt. of West Bengal
enacted the West Bengal Estate Acquisition Act (1953) to abolish the
zamindari and other intermediary systems and the West Bengal Land
Reform Act (1955) to put a ceiling on landholdings, to reserve for the share
croppers 60 per cent of the produced share, and to put a restriction on the
eviction of share croppers. The sharecroppers who constituted 16 per cent
of the rural households in 1952-53 came down to 2.9 per cent in 1961- 62.
Though because of malafide land transfer proportion of the marginal and
the small cultivators increased among the rural population, in real term
poor peasantry was undergoing a desperate situation caused by their
livelihood insecurity. This was clearly visible from the phenomenal
increase of the agricultural labourers from 15.3% in 1961 to 26.2 in 1971
and the decline of the category of cultivators 38.5% to 32 % during the
same period (Census of India 1961, 1971). Significantly the All India
Credit Committee in its report of 1968 pointed out to the ‗emergence of
sharp polarization between classes in the rural areas‘ (Govt. of India: 1968)
In this backdrop while the economic condition of the poor
peasantry was deteriorating, the political happenings in West Bengal took a
new turn. In February 1967 the United Front (dominated by the communal
parties viz. CPI, CPI (M) RSP etc.) came to with the promise like ‗land to
the tiller‘, ‗proletarian rule‘, etc. The United Front pledged to implement
the land reforms, promising land to all landless households and invited
more militant initiatives from the peasantry as an organized force. The Left
political parties had initiated rigorous mobilisation of the peasantry in the
Naxalbari areas since the early 1960s when the landowners of the
Self - Instructional Material Naxalbari region started large-scale eviction of share croppers. The CPI-M

102
Darjeeling district committee started to organize the peasants on a militant
footing after the United Front Government was formed. .
The Naxalite movement spread rapidly in many parts of the Factors Accounting for
country, protracted arm resistance, declaration of liberated area, killing and the Change
arrest became a regular phenomenon in the agrarian society of West
Bengal. By the end of June 1967 the CPI-M leadership came out against
the Naxalbari leaders, calling them ‗an organized anti-party group was
advocating an adventuristic line of action‘. Nineteen members were then NOTES
expelled from the party. The rift was complete. Moving through the stages
of the Naxalbari Peasant‘s Struggle Aid Committee and a Coordination
Committee, the CPI-ML was finally formed in May 1969 NOTES by the organized
militant groups
6.4.5 Emerging Agrarian Social and Peasants Movements
The agrarian societies of Andhra Pradesh (AP) and West Bengal
NOTES
(WB) have undergone a phenomenal change since the proliferation of the
radical peasantmovements. Both the states have initiated the elaborated
land reform programmes affecting the agrarian social structure there in. A
recent report shows that the Government of West Bengal had, till
September2000, distributed 1.045 million acres of land amongst 2.544
million beneficiaries.During this period the names of 1.495 million
sharecroppers were recordedinvolving an area of 1.105 million acres of
land (Government of West Bengal.2002). This process of implementation
of land reforms has diversely affectedthe patterns of land holding and the
agrarian relations prevailing in AndhraPradesh and West Bengal.

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. What is social problem?
2. What is called peasant movement?
3. What are the peasant movements leads by Marxist?
6.5 UNTOUCHABILITY

The evil practice of untouchability has been a universal

phenomenon throughout Indian society. There has been no period in course
of her history, which has not experienced this evil. Social rules and
regulations concerning this practice also vary from one region to another
which prohibits the formulation of a comprehensive and logical definition.
According to Gandhi, ―Untouchables are those suffering from many social
as well as legal disabilities and living at the mercy of the people from
higher strata.‖
6.5.1 Definition of Untouchability:
It is extremely difficult to define untouchability. In fact, it implies
those disabilities which were imposed upon the scheduled castes by the
superior castes. In Untouchability Offences Act 1955, the word
untouchability was given this connotation. According to it, it is an offence Self - Instructional Material
to prevent any person on the ground of untouchability (a) from entering
any place of public worship which is open to other persons, professing the
same religion, (b) from worshipping or offering prayers or performing any
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 religious service in any place of public worship or bathing in or using the
water of any scared tank, well, spring or water-course in the same manner
Factors Accounting for as is permissible to other persons professing the same religion; and (c)
the Changes from access to or use of a shop, hotel, public restaurant or place of public
entertainment or public conveyance or hospital dispensary or educational
institution or charitable trust.‖ Dr. Bhīma Rao Ambedkar and Mahatma
Gandhi have also defined untouchability on the basis of some disabilities.
In this way disabilities are a sign of untouchability. Dr. D.N.Majumdar has
written, ―The untouchable castes are those who suffer from various social
NOTES
and political disabilities many of which are traditionally prescribed and
socially enforced by higher castes‖ In brief, untouchables are those castes
which are subject to some disabilities in every walk of life social, religious,
economic and political. This definition will be further clarified by a
detailed description of these disabilities.
Disabilities of Untouchables:
Untouchables suffer from the following disabilities:-
(i) Religious disabilities – In India the Harijans were subjected to
various religious disabilities in the society. They were
prevented from entering temples, monasteries and cremation
grounds, and could not make use of them because it was
believed that these places would become impure by their
touching them. In this way the Harijans could not worship in
the temple. Their presence was considered sufficient to defile
the gods, let alone their worshippers.
(ii) Social disabilities : In the social sphere the disabilities of the
Harijans are the following :
a. Prevention from the use of public roads- Hudson has written that
the presence of a particular untouchable caste in Tamil Nadu was
considered so derogatory that their members were prevented from
using the public roads in the day times and consequently they were
obliged to do their work at night. Their shadow was enough to defile
the members of the higher castes of dalit would adopt a prostate
posture upon the ground so that their shadow may not fall on the
member of higher castes.
b. Prevention from the use of public wells – In almost all Indian
villages the dalit were forbidden to use the well for drawing water. In
Bengal they were permitted to come near the well but not allowed to
draw water from it. Only a higher caste hindu could draw water for
them. In some other states the untouchables were not permitted even to
approach the well.
c. Prevention from entering schools – The Dalit children did not have
the right to enter the schools because if they sit down to study along
with other children, it would have defiled the latter.
d. Other social restrictions –In marriage the dalit bride and
bridegroom were not allowed to sit in the palanquin. The hair dresser
would not tend their hair. The washer man would not wash their clothes
and the shopkeeper would not supply them food.
(iii) Economic disabilities: Harijans did not have permission to engage
in the profession of the higher castes. Their conventional occupations
Self - Instructional Material were dirty and soiled and their means for earning their bread and butter

104
 were limited. They are burdened with debt while poverty and famine
conditions prevail among them.
6.5.2 Effect of Untouchability Factors Accounting for
In Caste and Class in India, Ghurye has written that in Poona, the Change
during the reign of the Marahtas the untouchable castes Mahar and
Mang were not allowed to enter the gates of towns between 3pm and
9am because the shadows are not their longest at this time and there is
the fear of the higher Brahmins being defiled. In Maharashtra the NOTES
Mahar caste could spit only in small containers tied around their neck
because they spit upon the road it might defile some superior Hindu by
touching his foot. NOTES
6.5.3 Fundamental Causes of Untouchable
In ‗Caste in India‘ J.H.Hutton writes, ―The origin of the position of
exterior castes is partly racial, partly religious and partly
NOTES a matter of
social custom.‖ In this way, the three fundamental causes of
untouchability are racial, religious and social factors.
i. Racial Factors: In Garhwala the bride and bridegroom
belonging to the artisan and Harijan castes, which had low
social status, were not allowed the use of the palanquin or
the horse. The cause of this has been explained by some
sociologists to be the advent of the higher castes from the
plains into the native homeland of the artisans and Harijans.
ii. Religious Factors: Religious beliefs and conventions are
also causes of untouchability. In religion much importance
is attributed to purity and divinity. Thus it was considered
essential to abstain from the people who engage in impure
occupations. In the words of Dr. Ghurye, ―Idea of purity,
whether occupational or ceremonial, is found to have been a
factor in the genesis of caste or the very soul of the idea and
practice of untouchability.‖ It was the sense of purity which
led to the sweepers and cobblers being designated as
untouchables in Hindu society.
iii. Social Factors- Social customs and conventions shared the
burden of maintaining the untouchability recognised by the
religious and racial causes. Social convention is so
influential that even the members of the untouchable castes
dare not violate the customs of untouchability.
6.5.4 Efforts to Eradicate Untouchability
In the paragraph 46 of the Indian Constitution much emphasis has
been laid upon the spread of education among the backward castes and the
protection of their economic interest. Para 15(1) - The state will not
discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste,
sex, place of birth or any of them.

(2) No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of
birth or any of them, be subject to any disability, restriction or condition
with regard to :-
(a) Access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public Self - Instructional Material
entertainment, or

105
 (b) The use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort
maintained wholly or partly out of state funds, or dedicated to the use of
Factors Accounting for the general public.
the Changes Para 16(1) - There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in
matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the
state.
(2) No citizen shall on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent,
place of birth, residence or any of them, be ineligible for or discriminated
against in respect of any employment or office under the state.
NOTES
(3) Nothing in this article shall prevent Parliament from making any law
prescribing, in regard to a class or classes of employment or appointment
to any office under any state specified in the First Schedule or any local or
other authority within its territory, any requirement as to residence within
that state prior to such employment or appointment.
Para 17- ‗Untouchability‘ is abolished and its practice in any form
forbidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out of ‗untouchability‘
shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.

Article 320 (1) – Seats shall be reserved in the house of the people
for:-
(a) The scheduled castes:
(b) The scheduled tribes except the scheduled tribes in the tribal
areas of Assam; and
(c) The scheduled tribes in the autonomous districts of Assam.
(2) The number of seats reserved in any state for the scheduled
castes or the scheduled tribes under clause (1) shall bear, of as nearly as
may be the same proportion to the total number of seats allotted to that
state. Article 335- The claims of the members of the scheduled castes and
the scheduled tribes shall be taken into consideration, consistently with the
maintenance of efficiency of administration, in the making of appointments
to service and posts in connection with the affairs of the union or of a state.

6.5.5 Economic Improvement

Realising the financial problems of the Harijans, the Government
have taken the following steps in the direction of their financial
improvement-
(i) In nearly all the States of India laws have been enacted for
defending the untouchables from the Mahajans.
(ii) In Bihar and Orissa the Harijans had to become slaves of
the money lenders in the event of their inability to repay
debt. Now this tradition has come to an end due to new
laws.
(iii) In Andhra, Bihar, Orissa, Bombay, Madras, Uttar Pradesh
and Saurashtra the Government have turned useless and
unoccupied land into cultivable land and distributed it
among the Harijans.
(iv) The government of Andhra, Bihar, Orissa, Assam, Madhya
Pradesh, West Bengal and Bhopal has enacted laws by
virtue of which the Harijan cultivating the land is to be
Self - Instructional Material considered the land owner and cannot be deprived of it.

106
 (v) The Government is giving financial assistance to the
Harijans in order that they may be able to buy
agricultural implements, animals, manure, superior Factors Accounting for
seeds, modern tools of agriculture etc. the Change
(vi) Assistance to Agriculture, Cottage Industries and Animal
Husbandry is being given to Harijan.
(vii) The Government of India is also providing aid to non-
governmental institutions which are exerting effort for NOTES
the eradication of untouchability.
(viii) The educational facilities provided by the Government to
the Harijans are in the form of NOTES free education,
scholarships, books, stationary and other educational
materials.
(ix) According to the Indian Constitution candidature NOTES had been
reserved in government services for untouchables for a
period of ten years. Not only in central government
services but also in state government services these seats
are reserved even now.
6.5.6 Non-Governmental Efforts
Besides the programme for political awakening, the Indian National
Congress made efforts for the eradication of untouchability. The attempts
made by Gandhiji in this direction are well known. As a result of his efforts
the untouchables slowly got rid of their social disabilities. The doors of the
universities, temples, public places etc. were opened to them. In the
beginning the superior Hindus opposed these improvements but they later
agreed to them. Besides the congress many other political parties took part
in the emancipation of the Harijans.

6.5.7 Suggestions for the Eradication of Untouchability

The methods of eradication of untouchability are now known to all
educated people. The following suggestions can be made in this direction
1. Education should be spread among the Harijans and this should
include both general education as well as technical education.
Education should be free, coupled with facilities of scholarship,
books, stationary, hostels etc.
2. The Harijans should be provided with land, animals, ploughs,
seeds, manure and agricultural tools for agriculture. Financial
assistance for cottage industries should be supplemented by
technical training.
3. Laws removing the religious disabilities which burden the
Harijans should also be enforced.
4. Platform speeches, radio, newspaper, the press and other means
of communication should assist in the propaganda against
untouchability.
5. In spite of the enforcement of all the above mentioned
measures, it will take the Harijans a long time to achieve
equality with the superior castes. Thus, until they do so, same
places should be reserved for them in the government services. Self - Instructional Material
6. It is necessary that seats should be reserved for the Harijans in
the legislatures for some time to come.

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 7. The eradication of the caste system is very essential for the
removal of untouchability.
Factors Accounting for 8. It is necessary that there should be a ever increasing contact
the Changes between the Harijans and the caste/Hindus.
6.6 RURAL VIOLENCE
The concept of violence encompasses physical violence,
psychological violence and structural violence. Thus, violence can be any
act that threatens a person's physical and psychological integrity and it also
NOTES can be racism, forced labour and denial of fundamental rights to the
citizens. Violence can be caused either by individual, a group of people, the
state itself or society as a whole.
6.6.1 DEFINITIONS OF VIOLENCE
The definition of violence exists. Definitions vary, depending on
the perspective of the definer. The dictionary defines violence as "physical
force employed so as to violate damage, or abuse." In the literature,
violence is variously described as "behaviors by individuals that
intentionally threaten, attempt, or inflict physical harm on others"
(Reissand Roth, 1993) and as "the use of physical force with the intent of
causing injury or death"
(Rosenberg, Stark, and Zahn, 1986). CSAP defines violence as "an
act that causes physical,psychological, and emotional harm to an
individual, family, or community." Despite the variations, all these
definitions have one thing in common: they all defame violence as the
intentional infliction of some type of harm. CSAP's definition is
particularly useful, because it recognizes the psychological and emotional
consequences of violence.
Violence can be divided into two broad categories-Direct violence
and Structural violence. Direct violence is an act of deliberate attack on
physical or psychological integrity of a human being. It is also called as
somatic violence. As described earlier, it is a commonly understood form
of violence as it is easily observable and often illustrated in the media
allover the world. This category includes all forms of homicide like
massacre of citizen, civil war and political crimes. It also includes any
form of brutal action like torture, rape, kidnapping and forced removal,
(inflicting upon the victim) where the victim is inflicted with physical and
psychological suffering.
The second form of violence –Structural violence is also called as
indirect violence. It is a situation in which there is no necessary direct
relationship between the victim and the aggressor. Johan Galtung
conducted a pioneering research in structural violence. In the 1960s, he
studied various forms of violence and showed that the state could resort to
structural violence against its citizens, forhim, defining violence purely in
somatic terms was incomplete. Violence, for Galtung, was a cause of
difference between the potential and the actual. The potential level of
realization is that which is possible with a given level of insight and
resources. If, however, insight and resources are monopolized by a group,
or a class, the actual level falls below the potential level, which Galtung
referred to as the level where the perpetuation of violence is a cause of
Self - Instructional Material concern. In the case of war, violence is direct and killing or hurting a person

108
causes 'actual somatic realisation'. In indirect violence, insight and resources
are channeled away so as to deny chances for the events to reach a potential
level. Factors Accounting for
Structural violence includes the following three types of violence the Change
 First-Violence by Omission, when the stale fails to provide
adequate help and protection to human beings who are in danger
like social violence or environment hazards like hurricanes and
earthquakes NOTES
 Second-Repressive Violence, when basic rights are denied like
participation inday to day social and economic life or right to
property. NOTES
 Finally-Alienating Violence, when citizens are deliberately targeted
at work, school, and public places etc.
6.6.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF VIOLENCE NOTES
1. Direct Violence
(Deliberate injury to the physical and psychological integrity of a human
being)
Homicide
Genocide, Massacre, Murder
Brutal Acts
Torture, Rape, Maltreatment
Restrictions or physical constraints
Forced removal of population, Kidnapping, Taking of
hostages, Imprisonment, Forced labour
2. Indirect violations of the rights
Violence by Omission (non-assistance to the human being in
danger; non-satisfaction of vital material needs)
Lack of protection against social violence (hunger, disease, poverty)
Lack of protection against accidents
Lack of protection against natural violence (hurricanes, earthquakes)
Mediated Violence (dangerous modifications or the natural and social
environment) .
Repressive Violence (deprivation of fundamental rights)
Social rights
Denial of trade unionism, Denial of social equality, Denial of
participation in social and economic life, Denial of protection of material,
individual and collective property,
Civil rights(denial of protection from the state)
Political rights (denial of democratic participation in political life)
Alienating Violence (Deprivation of higher rights)
Alienating living conditions (at work, home, school)
Social ostracism (hostility against certain members and group of
society like women and children)
Ethnocide
 Violence against women is a social, economic, developmental,
legal, educational, human rights, and health (physical and mental)
issue.
 It is a preventable cause of morbidity and mortality in women Self - Instructional Material
 The relationship between violence against women and mental
illness has not been adequately explored.

109
  Application of laws related to violence in the setting of mental
illness is difficult
Factors Accounting for  Despite the social and religious sanctions against it in all cultures, it
the Changes has continued.
Sociocultural factors dis favouring women
The National Commission for Women: It was set up as a statutory
body in January 1992 under the National Commission for Women Act
1990.
NOTES
The Supreme Court guidelines on sexual harassment at work place:
For the first time, the Court drew upon an international human rights law
instrument, the CEDAW to pass a set of guidelines. The Court defined
sexual harassment at work place as any unwelcome gesture, behavior,
words or advances that are sexual in nature. ―It shall be the duty of the
employer or other responsible persons in work places or other institutions
to prevent or deter the commission of acts of sexual harassment and to
provide the procedures for the resolution, settlement or prosecution of acts,
of sexual harassment by taking all steps required.‖
The legislation relating to violence against women comprises the
Indian Penal Code (IPC), civil law and special laws.
Dowry and dowry death
The Dowry Prohibition Act (DPA), 1961 applies to all people,
Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Parsis and Jews. Giving, taking or abetting
the giving or taking of dowry is an offence, which is punishable. Several
states (Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, and
Punjab) amended the DPA to give it more teeth. The law was found to fail
to stall the evil.
Abetment of suicide of child or insane person
If any person under 18 years of age, any insane person, any
delirious person, any idiot, or any person in a state of intoxication, commits
suicide, whoever abets the commission of such suicide, shall be punished
with death or imprisonment for life or imprisonment for a term not
exceeding 10 years and shall also be liable for fine (305 IPC). However,
the difficulty is that if it is shown the victim has major mental illness, the
benefit of doubt is given to the accused and he is acquitted.
Abetment of suicide
If any person commits suicide, whoever abets the commission of
such suicide shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for
a term which may extend to 10 years and shall also be liable for fine (306
IPC). 113-A of Indian Evidence Act, 1872, relates to the presumption as to
abetment of suicide. The offences of dowry and abetment of suicide are
cognizable, nonbailable and non-compoundable.

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110
Sexual offences
A man is said to have committed rape if he has sexual intercourse Factors Accounting for
with a woman against her will and consent; or with her consent when the the Change
man knows that he is not her husband or when she thinks that he is her
lawful husband; or with her consent when she is of unsound mind or is
intoxicated by herself or the man. However, sexual intercourse by a man
with his own wife, the wife not being under 15 years, is not rape (375 IPC). NOTES
The latter provision seems deficient as it does not include marital rape.
The Commission of Sati (prevention) Act, 1987: This Act is for the
prevention and glorification of sati. NOTES
Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: The
Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (PWDVA), NOTES2005 was
enacted to provide for more effective protection of the rights of women
guaranteed under the constitution who are victims of violence of any kind
occurring within the family and for matters connected there to. It
recognizes 4 types of domestic violence: Physical, verbal, and emotional
(including not having a child or a male child, marrying without consent),
and economic (including violence related to stridhan, dowry, property) and
sexual (includes sexual abuse and marital rape).
Legislation by itself would not suffice because violence against
women is a deep rooted social problem. It is worth quoting late Prime
Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, who remarked: ―Legislation cannot by itself
normally solve deep rooted social problems. One has to approach them in
other ways too, but legislation is necessary and essential and hence that it
may give that push and have educative factors, as well as the legal
sanctions behind it, which help public opinion to be given a certain shape.‖
Women cannot solve the problems by themselves. Women should
understand men and men should understand women. Both should work
together to eradicate the menace.
Check your progress - 2
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
4. Define untouchability according to Gandhi
5. Define - Violence
6.7 LANDLESSNESS
Landlessness is increasingly becoming endemic in India's rural
belt, as over 56 percent of the rural population has no landholdings. For
decades, there has hardly been any attempt to bring in land reforms in
India, even as this critical index affects income, social security, health
and education, among other factors that impact households. This two-
part series attempts to study the gravity of the situation and suggest ways
to address it. This is the first part of the series. Self - Instructional Material
The farmers may have lifted their siege and gone away but a
25,000-strong group of landless poor are marching towards Delhi from
Gwalior with their own set of demands: a national land reform
111
 policy, implementation of the Forest Rights Act and right to agricultural
land, among others.
Factors Accounting for
the Changes The word ‗landless‘ conjures up the black and white images of a
breathless Balraj Sahni running furiously on the streets of Kolkata as he
pulls his cart carrying a young man goading him to run faster and faster to
catch up with his love interest. The end is tragic, both in the scene when
one of the wheels gives in and at the end of the movie when he and his
family bid adieu and walk away from their land, Do Bigha Zamin – having
NOTES
lost it to the zamindar and where a mill is coming up.uters.
In 1951, the ‗landless agriculture labour‘ numbered just 27.3
million which went up to 144.3 million (or 14.4 crore) in 2011. The Socio-
Economic and Caste Census of 2011, which acknowledged and counted
landlessness as a major indicator of poverty, put the ‗households with no
land‘ at 56.41 percent of total rural households or 101 million households.
With a mean household size of 4.9 in rural India (as per the 2011
Census), the number of landless comes to 494.9 million (or 49.49 crore).
It took quite some time for the enormity of the issue to hit home in
the liberalised era. In 2009, the rural development ministry‘s Committee on
State Agrarian Relations and Unfinished Task of Land Reforms pointed
out that landlessness had witnessed a phenomenal rise from about 40
percent in 1991 to about 52 percent in 2004-5. It explained why: ―While all
the enhanced landlessness cannot be attributed to the liberalisation process
alone the non-agricultural demands placed on land on account of
industrialisation, infrastructural development, urbanisation and migration
of the urban rich in the rural areas have certainly contributed to the
process.‖
It also explained why landlessness has gone out of economic
consciousness: ―The post-liberalisation era has been marked by a debate.
There is the view that the possibilities of Land Reforms have exhausted
and future growth is only to come from private investment in the rural
areas. The protective legislation act as an inhibiting factor to this
investment. Accordingly many States are proceeded to revise their
legislation. Even within the Government there was the view that
distributive justice programmes have been overtaken by development
paradigm.‖
It is useful to remember that this committee was set up when the
Maoist violence was at its peak with 220 districts (one-third of the total)
declared as ‗Maoist-affected‘ by the then Planning Commission of India.
There is no official assessment of how many became landless
because of all the factors listed above but the report quoted eminent
sociologist Walter Fernandes‘ study to peg the figure of people disposed of
their land at 60 million during the period of 1947 to 2004, involving 25
million ha of land. The report particularly referred to the alienation of tribal
land as ―the biggest grab of tribal lands after Columbus‖ in which the state
was held complicit. It considered alienation of land and other critical
natural resources to be at the root of the social unrest and violence in the
Maoist-affected areas.
The NSSO data shows that the average landholding (including
Self - Instructional Material landless) in rural India has gone down from 1.53 ha in 1971-72 to 0.59 ha

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in 2013 — it halved between 1992 and 2013 — and 92.8 percent of rural
households own less than 2 ha each. It also reflects another disturbing
phenomenon -- marginalisation of rural landholdings. The larger Factors Accounting for
landholdings of 1 to 10 ha or more are gradually shrinking since 1971-72 the Change
with more and more households falling into the marginal category (0.002-
1 ha).
6.7.1 MARGINALISATION OF LANDHOLDING
How does landlessness, or marginalisation of landholding, matter? NOTES
The 2013 draft National Land Reform Policy provides the answer:
―Landlessness is a strong indicator of rural poverty in the country. Land is
the most valuable, imperishable possession from which people NOTES derive their
economic independence, social status and a modest and permanent means
of livelihood. But in addition to that, land also assures them of identity and
dignity and creates condition and opportunities for NOTES realizing social
equality. Assured possession and equitable distribution of land is a lasting
source for peace and prosperity and will pave way for economic and social
justice in India.‖
The landless are, in fact, the ―poorest of the poor‖ -- according to
the Government of India‘s own admission, for whom, among others, it
launched an insurance policy, AamAadmiBimaYojana (AABY), in 2007.
Here are some more sobering facts. The 2018 UNDP-OPHI report,
Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), which hailed India for
reducing poverty in the last one decade, also said that India ―still has the
largest number of people living with multidimensional poverty in the world
(364 million)‖ – which is ―higher than the combined populations of the
most populous Western European countries, including Germany, France,
UK, Spain, Portugal, Italy, the Netherlands and Belgium‖. Of the 364
million MPI poor, 113 million — or 8.6 percent of India‘s population —
live in ―severe poverty‖.
Surely, the landless fall within the MPI poor and deserve serious
attention of the Delhi‘s mandarins.
6.8 RURAL INDEBTEDNESS
Indebtedness has been acknowledged as one of the most infamous
stumbling blocks in the way of rural prosperity. It is cancerous, self-
perpetuating, malignant and maleficent. It abates agricultural production,
abashes social psyche, aggravates inequalities in the distribution of
socioeconomic opportunities and benefits, arrests social progress and
misdirects social efforts.
Within the given institutional structure of the Indian society it is felt
that a cure for indebtedness is extremely difficult, if not impossible. It is so
because poverty, coupled with unequal distribution of economic resources,
breeds indebtedness, which in turn, consolidates the causes of poverty and
distributional injustice. This vicious circle can, of course, be broken, but it
requires a strong social will and a manifestation thereof in determined
efforts to eradicate the problem of rural poverty and indebtedness.
There is a pressing need for identification of the weaker links of the
said causal chain that makes the vicious circle. A prudent strategy to break Self - Instructional Material
the circle would attack these weaker links. The task of identification of the
weaker links necessitates social research to be carried out. We must note
that the problem of rural indebtedness is not sociological, economic or
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 political problem in isolation; it is a serious and crucial problem that has its
roots in the social, political and economic texture of the society.
Factors Accounting for Resolution of Some Conceptual Issues
the Changes We envisage that 'indebtedness' is a term surrounded by several
overtones and therefore, the concept must be freed from the penumbra of
fuzziness caused by the cacophony. In our context, the cacophony has been
mainly due to the discordant overtones, some emanating from the
indigenous background and others from the exotic ones.
The lexicographic meaning of 'indebtedness' is the state (of a
NOTES
person, family or organization) of being under obligation (more often
financial in nature). This meaning is largely free from overtones, but it is
too wide to represent the concept that we intend it to do. We are aware of
the fact that many households borrow for enterprise and repay the lender a
share of the gains from the enterprise. Depending on the socioeconomic
conditions, the dividend or the tribute paid to lender has been
acknowledged as a payment or reward for abstinence from consumption, a
reward for waiting, a reward for co-operation that has helped the enterprise
to accrue gains or a reward for parting with the liquidity with an
opportunity cost of speculative gains, that is, a reward for speculative gains
foregone.
The optimistic hue may, however, be illusive if we forget that under
certain socioeconomic conditions (quite familiar to us) the tribute paid to
the lender is a payment made by the victim of the socioeconomic
circumstances to those who command coercive powers and the social
sanction for exercising those powers.
History teaches us the account of the reproach received by the
lenders and users from most of the religious scriptures and social
reformers. Indebtedness must be a curse, a plight, and a desolating
experience.
In the Indian rural context, therefore, indebtedness should be pre-
empted of the overtone of optimism. Indebtedness is not the state of being
under the financial obligation undertaken on account of productive
utilization of resources promoting economic achievement of the borrower;
rather, it is the state of being under the financial obligation undertaken on
account of compulsion and being ensnared in the cobweb of usury.
Indebtedness of an Indian rural household often finds its genesis in
the borrowing on account of certain exigencies like accident or illness of a
member of the household or a pressing need for certain social occasion like
marriage, etc. There is no provision for institutional borrowing in such
cases, the only source of loan is the local money lender who charges
exorbitant interest for such a loan. Now the borrower does not have enough
resources or income to enable him repays the debt, the principal multiplies
itself rapidly to ensnare him in the cobweb of usury.
A farmer who has financed cultivation by borrowing has a scant
chance of paying off his debt. If he has succeeded in raising some
production, he is forced to dispose it off to the lender. In the literature on
agricultural economics in India we often come across the terms like 'forced
surplus' and 'perverse supply of food grains', etc. Indebtedness of the
Indian peasantry explains all these 'surprises' and 'paradoxes' of a 'standard
Self - Instructional Material economist.' If prices of the agricultural produce increases (during the

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period between the current and the next crop season) by a growth rate r1
and the principal (debt) multiplies itself by a growth rate r 2 such that r1 is
less than r 2, the current value of the output X as a means to optimize the Factors Accounting for
debtor's gain is optimal only if X is sold at the current prices. Hence the the Change
farmer sells his produce at the harvest prices and pays his debt off.
We note therefore that indebtedness in the Indian rural context must
be resonant with:
(i). unproductive usage of loan, NOTES
(ii). usurious ensnaring of the borrower,
(iii). captivation of productive resources,
(iv). exercise of coercive and exploitative economicNOTES and social
powers by the lender,
(v). compulsion, plight, misery and feeling of guilt and
helplessness, NOTES
(vi). erosion of social status of the borrower.
Thus viewed, indebtedness is not to be taken lightly and certainly
not with an optimistic hue portrayed by the 'standard economics.'
6.8.1 MEASURES OF INDEBTEDNESS
To measure the degree or intensity of indebtedness we must devise
an index that represents all the six characteristics. For constructing such an
index, we may take a number of indicators that represent one or more of
these six dimensions. We propose the following indicators for the same:
1. Amount of unproductive or consumption loans (per capita) incurred
by the household,
2. Per capita interest payment by the household,
3. Per capita loan as a ratio to the value of productive assets held by
the household,
4. Amount of loan per cultivable area of land owned by the cultivator
household,
5. Per capita loan as a ratio to the repaying capacity of the household.
6. Percentage of land holding/labour days made available to the lender
on mortgage,
7. Forced sale of produce when prices are low (e.g. in the harvest
season)
8. An appropriate measure of the feelings of compulsion, guilt and
helplessness,
9. An appropriate measure of the feeling of offense to social
status/erosion of social status,
10. An appropriate measure of a feeling about the coercive powers
exercised by the ender.
It is obvious that the empirical work on constructing the indicators
noted above may face a number of operational difficulties. The last three
indicators may invoke the techniques often applied in psychology and
attitudinal sociology.
Check your progress - 3
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
Self - Instructional Material
unit.
6. What is landlessness?
7. What is the lexicographic meaning of 'indebtedness'?

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 6.9 LET US SUM UP
Factors Accounting for
In this unit we have discussed Rural Social Problems, agrarian
the Changes
unrest and peasant movements in Indian society. Untouchability and rural
violence have also touched upon briefly. The causes of the emergence of
radical peasant movement and the form and extent of participations of
peasants in these movements have been discussed. The process of
Landlessness and Rural Indebtedness is also analyzed. In this unit Rural
NOTES Social Problems, Agrarian Unrest and Peasant Movements, Untouchability,
rural violence, Landlessness and Rural Indebtedness are discussed in detail.

6.10 UNIT- END- EXERCISES

1. Describe the characteristics of Rural Social Problems.

2. Explain in detail about Peasant Movements In India.
3. What are theFundamental Causes of Untouchable?
4. Define - Rural Violence
5. What is called Landlessness?
6. What are themeasuresof Rural Indebtedness?
6.11 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. A social problem exists when organized society‘s ability to order
relationship among people seems to be failing; when its institutions
are faltering, its laws are being flouted, the transmission of its
values from one generation to the next is breaking down, and the
framework of expectations is being shaken.
2. A peasant movement is defined as a relatively organized and
continuous collective action involving violence, or the threat of
violence for securing more share in the control or ownership of land
and its produce and to abolish injustices, which have arisen thereof.
3. Telangana Movement (1946-51), Tebagha movement (1946-1949),
Kagodu Satyagraha (1951), Naxalbari Movement (1967) and
Lalgarh movement (2009).
4. Untouchables are those suffering from many social as well as legal
disabilities and living at the mercy of the people from higher strata.
5. An act that causes physical, psychological, and emotional harm to
an individual, family, or community.
6. Landlessness is increasingly becoming endemic in India's rural belt,
as over 56 percent of the rural population has no landholdings.
7. The lexicographic meaning of 'indebtedness' is the state (of a
person, family or organization) of being under obligation (more
often financial in nature).

6.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Gough, Kathleen 1978 ―Agrarian Relations in Southeast India,
1750–1976.‖ Review 2 (Summer)
2. Laxminarayan, H. 1977 ―changing Conditions of Agricultural
Labourers.‖ Economic and Political Weekly 12 (October 22)

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116
3. Paige, Jeffrey 1975 Agrarian Revolution: Social Movements and
Export Agriculture in the Underdeveloped World. New York:
Free Press. Factors Accounting for
4. Thorner, Daniel, and Alice Thorner 1962 Land and Labour in the Change
India. Bombay: Asia Publishing House.
5. Ahuja, Ram. 2002. Social Problems in India. Jaipur and New
Delhi: Rawat Publications.
6. Kendall, Diana. 1998. Social Problems in a Diverse Society. NOTES
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
7. Srinivas, M.N. 1995. Social Change in Modern India. New Delhi:
Orient Longman Pvt. Ltd. NOTES
8. Dhanagare, D.N. 1983. Peasant Movements in India 1920-1950.
Oxford University Press: New Delhi.
9. Rao, M.S.A. 1984. (edit) Social Movements in NOTES India. Manohar
Publications. New Delhi.
10. Desai, A.R. Peasant. 1979. Struggle in India. (edit.). Oxford
University Press. New Delhi.
11. Singh, Rajendra, 2001. Social Movements, Old and New: A Post-
Modernist Critique. Sage Publications. New Delhi.

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 UNIT –VII POVERTY,
Poverty, Unemployment
UNEMPLOYMENT
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
NOTES 7.3 Poverty
7.3.1 Definition of Poverty
7.3.2 Type of Poverty
7.3.3 Rural Poverty
7.3.4 Poverty Alleviation Programmes
7.4 Unemployment
7.4.1 Definition of unemployment
7.4.2 Types of Unemployment
7.4.3 Causes of Unemployment
7.4.4 Impact of unemployment
7.4.5 Steps Taken by Government
7.5 Seasonal unemployment
7.5.1 Definition of seasonal unemployment
7.5.2 Causes of Seasonal Unemployment
7.5.3 Rural Employment Schemes
7.6 Illiteracy
7.7 Superstitions
7.8 Drinking water
7.8.1 Water Resources and Utilisation
7.8.2 Rural Water Supply
7.8.2.1 Early Independence (1947-1969)
7.8.2.2 Transition from Technology to Policy (1969-1989)
7.8.2.3 Restructuring Phase (1989-1999)
7.8.2.4 Consolidation Phase (2000 Onwards)
7.9 Housing
7.10 Health and sanitation
7.10.1 Rural Health
7.10.1. 1 History of rural health
7.10.1.2 National Rural Health Mission
7.10.2 Rural Sanitation
7.10.2.1 Monitoring and Evaluation
7.11 Bonded and Migrant labourers
7.11.1 Origins and Causes of India‘s Bonded Labour Problem
7.11.2 Legal Restrictions and Enforcement
7.12 Let Us Sum Up
7.13 Unit- End- Exercises
7.14 Answer to check your Progress
7.15 Suggested Readings
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Self - Instructional Material This unit presents a sociological analysis of poverty, specifically
focusing on rural poverty, type of poverty, poverty line, Poverty alleviation
programme. The most frequent measure of unemployment is the
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unemployment rate. The Seasonal Unemployment means the demand for
a specific kind of work and workers change with the change in the season.
Illiteracy rates in many third world countries are alarmingly high. High Poverty, Unemployment
illiteracy rates in rural parts of India are an area of the Indian education
system that cannot be overlooked. Superstition refers to belief that certain
event or things will bring good or bad luck. Meeting the drinking water
needs of such a large population can be a daunting task. Over the years
there has been multiplicity of the rural housing programmes, the line of NOTES
distinction between one and other being very thin. The Health is the
fundamental human right. State has the responsibility for the health of its
citizens. The Department of Health and Family Welfare,NOTES Our Country is
striving for the attainment of health of its people through the wide network
of the Government Health Care delivery system. is creates confusion and
duplication at the level of implementation and monitoring. Bonded labor,
NOTES
which is characterized by a long-term relationship between employer and
employee, is usually solidified through a loan.
In this unit you will learn poverty, Unemployment and Seasonal
unemployment. You will study Illiteracy, Superstitions, Drinking water
and housing. You will study about health and sanitation, Bonded and
Migrant labourers elaborately.
7.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit you will be able to;
 gain the knowledge about Poverty; Unemployment
 understand the Seasonal unemployment
 Identify Illiteracy-Superstitions
 gain the knowledge about Drinking water- housing
 discuss the housing- health and sanitation
 Identify Bonded and Migrant laborers
7.3 POVERTY

‗Poverty‘ is essentially a relative concept, a condition measurable

only in terms of the living standards and resources of a given society at a
particular time. The concept of poverty can be understood in three ways: (i)
in terms of the amount of money required by a person to subsist; (ii) in
terms of the life below a minimum subsistence level and ‘living standard’
prevalent at a given time in a given place, (iii) in terms of the comparative
state of well-being of a few and ill-being of the majority in society. The
first two ways are more economic in nature, while the last one has a social
dimension. The last approach explains poverty in terms of relativity and
inequality.
Poverty is an economic state where people are experiencing
scarcity or the lack of certain commodities that are required for the lives of
human beings like money and material things. Therefore, poverty is a
multifaceted concept inclusive of social, economic and political elements.
The word poverty comes from French word “poverté” which means poor.
7.3.1 DEFINITION OF POVERTY Self - Instructional Material
Gillin and Gillin. ―Poverty is that condition in which a person either
because of inadequate income or unwise expenditures, does not maintain a
scale of living high enough to provide for his physical and mental
119
 efficiency and to enable him and his natural dependents to function
usefully according to the standards of the society of which he is a
Poverty, Unemployment member‘.
According to Ram Ahuja, there are three precepts to define poverty
that are as follows:
i. The amount of money required by a person to subsist.
ii. The life below a minimum subsistence level and living
NOTES
standard prevalent at a given time, at a given place.
iii. The comparative state of well-being of a few and the ill-
being of the minority in society.

The first two definitions refer to the economic concept of absolute

poverty, the third definition views poverty as a social concept. The social
view refers to poverty as a condition of falling below the minimum
standards of subsistence appropriate to each society or ‗the absence of
enough money to secure life‘s necessities‘ or ‗a condition of acute physical
want—starvation, malnutrition, disease, and want of clothing, shelter and
medical care.‘ The latter is measured by comparing the condition of those
at the bottom of the society with the other segments of the population.
Such attitude of resentment leads to the problem of poverty, which
can be absolute and relative. Absolute poverty means the inability to meet
the minimum basic requirements of living. Relative poverty means the
inability to meet the needs in relation to those who are able to meet the
needs. For example, a person may be relatively poor among the persons of
his own group, who are relatively rich.

7.3.2 TYPE OF POVERTY

On the basis of social, economical and political aspects, there are
different ways to identify the type of Poverty:

1. Absolute poverty.
2. Relative Poverty.
3. Situational Poverty.
4. Generational Poverty.
5. Rural Poverty.
6. Urban Poverty.

1. Absolute poverty
Also known as extreme poverty or abject poverty, it
involves the scarcity of basic food, clean water, health, shelter,
education and information. Those who belong to absolute
poverty tend to struggle to live and experience a lot of child
deaths from preventable diseases like malaria, cholera and
water-contamination related diseases. Absolute Poverty is
usually uncommon in developed countries.
"It is a condition so limited by malnutrition,
illiteracy, disease, squalid surroundings, high infant
Self - Instructional Material mortality, and low life expectancy as to be beneath any
reasonable definition of human decency." Said by Robert
McNamara, the former president of the WorldBank.

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 2. Relative Poverty
It is defined from the social perspective that is living
standard compared to the economic standards of population Poverty, Unemployment
living in surroundings. Hence it is a measure of income
inequality. For example, a family can be considered poor if it
cannot afford vacations, or cannot buy presents for children at
Christmas, or cannot send its young to the university. Usually,
relative poverty is measured as the percentage of the population NOTES
with income less than some fixed proportion of median
income.
3. Situational Poverty NOTES
It is a temporary type of poverty based on occurrence of an
adverse event like environmental disaster, job loss and severe
health problem. People can help themselves even NOTES with a small
assistance, as the poverty comes because of unfortunate event.
4. Generational Poverty
It is handed over to individual and families from one
generation to the one. This is more complicated as there is no
escape because the people are trapped in its cause and unable to
access the tools required getting out of it.
5. Rural Poverty
It occurs in rural areas with population below 50,000. It is
the area where there are less job opportunities, less access to
services, less support for disabilities and quality education
opportunities. People are tending to live mostly on the farming
and other menial work available to the surroundings.
The rural poverty rate is growing and has exceeded the urban
rate every year since data collection began in the 1960s. The
difference between the two poverty rates has averaged about 5
percent for the last 30 years, with urban rates near 10–15
percent and rural rates near 15–20 percent (Jolliffe, 2004).
6. Urban Poverty
It occurs in the metropolitan areas with population over
50,000. These are some major challenges faced by the Urban
Poor: 1. Limited access to health and education. 2. Inadequate
housing and services.3.Violent and unhealthy environment
because of overcrowding.4.Little or no social protection
mechanism.
However, some people are deprived of such basic requirements,
and are considered to be poor and the resultant conditions lead to poverty.
The conditions of the absence of fulfillment of minimum necessities of life
should be called as ‗poverty‘. The form of these minimum necessities,
however, changes according to time and place.

7.3.3 RURAL POVERTY

The number of poor people in India, according to the country‘s
Eleventh National Development Plan, amounts to more than 300 million.
Self - Instructional Material
The country has been successful in reducing the proportion of poor people
from about 55 per cent in 1973 to about 27 per cent in 2004.

121
 But almost one third of the country‘s population of more than 1.1
billion continues to live below the poverty line, and a large proportion of
Poverty, Unemployment poor people live in rural areas. Poverty remains a chronic condition for
almost 30 per cent of India‘s rural population. The incidence of rural
poverty has declined somewhat over the past three decades as a result of
rural to urban migration.
Poverty is deepest among members of scheduled castes and tribes
NOTES
in the country's rural areas. In 2005 these groups accounted for 80 percent
of poor rural people, although their share in the total rural population is
much smaller.
On the map of poverty in India, the poorest areas are in parts of
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa,
Chhattisgarh and West Bengal.
Large numbers of India's poorest people live in the country's semi-
arid tropical region. In this area shortages of water and recurrent droughts
impede the transformation of agriculture that the Green Revolution has
achieved elsewhere. There is also a high incidence of poverty in flood-
prone areas such as those extending from eastern Uttar Pradesh to the
Assam plains, and especially in northern Bihar.
Poverty affects tribal people in forest areas, where loss of
entitlement to resources has made them even poorer. In coastal fishing
community‘s people's living conditions are deteriorating because of
environmental degradation, stock depletion and vulnerability to natural
disasters.
A major cause of poverty among India‘s rural people, both
individuals and communities, is lack of access to productive assets and
financial resources. High levels of illiteracy, inadequate health care and
extremely limited access to social services are common among poor rural
people. Micro enterprise development, which could generate income and
enable poor people to improve their living conditions, has only recently
become a focus of the government.

7.3.4 POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES

Strategy for the Tenth Five Year Plan
The experience of the schemes during the 9th Five Year Plan, as
outlined in the previous Chapters, is the foundation upon which the future
policy towards rural Poverty Alleviation Programmes can be laid. While
economic development of the country provides a lasting solution to the
problem of poverty in rural areas, the target oriented intervention through
different programmes to deal with the problem of poverty cannot be
dispensed with immediately. Obviously self-employment Programmes
would account for a major role in the government‘s effort for poverty
alleviation in the country. If they succeed, it is obvious that they also
provide a sustainable solution to the problem. The programmes therefore
need to be strengthened during the tenth Five-Year Plan as well. But,
keeping in view the size of the problem and the constraint of resources and
Self - Instructional Material regional variation in the nature of intervention required to deal with the
problem, programmes for immediate relief in the form of wage
employment cannot also be dispensed with. What is needed is that the
focus of the programme. The Wage Employment Programme should be on
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the areas of distress i.e. drought prone, desert, hilly, backward areas which
suffer from seasonal migration of the labour force in search of wage
employment elsewhere. In order to ensure that the Programme serves its Poverty, Unemployment
purpose, it is necessary that districts should be identified which need the
Programme most badly.
Similarly the programmes which help in creation of basic
infrastructure at the village level provide houses to the shelter less and
social security to the poorest of the poor have to be continued. NOTES
Agriculture, which is the major source of employment for rural
India, has not been able to absorb increasing labour force. Strategy for
storage of food-grains and to utilize the surplus buffer stock of food-grains
NOTES
for providing the employment opportunities to the poor has also to be
evolved. The economic reform process in the country is in progress. The
process should continue but the interest of the poor shouldNOTES
have also to be
protective. The self-employment Programme i.e. SGSY can cover about
30% of the poor (BPL families) in rural areas covering the five years‘ time
period of the Tenth Plan which is in conformity with the strategy envisaged
in the Programmes Guidelines. The balance of the employment need can
very well be met from other central and State sector Programmes, besides,
Agriculture and other non-farm activities in private sector.
The strategy for poverty alleviation to be adopted during the 10th
Five-Year Plan should also take note of the fact that poverty is both a
multi-dimensional and local problem. Implementation of the programmes
on a uniform pattern all over the country does not make sense. It should be
discontinued. There is a need for holistic livelihood assessment in each
area vis-à-vis poor. Poverty alleviation measures require sectoral
involvement of all schemes and line departments as well.
Poverty Line
Another method by which poverty can be measured is through
‗poverty line‘. The poverty line is an imaginary line demarcating between
those, who ‗have‘ and ‗have not‘ the most basic necessities of life.
This can be seen in terms of the following three factors:
a. Per capita income or earnings per person per day. According to the
World Bank, those who earn less than US $1 per day or US dollars 365 per
year fall below the poverty line.
b. According to the Government of India, all those who earn less than per
day fall below the poverty line. This translates into Rs.296 per month in the
urban areas and Rs.276 per month in rural areas.
c. Calorific intake—poverty line is determined by the prevailing standards
of the minimum calorific intake necessary for health, efficiency, nurturing
of children and social participation. The poverty line is also drawn on the
basis of per capita, daily intake of 2,400 calories per adult in rural areas
and 2,100 calories in urban areas.

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
Self - Instructional Material
unit.
1. Define Poverty.
2. The word poverty comes from French word ………………

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 7.4 UNEMPLOYMENT
Poverty, Unemployment
Unemployment occurs when a person who is actively searching for
employment is unable to find work. Unemployment is often used as a
measure of the health of the economy. The most frequent measure of
unemployment is the unemployment rate, which is the number of
NOTES unemployed people divided by the number of people in the labour force.
7.4.1 DEFINITIONOF UNEMPLOYMENT
1. C.B Mamoria define "Unemployment is a state of work less
for a man fit and willing to work, that is , it is a condition of
involuntary and not voluntary idleness"
2. ―Unemployment is defined as a condition in which an
individual is not in a state of remunerative occupation despite
his desire do so‖---- D. Mello
3. "Unemployment is often described as a condition of involuntary
idleness‖----Nava Gopal Das
7.4.2 TYPES OF UNEMPLOYMENT
 Classical
It occurs when real wages for jobs are set above the market-
clearing level. It causes the number of job seekers to be higher than
the number of vacancies.

 Cyclical
It occurs when there is not enough aggregate demand in the
economy to provide jobs for everyone who wants to work. Demand
for goods and services decreases, less production is needed, and
fewer workers are needed.
 Structural
It occurs when the labor market is not able to provide jobs
for everyone who wants to work. There is a mismatch between the
skills of the unemployed workers and the skills needed for available
jobs. It differs from frictional unemployment because it lasts
longer.
 Frictional
The time period in between jobs when a worker is
searching for work or transitioning from one job to another.
 Hidden
The unemployment of potential workers that is not taken
into account in official unemployment statistics because of how the
data is collected. For example, workers are only considered
unemployed if they are looking for work so those without jobs who
have stopped looking are no longer considered unemployed.
 Long-term
It is usually defined as unemployment lasting longer than
one year.
 Seasonal Unemployment:
o It is an unemployment that occurs during certain seasons of
Self - Instructional Material
the year.
o Agricultural labourers in India rarely have work throughout
the year.
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7.4.3 CAUSES OF UNEMPLOYMENT
 Large population.
Poverty, Unemployment
 Low or no educational levels and vocational skills of
working population.
 Inadequate state support, legal complexities and low
infrastructural, financial and market linkages to small/
cottage industries or small businesses, making such NOTES
enterprises unviable with cost and compliance overruns.
 Huge workforce associated with informal sector due to lack
of required education/ skills, which is not NOTES
captured in any
employment data. For ex: domestic helpers, construction
workers etc.
NOTES
 The syllabus taught in schools and colleges, being not as
per the current requirements of the industries. This is the
main cause of structural unemployment.
 Inadequate growth of infrastructure and low investments in
manufacturing sector, hence restricting employment
potential of secondary sector.
 Low productivity in agriculture sector combined with
lack of alternative opportunities for agricultural worker
which makes transition from primary to secondary and
tertiary sectors difficult.
 Regressive social norms that deter women from
taking/continuing employment.
7.4.4 IMPACT OF UNEMPLOYMENT
 The problem of unemployment gives rise to the problem of
poverty.
 Young people after a long time of unemployment indulge in
illegal and wrong activities for earning money. This also leads
to increase in crime in the country.
 Unemployed persons can easily be enticed by antisocial
elements. This makes them lose faith in democratic values of
the country.
 It is often seen that unemployed people end up getting addicted
to drugs and alcohol or attempts suicide, leading losses to
the human resources of the country.
 It also affects economy of the country as the workforce that
could have been gainfully employed to generate resources
actually gets dependent on the remaining working population,
thus escalating socioeconomic costs for the State. For instance,
1 percent increase in unemployment reduces the GDP by 2
percent
7.4.5 STEPS TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT Self - Instructional Material
 Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was
launched in 1980 to create full employment opportunities in
rural areas.
125
  Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment
(TRYSEM): This scheme was started in 1979 with objective to
Poverty, Unemployment help unemployed rural youth between the age of 18 and 35
years to acquire skills for self-employment. Priority was given
to SC/ST Youth and Women.
 RSETI/RUDSETI: With the aim of mitigating the
NOTES unemployment problem among the youth, a new initiative was
tried jointly by Sri Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara
Educational Trust, Syndicate Bank and Canara Bank in 1982
which was the setting up of the “RURAL DEVELOPMENT
AND SELF EMPLOYMENT TRAINING INSTITUTE” with
its acronym RUDSETI near Dharmasthala in Karnataka. Rural
Self Employment Training Institutes/ RSETIs are now managed
by Banks with active co-operation from the Government of
India and State Government.
 By merging the two erstwhile wage employment programme –
National Rural Employment programme (NREP) and Rural
Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP)
the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) was started with effect
from April, 1, 1989 on 80:20 cost sharing basis between the
centre and the States.
 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Act (MNREGA):
 It is an employment scheme that was launched in 2005
to provide social security by guaranteeing a minimum of
100 days paid work per year to all the families whose
adult members opt for unskilled labour-intensive work.
 This act provides Right to Work to people.
 Pradhan Mantri Kaushal VikasYojana (PMKVY), launched
in 2015 has an objective of enabling a large number of Indian
youth to take up industry-relevant skill training that will help
them in securing a better livelihood.
 Start Up India Scheme, launched in 2016 aims at developing
an ecosystem that promotes and nurtures entrepreneurship
across the country.
 Stand Up India Scheme, launched in 2016 aims to facilitate
bank loans between Rs 10 lakh and Rs. 1 crore to at least one
SC or ST borrower and at least one women borrower per bank
branch for setting up a greenfield enterprise.
Check your progress - 2
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
Self - Instructional Material
3. Define– unemployment.
4. What is cyclicalunemployment?

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7.5 SEASONAL UNEMPLOYMENT
7.5.1 DEFINITION OF SEASONAL UNEMPLOYMENT
Poverty, Unemployment
The Seasonal Unemployment means the demand for a specific
kind of work and workers change with the change in the season. Simply,
the period when the demand for the manpower as well as the capital stock
reduces because of a decreased demand in the economy at a particular
point in time in a year causes the seasonal unemployment. NOTES
Seasonal unemployment in agriculture is a normal condition in
India. In 1993-94, gross irrigated area as a percentage of gross cropped
area was only 36.0 percent. However, two or more crops are prepared on
not more than 25 percent cultivable land. This implies NOTES
that farmers
cultivating approximately 75 per cent of the land remain involuntarily
unemployed for 4 to 6 months, unless they find some temporary
employment in this period. Since the percentage of the NOTESlucky ones who
manage to get some work in the off-season is quite low, the incidence of
seasonal unemployment in the agricultural sector is obviously very high.
Seasonal Industries - The seasonal character of the agriculture
operations has resulted in an uneven distribution of labour power. It is
therefore, necessary that such rural industries should be introduced as
would adjust with seasonal feasting of the cultivators. There are
particularly two periods when agricultural labour is completely out of work
i.e. form middle of April to the middle of July (Asarh) when the crop is
growing. At present the summer period of idleness is completely wasted,
while during the later period there is wholesale migration from villages to
the industrial areas and mining centres. The only way of checking this
pendulous labour force and to stabilising agriculture is by introducing
seasonal industrial which will not only absorb the surplus labour but will
serve to increase the purchasing power of the rural masses.
7.5.2 CAUSES OF SEASONAL UNEMPLOYMENT
There are number of causes for increasing seasonal unemployment
in agricultural and industrial sector in our country. These causes are as
follows:
Increase in Population
Demographic pressure in the form of a steady and continued
increase in the additions to the labour force has caused unemployment.
With annual accretion of around 2.8 percent in job seekers, the situation is
more than well on its way from grim to hopeless.

Slow Development
The rate of economic development in India has been extremely
slow; it remained between 3 to 4 per cent per annum. In view of rapid
population growth and consequent increase in labour force, this rate of
development has been insufficient to reduce unemployment and poverty.
Employment Planning
Planning in India, in operation since 1951, has not contributed
adequately to the solution ofthis problem. This is largely because of the
lower priority accorded to the employment objective and the under rating Self - Instructional Material
of human resources.

127
 Poverty
Poverty and unemployment are like Siamese twins. A person is
Poverty, Unemployment poor because he is unemployed. He is unemployed because he is poor.
Being poor, he does not possess resources to be gainfully employed. This
is illustrated by the incidence of unemployment in India in terms of
monthly per capita expenditure as revealed by the 32nd round of National
Sample Survey. Persons in the lowest expenditure group per capita per
NOTES
month had unemployed rates of 22.4 percent in rural India and 29.2 percent
in urban India.
Slow Agricultural Development
Agriculture sector is also not well developed in India. There is low
productivity in agriculture, for which many institutional and technical
reasons, such asjoint family system, heredity law, use of old methods
etc.are responsible. This cause less availability of job opportunities and
creates problem ofseasonal or disguised unemployment.
Agricultural Infrastructure
Our five year plans have not done well in the spheres of irrigation,
wasteland reclamation, soil conservation, and development of dairies,
fisheries and poultry farming, flood control, drainage, anti-water logging,
rural electrification and other construction activities which, in turn, could
have provided extensive employment opportunities to all categories of
workers including skilled and unskilled personnel.
Joint Family System
With the breakdown of these joint families and emergence of
nuclear families, i.e. husband, wife and their children, each adult male or
even females look out for a job. The number of job seekers has thus
increased which has added to the problem of unemployment.
Lack of Non-agricultural Sector
The most important factor for rural unemployment in India is that
the non-agriculture sector, in particular the modern industrial sector, which
was to provide increasing avenue of employment, is growing at a very slow
pace. In India, non-agricultural sector provides employment to an
insignificant portion of population. For millions of persons born in rural
districts, "there is no escape from an agricultural career.
Rural-Urban Migration
Another factor that has contributed unemployment problem is the
increasing migration of people from the rural to the urban areas. Out plans
could not stop the migration of the rural population into cities by making
rural areas more attractive and congenial by enabling them to earn a better
living from land and encouraging the development of growth centres
around villages.
Family as Employer
In India, agriculture is characterised by the family operated farm.
Family rather than the individual is the employment unit is agriculture in
India and this fact has a great relevance in the emergence of disguised
unemployment. Almost every member of the family is associated in a
varying degree with the production on the farm, and the farm work by its
Self - Instructional Material very nature is such that the entire system and the technique of production
adapt themselves to the abundance of farm workers. Besides, family acts as
a pool into which all the earnings of members flow and from which each

128
individual gets a share according to his needs and not according tohis
contribution to family occupation, and that perhaps explains how, inspite
of the disguised unemployment telling heavily upon the levels of income, Poverty, Unemployment
members of the family continue to till the land.
7.5.3 RURAL EMPLOYMENT SCHEMES
The Government has taken various measures to provide
employment and reduce seasonal unemployment in rural and urban areas:
1. National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) NOTES
2. Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana
3. National Food For Work Programme
4. Pradhan Mantri Gram SadakYojan NOTES
5. Indira Awas Yojana
6. Swaranajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
7. National Social Assistance Programme and NOTES
Annapurna

Check your progress - 3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
5. What are the Rural Employment Schemes?
6. What is the meaning of Seasonal Unemployment?
7.6 ILLITERACY

Illiteracy Problems in Rural Indian Areas "We are bumbling along

with this out modeled system of elementary education, which is a real
shame." These are the words of Krishna Kumar, director of the Central
Institute of Education in New Delhi, India. Unfortunately Kumar‘s views
are shared with other educators concerning the state of India's deteriorating
education system. Illiteracy rates in many third world countries are
alarmingly high; nestled in the heart of Asia, India's education program is
falling behind other nations. It is a country where the population will reach
one billion people by the next century, while only one-third of them will be
able to read. Due to various social and economic problems India's
education program continues to be undercut. Of the biggest victims of the
educational system are those living in rural areas. The attitudes of the
children and teachers also affect the quality of the schools. Allocation of
government funds and the conditions of the destitute rural schools
contribute to the low quality of education by rural children. While there are
many rural areas school systems which are operating in poor conditions
there is one in particular whose schools outperform most other rural
schools and also those located in wealthy areas of India. Consequently,
Kerala, a rural state of India remains a puzzle to many educators. Its
illiteracy rate does not follow the trend of most rural schools.
Many children living in rural areas receive a level of education
which is very poor. Overall enrollment in primary and middle schools are
very low. Fifty percent of children living in these areas leave school before
the fifth grade. These children leave school for variety of reasons: some Self - Instructional Material
leave because of lack of interest; most leave so that they can work in the
fields, where the hours are long and the pay is low. A large percent of the
dropouts are females. Forced by their parents, most girls perform chores
129
 and tend the family at home. These are some of the reasons why sixty
percent of all females in India are illiterate, a figure much higher than those
Poverty, Unemployment of males. (UNESCO) As these children grow into adults, many are still
illiterate by the age of forty. These uneducated adults are also reluctant to
send their own children to school because of their failure in the education
system. This in turn creates a problem for the next generation.
While the children living in rural areas continue to be deprived of a
NOTES
quality education, part of the reason why is due to their teachers. A large
number of teachers refuse to teach in rural areas and those that do are
usually underqualified. In recent years the number of qualified teachers.has
increased because of increased efforts by the government and private
groups to improve the general education and professional training of
teachers. (UNESCO). There is more of an emphasis on the training of rural
teachers, whose educational backgrounds are generally not as sound as
their urban counterparts. Those that refuse to teach in rural areas cite
distance and lack of interest by students as problems. Many of the teachers
also lack the enthusiasm to teach because of their meager salary - less than
one hundred dollars per month. Another obstacle faced by the schools is
that obtaining more teachers for rural schools is difficult because of state
guidelines that approve of high student-to-teacher ratios.
While many rural schools search for the proper resources, the
distribution of government funds is major hindrance to the educational
system. According to a recent study done by the World Bank, thirty
percent of the total educational funding goes toward higher educational
institutions. This is an important issue because the numbers of students
enrolled in these types of institutions represent such a small percent of
India's students. Other examples of the government's plans to undermine
rural education can be found in the Constitution of India. In the
Constitution it stated that the primary education of rural area children was
a low priority in budget outlays. (Watson)
Though rural children continue to be deprived of a formal
education, the education system of Kerala, India is an exception. Located
in the southern peninsula of the country, Kerala's illiteracy rates are lower
than most other rural areas in India. (Wallach) Because of its immense
population of twenty nine million and high unemployment rate, a large
number of its inhabitants are forced to work outside of Kerala. Many of the
people of Kerala who work in a different country send lots of donations
back to Kerala. These people believe that it is responsibility of them to
donate back to their hometown. It is these donations which have funded
many of the programs that make Kerala stand out from other rural states.
Coupled with the government and private donations the education system
has been able to benefit. More schools are being built and more teachers
are willing to work there. (Wallach) The unusually low illiteracy rate is
attributed to the planned education programs. Although its economy is only
growing slowly and unemployment rate is high, its illiteracy rates,
mortality rates and life expectancy are comparable to richer regions of the
country. Other rural areas can learn from Kerala so that its success can be
Self - Instructional Material duplicated. Receiving more private donations and government support is
essential for those rural areas needing to improve the general lifestyle of its
people.

130
 A high illiteracy rate in rural parts of India is an area of the Indian
education system that cannot be overlooked. Hampered by the government
and by other factors the quality of education in rural districts has been quite Poverty, Unemployment
poor. High dropout rates and low enrollment by the children have
contributed to the large illiteracy rate. Kerala, a rural state of India boasts
many areas of progress and serves as a model for other rural areas and
many of the wealthier parts of India. Without drastic changes by the
government and by its citizens, India is well on its way to becoming the NOTES
world's most illiterate nation.

Check your progress - 4 NOTES

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
7. What are the reasons for high illiteracy rates? NOTES
8. Which state is a model for high literacy rate in India?

7.7 SUPERSTITIONS

The term superstition is derived from the Latin superstition,

meaning ―to stand over in awe.‖ Superstition refers to belief that certain
event or things will bring good or bad luck. Superstition has different
meanings in different cultures. Pandit and Sanskrit scholars in India set
some taboos or inhibitions of human behavior.
Many superstitions still rule the lives of the backward classes and
tribal people. Most of us are superstitious The term superstition is derived
from the Latin superstition, meaning ―to stand over in awe.‖ Superstition
refers to belief that certain event or things will bring good or bad luck.
Superstition has different meanings in different cultures. Pandit and
Sanskrit scholars in India set some taboos or inhibitions of human
behavior.
Many superstitions still rule the lives of the backward classes and
tribal people. Most of us are superstitious
The term superstition is derived from the Latin superstition,
meaning ―to stand over in awe.‖ Superstition refers to belief that certain
event or things will bring good or bad luck. Superstition has different
meanings in different cultures. Pandit and Sanskrit scholars in India set
some taboos or inhibitions of human behavior. Many superstitions still rule
the lives of the backward classes and tribal people. Most of us are
superstitiousin some way or the other people are not able to overcome the
traditional snag of the past. Superstition is simply nothing rather believing
blindly in something without verification (Kalita, 2016) in some way or the
other people are not able to overcome the traditional snag of the past.
Earlier superstitions were created as a way to deal with the
ignorance and fear of the unknown things. Often, superstitions are born
from casual coincidences. For example, if an athlete wears a particular pair
of shoes on a day he performs particularly well, he may continue to wear
the same pair of shoes in the belief that the shoes were responsible for the Self - Instructional Material
success. B.F. Skinner in his writing on Superstition in the Pigeon revealed
that superstitions are not only human in nature rather available in other
organisms as well (Skinner, 1948). Theories of modern superstition
131
 produce by Colin Campbell (1996) define the fact that continuing problem
of humans and their culture superstition persists in modern industrial
Poverty, Unemployment societies. This aspect shows disagreement about fading out of superstition
in the face of rationalism and empiricisms.
For several centuries, various superstitious behaviours have
dominated Indian way of living, but none has ever thought that how
exactly these came into existence. The most of the researchers said that
NOTES
majority of youth is breaking these superstitions and taking initiatives to
make people aware about its uselessness.
Check your progress - 5
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
9. What is meant by Superstition?
10. Give an example for Superstition.
7.8 DRINKING WATER
Rural India has more than 700 million people residing in about 1.42
million habitations spread over 15 diverse ecological regions. Meeting the
drinking water needs of such a large population can be a daunting task. The
non-uniformity in level of awareness, socio-economic development,
education, poverty, practices and rituals and water availability add to the
complexity of the task. Despite an estimated total of Rs. 1,105 billion spent
on providing safe drinking water since the First Five Year Plan was
launched in 1951, lack of safe and secure drinking water continues to be a
major hurdle and a national economic burden.
Around 37.7 million Indians are affected by waterborne diseases
annually, 1.5 million children are estimated to die of diarrhea alone and 73
million working days are lost due to waterborne disease each year. The
resulting economic burden is estimated at $600 million a year.
While ‗traditional diseases‘ such as diarrhea continue to take a heavy toll,
66 million Indians are at risk due to excess fluoride2 and 10 million due to
excess arsenic in groundwater. In all, 1, 95,813 habitations in the country
are affected by poor water quality.3 It is clear that the large investments
have not yielded comparable improvements in health and other socio-
economic indicators.
7.8.1 WATER RESOURCES AND UTILISATION
o India has 16 per cent of the world‘s population and four per
cent of its fresh water resources.
o Estimates indicate that surface and ground water availability
is around 1,869 billion cubic meters (BCM). Of this, 40 per
cent is not available for use due to geological and
topographical reasons.
o Around 4,000 BCM of fresh water is available due to
precipitation in the form of rain and snow, most of which
returns to the seas via rivers.
o Ninety two per cent groundwater extracted is used in the
agricultural sector, five and three per cent respectively for
industrial and domestic sector.
Self - Instructional Material o Eight nine per cent of surface water use is for agricultural
sector and two per cent and nine per cent respectively are
used by the industrial and domestic sector.

132
 While on the one hand the pressures of development are changing
the distribution of water in the country, access to adequate water has been
cited as the primary factor responsible for limiting development. The Poverty, Unemployment
average availability of water remains more or less fixed according to the
natural hydrological cycle but the per capita availability reduces steadily
due to an increasing population.

 In 1955, the per capita availability was 5,300 cubic metres NOTES
(cu.m) per person per year, which came down to 2,200 cu.
m in 1996.
 It is expected that by around 2020, India NOTES
will be a ‗water
stressed' state with per capita availability declining to 1600
cu m/person/year.4 A country is said to be water stressed
when the per capita availability of water drops
NOTESbelow 1700
cu. m/person/year.

7.8.2 RURAL WATER SUPPLY

The provision of clean drinking water has been given priority in the
Constitution of India, with Article 47 conferring the duty of providing
clean drinking water and improving public health standards to the State.
Rural water supply (RWS) programmes in India can be divided into several
distinct phases

7.8.2.1 Early Independence (1947-1969)

1949: The Environment Hygiene Committee (1949) recommends the
provision of safe water
1949: supply to cover 90 per cent of India‘s population in a timeframe of
40 years.
1950: The Constitution of India confers ownership of all water resources to
the government,
specifying it as a state subject, giving citizens the right to potable water.
1969: National Rural Drinking Water Supply programme launched with
technical support from 1969: UNICEF and Rs.254.90 crore is spent during
this phase, with 1.2 million bore wells being
dug and 17,000 piped water supply schemes being provided.

7.8.2.2 Transition from Technology to Policy (1969-1989)

1972-73: Introduction of the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme
(ARWSP) by the Government of India to assist states and union territories
to accelerate the pace of coverage of drinking water supply.
1981: India as a party to the International Drinking Water Supply and
Sanitation Decade (1981- 1981: 1990) declaration sets up a national level
Apex Committee to define policies to achieve
the goal of providing safe water to all villages.
1986: The National Drinking Water Mission (NDWM) is formed.
1987: Drafting of the first National Water Policy by the Ministry of Water
Resources.
7.8.2.3 Restructuring Phase (1989-1999) Self - Instructional Material
1991: NDWM is renamed the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water
Mission (RGNDWM).

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 1994: The 73rd Constitutional Amendment assigns panchayat raj
institutions (PRIs) the responsibility of providing drinking water.
Poverty, Unemployment 1999: For ensuring sustainability of the systems, steps are initiated to
institutionalise community 1999: participation in the implementation of
rural drinking water supply schemes through sector reform. Sector reform
ushers in a paradigm shift from the ‗Government-oriented supply-driven
approach‘ to the ‗People-oriented demand-responsive approach‘. The role
NOTES
of the government is envisaged to change from that of service provider to
facilitator. Under reform, 90 per cent of the infrastructure is funded by the
government, with the community contributing 10 per cent of the remaining
infrastructure cost and 100 per cent of operation and maintenance costs.
Sector reforms projects were introduced in 67 districts across the country
on pilot basis.
1999: Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) as a part of reform principles
initiated in 1999 to ensure 1999: sanitation facilities in rural areas with
broader goal to eradicate the practice of open defecation. As part of the
programme, a nominal subsidy in the form of incentive is given to rural
poor households for construction of toilets. TSC gives strong emphasis on
Information, Education and Communication, Capacity Building and
Hygiene Education for effective behaviour change with involvement of
PRIs, CBOs, and NGOs
7.8.2.4 Consolidation Phase (2000 Onwards)
2002: Nationwide scaling up of sector reform in the form of Swajaldhara.
2002 2002: The National Water Policy is revised, according priority to
serving villages that did not have adequate sources of safe water and to
improve the level of service for villages classified as only partially
covered.
2002: India commits to the Millennium Development Goals to halve by
2015, from 1990 levels, the proportion of people without sustainable
access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.
2004: All drinking water programmes are brought under the umbrella of
the RGNDWM.
2005: The Government of India launches the Bharat Nirman Programme
for overall development 2005: of rural areas by strengthening housing,
roads, electricity, telephone, irrigation and drinking water infrastructure.
The target is to provide drinking water to 55,069 uncovered habitations;
those affected by poor water quality and slipped back habitations based on
2003 survey, within five years.
2007: Pattern of funding under the Swajaldhara Scheme changes from the
previous 90:10 central-community share to 50:50 centre-state shares.
Community contribution is now optional.
The approach paper for the 11th Five Year Plan calls for a
comprehensive approach which encompasses individual health care, public
health, sanitation, clean drinking water, access to food and knowledge
about hygiene and feeding practice. It also states the need to upscale more
schemes related to community management of water reducing the
maintenance burden and responsibility of the state. It is envisaged to
Self - Instructional Material provide clean drinking water for all by 2009 and ensure that there are no
slip-backs by the end of the 11th Plan.

134
Check your progress - 6
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Poverty, Unemployment
unit.
11. What are the diseases affected to human by water?
12. Write an expansion of RGNDWM
7.9 HOUSING NOTES
Over the years there has been multiplicity of the rural housing
programmes, the line of distinction between one and other being very thin.
This creates confusion and duplication at the level of implementation and
monitoring. An important step required during the 10th Plan NOTES
is to merge all
the existing rural housing programmes into a single integrated programme
to be implemented throughout the country on a uniform basis. A strategic
NOTES
shift is also required in the Rural Housing sector during 10th Plan period. It
would require an enabling environment comprising policy framework
which would politically, legally and institutionally support the strategic
shift. The actions are required urgently in the following area:

a. Establishment of institutional sustainability by clarifying and

rationalizing the roles and responsibilities of various sectoral
agencies; strengthening facilitation or implementation capacity of
existing agencies or setting up of a new agency where necessary;
supporting the decentralization process further by involving
NGOs in a bigger way, setting up institutional mechanisms for the
transfer of technologies, designs and materials on the continuous
basis and achieving full participation of rural communities in
sector decision making and project implementation.
b. Establishment of financial viability and sustainability by
implementing policies and actions which expand the outreach of
housing finance in the rural areas offer a menu of financing
options and achieve full cost recovery.
c. Resources management to ensure adequate quantities and quality
supply of building technologies materials and designs.
The Working Group in its final meeting also made the following
suggestions regarding Rural Housing and NOAPS to be adopted
during 10th Five-Year Plan.
 The supply driven programmes like Rural Housing,
NOAPS, should be continued to improve the quality of life
in rural areas. The demand driven programme like the JGSY
(for infrastructure development as per felt needs locally)
should be evolved from the PRIs. Similarly, the SGSY
could encourage groups with occupational homogeneity for
its success.
 Grant-based housing should be restricted to shelterless only.
 Though the credit-cum-subsidy scheme under the Rural
Housing has not been able to make much headway and
benefits are also provided to APL members, the scheme Self - Instructional Material
need to be continued.

135
 Check your progress - 7
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
Poverty, Unemployment b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
13. Name some programmes related to rural housing?
7.10 HEALTH AND SANITATION
NOTES 7.10.1 RURAL HEALTH
Health is the fundamental human right. State has the responsibility
for the health of its citizens. The Department of Health and Family
Welfare, Our Country is striving for the attainment of health of its people
through the wide network of the Government Health Care delivery system.
Health care is more than mere ‗medical care‘. It embraces a multitude of
services provided to the individual or community by health personnel
aiming at promotion, protection and restoration of the health of the people.
The Department of the Health & Family Welfare, India has made
available integrated health services to the people of India though its
Primary Health Care network spread across the state. The current focus is
on providing healthcare in rural areas because of the large gap in service
availability in these areas.
7.10.1. 1 History of rural health
On 2nd October 1952, a two tier rural health care system came into
existence throughout India, and in all the states as well to fulfill these
objectives. Under this system, one six bedded Primary Health Centre and
four Sub Centres attached to it were established in each Community
Development Block.
Following the World Health Summit at Alma Ata and declaration
of the goal of ‗Health For All (HFA) –2000 AD the concept of ―Three
Tier‖ health care system was framed. Being a signatory to HFA-2000, the
three tier system was rolled out in India under the rural services with the
Fifth Five Year Plan in 1978. This system was based on the concept of
primary health care, defined as "essential Health Care made universally
accessible to individuals and acceptable to them, through their full
participation and at a cost the community and country can afford.‖
Under the Guidance of the Commissioner (Health), the Additional
Director Rural Health organizes implements and monitors rural health care
services with the help of Regional Deputy Directors and other Programme
officers. CDHOs with the help of other health officers and staff look after
all health activities in their respective districts of each and every state in
India.
The three tier system following the Primary Health Care approach
coupled with the various national health programmes, including Epidemic,
Malaria, Blindness and Tuberculosis Control; Leprosy elimination; Polio
and Yaws eradication; Reproductive and Child health & Family welfare;
Health education, School Health Programme etc. deliver health services to
the remotest areas of the each and every state.
The department is constantly working to promote and protect the
health of the community through expansion of the health infrastructure,
Self - Instructional Material
increased recruitment of health personnel, and integration of promotive,
preventive, curative and rehabilitative health services

136
7.10.1.2 National Rural Health Mission
The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) is a government Poverty, Unemployment
scheme that aims at providing valuable healthcare services to rural
households all over the country. It specially focuses on the 18 States of
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Madhya
Pradesh, Nagaland, Orissa,Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttarkhand and NOTES
Uttar Pradesh.
The major objectives of the National Rural Health Mission are:
Decrease the infant mortality rate and maternalNOTES mortality rate
provide access to public health services for every citizen Prevent and
control communicable and non-communicable diseases Control population
as well as ensure gender and demographic balance Encourage NOTESa healthy
lifestyle and alternative systems of medicine through AYUSH.
The mission envisages achieving its objective by strengthening
Panchayat Raj Institutions and promoting access to improved healthcare
through the Accredited Female Health Activist (ASHA). It also plans on
strengthening existing Primary Health Centres, Community Health Centres
and District Health Missions, in addition to making maximum use of Non-
Governmental Organizations.
7.10.2 RURAL SANITATION
Rural Sanitation is a State subject. The efforts of the states are
supplemented by the Central Government through technical and financial
assistance under the Central Rural Sanitation Programme (CRSP).
The Programme was launched in 1986 with the objectives of
improving the quality of life of rural people and providing privacy and
dignity to women. The concept of sanitation was expanded in 1993 to
include personal hygiene, home sanitation, sage water and disposal of
garbage, human excreta and wastewater. The components of the
programme included construction of individual sanitary toilets for
household below poverty-line (BPL), conversion of dry latrines to water-
pour flush toilets, construction of village sanitary complexes for women,
setting up of sanitary marts and production centres, intensive campaign for
creating awareness and health education, etc.
Keeping in view the experiences of the Central and state
governments, NGOs and other implementing agencies and the
recommendations of the Second National Seminar on Rural Sanitation, the
strategy for the Ninth Five Year Plan was revised and the programme was
restructured form 1 April 1999. The restructured programme moves away
from the principle of state-wise allocation of funds, primarily based on
poverty criteria, to a demand driven approach in a phased manner. Total
Sanitation Campaign (TSC) was introduced and the Allocation Based
Programme was phased out by 31 March 2002. TSC is community-led and
people-centred. There was a shift from a high subsidy to a low subsidy
regime. The TSC approach emphasized awareness-building component and
meets the demand through alternate delivery mechanism. School Sanitation
has been introduced as a major component to encourage wider acceptance Self - Instructional Material
of sanitation among rural masses. The States/UTs are required to formulate
project proposals under the TSC in order to claim Central government
assistance.
137
 Under the TSC, so far 559 projects in 30 States/UTs have been
sanctioned with the total project outlay of about Rs.6240.27 crore. The
Poverty, Unemployment Central, State and Beneficiary/Panchayat contributions are about
Rs.3675.38 crore, Rs.1424.09 crore and Rs.1140.80 crore respectively. The
components sanctioned in the 559 projects are
Construction of 499 lakh individual household latrines
656690 toilets for Schools
NOTES
36098 Community Sanitary Complexes
199033 toilets for Balwadis/Anganwadis and
4030 Rural Sanitary Marts/Production Centres.

Besides, funds have been earmarked for start-up activities,

Information, Education and Communication (IEC) and Administrative
charges. The total numbers of household toilets constructed up to 2005-06
are 14,48,1807.
To add vigour to the implementation of TSC Government of India
has separately launched an award scheme 'Nirmal Gram Puraskar'(NGP)
for fully sanitised and open defecation free Gram Panchayats, block and
districts. In the first year of its institution only 40 PRIs were awarded NGP
on 24 February 2005. In the second year the number of awarded
PRIs/Blocks and organisation have increased to 772. His Excellency, Dr.
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, President of India, distributed the Awards on 23
March 2006.
7.10.2.1 Monitoring and Evaluation
The Ministry of Rural Development lays great emphasis on
monitoring and evaluation of all rural development programmes in general
and poverty alleviation and employment generation schemes in particular,
being implemented in various States/UTs.It is well recognised that the
success of the programmes largely depends on the effective delivery
system and efficient implementation at the grass-roots level so that the
programme benefits reach the rural poor in full measures. In order to
ensure this, the Ministry has evolved a comprehensive multi-level and
multi tool system of Monitoring and Evaluation for the implementation of
its programmes. The Monitoring mechanism includes, inter-alia, the
Performance Review Committee, Review meetings by the Minister of
Rural Development and Ministers of State with the Chief Ministers/
Ministers of Rural development and Officers of the States, the Area Officer
Scheme, periodic progress reports, audit and utilisation certificates, video
conferencing and field visits. The Ministry conducts quick
evaluation/concurrent evaluation of all major programmes. An impact
assessment study to assess the overall impact of programmes of village-
level is also conducted in selected district. The Vigilance and Monitoring
Committees at State and District Levels in all States/UTs monitor the
implementation of Programmes and introduce greater transparency in the
process. These Committees inter-alia include MPs/ MLAs representatives
of Panchayat Raj Institutions and NGOs. The Members of Parliament both
Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha have been assigned a Central role in the
Self - Instructional Material reconstituted V&M Committees and they have been nominated
Chairman/Co-Chairman of the district level V&M Committees.

138
 The Ministry has also taken initiatives to strengthen the monitoring
mechanism and quality of implementation of programmes by introducing
District Level Monitoring (DLM) System in 130 district of 27 States Poverty, Unemployment
through external agencies which include monthly reporting of physical and
financial performance, qualitative reporting about policy and
implementation environments in the district and physical verification of the
assets crated under various programmes of the Ministry. Similarly DLM of
Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) and Swajaldhara is implemented in 398 NOTES
districts of the country w.e.f. 1 July 2005 This system aims at providing
continuous, transparent and accountable monitoring inputs in reporting
format with the objectives of reporting of the process andNOTESprogress of the
programmes covering different components of the programmes. It also
aims at identification of gaps in the implementation at the village, block,
district and state level. The monitoring system also elicits NOTES
the stakeholders'
views; assesses the institutional issues and document case studies and
success stories on best practices, innovations and lesson learned.
In order to strengthen the monitoring mechanism, the Ministry has
a panel of about 300 National Level Monitors comprising retired
servicemen and Retired Civil Servants to monitor and furnish periodic
reports to the Ministry on the implementation of programmes in selected
districts including verifying facts of the cases and complaints if any, which
may be referred to them.
The Union Government in recent years has given emphasis to e-
governance in all possible areas. Accordingly, the Ministry of Rural
Development has also initiated action with the state Governments and UTs
to ensure that information and progress reports completed by Districts
Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs) are sent through the electronic
medium. About 400 (DRDAs) have started sending their reports through
online. Efforts are being made in this direction to obtain online progress
reports from all the remaining DRDAs.
Check your progress - 8
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
14. Write an expansion of CRSP.
15. Write an expansion of ASHA.

7.11 BONDED AND MIGRANT LABORERS

Bonded labor, which is characterized by a long-term relationship
between employer and employee, is usually solidified through a loan, and
is embedded intricately in India‘s socio-economic culture - a culture that is
a product of class relations, a colonial history, and persistent poverty
among many citizens. Also known as debt bondage, bonded labor is a
specific form of forced labor in which compulsion into servitude is derived
from debt. Categorized and examined in the scholarly literature as a type of
forced labor, bonded labor entails constraints on the conditions and Self - Instructional Material
duration of work by an individual. Not all bonded labor is forced, but most
forced labor practices, whether they involve children or adults, are of a
bonded nature. Bonded labor is most prevalent in rural areas where the
139
 agricultural industry relies on contracted, often migrant laborers. However,
urban areas also provide fertile ground for long-term bondage.
Poverty, Unemployment Characterized by a creditor-debtor relationship that a laborer often
passes on to his family members, bonded labor is typically of an indefinite
duration and involves illegal contractual stipulations. Contracts deny an
individual the basic right to choose his or her employer, or to negotiate the
terms of his or her contract. Bonded labor contracts are not purely
NOTES
economic; in India, they are reinforced by custom or coercion in many
sectors such as the agricultural, silk, mining, match production, and brick
kiln industries, among others.
Child laborers face major health and physical risks: they work long
hours and are required to perform tasks for which they are physically and
developmentally unprepared. Child labor is deeply entrenched as a
common practice in many sectors and states, due in part to India‘s
economic emphasis on exports in recent years. According to a current
estimate, a quarter of Indian children ages six to fourteen—roughly two
hundred million children—are working, and a third of the remaining
seventy-five percent are bonded laborers (Soorya moorthy 1991). The
largest single employer of children in India is the agricultural sector where
an estimated twenty-five million children are employed; and the second
largest employer of Indian children is the service sector where children
work in hotels and as household maids. An additional five million Indian
children are employed in other labor-intensive industries.
7.11.1 Origins and Causes of India‟s Bonded Labor Problem
Bonded labor stems from a variety of causes, which are highly
debated in the literature: an ingrained legacy of caste-based discrimination,
vast poverty and inequality, an inadequate education system, unjust social
relations, and the government‘s unwillingness to alter the status quo all
exemplify a few such causes. Additionally, India‘s colonial background
and caste system have made it difficult to delineate the history of laborers‘
―unfreedom,‖ as termed by several authors, and to understand legal and
actual differentiations between slavery under British rule and debt bondage
and child labor today.
There are many cultural reasons for the persistence of child labor in
India. An expectation that children should contribute to the socioeconomic
survival of the family and community, as well as the existence of large
families, land scarcity, and inadequate enforcement of labor laws are
contributing factors to this problem. In urban areas, following the
migration of families to overpopulated cities, the disintegration of such
families due to alcoholism and unemployment often results in a
proliferation of children living on the street, becoming laborers, and
entering into prostitution
7.11.2 Legal Restrictions and Enforcement
The domestic legal treatment of individual labor rights, which are
clearly articulated but seldom enforced, reflects India‘s blurry history with
slavery. Article 23 of the 1949 Constitution of India outlaws both the
trafficking of human beings and forced labor, but the legislation defining
Self - Instructional Material and banning bonded labor was only approved by Parliament in 1976. The
Bonded Labour System Abolition Act of 1976 stipulates that the
monitoring of labor violations and their enforcement are responsibilities of

140
state governments. The Indian government has demonstrated a severe lack
of will to implement this ban on bonded labor. Such pervasive non-
enforcement may be attributed to several factors, including government Poverty, Unemployment
apathy, caste bias, corruption, a lack of accountability, and inadequate
enforcement personnel.
The Supreme Court of India has interpreted bonded labor as the
payment of wages that are below the prevailing market wage or the legal
minimum wage. As a response to complaints of human rights violations, NOTES
the Court relies on Public Interest Law (PIL) whereby citizens are able to
petition India‘s courts if they believe their rights, or the rights of their
fellow citizens, are being denied. The Supreme Court‘s NOTES two major
examinations of child labor in 1991 and 1997 resulted in PIL rulings that
emphasized the role of poverty, and promoted children‘s education.
However, the Court refused to ban child labor outright, citing
NOTES its role as a
judicial and not a legislative body.
The Indian government has not yet actively linked economic
development to human rights violations at work. A recent government
measure to raise the minimum wage for children exemplifies a lagging
commitment to the eradication of child labor in particular, by essentially
legitimizing children‘s work obligations and conditions. Nevertheless, the
decision of the Supreme Court to establish a rehabilitation and welfare
program for working children, in addition to the efforts of the National
Human Rights Commission, have been instrumental in sensitizing
policymakers to the serious problem of child labor.
Exploitation of children working in dangerous conditions not only
results in constraints on a child‘s health and development, but also
solidifies his or her fate as an unskilled, low-paid worker. A greater focus
on female education would precipitate a decline in both fertility — seen as
a self-reinforcing cause and effect of child labor—and in children‘s work
participation.
The suggestion has also been posited that ―learn and earn‖ policies,
which combine work and school, may be feasible. For the most part, the
government fails to enforce extant laws. Whether child labor should and
can be completely outlawed and the ban enforced, or whether the economic
system in India can realistically allow for all children to attend school,
have remained at the crux of the debate for some time.

Check your progress - 9

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit..
16. Write an expansion of PIL.
17. Who are called bonded labours?
7.12 LET US SUM UP

From this unit you have been studied the problem in rural area such
as Poverty, Unemployment, Seasonal unemployment, Illiteracy, Self - Instructional Material
Superstitions, Drinking water, housing, health and sanitation, Bonded and
Migrant labourers in a detail manner.

141
 7.13 UNIT- END- EXERCISES
1. What is the meaning of unemployment?
Poverty, Unemployment
2. Define Poverty.
3. What are the Causes of Seasonal Unemployment?
4. Explain Superstitions.
5. Write an essay aboutHealth and sanitation.
NOTES 6. Briefly explain the origin and causes of india‘s bonded
labour problem.
7.14 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Gillin and Gillin. ―Poverty is that condition in which a

person either because of inadequate income or unwise
expenditures, does not maintain a scale of living high
enough to provide for his physical and mental efficiency
and to enable him and his natural dependents to function
usefully according to the standards of the society of which
he is a member‘.
2. Poverte
3. ―Unemployment is defined as a condition in which an
individual is not in a state of remunerative occupation
despite his desire do so‖---- D. Mello
4. occurs when there is not enough aggregate demand in the
economy to provide jobs for everyone who wants to work.
Demand for goods and services decreases, less production is
needed, and fewer workers are needed.
5. National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)
SampoornaGrameenRozgarYojana
a. National Food For Work Programme
b. Pradhan Mantri Gram SadakYojan
c. Indira AwasYojana
d. Swaranajayanti Gram SwarozgarYojana
e. National Social Assistance Programme and
Annapurna
6. The Seasonal Unemployment means the demand for a
specific kind of work and workers change with the change
in the season. Simply, the period when the demand for the
manpower as well as the capital stock reduces because of a
decreased demand in the economy at a particular point in
time in a year causes the seasonal unemployment.
7. High illiteracy rates in rural parts of India are an area of the
Indian education system that cannot be overlooked.
Hampered by the government and by other factors the
quality of education in rural districts has been quite poor.
High dropout rates and low enrollment by the children have
contributed to the large illiteracy rate.
8. Kerala
Self - Instructional Material 9. The term superstition is derived from the Latin superstition,
meaning ―to stand over in awe.‖ Superstition refers to belief
that certain event or things will bring good or bad luck

142
 10. For example, if an athlete wears a particular pair of shoes on
a day he performs particularly well, he may continue to
wear the same pair of shoes in the belief that the shoes were Poverty, Unemployment
responsible for the success.
11. waterborne diseases, diarrhea
12. Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission
13. NOAPS, SGSY
14. Central Rural Sanitation Programme NOTES
15. Accredited Female Health Activist
16. Public Interest Law
17. Bonded labor, which is characterized by a long-term
NOTES
relationship between employer and employee, is usually
solidified through a loan, and is embedded intricately in
India‘s socio-economic culture - a culture NOTES
that is a product
of class relations, a colonial history, and persistent poverty
among many citizens.
7.15 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. T.W. Schultz. Transforming Traditional Agriculture (Yale

University Press, 1964), pp. 67-50.
2. J.P. Bhattacharjee, "Underemployment among Indian
Farmers"y4rt/z Vijnana , Volume 3, March 1961.
3. VISARIA, PRAVIN 1977 ―Trends in Rural Unemployment in
India: A Comment.‖ Economic and Political Weekly 12 (29
January)
4. 8 Drinking Water and Sanitation Status in India, WaterAid India,
2005
5. Gupta Akhilesh, Mall R.K., Singh Ranjeet, Rathore L. S., Singh R.
S., Water resources and climate change: An Indian Perspective;
Current Science, VOL. 90, NO. 12, June 2006

Self - Instructional Material

143
 UNIT- VIII URBAN SOCIOLOGY
Urban Sociology
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
NOTES 8.3 Urban sociology
8.3.1 Meaning of urban sociology
8.3.2 Definition of urban sociology
8.4 Nature of urban sociology
8.5 Scope of urban sociology
8.6 Let us sum up
8.7 Unit – end – exercises
8.8 Answer to check your progress
8.9 Suggested Readings
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the 21st century half of the world‘s population lived in the urban
areas. This rapid expansion of urbanism requires a comprehensive
understanding of urban relevant phenomena and urban sociology attempts
to focus on the urbanized social way of life and its impact on the
surroundings, the suburbs in particular.
Sociology is the study of social reality. When we use the term
urban sociology, it means the social reality amalgamates with urban social
structures and organizations. Urban sociology is the study of social reality
which includes ecological and cultural perspectives. It is the study of
modern era where city and society are looked upon many aspects which
incorporate economic, political and cultural units. It also comprises major
dimensions of urban life.
In this unit the students will learn meaning, definition, nature and
scope of urban sociology.
8.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, the students will be able to
 know the concept of urban sociology
 understand the meaning and definition of urban sociology
 acquire the knowledge about nature and scope of urban sociology
8.3 URBAN SOCIOLOGY
Urban sociology is the sociological study of the human interaction
in metropolitan areas. It is a normative discipline of sociology seeking to
study the structures, environmental processes, changes and problems of an
urban area and by doing so provide inputs for urban planning and policy
making. It is the sociological study of cities and their role in the
Self - Instructional Material development of society.
Urban sociology seeks to describe and interpret the causal
connections between the constitutive elements of a city and the factors that

144
give rise to them. It helps to understand the complex as well as profound
meaning of every urban reality, the territorial stabilization of social life, the
culture and the origin and evolution of human settlements. Urban Sociology

Urban sociology attempts to account for the interrelation of

subcultures in urban areas, as well as the internal structures of segments of
society. Like biological systems, urban subgroups are dependent on one
another for healthy functioning and are also dynamic—that is, they flourish NOTES
and decline based on political, economic, and social tides.
Like most areas of sociology, urban sociologists use statistical
analysis, observation or ethnography, social theory, interviews,
NOTESand other
methods to study a range of topics, including migration, economic and
demographic trends, as well as things like poverty, race relations, crime,
sexuality, and many other phenomena that surface in dynamic cities.
NOTES
After the Industrial Revolution sociologists such as Max Weber and
Georg Simmel began to focus on the accelerating process of urbanization
and the effects it had on feelings of social alienation and anonymity.
Notably, Georg Simmel is widely considered to be the father of urban
sociology for his contributions to the field in works such as The Metropolis
and Mental Life, published in 1903.
8.3.1 MEANING OF URBAN SOCIOLOGY
The word urban has been defined in the Oxford Dictionary as
―pertaining to town or city life‖. It is derived from the Latin ‗Urals‘ a term
used by the Roman a city.
Urban sociology is the study of how urban settings shape human
behaviour and how human behaviour shape urban settings.
Urban Sociology is ―a science of city life.‖
The dictionary meaning of ‗urban‘ is ‗city‘, which describes the
city life. The following are some of the important definitions which clarify
the meaning of urban life.
Urban Sociology is a keen, interesting and practical subject which
deals with city life, specialization of the study of complex human
situations, deals with city organization and disorganization, cultural
changes, overall development of civilization, economic development,
political and social changes. It is a place exactly different and antithetical
with rural community. The urban family life is different from village
family life, celebration of marriage; casteism, etc are losing their
importance. Divorces are found as men and women enjoy more social and
economic independence.
There are many job opportunities in urban community. Urban
community attracts and pulls large number of rural people. Rural poverty
pushes people and urban richness pulls them to settle down permanently in
cities. So there is a conglomeration (assembly) of people in one particular
place and space becomes costly, resulting into mushroom growth of slums.
Modern cities are not away from slums, pipelines, and traffic jam,
breakdown of machineries, strikes, hartal, alienation, loneliness, frustration Self - Instructional Material
and increasing number of social crimes and economic offences. The birth
and growth of towns and cities in the modern world ultimately depends on
the standard of living and application of science and technology to daily
145
 way of life, and missing traditions, morality, simplicity and humility in
life. A village becomes a big village and big village into a town, a town
Urban Sociology into a taluka place, a district known as a big city, changed into
metropolitan, mega-city, and cosmopolitan city. Within a period of ten-
fifteen years, all modern world cities have grown abnormally. High
population, land grabbing (snatching), infringement and encroachment,
increasing number of crimes, lack of law and order, loose moral
NOTES
atmosphere, independence to men, women and children responsible to
measure and understand the city of its size and development not only
geographically, but also ethically, socially and aesthetically.
8.3.2 DEFINITION OF URBAN SOCIOLOGY
Jary and Jary (2000) - The study of social relationships and
structures in the city.
According to Louis Mumford, urban society is ―a melting pot of
various cultures of the world due to railroad, industries and slums.‖
Louis Wirth, an American Sociologist says that urban society is ―a
place designed gracefully with different zones with definite purposes.‖
.E.W.Burgess says that there is ―industrialization, modernization,
and establishment of bureaucracy, combined with business organizations,
skyscrapers, theatres, hotels, abnormal growth of slums and surviving with
numerous social problems.‖
Acording to Prof. Quinn, urban community is ―a non-agricultural
community.‖
E.Bergel defined ―Urban Sociology deals with the impact of the
city life on social actions, social relationships, social institutions and the
type of civilization, derived from and based on urban mode of living.‖
Max Weber, the German sociologist in his book ‗The City‘, defined
Urban Sociology‖ as a whole system characterized by complex order of
social actions, social relations and social institutions. It has following
features – a market, a fortification, a complicated legal system, including a
court and an elected body of administration.‖
According to Flanagan (2010), ‗A cohesive sub-discipline within
sociology, related in some systematic manner to a particular kind of social
space, the urban arena.‘
According to Barker, ―Urban Sociology deals with the impact of
the city life on social action, social relationship, social instruction and the
types of civilization derived from and based on urban modes of living.‖

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. Who is the father of urban sociology?
2. Define urban sociology.
8.4 NATURE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGY
Urban sociology has its own characteristics and these are stated below
Self - Instructional Material  Urban sociology is the sociological analysis of city and its
life style.

146
  It concerns the dynamism of society stimulated by
urbanization.
 It tends to identify the urban problems and implement Urban Sociology
possible remedies to solve them.
 It is a factual study of urban social living.
 It plays attention to the social relation among the city
dwellers. NOTES
 It concerned with the geo-spatial cultural issues and
comparative analysis of urban ecology.
 It studies the social relation which mayNOTES harmonious or
conflicting.
 It is the subtract area of general sociology.
NOTES
 It is a social science.
 It is a theoretical as well as an applied science.
 It is a categorical science not a normative science.
 It is an abstract not a concrete science.
 It is a special not a general science.
 It is value free science.
 It is based on universal, authentic and valid scientific data.
Pitirim Sorokin and Zimmerman have suggested the following features
which give us more meaning of urban community.
1) Heterogeneity: Urban community is a heterogeneous group, where
people belong to different race, religion, language, caste and creed. For
example, in a city like Mumbai, people from different states, of different
cultural groups live and they are totally dissimilar. In London, Indians,
Pakistanis and Bangla Deshis have their own colonies.
2. Secondary relations: The urban community is characterized by
secondary relations People are indifferent towards one another. Face-to-
face, friendly or intimate relations may not be observed among people.
3. Voluntary Associations: All people in city are doing nonagricultural
jobs. They are necessarily members of many voluntary associations.
According to standard of living, they form their own residential groups and
needful institutions and associations.
4. Social Mobility: In urban society, social status is not traditional but
based on the economic status, educational standard and talent. In other
words, individual intelligence and talent brings progress and hereditary is
not important.
5. Individual Freedom: In urban community, men and women have more
independence. People are more individualistic in their attitudes. The city
dweller is more selective in his choice and more individualistic in his
preferences. He is guided by his own whims and fancies.
6. Occupations: All people are engaged in non-agricultural jobs, such as
business, marketing, office, police, court, industry and factory, transport
communication, hospitals and educational institutions, theatre, share
market etc. So they are always far away from nature and simple life. Self - Instructional Material
7. Secondary Control: In urban community individual behavior is not
controlled by family, religion and neighborhood. It is controlled by
secondary organizations, such as, government, police, court etc.
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 8. Lack of Community Feeling: There is a lack of community feeling,
feeling of oneness, unity and integrity of the family, neighborhood in the
Urban Sociology city. In urban community, people are busy in their individual
achievements, so naturally they neglect feeling of oneness and unity with
the city.
9. Social Disorganization: Urban community has number of institutions
and associations. They are working independently. So there is always
NOTES
struggle, conflict and competition. Thus social disorganization is seen and
felt.
10. Unstable Family: Family is no longer the economic, educational,
protective, recreational and effective unit. Family has lost much of its
control over its individual members. Many of the traditional functions of
the family are transferred to the external agencies. It is said that the urban
family is not firmly organized.
In the early period there are two major currents came to
characterize urban sociology. The first came from the sociologists at the
University of Chicago emphasizing the demographic and ecological
structure of the city, the social disorganization and pathology of the urban
normative order and the social psychology of urban existence. The second
current has come to be called ‗community studies‘. It consists of broad-
gauged ethnographic studies of the social structure of individual
communities and the ways of life of the inhabitants.
The two orientations are divided into culturalists‘ approach and the
structuralists‘ approach in the urban sociology. The culturalists emphasize
on how urban life feels, how people react to living in urban areas and how
the city life is organized. This approach tries to study and explore the
culture, organizational and social psychological consequences of urban
life. Louis Writh‘s work belongs to this approach.
The structuralists‘ approach investigates the interplay between the
political and economic forces, the growth, decline and changing spatial
organization of urban space. They consider city as the physical
embodiment of political and economic relationship. They argue that the
city itself is an effect of more fundamental forces and cities are shaped by
social powers that affect all aspects of human existence. Park, Burgess and
McKenzie of the Chicago School belong to this approach.
Any study of urban sociology must include both the approaches.
Urban sociology is not a subject with distinct individuality but the
combination of both the approaches.
Check your progress - 2
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. What are the two approaches in urban sociology?
2. Which approach Louis Wirth the sociologist belongs?
Self - Instructional Material 8.5 SCOPE OF URBAN SOCIOLOGY
The scope of urban sociology is very vast and multidimensional.

148
  It relies on the related sciences and borrows from history,
economics, social psychology, public administration and social
work. Urban Sociology
 The subject matter of urban sociology is cities and their growth.
 It deals with problems like planning and development of cities,
traffic regulations, public waterworks, social hygiene, sewerage
works, housing, beggary, juvenile delinquency, crime and so on.
Thus as urbanism is many-sided so is urban sociology. NOTES
 The scope of urban sociology becomes wider as it not only tries to
study the urban setup and facts but also tries to give suggestions to
solve problems arising out of dynamic nature of theNOTES
society.
 Urban sociology focuses on the elements of the modern
civilizations and also the dichotomy between the rural and the
urban civilization many aspects include cities, communities
NOTES etc.
 The main aim of urban sociology is to study the basic principles of
the city life.

Introductory Scope
a) Urban ecology – it studies the facts of the urban environment. It
also emphasizes on the study of population in the cities.
b) Urban morphology – the study of social life of urban areas and
that of urban organization is taken up.
c) Urban psychology – it covers the behaviour and the mode of living
of the people in urban areas.
d) Analytical scope – analysing of urban sociology is another
important field of study. Under the analytical scope, various
concepts and important phases of urban life are developed and
studied.

Reformative Scope
Under this the problems of urbanism are studied. This includes
some of the important issues such as the impact of urbanization on urban
society leading to urban disorganization, urban planning and development.
Thus, the scope of urban sociology is much wider as it covers the
whole spectrum of urban life and its changing environments.
Gottdiener and Hutchision (2011) stated that ‗In general, Urban
Sociology is concerned about the everyday life in the suburban (suburban
settlement space as well as in the city or urban settlement space). Yet, it
has three addition dimensions-
1. Shift to a global perspective.
2. Attention to the political economy of pull factors (government
policies including mortgage guarantees for lenders, tax deductions
for homeowners, and the like) in urban and suburban development,
and
3. Appreciate for the role of culture in metropolitan life and in the Self - Instructional Material
construction of the built environment.
According to Marshall [1998], urban sociology is concerned with
1. Urbanization.
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 2. Rapidly growing industrial cities.
3. Complex social relationships, and
Urban Sociology
4. Social structures.
According to Simmel [1903], urban sociology is the impressionistic
discussion of
1. Urban life-style and personality.
NOTES 2. Urban social organization and culture.
3. Physical characteristics of cities.
4. Social characteristics of the inhabitants.
According to Jary and Jary [2000], urban sociology is concerned with—
1. Urban dimension of society.
2. Forms of association and social life in urban environments.
3. Social order and organization in urban settings.
4. Role of urban development in social change.
5. The relationships between incidence of social problems, i.e.
crime, alcoholism, and social cohesion,
6. Community studies and neighbourhood.
7. Study of housing.
8. Race and ethnic relationships.
9. Dynamics of zone transition.
10. Urban housing class, housing market and forms of tenure
system.
11. Economic class interests.
12. Labour class and power.
Azam and Ali [2005] have classified the scope of urban sociology into
five dimensions
A. The social change perspectives, includes---
 Morphology of cities.
 Population dynamics.
 Transformation of urban communities.
 Change in behavioural pattern of city-dwellers.
 Transformation of urban ways of living.
 Complex structural change.
 Centre for domestic and foreign activities.
 Centre for commercial and non-commercial
activities, and
 Centre for housing, employment and education.
B. The social organization perspectives, includes—
 Individuals,
 Groups.
 Voluntary association.
 Bureaucracy, and
Self - Instructional Material  Social institution
C. The ecological perspective, includes
 Population.
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  Environment.
 Technology
Urban Sociology
D. The social problem perspectives, includes—
 Environmental pollution.
 Illness.
 Family fragmentation.
 Poverty. NOTES

 Unemployment.
 Drug addiction.
NOTES
 Class and juvenile delinquency.
 Prostitution and trafficking and so on.
E. The social policy perspectives, includes NOTES
 Recognition and identification of the problems, and
 Ability to solve the identified problems.
Check your progress - 3
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. What is main aim of studying urban sociology?
2. What is the scope of urban sociology according to Simmel?
8.6 LET US SUM UP
Half of the world‘s population lived in the urban areas. This rapid
expansion of urbanism requires a comprehensive understanding of urban
relevant phenomena. Georg Simmel is widely considered to be the father
of urban sociology. He contributes to the field in works such as The
Metropolis and Mental Life, published in 1903. Urban sociology is the
study of how urban settings shape human behaviour and how human
behaviour shape urban settings. According to Jary and Jary (2000) urban
sociology is ―The study of social relationships and structures in the city.‖
Urban sociology is the sociological analysis of city and its life style. It
tends to identify the urban problems and implement possible remedies to
solve them. Study of urban sociology has two approaches; they are
culturalists‘ approach and structuralists‘ approach. The culturalists‘
emphasize on how urban life feels, how people react to living in urban
areas and how the city life is organized. Louis Writh‘s work belongs to this
approach. The structuralists‘ approach investigates the interplay between
the political and economic forces, the growth, decline and changing spatial
organization of urban space. Park, Burgess and McKenzie of the Chicago
School belong to this approach. Scope of urban sociology includes
introductory scope (urban ecology, urban morphology, urban psychology,
and analytical scope) and reformative scope. Thus, the scope of urban
sociology is much wider as it covers the whole spectrum of urban life and
its changing environments.
Self - Instructional Material
In this unit you have learnt meaning and definition of urban
sociology. The two approaches culturalists‘ and structuralists‘ have been
discussed. The scope of urban sociology was also discussed in detail.
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 8.7 UNIT – END – EXERCISES
Urban Sociology 1. What is meant by urban sociology?
2. Explain the nature of urban sociology.
3. Write the five dimensions in the scope of urban sociology given
by Azam and Ali.
NOTES 8.8 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Georg Simmel
2. According to Barker, ―Urban Sociology deals with the impact of the
city life on social action, social relationship, social instruction and the
types of civilization derived from and based on urban modes of living.‖
3. Culturalists‘ approach and Structuralists‘ approach.
4. Culturalists‘ approach
5. To study the basic principles of the city life.
6. The five dimensions are
 The social change perspectives
 The social organization perspectives
 The ecological perspective
 The social problem perspectives
 The social policy perspectives

8.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Rao, M.S.A.(Eds), (1974). Urban Sociology in India: Reader
and Source Book, Orient Longman, New Delhi.
2. Sandhu R.S., (2003). Urbanisation in India: Sociological
Contributions, Sage, New Delhi.
3. Shivaramakrishan,, (2005). K.C. Amitabh Kundu and B.N.
Singh, Oxford Hand Book of Urbanisation in India, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
4. Ramachandran.R, Urbanization and Urban systems in India,
Oxford University Press.

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 UNIT – IX IMPORTANCE OF THE
STUDY OF URBAN SOCIOLOGY Importance of the study
of urban sociology
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Importance of the study of urban sociology
9.4 Urbanism as a way of life NOTES
9.4.1 Definition of urbanism
9.4.2 Characteristics of urbanism
9.4.3 Louis Wirth: Urbanism as a way of life
NOTES
9.4.4 World Urbanism Day
9.5 Factors of urbanisation
9.5.1 Urbanisation NOTES
9.5.2 Causes of urbanisation
9.5.3 Effect of urbanisation
9.5.4 Causes of urbanisation in India
9.6 Let us sum up
9.7 Unit – end – exercises
9.8 Answer to check your progress
9.9 Suggested Readings
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Curiosity and hierarchy of needs among human beings make them
to come together to form society with capacity to become cities. They want
to understand themselves and they study themselves as groups. They have
the capacity to manipulate. Learning from urban sociology helps them to
merchandising and politics. They need to get along with each other in spite
of specific dislikes and preferences. They understand and plan for their
lives. Urban sociology provides an analytical framework for understand
these circumstances. Urbanism is a way of life which urban people lead
different lives in different circumstances. Urbanisation is a process
of change from a rural area to an urban area.
In this unit you will learn the importance of urban sociology, the
concepts urbanism and urbanisation in detail.
9.2 OBJECTIVES
 To understand the importance of the study of urban
sociology
 To provide key insights in the term urbanism as a way of
life
 To discuss the factors of urbanisation
9.3 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF URBAN
SOCIOLOGY
Urban sociology is the study of problems and policies in an urban
area. The importance of the study of urban sociology is to understand the
institutions and structures that make up a metropolitan area to work with
policy makers to solve social problems in urban areas. The society focuses Self - Instructional Material
on urbanisation, they develop urban areas and therefore different social
problems arise. A large portion of people are living in urban areas tend to
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 be focused on how individualistic, independent, and unique. It leads to
discrimination and lack of caring for others.
Importance of the study A study of urban sociology has relevance in the context of wider
of urban sociology theoretical problems; it gives us understanding not only of the economic
development but also of social change.
Urban studies deal with the transformation of a plethora of
dimensions between urban and rural structures. These studies are important
NOTES because it includes conventional social realities. It includes the
transformation of city, town, and community from its elementary form to
complete a new frame of outlook.
Urban studies also include the role of cities in the process of
cultural change.
Urban sociology is a well-established subfield of sociology that
seeks to study the structures, processes, changes and problems
of urban areas and to subsequently provide input for planning and
policymaking. In other words, it is the sociological study of cities and their
role in the development of society.

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. Write any two importance of the study of urban sociology.

9.4 URBANISM AS A WAY OF LIFE

The concept of urbanism denotes a way of life. The term represents

the diffusion of urban culture and the evolution of urban society. It
indicates a wide acquaintance with things and people. Such acquaintance
imbues the city dwellers with the spirit of tolerance. The urban people
learn how to lead different lives in different circumstances.
―Urbanism is not synonymous with city‖. ‗City‘ refers to an area
distinguished principally by size, population, density and social diversity,
whereas urbanism refers to a complex of social relations.
Sociologists working in the first half of the 20m century on theories
of city life emphasised the alienating aspects of the urban environment or
to put +it otherwise the opposition between community and the city life.
Louis Wirth was one of the first to lay stress on the social aspects of
urbanism. He tried to discover the forms of social action and organisation
that typically emerge in relatively permanent compact settlements of large
numbers of heterogeneous individuals (Rao et al 1992).
According to the theory of urbanism Louis Wirth believed that the
larger, the denser, and the more heterogeneous the population of an area,
the more urbanised will be the life style of the people. Thus the principle
elements of urbanisation according to him are the population size,
population density and population heterogeneity. His view was that the
city's heterogeneity, large size, high density; secular cosmopolitan
Self - Instructional Material atmosphere tended to be seen as contributing to people's alienation rather
than affording an opportunity for richer life (Louis Wirth 1938). Louis
Wirth analyses that the city as a permanent settlement of a human
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population of high density and with a sufficiently high degree of
heterogeneity results in the emergence of new culture characterised by the
transition from primary to secondary relations, role segmentation, Importance of the study
anonymity, isolation, instrumental relations, the absence of direct social of urban sociology
control, the diversity and transience of social commitments, the loosening
of family ties and individualistic competition. It is this socio-cultural
context which is the ultimate explanation of the new forms of human
behaviour.
Urbanism is a special concept which inherits within itself all the NOTES
characters connected with urbanisation and the urban way of life. The
concept was given its final shape by Louis Wirth. Urbanism is a category
of relevant element terms. It is a developing concept as the urban life
NOTES
pattern itself, as it appears, is a developing and constantly changing
phenomena.
His idea is that the social organisation of a large human
NOTESsettlement
or urban area makes a life style based on primary relationship (seen in rural
areas) very difficult. Typically urbanites meet one another in highly
segmented roles. Their encounters tend frequently to be limited to
situations, which involves specialised, limited aspects of the person's total
spectrum of roles. It is this role fragmentation and limited integration
among different roles, which causes a kind of alienation, which in turn is
associated with a large number of social pathologies, such as crime,
suicide, and mental illness that are brought about by a poorly integrated
social structure.
The population density or the crowded physical space of the urban
areas also affects both the frequency and quality of human interaction.
Thus when he talks about the population density as the principal basis of
urbanisation he actually means the social density or density of social
interactions. The diverse nature of cities in terms of ethnicity, culture,
social structure and general life style gives it the heterogeneous nature.
This heterogeneous nature of urban centers account for the anomic quality
of urban life. In addition to the city's diversity, the fragmentation of social
relationships is compounded by the seeming connectedness of various
facets of urban life. In urban areas where one resides, where one works and
the kind of job one has, one's income, one's interests and one's allegiances
are not well related either spatially or culturally. This heterogeneity, Wirth
said, also resulted in people clustering into various ecologically segregated
areas ethnic zhettos, poverty areas, and middle class neighborhoods
(Wilson 1978).
Urbanism is the study of how inhabitants of urban areas, such
as towns and cities, interact with the built environment. It is a direct
component of disciplines such as urban planning, which is the profession
focusing on the physical design and management of urban structures
and urban sociology which is the academic field the study of urban life and
culture.
9.4.1 DEFINITION OF URBANISM
Urbanism is a cultural-social-economic phenomenon which traces
interaction between the social and technological processes. – Mamoria Self - Instructional Material
C.B.

155
 Prof. Ram Ahuja says that urbanism is a way of life which is
characterised by certain elements such as transiency (short-term relations),
Importance of the study superficiality, (impersonal and formal relations with limited number of
of urban sociology people,) anonymity (not knowing names and lacking Intimacy) and
individualism (people giving more importance to one‘s vested interests).
Louis Wirth has mentioned four characteristics of urban system or
urbanism – heterogeneity of population, specialisation of function,
NOTES anonymity and impersonality and standardisation of behaviour.
9.4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF URBANISM
 The diversity of social life (Normal and social role
conflict)
 Rapid social and cultural change.
 Impersonality and lack of intimate communication.
 Materialism
 Individualism
 Mobility
 Increase In formal social control.
1. The norm and social role conflicts
The diversity of social life springs from the size, density and
heterogeneity of the population, extreme specialization of the various
occupations and class structures existing in the larger communities. These
latter factors generally result in divergent group norms and values and
conflicting social roles.

2. Rapid social and cultural change

Rapid social and cultural change also characterizes urban life. So
there is decline in the significance of traditional and sacred things. The
reduced size of the modern family is the result of rapid social and cultural
change.

3. Impersonality and lack of intimate communication

There is superficiality and impersonality among the urbanities.
Urban society is highly heterogeneous and specialised. So, the result is lack
of intimate relationship. The urban people live close together but without
emotional ties. Urban social relation takes place between strangers.
4. Materialism
Urban people give primary importance to material possessions.
They live and are known for their status symbols, bank balances, assets,
salaries, buildings with modern furnishings etc.
5. Individualism
In urban society people become more individualistic, self-centred,
and selfish and so on. They give primary emphasis to their own interests
and personal happiness; they develop the attitude towards competition,
conflict in relation to economic goods and social position.
6. Mobility
Here in urban society there is greater mobility. People move from
one job to another, from one locality to another. The residential mobility
Self - Instructional Material
tends to weaken ties to the local community.

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7. Increase in formal social controls
Social controls in urban society are more formal. Responsibility for
controlling behaviour in cities is largely shifting to the police, the courts Importance of the study
and other agencies of government to enforce the norms of certain groups. of urban sociology
Cities vary in the extent or the degree to which they are characterised by
urban qualities. Some cities have less norm and role conflicts, social
change, mobility, individualism and impersonality than others.

9.4.3 LOUIS WIRTH: URBANISM AS A WAY OF LIFE NOTES

Wirth believed that urbanism was a particular way of life, and it
impacted social relationships and personalities. Wirth believed that cities
produced feelings of anonymity, individualism, NOTES transiency and
superficiality.
The concept of “Urbanism” represents a way of life. It generally
means the fusion and evolution urban culture and the society.NOTES
According to Louis Wirth, Urbanism is a way of life, is
characterised by extensive conflicts of norms and values, increased social
differentiation, higher levels of education and income, by impersonality of
relationships and by increase in formal social controls.
More and more people were moving into cities, the condition of
living in a city, was become the way of modern life. According to Wirth, a
city was defined by its population size and density.
Wirth saw cities as promoting individualism, people in a city
pursue their own interests he also saw anonymity as a defining feature of
cities. Urban residents do not know each other well and there is a decline in
the significance of traditional and sacred things.
The readers might get confused by his explanation about the urban
cities in a negative way but the only thing he tries to convey is when the
area of a place increases, population also increase so there is a difficulty in
social life i.e. to get friendly affection each other. We may know each other
but not in personal way, because urban cities prefer individualism.

9.4.4 WORLD URBANISM DAY

The international organisation for World Urbanism Day, also
known as "World Town Planning Day", was founded in 1949 by the late
Professor Carlos Maria della Paoleraof the University of Buenos Aires, a
graduate at the Institute d'urbanisme in Paris, to advance public and
professional interest in planning. It is celebrated in more than 30 countries
on four continents each November 8th. It is a special day to recognise and
promote the role of planning in creating liveable communities.
World Urbanism Day presents an excellent opportunity to look at
planning from a global perspective, an event which appeals to the
conscience of citizens and public authorities in order to draw attention to
the environmental impact resulting from the development of cities and
territories.

Self - Instructional Material

157
 Check your progress - 2
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
Importance of the study b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
of urban sociology unit.
2. Who is the founder of world town planning day?
3. When is World urbanism day celebrated?
NOTES 4. How Louis Wirth defines a city?
5. Define urbanism.
9.5 FACTORS OF URBANISATION

The state of being or becoming a community with urban characteris

tics.
The process of change from a rural area to an urban area.
Urbanisation is a process whereby populations move from rural to
urban area, enabling cities and towns to grow. It can also be termed as the
progressive increase of the number of people living in towns and cities. It
is highly influenced by the notion that cities and towns have achieved
better economic, political and social mileages compared to the rural areas.
Accordingly, urbanisation is very common in developing and
developed countries as more and more people have the tendency of moving
closer to towns and cities to acquire ―privileged‖ social and economic
services as well as benefits. These include social and economic advantages
such as better education, health care, sanitation, housing, business
opportunities and transportation.
Majority of people move to cities and towns because they view
rural areas as places with hardship and backward/primitive lifestyle.
Therefore, as populations move to more developed areas (towns and cities)
the immediate outcome is urbanisation. This normally contributes to the
development of land for use in commercial properties, social and economic
support institutions, transportation and residential buildings. Eventually,
these activities raise several urbanisation issues.
9.5.1 URBANISATION
Urbanisation means a breakdown of traditional social institutions,
social norms, and values.
A population is considered as the chief feature of urbanization
including the social features underlying it.
Urbanisation has become the talk of the hour. Growth of industries
especially service sector had contributed to the growth of cities. As a result
of industrialisation people have started moving towards the industrial areas
in search of employment. This has resulted in the growth of towns and
cities from tier 1 to tier 3.
Urbanisation denotes a diffusion of the influence of urban centres
to a rural hinterland. Urbanisation can also be defined as a process or rate
of concentration of population in a particular urban area.

Self - Instructional Material According to Mitchell urbanisation is a process of becoming urban,

moving to cities, changing from agriculture to other pursuits common to
cities.

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9.5.2 CAUSES OF URBANISATION
Various reasons have led to the growth of cities. They are as
follows: Importance of the study
i. Industrialization of urban sociology
Industrialization is a major cause of urbanisation. It has expanded
the employment opportunities. Rural people have migrated to cities on
account of better employment opportunities.
ii. Social factors
Many social factors such as attraction of cities, better standard of NOTES
living, better educational facilities, need for status also induce people to
migrate to cities.
iii. Employment opportunities NOTES
In rural sector people have to depend mainly on agriculture for their
livelihood. But Indian agriculture is depending on monsoon. In drought
situations or natural calamities, rural people have to migrate to cities.
NOTES
iv. Modernization
Urban areas are characterized by sophisticated technology better
infrastructure, communication, medical facilities, etc. People feel that they
can lead a comfortable life in cities and migrate to cities.
v. Rural urban transformation
It is an interesting aspect that not only cities are growing in number
but rural community is adopting urban culture, no longer rural
communities are retaining their unique rural culture. Rural people are
following the material culture of urban people. Urban rural transformation
can be observed in the following areas.
Spread of education
The literacy rate has increased among the rural people. They have become
more modernized.
 Change in dress habits.
 Adoption of modern technology
 Enlightenment of women.
 Modern transport and communication. E.g.: Cell phones have
become common even among rural people.
 Active involvement in politics.
 Growth of infrastructure like Banks, Post office.
 Increasing demand for sophisticated products like cosmetics
etc.
Thus it can be noticed that there are significant changes in the life
style of village people. Indian villages have adopted urban culture and
urban style of living. However, all villages in India are not transformed.
Only certain villages situated close to the cities have been transformed.
9.5.3 EFFECT OF URBANISATION
With a high rate of urbanisation significant changes have taken
place. The effect of urbanisation can be summed up as follows:
Positive effect:
 Migration of rural people to urban areas.
 Employment opportunities in urban centres.
 Transport and communication facilities.
 Educational facilities. Self - Instructional Material
 Increase in the standard of living.

159
 Urbanisation may yield positive effects if it takes place up to a
desirable limit.
Importance of the study Extensive urbanisation or indiscriminate growth of cities may result in
of urban sociology negative effects. They may be as follows:
1. Problem of over population
Concentration of population is a major problem of cities. It has
resulted in accommodation problem, growth of slums etc.
NOTES 2. Disintegration of joint family
Joint family can‘t be maintained in cities on account of high
cost of living: People prefer to live in the nuclear type of families so
that cost of living might come down.
3. Cost of living
High cost of living is a major problem of cities. In Metro cities
like Mumbai, Bangalore etc. it is very difficult for lower income groups
to maintain a decent standard of living.
4. Increase in Crime rates
Urban centres are known for high rate of crimes. Theft, Murder,
Cheating, Pick pocketing, rape etc. are common in urban centres.
5. Impersonal relations
Urban centres are characterised by highly secondary relations.
The concept of neighbourhood, community life are almost absent in
cities. Urban life is highly monotonous. This may have an adverse
psychological effect on individuals. People are often self-centred and
they have no concern for the fellow human beings.
6. Problem of Pollution
In industrialized cities pollution is a major problem. It may be
caused by industries or by excessive movement of vehicles.
7. Stress
Urban life is characterized by stress which may even strain
family relations. In cities employment of women is almost inevitable to
meet the increasing cost of living. Changing role of women in the
family creates stress in the family which may result in divorce or
strained relations.
9.5.4 CAUSES OF URBANISATION IN INDIA
Urbanisation has become a common feature of Indian society.
Growth of industries has contributed to the growth of cities. As a result of
industrialisation people have started moving towards the industrial areas in
search of employment. This has resulted in the growth of towns and cities.
The main causes of urbanisation in India are:
 Expansion in government services, as a result of Second World
War
 Migration of people from Pakistan after partition of India.
 The Industrial Revolution
 Eleventh five year plan that aimed at urbanisation for the economic
development of India.
 Economic opportunities are just one reason people move into cities
 Infrastructure facilities in the urban areas
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 Growth of private sector after 1990.

160
Consequences of urbanisation
Rapid rise in urban population, in India, is leading to many Importance of the study
problems like increasing slums, decrease in standard of living in urban of urban sociology
areas, also causing environmental damage.
Check your progress - 3
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the NOTES
unit.
6. What are the causes of urbanisation?
7. What is the effect of stress in urbanisation? NOTES

9.6 LET US SUM UP

NOTES
Urban sociology is the study of problems and policies in an urban
area. It includes the role of cities in the process of cultural change.
Urbanism denotes a way of life. Louis Wirth has mentioned four
characteristics of urban system or urbanism – heterogeneity of population,
specialisation of function, anonymity and impersonality and
standardisation of behaviour. According to Wirth, a city was defined by its
population size and density. He pointed when an area of a place increases,
population also increase so there is a difficulty in social life. The
international organisation for World Urbanism Day was founded in 1949
by Professor Carlos Maria della Paolera of. It is celebrated in November
8th. It is a special day to recognise and promote the role of planning in
creating liveable communities. According to Mitchell urbanisation is a
process of becoming urban, moving to cities, changing from agriculture to
other pursuits common to cities. The factors or causes of urbanisation are
Industrialization Social factors Employment opportunities Modernization
and Rural urban transformation.
In this unit why studying of urban sociology is important have been
discussed. The term urbanism has been explained with the help of Louis
Wirth‘s urbanism as a way of life concept. Urbanisation, its factors and
urbanisation in India also discussed.
9.7 UNIT – END – EXERCISES
1. Importance of studying urban sociology. Comment on.
2. What do you mean by urbanism?
3. What are the characteristics of urbanism?
4. Define urbanisation.
5. Urbanisation in India. Explain.
9.8 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. To understand the institutions and structures that makes up a
metropolitan area to work with policy makers to solve social
problems in urban areas. Transformation of a plethora of
dimensions between urban and rural structures.
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161
 2. Professor Carlos Maria della Paolera
3. November 8th.
Importance of the study 4. Urbanism is a cultural-social-economic phenomenon which
of urban sociology traces interaction between the social and technological
processes. – Mamoria C.B.
5. A city was defined by its population size and density.
6. Industrialization, Social factors, Employment opportunities,
NOTES Modernization and Rural urban transformation
7. Urban life is characterized by stress which may even strain
family relations. In cities employment of women is almost
inevitable to meet the increasing cost of living. Changing
role of women in the family creates stress in the family
which may result in divorce or strained relations.

9.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Rao, M .S. A. (ed.), 1974. Urban Sociology in India, Orient
Longman, NewDelhi.
2. Ramachandran, R., 1989. Urbanization and Urban Systems
In India, OUP, Delhi.
3. Mishra, R. P., 1998. Urbanization in India: Challenges and
Opportunities, Regency Publications, New Delhi.
4. Rao, M.S.A. (ed.) 1991. A Reader in Urban Sociology
Orient Longman: New Delhi.
5. Flanagan, William G. 1993. Contemporary Urban
Sociology. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
6. Sunders, Peter 1981. Socia! Theory and the Urban
Question. Hutchinson and Co. Ltd.: London.
7. Ellin, Nan 2000. Post modern Urbanism, Princeton Press;
U.K.
8. Wirth, Louis. (1938) ‗‗Urbanism as a Way of Life.‘‘
American Journal of Sociology

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UNIT-X URBAN PLANNING
Structure Urban Planning
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Urban planning
10.3.1 Meaning of urban planning
10.3.2 Definition of urban planning NOTES
10.3.3 Role of Sociologist in urban Planning
10.3.4 Role of urban planners
10.3.5 New approach to urban planning
NOTES
10.3.6 Objectives of the National Urbanisation Policy
10.4 Definition of Urban locality and urban place
10.5 Urban Agglomeration and Other related terms NOTES
10.6 Let us sum up
10.7 Unit – end – exercises
10.8 Answer to check your progress
10.9 Suggested Readings
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Well plan is half done. Planning is a continuous process of
selecting and developing the best course of action to attain the objective.
Urban planning is a process by which the use of land is controlled and its
development is regulated in public interest. This type of planning involves
the consideration of human activities in time and space, on the known facts
about place, work and people. Urban planning consists of two components,
physical planning and socioeconomic planning. Sociologist works with the
urban planner leads to build comfortable urban areas. The terms urban
area, agglomeration, city, town are defined by the country varied.
In this unit you will learn meaning, definition, approach related to
urban planning and the role of sociologist and urban planner. You will
know the terms related to urban such as locality, place, agglomeration etc.

10.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to

 know the concept of urban planning

 understand the meaning and definition of urban planning
 explain the role of sociologist and urban planner in planning
 acquire the knowledge about various terms related to urban

10.3 URBAN PLANNING

10.3.1 MEANING OF URBAN PLANNING
Urban Planning is a technical and political process concerned
with the development and use of land, protection and use of the Self - Instructional Material
environment, public welfare, and the design of the urban environment,
including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban
areas, such as transportation, communications and distribution networks.
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 10.3.2 DEFINITION OF URBAN PLANNING

Urban Planning As Lewis Mumford defines:

―City planning involves the consideration of human activities in
time and space, on the basis of the known facts about place, work and
people. It involves the modification and relocation of various elements of
the total environment for the purpose of increasing their services to the
community, and it calls for the building of appropriate structure, dwellings,
NOTES
industrial plants, markets, water works, dams, bridges, villages, cities to
house the activities of a community, to assist the performance of all its
needful functions in a timely and orderly fashion.‖

10.3.3 ROLE OF SOCIOLOGIST IN URBAN PLANNING

Urban planning consists of two components such as physical
planning and socioeconomic planning.
Physical planning involves morphological aspects like land use,
architecture, transportation and energy, whereas socioeconomic
component involves social or human ecological processes, which have to
be taken into consideration during urban planning.
A sociologist is a better-equipped person in understanding the
human ecological processes like segregation, culture and social order.
As such, planning is a form of social action, different from
sociology, which analyses the behaviour and society. Socioeconomic
factors shape the morphological pattern of the city especially the urban
areas of the developing countries like India. Urban areas in reality are
socio-cultural units strongly influenced by ethnic, religious, linguistic and
politico-historical factors. An urban sociologist can provide all the
necessary knowledge in the process of urban planning.
The urban areas are not only the artefacts of buildings or structures
but also are the agglomeration of human beings. Hence, social values,
traditions and beliefs play an important role in exerting the influence on
land use, especially the housing pattern. In other words, social and cultural
processes are central to location processes, that is, shifting and sorting of
people leaves a deep impact on the morphology or internal structure of the
city.
Sociology and planning, both valuable to society, are different.
Sociology provides scientific understanding of society while democratic
planning utilizes community values through policy goals for social and
physical development.
The value of planning to the society can be understood by the way
it is called upon in modern times because complex urban area problems
(involving crime, housing, taxes, transportation, health, utilities and
welfare) cannot be adequately dealt with alone by either market
mechanisms or the functional self-interest of party politics.
Sociologists play two major roles in urban planning.
1. They help in analysing and explaining the social reality
dispassionately, objectively and truthfully. This is because they
possess the technical know-how and methodological equipment to
Self - Instructional Material understand such a task. They are also capable of understanding and
establishing in unmistakable terms the processes and mechanisms
of the social reality of the urban centre.
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 2. They coordinate with the urban planner and administrator with logi-
cally sound and meaningful alternatives (ideas) for urban
development. Urban Planning
Thus, to make the city really beautiful and also dynamic, the physical and
social factors have to be integrated. A sociologist is a right person to
integrate these two aspects.

10.3.4 ROLE OF URBAN PLANNERS NOTES

An urban planner is a professional who works in the field of urban

planning for the purpose of optimizing the effectiveness of a community's
NOTES
land use and infrastructure. They formulate plans for the development and
management of urban and suburban areas, typically analyzing land use
compatibility as well as economic, environmental and social trends. In
developing any plan for a community (whether commercial, NOTES residential,
agricultural, natural or recreational), urban planners must consider a wide
array of issues including sustainability, existing and
potential pollution, transport including potential congestion, crime, land
values, economic development, social equity, zoning codes and other
legislation.
The importance of the urban planner is increasing in the 21st
century, as modern society begins to face issues of increased population
growth, climate change and unsustainable development.
10.3.5 NEW APPROACH TO URBAN PLANNING
The traditional approaches to master plans have many limitations
which can be overcome and can be geared for development only if
 Its scope is wider than the city region.
 the elaboration of master plans for land use is to be effected within
the context of regional development plan
 Its focus is on policy statements rather than on mapped
relationships in terms of a full scale urban and regional
development policy.
 Its process provides for different mixes of regulations (local,
regional and national) and public investments in areas at different
stages of urbanisation.
 Its operational content is a changing sequence of different sectors
over functional and geographical units of space.
 Its coverage is wider enough to comprehend the development
sequences of a system of geographical and spatial units (of villages,
of towns, of cities, of regions, and of the nation as a whole).

10.3.6 OBJECTIVES OF THE NATIONAL URBANISATION POLICY

 Convergence of inter-regional income and growth
differentials i.e. controlling city growth in rich regions and
expanding urban centres in lagging ones;
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 Achieving national economic growth which has its
implications in terms of structure and spacing of a hierarchy

165
 as a whole to the importance of leading cities as generic
forces of economic growth and diffusion of innovation;
Urban Planning  Gradual elimination of differential in life style in terms of
productivity and welfare both in urban and rural areas
providing the minimum levels of services for improving the
quality of life.
 Favour a pattern of urbanisation and economic development
NOTES which offers wide range of alternative locations and
encourages a balanced use of natural and human resources.
 Equating the private and social cost of urban development
since divergence between social and private costs leads to
excessive growth of cities.

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What do you mean by urban planning?
2. What are the two components involved in urban planning?
3. Who is called an urban planner?
10.4 DEFINITION OF URBAN LOCALITY AND URBAN
PLACE

For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is a place
having a minimum population of 5,000 of density 400 persons per square
kilometre (1,000/sq mi) or higher, and 75% plus of the male working
population employed in non-agricultural activities. Places administered by
a municipal corporation, cantonment board or notified town area
committee are automatically considered urban areas.
It is one of the most crucial and instantaneous problems to decide
„what is urban? ‟ How does it differ from its counterpart, i.e., rural? In
everyday life we are aware that distinction between rural and urban
depends upon their nature of work – the former being engaged in
agricultural operations and the latter in non-agricultural activities. But it is
a difficult task to transform the above stated meaning between the two
different natures of settlements into accurate and scholarly terms. This is
because of the fact that „an urban place‟ has been defined differently by
different scholars and agencies. Even the United Nations Demographic
Year Book (UN, 1990) has given a wide scope of examples covering the
different countries defining demographically. UNO defines a permanent
settlement with a minimum population of 20,000 as an urban place. But
several countries have their own minimum such as Botswana (5,000),
Ethiopia (2,000), Argentina (2,000), Israel (2,000), Czechoslovakia
(5,000), Iceland (200), Norway (200), Portugal (10,000), Japan (50,000),
Australia (1,000), India (5,000), etc. But, the UN Demographic Year Book
concludes: ―There is no point in the gamut from large agglomerations to
small clusters or scattered dwellings where urbanity disappears and rurality
begins the division between urban and rural populations is essentially
Self - Instructional Material illogical.‖ A review of the problems of rural and urban centres as shown by
the Census Reports of various countries identifies a few bases for estimate
a place as urban.
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These are:
1. A place selected by administrative status;
2. A minimum population; Urban Planning
3. A minimum population density; A concept of contiguity to
include or exclude under suburban area or loosely spread
settlement;
4. A percentage engaged in non-agricultural occupations; and
5. A practical character. NOTES

In case of our country (India), the census of 1981 has identified the
following places as urban:
NOTES
1. Centres having Municipality, City Board, Cantonment
Board/Notified Town Area;
2. A minimum population of 5,000; NOTES
3. 75 per cent males engaged in non-agricultural activities;
4. A minimum population density of 400 persons per square km or
1,000 persons per square mile; and
5. Centres defined by urban amenities prescribed by the Director,
Provincial Census.

Two important realities must be borne in mind before accepting the

meaning of urban and rural. One is the fact that it is fairly impossible now
to recognize a dividing line between the rural and urban – the two being
merged to create a sort of dispersal and present a landscape which is
neither purely agricultural nor engaged wholly in tertiary activities.
Industrialization has brought into being a large number of settlements
which are not certainly villages but are nucleated settlements of
agricultural population. Another problem is about the concept of what is
urban, which is not static and is subject to change with time as well as with
space. The proportion of population engaged in agricultural activities is the
most effective measure. But capitalization of agriculture in modern times
and rural depopulation by commuting urban workers has prepared the
standard of proportion irrelevant.
Land use in urban areas is usually classified into the following
categories of uses: residential, industrial, commercial, transport, and open
spaces (such as parks, stadia and water bodies). Of these, the use of land
for residential purposes occupies the largest proportion of urban land—
somewhere between 40 to 50 per cent. However, the distribution of land
between the above uses is a function of city size, historicity, and city
function (such as industrial, administrative and commercial). The intensity
of use of urban land for residential purposes can be measured in terms of
gross population density of the city, that is, population of the city upon area
of the city—the city boundary defined as in municipality, municipal,
corporation, nagar etc., and the population contained in it. Another variant
of this could be residential density, that is, population of the city upon
residential area. The intensity of use of residential land as well as
commercial land is also influenced by land values—an expected positive Self - Instructional Material
relationship—the higher the land value, the higher the intensity of use of
land. High income residents do occupy more land per capita, therefore such
areas have lower population densities.
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 10.5 URBAN AGGLOMERATION AND OTHER
Urban Planning
RELATED TERMS
An urban agglomeration is a continuous urban spread constituting
a town and its adjoining outgrowths (OGs), or two or more physically
contiguous towns together with or without outgrowths of such towns.

NOTES Urban agglomerations, which is defined as geographic

concentration of urban population and economic activities. This implies
that urban agglomeration includes but not equal to urbanization. Urban
India has been experiencing a steady increase in the share of its urban
population, emergence of new cities or towns, sizeable contribution to the
country's national income, reduction of poverty, increasing inequality, and
lower level of inclusive growth. Urban population expansion is due to
natural growth of population (accounted 59.4 percent in 1991-01);
emergence of new cities (accounted 6.2 percent in 1991-01); rural to urban
migration (accounted 21 percent in 1991-01); and reclassification of rural
areas as urban (accounted 13 percent in 1991-01)
An Urban Agglomeration must consist of at least a statutory town
and its total population (i.e. all the constituents put together) should not be
less than 20,000 as per the 2001 Census. In varying local conditions, there
were similar other combinations which have been treated as urban
agglomerations satisfying the basic condition of contiguity.

An urban area or urban agglomeration is a human settlement with

high population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban
areas are created through urbanization and are categorized by urban
morphology as cities, towns, conurbations or suburbs.
An urban agglomeration is an extended city or town area
comprising the built-up area of a central place and any suburbs linked by
continuous urban area.
Sorokin and Zimmerman enumerate and characterises in which the
urban world differs from the rural world. These are a) occupation b)
environment c) size of community d) density of population e)
heterogeneity f) social differentiation and stratification g) mobility and h)
system of interactions. As occupation forms the main basis for other social
activities, we call a city an agglomeration where people are engaged in
other than agricultural occupations.

The Census of India 2011 also defined the term "urban

agglomeration" as an integrated urban area consisting of a core town
together with its "outgrowths" (contiguous suburbs).
OTHER RELATED TERMS
a) City: Any urban area with a population of 100,000 or more is treated as
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168
b) Census Town: Any area which satisfies the following criteria is
classified as Census Town (CT) for the purpose of Census:-
Urban Planning
i) a minimum population of 5,000.
ii) at least 75 per cent of male working population in non-
agricultural
iii) a density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.
NOTES
Check your progress - 2
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit. NOTES
4. How can Census of India 2011 define urban agglomeration?
5. Define city according to Indian Census.
NOTES

10.6 LET US SUM UP

During urban planning physical planning involves morphological
aspects, whereas socioeconomic component involves social or human
ecological processes are considered. A sociologist is a better-equipped
person in understanding the human ecological processes. An urban planner
works in the field of urban planning for the purpose of optimizing the
effectiveness of a community's land use and infrastructure. Traditional
methods and its limitations lead to new approaches in urban planning.

In this unit you have learnt meaning and definition of urban

planning. The two components physical and socioeconomic planning with
role of sociologist in urban planning has been discussed. A new approach
to urban planning and the objectives of National Urbanisation Policy has
been discussed. The terms urban place, agglomeration also have been
discussed.

10.7 UNIT – END – EXERCISES

1. Define urban planning.
2. Explain the role of sociologist in urban planning.
3. List down the objectives of National Urbanisation Policy.
4. Enumerate the criteria for classify census town.

10.8 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Urban Planning is a technical and political
process concerned with the development and use of land,
protection and use of the environment, public welfare, and
the design of the urban environment.
2. Urban planning consists of two components such as
physical planning and socioeconomic planning.
3. An urban planner is a professional who works in the field of
urban planning for the purpose of optimizing the Self - Instructional Material
effectiveness of a community's land use and infrastructure.
4. An integrated urban area consisting of a core town together
with its "outgrowths" (contiguous suburbs).
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 5. An urban area with a population of 100,000 or more is
treated as city in the Indian Census.
Urban Planning

10.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Spence, M., Aneez, P.C., Buckley, R. M., ìurbanisation and
Growthî Commission on Urban Growth, 2009.
NOTES
2. Cali, M. (2008), ―Urbanisation, Inequality and Economic Growth:
Evidence from Indian States and Towns, Background Note for the
World Development Report 2009,‖ June.
3. Planning Commission (2013), ―Urban Development,‖ Twelfth Five
Year Plan (2012 to 2017): Economic Sectors, Vol. 2.
4. Bruegmann Robert, (2005), ―Sprawl: A Compact History‖, The
University Press, Chicago, pp 21 and 22.
5. Kashyap Shikha and Singh P R, ―Impact Analysis of Urbanization
Activities on Land Use: A Study of Ranchi Municipal Corporation‖

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170
UNIT-XI URBAN RENEWAL,
Urban Renewal,
PLANNING FOR NEW SETTLEMENTS Planning for new
Structure Settlements
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Urban renewal
11.3.1 Meaning of Urban Renewal
11.3.2 Definition of Urban Renewal NOTES
11.3.3 Urban Renewal Area
11.3.4 Reasons for Urban Renewal
11.3.5 Objectives of Urban Renewal
NOTES
11.3.6 Goals of Urban Renewal
11.3.7 Process of Urban Renewal
11.3.8 Implementation of Urban Renewal NOTES
11.3.9 Benefits of Urban Renewal
11.3.10 Problems of Urban Renewal
11.4 Planning for new settlements
11.5 Measuring urbanisation
11.5.1 Measures of Urbanisation
11.5.2 Level of Measuring Urbanisation in India
11.5.3 Ways to Measure Urbanisation
11.5.4 Degree of Urbanisation in India
11.5.5 Pace of Urbanisation
11.6 Let us sum up
11.7 Unit – end – exercises
11.8 Answer to check your progress
11.9 Suggested Readings

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Urbanisation has its own merits and demerits. Urbanisation can‘t be
avoided. The renewal of urban is needed one now a day. The term urban
renewal means rebirth or regeneration of a city or a part of it which has
been plagued by the ills of urbanisation. The planning concept originated
in England and America in 1930‘s. Urban renewal can affect the urban
environment at many levels. The preservation of the city's identity,
community, local culture and natural and built environments must be
given special attention in the process of renewal. Urban and rural
settlements differ in demographics, land area and usage, population
density, transportation networks and economic dependencies.
Measurement gives a clear idea about reality and helps in making effective
future strategies. Measurement of the degree of urbanisation in a country
like India is considered very important. Urbanisation in India has been
relatively slow compared to many developing countries.
Self - Instructional Material
In this unit you will learn meaning and definition of urban renewal,
objectives and goals of urban renewal, implementation process, benefits
and problems in urban renewal. You will learn urban settlements, ways to
measure urbanisation, degree of measuring urbanisation and pace of
urbanisation also.
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 11.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to
Urban Renewal,
 know the concept of urban renewal
Planning for new
 understand the process related to urban renewal
Settlements
 differentiate urban settlement from rural
 acquire the knowledge about urbanisation
 describe the degree of measuring urbanisation in India
11.3 URBAN RENEWAL
11.3.1 MEANING OF URBAN RENEWAL
NOTES Local policies and strategies designed to deal with urban decline
decay or transformation are termed as urban renewal. It is a comprehensive
and integrated vision and action which leads to the resolution of urban
problems and which seeks to bring about a lasting improvement in the
economic, physical, social and environmental conditions of an area that has
been subject to change.

The term urban renewal means rebirth or regeneration of a city or a

part of it which has been plagued by the ills of urbanisation. The planning
concept originated in England and America in 1930‘s.
Urban renewal is a program of land redevelopment often used to
address urban decay in cities. Urban renewal is the clearing out of blighted
areas in inner cities to clear out slums and create opportunities for higher
class housing, businesses and more.
Urban renewal is a planning strategy that has been introduced to
improve urban conditions, which may have been observed to deteriorate in
quality and efficiency. It is also described as the aggregate of techniques
which have been used for the treatment of urban problems in a physical
basis.

11.3.2 DEFINITION OF URBAN RENEWAL

Urban renewal refers to a set of plans and activities to upgrade
neighbourhoods and suburbs that are in state of distress or decay. Urban
renewal programs address the physical aspects of urban decay. Urban
problems such as deteriorating housing, poor physical infrastructure
(including water and sanitation services), and poor community services
such as sports and recreational amenities are addressed through such
programs.
Another definition of urban renewal was put by encyclopaedia Chicago to
refer primarily to ―the public efforts to revitalize aging and decaying inner
cities and sub urban communities‖. In other words; it is a planned process
of city regeneration through an integrated program of slum clearance or
redevelopment, rehabilitation and conservation.

Self - Instructional Material Urban renewal is described as a planned attempt to transform the urban
environment through structured large-scale control of existing urban areas
to enhance both the present and future operations of urban populace. It is
also the deliberate physical redevelopment of decayed or deteriorated
172
areas, improving the infrastructure and the removal of elements considered
to affect the effectiveness and efficiency of the area.
Urban Renewal,
11.3.3 URBAN RENEWAL AREA Planning for new
Settlements
An urban neighbourhood or area which is improved and
rehabilitated called urban renewal area. The renewal process can include
demolishing old or run-down buildings, constructing new, up-to-date
housing, or adding in features like a theatre or stadium. Urban renewal is
often part of the gentrification process. NOTES
11.3.4 REASONS FOR URBAN RENEWAL
 Urban Renewal works because it stimulates NOTESa cycle of
private investment by removing the blighted conditions that
act as a barrier to new development.
 There is an increase in population living in very
NOTESunhealthy
conditions.
 The number of aged building is increasing and residence at
the risk of collapse buildings.
 There is widening gap in infrastructure between the
populace and the environment.
 Improve the quality of life of residents in the urban areas.

11.3.5 OBJECTIVES OF URBAN RENEWAL

The main objectives of urban renewal are –
 restructuring and re-planning designated target areas;
 designing more effective and environmentally-friendly local
transport and road networks;
 rationalizing land uses;
 redeveloping dilapidated buildings into new buildings of
modern standard and environmentally-friendly design;
 promoting the rehabilitation of buildings in need of repair;
 preserving buildings, sites and structures of historical,
cultural or architectural interest;
 preserving as far as practicable local characteristics;
 preserving the social networks of the local community;
 providing purpose-built housing for groups with special
needs, such as the elderly and the disabled;
 providing more open space and community/welfare
facilities; and
 Enhancing the townscape with attractive landscape and
urban design.

11.3.6 GOALS OF URBAN RENEWAL

The goals of urban renewal are: Self - Instructional Material

 to improve the built environment by replacing old, run-down or
under-utilised urban areas with new developments which are
properly planned and, where appropriate, provided with adequate
transport and other infrastructure and community facilities;
Self - Instructional Material
173
  to achieve better utilisation of land in the dilapidated urban areas to
meet various development needs;
Urban Renewal,  to achieve better utilisation of land in the dilapidated urban areas to
Planning for new meet various development needs;
Settlements  To promote rehabilitation and preservation of buildings, and
improvement of places of local, architectural, cultural or historical
interest.

11.3.7 PROCESS OF URBAN RENEWAL

Urban renewal requires a careful and adequate planning process
NOTES that will ensure that all activities are done through proper and acceptable
standards. The following process is involved in how urban renewal is
carried out.
 Designation of the area to be improved to ensure quality criteria
such as housing condition facilities, drainage problem etc,
 Investigation and study of the existing condition and characteristics
of the designated Renewal areas.
 Preparation of physical development plans such as land use plan,
road plan, community facility plan and future improvement
program to the area.
 Establishment of relocation programme when the renewal will
necessitate popular displacement.
 Programme implementation and evaluation.

11.3.8 IMPLEMENTATION OF URBAN RENEWAL

Urban renewal can affect the urban environment at many levels.
The preservation of the city's identity, community, local culture and
natural and built environments must be given special attention in the
process of renewal.
There is need to consider the following process during the
implementation of urban renewal;
 Community sensitization.
 Constitution of the implementation body.
 Identification of sources of finance and mobilization of
funds program
implementation.
 Land acquisition
 Displacement and relocation
 Site preparation.
 Site improvement and facility location.
 Land allocation.

11.3.9 BENEFITS OF URBAN RENEWAL

Urban renewal can generate a range of benefits
Self - Instructional Material
 better utilisation of existing and proposed infrastructure
 increased city productivity from the co-location of more intensive
jobs and housing
174
  attracting visitors and additional expenditure
 new employment opportunities
Urban Renewal,
11.3.10 PROBLEMS OF URBAN RENEWAL Planning for new
Settlements
These are the problems of urban renewal: housing, education,
public health and a generally decent living environment, loss of
biodiversity and green house, warming, desertification, degradation of
agricultural land, air and water pollution, environmental decay, slums,
insanitation, overcrowding etc. NOTES

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given atNOTES the end of the
unit.
1. What is called urban renewal?
2. Enumerate the benefits of urban renewal. NOTES
3. Write any four problems in urban renewal.

11.4. PLANNING FOR NEW SETTLEMENTS

Settlement
A settlement is a general term used in archaeology, geography,
landscape history and other subjects for a permanent or temporary
community in which people live, without being specific as to size,
population or importance. A settlement can therefore range in size from
small number of dwellings grouped together to the largest of cities with
surrounding urbanised areas.
Urban settlements
Urban and rural settlements differ in demographics, land area and
usage, population density, transportation networks and economic
dependencies. These characteristics are the defining differences that
geographers and city planners observe between rural and urban centres.
Demographics
Urban settlements contain a heterogeneous population consisting of
different ages, cultures and ethnicities.
Land area and usage
Urban settlements are more expansive and contain a wide range of
land uses. For instance, major metropolitan areas use density zoning to
indicate different levels of development.
Population density
The U.S. Census Bureau defines urban settlements as areas with
more than 50,000 people and at least 1,000 people per square mile;
including contiguous census tracks or blocks with at least 500 people per
square mile.
Transportation network
Urban settlements contain highway infrastructure as well as airports Self - Instructional Material
and light or heavy commuter rail.
Economy
Urban areas are dependent on a global economy of import and
export.
Self - Instructional Material
175
 Define urban settlements
Most governments define urban settlements based on one or a
Urban Renewal, combination of criteria, including population size, population density, and
Planning for new social and economic factors, such as the proportion of the labour force
Settlements engaged in non-agricultural activities; the administrative or political status
of a locality, such as national, provincial, or district capitals, or census
designations. (Hardoy et al., 2001)

Check your progress - 2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
NOTES b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
4. What do you mean by settlement?
5. Define urban settlement.

11.5 MEASURING URBANISATION

11.5.1 MEASURES OF URBANISATION
―What gets measured gets managed.‖ ~ Peter F. Drucker
This truism succinctly relates to a fundamental concern in the field
of urbanisation. It is, after all, another way of saying that measurement
gives a clear idea about reality and helps in making effective future
strategies.

There are two measures of the degree of urbanization of a

population.
1. The first, urban population describes the percentage of the
total population living in urban areas, as defined by the
country.
2. The second measure, rate of urbanization, describes the
projected average rate of change of the size of the urban
population over the given period of time.

In India, the rate of urbanisation is 2.37% in the period of 2015-20

estimated by CIA World Fact book with estimates from 2018.

IN INDIA
State Government Definition
Governor of the state declares by public notification an area as
‖urban‖ based on certain parameters, such as population of the area, the
density of the population therein, the revenue generated for local
administration, the percentage of employment in non-agricultural activities,
the economic importance or such other factors.
National Government (census office) Definition:
a) All administrative units that have been defined by statute (i.e.,
Self - Instructional Material settlements declared based on state government definition).
b) Administrative units satisfying the following three criteria:
 A minimum population of 5,000 persons;

176
  75 percent and above of the male main working population
being engaged in non–agricultural pursuits; and
 A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km. Urban Renewal,
(1,000 per sq. mile). Planning for new
Settlements
11.5.2 LEVEL OF MEASURING URBANISATION IN INDIA
This is the official figure and the present level of
urbanisation in India. National Government (census office): The census
office has added 4.46 percent to the official figure of 26.69 percent. Thus, NOTES
according to the census office, 31.15 percent of India's population lived in
urban areas in 2011.

11.5.3 WAYS TO MEASURE URBANISATION NOTES

It includes Population growth, Rural-urban migration, Push and

Pull factors, Push factors, Pull factors. NOTES
i. Population Growth
Population growth is one of the main reasons to the urbanisation.
Fertility rates are largely dependent on economic considerations. As
economic wellbeing increases, the fertility level decreases. Security about
the future and alternatives to family life in the cities are the main reasons
for this decrease. Education level has similar effect as economic wellbeing
to the fertility rates.

ii.Rural-Urban Migration
Migration is a form of geographical or spatial motion between one
geographical unit and another. Internal migration consists of rural-rural,
rural-urban, urban-urban and urban-rural migration. Migration is continues
and repeated process rather than a single event. Because of these facts, it is
difficult to measure and study. The time of migration also varies; it can be
periodic, seasonal, or long-term migration.
Migration is the main reason for rapid growth of mega-cities.
Migration has been going on over centuries and it is normal phenomenon.
When considering urbanization rural-urban and urban-rural and rural-rural
migrations are very important. Urban-urban migration means that people
move from one city to another.
Many migrants are environmental refugees from badly depleted
rural areas. In developing countries industrial growth in urban areas offers
employment and trading opportunities for rural people which are faced
with declining living standards. Now a day the urbanisation is increasingly
occurring also without any significant opportunities for new migrants.

iii. Push and Pull Factors

People may move to the city because they are pushed by poverty
from rural communities or they may be pulled by the attractions of city Self - Instructional Material
lives. Combination of these push and pull factors can also be on reason for
moving to cities.
In many parts of the world rural population growth and shortage of
arable land are the major problems. Even though the land holdings have
Self - Instructional Material
177
 been quite big they are to be divided with several children and eventually,
their children. These circumstances make migration the only opportunity to
Urban Renewal, farming people. Things are made worse by environmental deterioration.
Planning for new iv. Push Factors
Settlements The normal push factors to rural people are the circumstances that
make their earning of living impossible, land deterioration, lack of
adequate land, unequal land distribution, droughts, storms, floods, and
clean water shortages.
These serious disadvantages make farming, the livelihood of rural
people, hard and sometimes hopeless. Lack of modern resources, firewood
NOTES shortages, religious conflicts, local economic declines, are also major
reasons for moving to the urban areas.
v. Pull Factors
High industrial wages in urban areas are one of the biggest
attractions for rural people. People will continue to migrate to cities as long
as they expect urban wages to exceed their current rural wages.
Employment opportunities, higher incomes, joining other rural refugees,
freedom from oppressive lifestyle, access to better health care and
education, are the ―bright lights‖ for rural people.
One of the main reasons for people to move to the urban areas is
that the situation in the rural areas is very difficult. With the income level
they have it is not possible to survive. In the case even the low salaries in
the urban areas are more attractive than non-existing salaries in the rural
areas.

11.5.4 DEGREE OF URBANISATION IN INDIA

Measurement of the degree of urbanisation in a country like India is
considered very important. Various measures are being used for the
purpose.

 As per the first simple method we observed that the total

urban population in India in 1981 was a little less than one
fourth of the total population in comparison to that of one-
ninth in 1921 and one-sixth in 1951.

 The second method, i.e., the urban-rural growth differential

(URGD) method also revealed that the growth rates of both
rural and urban population are very close to each other at
present.

 Third method showing the growth of urban population

reveals that as the total population of the country rose by
about three times since 1921 but the total urban population
of the country increased by about six-times. Thus all the
methods observed more or less same results.

Self - Instructional Material If we compare degree of urbanisation in India with that of

developed countries then we can find that India is lagging far behind the
high-income countries. In 1985, the proportion of urban population to total

178
population was 92 per cent in U.K., 86 per cent in Australia, 76 per cent in
Japan, and 74 per cent in U.S.A. as against only 25 per cent in India.
Urban Renewal,
The degree or level of urbanisation is defined as relative number of Planning for new
people who live in urban areas. Percent urban [(U/P)*100] and percent Settlements
rural [(R/P)*100 and urban-rural ratio [(U/R)*100] are used to measure
degree of urbanisation. These are most commonly used for measuring
degree of urbanisation. The ratio U/P has lower limit 0 and upper limit 1.
The index is 0 for total population equal to rural population. When whole
population is urban, this index is one. When 50 percent of the population is NOTES
rural, it means that there is one urbanite for each rural person. The urban-
rural ratio has a lower limit of zero and upper limit ∝. Theoretically upper
NOTES
Limit will be infinite when there is no rural population (R=0) but
this is impossible. From table 1 it is clear that percent urban has increased
from 11% in 1901 to 28% in 2001, whereas percent rural NOTES has shown
gradual decrease from 89% to 72% over a century. Urban rural ratio which
is a simple index measuring number of urbanites for each rural person in an
area l unit experiences an increasing trend during hundred years in the
process of urbanisation in India. The urban-rural ratio for India in 2001
turns out to be around 38, meaning that against every 100 ruralites there
are 38 urbanites in India in 2001. All these indices pin point that India is in
the process of urbanisation (Sovani, 1966) and it is at the acceleration stage
of urbanisation.

Table - 1
Degree/Index of Urbanisation
Census years Percent urban Percent rural Urban –Rural Ratio (%)
1901 10.84 89.15 12.16
1911 10.29 89.71 11.47
1921 11.18 88.82 12.58
1931 11.99 88.01 13.63
1941 13.86 86.14 16.08
1951 17.29 82.71 20.91
1961 17.97 82.03 21.91
1971 18.24 81.76 22.31
1981 23.33 76.66 30.44
1991 25.72 74.28 34.63
2001 27.78 72.22 38.47

11.5.5 PACE OF URBANISATION

Urbanisation in India has been relatively slow compared to many
developing countries. The percentage of annual exponential growth rate of
urban population in India it grew at faster pace from the decade 1921-31 to Self - Instructional Material
until 1951. Thereafter it registered a sharp drop during the decade 1951-61.
The decades 1961-71 and 1971-81 showed a significant improvement in
the growth, which thereafter steadily dropped to the present level 2.7. The
sharp drop in urban rate during 1951-61 was mainly due to declassification
Self - Instructional Material
179
 of a very large number of towns during that period. Rural growth has been
fluctuating since 1901. The decline in rural population growth was within
Urban Renewal, small range during 1981-91 and 1991-2001. During the process of
Planning for new urbanisation it is natural that rgup > rgtp > rgrp, where rgup = rate of
Settlements growth of urban population, rgtp = rate of growth of total population, rgrp
= rate of growth of rural population. This fact is supported in case of
Indian urbanisation also since 1911.
Tempo of urbanisation refers to speed of urbanisation and is
measured as change registered in the level or degree of urbanisation over
the years. Tempo or speed of urbanisation is not uniform over the years. It
NOTES
shows a fluctuating trend over the years 1901-1981 and a declining trend
during 1981-91, 1991-2001. Again it is required to mention tempo of
urbanization measured as a per cent will tend toward zero as the urban
population reaches the 100 percent level, since the urban and total
population growth would become the same.

Check your progress - 3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
6. What are the two measures for measuring urbanisation?
7. Enumerate the ways to measure urbanisation.
8. Give the abbreviations for the following. A) rgtp B) rgup C) rgrp

11.6 LET US SUM UP

Urban renewal has been used by government improve the quality of
life of the people but has faced many challenges. Urban renewal must not
be done on a strictly system oriented basis but must have a human face,
after all; it is for the people. Local policies and strategies designed to deal
with urban decline decay or transformation are termed as urban renewal.
These are the problems of urban renewal: housing, education, public health
and a generally decent living environment, loss of biodiversity and green
house, warming, desertification, degradation of agricultural land, air and
water pollution, environmental decay, slums, insanitation, overcrowding
etc. There are two measures of the degree of urbanization of a population.
The first, urban population describes the percentage of the total population
living in urban areas, as defined by the country. The second measure, rate
of urbanization, describes the projected average rate of change of the size
of the urban population over the given period of time. Ways to measure
urbanisation includes Population growth, Rural-urban migration, Push and
pull factors, Push factors, Pull factors.
In this unit you have learnt meaning and definition of urban
renewal, the terms related to urban renewal. Urban settlements and its
definition also discussed. Measures of urbanisation, ways to measuring
urbanisation, degree of measuring urbanisation in India and pace of
Self - Instructional Material
urbanisation were also discussed in detail.

180
11.7 UNIT – END – EXERCISES
1. Define urban renewal by encyclopaedia Chicago.
Urban Renewal,
2. Explain the objectives of urban renewal.
Planning for new
3. While the implementation of urban renewal what will you
Settlements
consider?
4. In what ways urban and rural settlements differ?
5. Write the definition of urban by State Government in India.
6. Explain about the degree of urbanisation in India.
7. Discuss the ways to measure urbanisation. NOTES

11.8 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

NOTES
1. Local policies and strategies designed to deal with urban decline decay
or transformation are termed as urban renewal. The term urban renewal
means rebirth or regeneration of a city or a part of it which has been
NOTES
plagued by the ills of urbanisation.

2. Benefits of urban renewal are as follows:

 better utilisation of existing and proposed infrastructure

 increased city productivity from the co-location of more
intensive jobs and housing
 attracting visitors and additional expenditure
 new employment opportunities
3. Housing, education, public health and a generally decent
living environment, loss of biodiversity and green house, warming,
desertification, degradation of agricultural land, air and water pollution,
environmental decay, slums, insanitation, overcrowding etc.
4. A settlement is a general term used in archaeology, geography,
landscape history and other subjects for a permanent or temporary
community in which people live, without being specific as to size,
population or importance.

5. Urban settlements based on one or a combination of criteria, including

population size, population density, and social and economic factors, such
as the proportion of the labour force engaged in non-agricultural activities;
the administrative or political status of a locality, such as national,
provincial, or district capitals, or census designations. (Hardoy et al., 2001)
6. The first measure, urban population describes the percentage of the total
population living in urban areas, as defined by the country. The second
measure, rate of urbanization, describes the projected average rate of
change of the size of the urban population over the given period of time.

7. Population growth, Rural-urban migration, Push and pull factors, Push Self - Instructional Material
factors, Pull factors.
8. A)rgtp = rate of growth of total population, B) rgup = rate of growth of
urban population,
C) rgrp = rate of growth of rural population
Self - Instructional Material
181
 11.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
Urban Renewal,
Planning for new
1. Sandhu R.S. (2003). Urbanisation in India Sociological
Settlements
Contributions, Sage, New Delhi.
2. Shivaramakrishan, K.C. Amitabh Kundu and B.N. Singh, (2005).
Oxford Hand Book of Urbanisation in India, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.
3. Kundu, Amitabh, 2005. ‗Urbanization and Urban Governance:
Search for a Perspective beyond Neo-Liberalism‘, in Pachimbange
NOTES Nagar Unnyoner Abhigyata, Proceedings of the Seminar held at
NBU on 5-6 February 2005: 101-124.
4. Ramachandran, R., 1989. Urbanization and Urban System in India,
New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
5. Pardeep Sachdeva: Urban Local Government and Administration in
India, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, 1993.
6. R.K.Viswakarma: Urban and Regional Planning in India.
7. Lioyd Rodwin: Urban Planning in Developing Countries,
Washington, D.C., 1975.
8. Mishra, R.P. Million Cities in India, Vikas Publishing House, New
Delhi, 1978.
9. Bhardwaj, R.K. The Problems of Urban Development in India in
S.K.Sharma(eds) Dynemics of Development,Concept
Publications,1978.
10. Benjamin Rowland: The Art and Architecture of India. Penguin
books, Great Britain, 1954.

Self - Instructional Material

182
 UNIT – XII
Trends of World
TRENDS OF WORLD URBANIZATION Urbanization
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Trends of world urbanisation NOTES
12.3.1 Urbanisation
12.3.2 Level of Urbanisation
12.3.3 The Level of Urbanisation in the World
NOTES
12.3.4 Urban Population in the World
12.4 Growth of urban population in India
12.4.1 Urban Growth in India NOTES
12.4.2 Inter-State Variation in Urbanisation
12.4.3 Urbanised States in India
12.4.4 Component of Urban Growth
12.4.5 Basic Feature and Pattern of India's Urbanisation
12.5 Let us sum up
12.6 Unit – end – exercises
12.7 Answer to check your progress
12.8 Suggested Readings

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Today, more than half of the world‘s population, 3.5 billion people,
live in urban areas, and by 2030 this will rise to 60%. Over the next
decades there will be significant changes in the size and distribution of the
world‘s population. Urbanisation is a global trend reflecting the growing
population of the world. The level of urbanisation is often defined in terms
of proportion of urban population to total population. India‘s urbanisation
level is still low, although urbanisation has gained some speed in the post-
independence period.
In this unit you will learn the level of urbanisation and urban
population. You will learn urban growth in India, its components, basic
features and patterns of urbanisation in India also in detail.

12.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to
 analyse the census reports on urban population
 understand the term urban growth
 differentiate the level of urbanisation among Indian states
 explain the components and pattern of urbanisation in India
 compare the annual growth of population Self - Instructional Material

Self - Instructional Material

183
 12.3 TRENDS OF WORLD URBANISATION
Trends of World
12.3.1 URBANISATION
Urbanization
Urbanisation refers to the population shift from rural areas to urban
areas, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas,
and the ways in which each society adapts to this change.
Urbanisation is measured by two ways: First, level and growth
of urban share of total population and its distribution by size classes of
NOTES cities and towns. This is called demographic approach. Second, changes in
number and growth of urban centres and an expansion of geographical
boundaries of existing urban areas. This is called geographical approach.

Urbanisation is a global trend reflecting the growing population of

the world. The urban populations of less-developed countries are currently
increasing at a faster rate than those of more-developed countries.
Urbanisation results from a natural increase in the population and rural to
urban migration.
The urban population (UN, 1993) was estimated to be 2.96 billion
in 2000 and 3.77 in 2010. It was estimated that nearly 50 million people
are added to the world's urban population and about 35 million to the rural
population each year. The share of world's population living in urban
centres has increased from 39% in 1980 to 48% in 2000. The developed
countries have higher urbanisation level (76% in 2000) compared with
developing countries (40% in 2000). The urbanisation level has almost
stabilized in developed countries. Africa and Asian countries are in the
process of urbanisation.

12.3.2 LEVELS OF URBANISATION

The level of urbanisation is often defined in terms of proportion of
urban population to total population. This measure of urbanisation attaches
great value to the human and social dimensions of urbanisation as well.
There are, however, two more important measures of urbanisation. The
first one is that the towns serve the rural people in terms of socio-economic
change and the larger the rural people served by each town, on an average,
the lower the level of urbanisation. Alternatively, when no rural people are
left to be served by town urbanisation is taken to have reached its zenith.
The second measure of urbanisation concerns that the distance the rural
people have to cover to reach the nearest urban center, the greater the
distance, lower the level of urbanisation. Because such a situation would
mean urban centers are fewer in number and the distance between the
urban centers is quite high. In a state with well-developed urban network
people cover smaller distances to reach the urban centers. (Ramachandran,
1989).

Self - Instructional Material 12.3.3 THE LEVEL OF URBANISATION IN THE WORLD

The level of urbanisation in the world India‘s urbanisation level is
still low, although urbanisation has gained some speed in the post-
independence period. From the 1990 data we can see that 42.7 per cent of
world population was living in urban areas. There was wide gap in the
184

Self - Instructional Material

level of urbanisation between the more developed regions, which had 72.7
per cent of the population as urban population, and the less developed
regions, with only 33.9 per cent of urban population. Among the continents Trends of World
Europe, Oceania and Latin America had a very high level of urbanisation Urbanization
with 73.1, 70.9 and 72.3 per cent of their population as urban population
respectively. In contrast, Africa with 34.5 per cent of its population as
urban population and Asia with only 29.9 per cent of its population as
urban population were the least urbanised among the continents. Again, NOTES
among the Asian regions Western Asia is more urbanised (with 58.2 per
cent of its population living in urban areas) than Eastern Asia (29.4 per
cent), South eastern Asia (29 per cent) and South Asia NOTES
(27.8 per cent).
Thus South Asia, of which India is a part, is one of the least urbanized
regions of the world.
According to 1991 census only 25.72 per cent of India‘s
NOTES population
was living in urban areas, which again is less than the South Asian
standard.
12.3.4 URBAN POPULATION IN THE WORLD
According to World Bank staff estimates based on the United
Nations Population Division‘s World Urbanisation Prospects: 2018
Revision, The world‘s total population in 2018 is 4.196 billion. Urban
Population growth (annual %) in 2018 is 1.936.
Today, more than half of the world‘s population, 3.5 billion people,
live in urban areas, and by 2030 this will rise to 60%. Over the next
decades there will be significant changes in the size and distribution of the
world‘s population.
India is a part of the global trend towards increasing urbanisation in
which more than half of world's population is living in cities towns. 31.16
per cent of India's population 377 million live in urban areas as per 2011
Census.

Check your progress - 1

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. What is the world‘s total population in 2018?
2. What is called demographic approach in urbanisation?
12.4 GROWTH OF URBAN POPULATION IN INDIA
12.4.1 URBAN GROWTH IN INDIA
The annual growth rate of urban population in India has declined
from 3.1 per cent during 1981-91 to 2.7 per cent during 1991-2001. The
decade 1971-81 had recorded the highest annual growth rate of 3.8 per cent
but the last two decades have recorded decelerating growth rates in India.
Self - Instructional Material
The percentage of urban population has gone up from 23.73 in 1981 to
25.72 in 1991 and finally to 27.78 in 2001. The slow growth of urban
population in India goes against popular notions of ―urban explosion‖ and
against the most expert predictions. The Planning Commission (1983), the
Expert Committee for Population Projections for the Eighth Plan, and the
UN Study of World Urbanisation Prospects (1995, 2001) had predicted 3 – Self - Instructional Material
4.4 per cent annual growth of urban population in the 1980s and 1990s.
185
 The UN projection of 3.2 per cent growth during 2000-10 and 2.8 per cent
during 2020-25 also seem to be unrealistic. Keeping in view that the
Trends of World growth rate of total population is expected to be less than 1 per cent
Urbanization according to UN projection it would require a very high rate of rural-urban
migration to meet the projected level of urbanisation.
The natural growth rate of urban population has declined and the
city bound migration of both male and female population also has
decelerated over the years. A study in 1983 suggests that contribution of
rural-urban migration to urbanisation declined over the decades and stood
NOTES at 22.6 percent in the 1980s. During 1971-81 the percentage of intercensal
migrants in urban areas declined from 18.5 to 16.9 and that of lifetime
migrants (male) from 33.6 to 32.4. The share of lifetime interstate migrants
came down from 11.2 per cent to 10.0 per cent. The 1991 Census also
recorded further decline in urban-bound migration rate. In the 1981-91
decade the decadal, lifetime and interstate migration rates were 11.7, 26.0
and 8.0 respectively. The female migration to the urban areas, which takes
place primarily due to social and cultural factors, also slowed down during
the decade.
Table - 1
Number of towns and growth of urban population over census years
Census Year Number of Towns % of urban to total Annual growth
population
1901 1827 10.84 -
1911 1915 10.29 0.03
1921 1949 11.18 0.79
1931 2072 11.99 1.75
1941 2250 13.86 2.77
1951 2843 17.29 3.47
1961 2365 17.97 2.34
1971 2590 19.91 3.21
1981 3378 23.34 3.83
1991 3768 25.72 3.09
2001 4368 27.78 2.73
Source: Census of respective years
Amitabh Kundu has identified four major reasons for the growth of
urban population in India:
(a) natural increase,
(b) growth of new towns outside agglomerations,
(c) merging of towns and jurisdictional changes in agglomerations, and
(d) rural-urban migration.
Available data suggest that natural increase accounted for 61.3 per
cent and 59.4 per cent of the total increase in urban population in 1971-81
and 1981-91 decades respectively. The 1991-2001 decade too experienced
a decline in natural growth rate of urban population. The share of
component (b) in the total addition to urban population has declined from
9.4 per cent in the 1980s to 6.2 percent in the 1990s. This indicates that the
Self - Instructional Material rate of urban growth outside the existing agglomerations and urbanized
regions has slowed down over the decades. The third component, i.e.,
extension of municipal boundaries, merging of old towns or inclusion of
new towns in the existing urban agglomerations, was considered a minor
contributor to the growth of urban population in the 1960s, 1970s and
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1980s. The number of towns merged with existing neighbouring towns was
only 221 in 2001 and in 1991 the number was half of this. However, the
share of this factor to the growth of urban population went up from 7.6 per Trends of World
cent in 1991 to 13.0 percent in 2001. The contribution of the fourth factor Urbanization
has been estimated to be 21 per cent in 1990s, which was marginally less
than the figure for the previous decade. (Kundu, 2005).
Classification of towns by size and differential trends of urbanisation
On the basis of population size the Census of India has placed NOTES
towns into six categories:
Class I town – 1,00,000 or more
Class II towns – From 50,000NOTES
to 99,999
Class III towns – From 20,000 to 49,999
Class IV towns – From 10,000 to 19,999
Class V – From 5,000 to 9,999
NOTES
Class VI – Below 5,000
Table - 2
Distribution of towns by category and census year
Census Class I Class II Class Class Class V Class
Year III IV VI

1901 24 43 130 391 744 479

1911 23 40 135 364 707 485

1921 29 45 145 370 734 571

1931 35 56 183 434 800 509

1941 49 74 242 498 920 407

1951 76 91 327 608 1124 569

1961 102 129 437 719 711 172

1971 148 173 558 827 623 147

1981 218 270 743 1059 758 253

1991 300 345 947 1167 740 197

2001 393 401 1151 1344 888 191

Source: Census of India for respective years

Table 2 suggests that the number of large cities and medium towns
(Class I to Class IV) has grown significantly over the decades while the
number of smaller towns in Class V and Class VI has remained either
stagnant or declined. The other trend is that growth in number of cities Self - Instructional Material
before independence was rather slow and the number started increasing at a
faster rate in the post-independence period; the increase is particularly
remarkable from 1951 census. Intensification of developmental activities in
and around the large towns, investment in industrial production, increase of
commerce, the increase in agricultural productivity and evolution of Self - Instructional Material
smaller towns into bigger ones explain the relatively faster urbanisation in

187
 the post-independence period. This also explains the reason behind the
faster growth of larger cities and towns. Apart from rural-urban migration
Trends of World from smaller towns to bigger ones has contributed to the faster growth of
Urbanization larger towns. Migration of people from East and West Pakistan and from
other neighbouring countries has also contributed to the faster urban
growth in the post-independence period. India being relatively advanced
economy it has drawn migrants from poverty infested Bangladesh and
Nepal. The explosive demographic pressure in Bangladesh is continually
ejecting a significant part of its labour force to India even in recent years.
NOTES Table - 3
Urban population in towns of different categories
Census Class I Class II Class Class Class V Class
Year III IV VI

1901 26.00 11.29 15.64 20.83 20.14 6.10

1911 27.48 10.51 16.4 19.73 19.31 1.57

1921 29.70 10.39 15.92 18.29 18.67 7.03

1931 31.20 11.65 16.8 18.00 17.14 5.21

1941 38.23 11.42 16.35 15.78 15.08 3.14

1951 44.63 9.96 15.72 13.63 12.97 3.09

1961 51.42 11.23 16.94 12.77 6.87 0.77

1971 57.24 10.92 16.01 10.94 4.45 0.44

1981 60.37 11.63 14.33 9.54 3.58 0.50

1991 65.20 10.95 13.19 7.77 2.60 0.29

2001 68.67 9.67 12.23 6.84 2.36 0.23

Source: Census of India for respective years

Data presented in Table 3 further substantiate the top-heavy trend
of urbanisation. While the percentage share of total urban population Class
I cities has grown substantially from 26 in 1901 to 68.67 in 2001 the
population share of towns of all other categories has declined. The worst
sufferers in the process are Class IV, V, and VI towns. The higher growth
rate of Class I cities is due to expansion of area and immigration. The
emergence of large satellite towns in close proximity and their subsequent
integration into the city agglomeration has helped faster growth of Class I
cities. Most importantly, the concentration of production and commercial
Self - Instructional Material activities, and development of infrastructure-base have attracted migrants
of different economic classes from the far- flung places (Kundu, 2005).
During 1981-1991, the metropolitan cities (cities with more than
one million populations) grew by 3.25 per cent per annum against 2.83 per
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cent growth rate of other towns. During 1991-2001, however, the growth
rate of the metropolitan towns has slowed down to 2.88 and for the
common towns the rate has been 2.6 per cent. The share of population of Trends of World
the million plus cities was 26.4 per cent in 1981, which has gone up to 32.5 Urbanization
per cent in 1991 and to 37.8 per cent in 2001. The metropolitan cities have
grown at a faster rate than class I cities as well as towns of other
categories.
NOTES
The growth rate of capital cities (state as well as national) is also
high. During 1981-91 the growth rate of capital cities was at par with that
of the million plus cities, the growth being 33.6 per cent in the decade.
NOTES
However, the percentage share of population of the capital cities to total
urban population increased marginally from 25.7 in 1991 to 25.9 in 2001.
Thus despite the higher growth rate of the NOTES class I cities,
metropolitan cities and capital cities it is not difficult to notice the slight
decline in the growth rate of these cities in the last decade in particular.
Fall in the government investment in the urban infrastructure, decline in
the public sector, fall in the natural growth of population and dwindling
migration could be some of the reasons that can explain the relative slump
in the growth in the bigger cities in recent years.

12.4.2 INTER-STATE VARIATION IN URBANISATION

Since the forces of urbanisation are unequally distributed the level
and pattern of urbanisation in the States and Union Territories of Indian
federation vary widely. Following the 2001 Census it is observed that the
States that are economically developed experience higher rate of
urbanisation and account for a larger share of urban population. Thus six
relatively developed states, namely, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Punjab, and West Bengal have together account for more than
half the total urban population of the country. The percentage share of
urban population of all these states is higher than the national average of
27.78, according to 2001 census. The share of urban population of less
developed States with less per capita income is much less than the national
average.
Following the findings of 2001 Census we can classify the Indian
States and Union Territories into three groups depending upon the levels of
urbanisation: Group A consisting of States and UTs with higher level of
urbanisation (with an urban population higher than the national average of
27.72 per cent), Group B consisting of States and UTs with moderate level
of urbanisation (more than 20 per cent but less than the national average),
and Group C consisting of States and UTs with low level urbanisation
(with less than 20 per cent urban population to total population of the State
Self - Instructional Material
or UT).

Group A
Delhi (93.01), Goa (49.77), Gujarat (37.35), Haryana (29.00),
Karnataka (33.98), Maharashtra (42.4), Mizoram (49.5), Punjab (33.95),
Tamil Nadu (43.86), West Bengal (28.03), Andaman and Nicobre Islands Self - Instructional Material
(32.67), Chandigarh (89.78) Daman & Diu (36.26) Lakshadweep (44.47)
189
 and Pondicherry (66.57). The figures within the parenthesis indicate
percentage share as urban population in the respective State or UT.
Trends of World Group B
Urbanization Arunachal Pradesh (20.41), Chhattisgarh (20.08), Jammu &
Kashmir (24.88), Jharkhand (22.25), Kerala (25.97), Madhya Pradesh
(26.67), Manipur (23.88), Rajasthan (23.38), Uttar Pradesh (20.78),
Uttaranchal (25.59), and Dadra & Nagar Haveli (22.89).
Group C
Assam (12.72), Bihar (10.47), Himachal Pradesh (9.97), Meghalaya
NOTES (19.63), Nagaland (17.74), Orissa (14.97), Sikkim (11.1) and Tripura
(17.02).
With four of the seven North-East Indian States figuring in Group
C, it may be said that this part of India is least urbanized. Two of the
relatively economically backward East zone States namely Bihar and
Orissa too are among the States with low level of urbanisation. Earlier,
following the trend up to 1981, Ramachandran had observed that
urbanisation is at a lower level in states of North-East and in the Ganga
plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, and in Orissa. In general terms, he
observed, ‗western and southern India are relatively highly urbanized while
eastern and northern India are least urbanized‘. In recent years while some
of the earlier trends continue it is not difficult to see that the north Indian
states and even some of North-East states are experiencing urbanisation at
a faster rate.
During the 1991-2001 decade the urban population in India has
grown by 2.27 per cent annually. Among the states which have recorded a
high growth rate (i.e., more than 3 per cent annually) in the last decade are
Arunachal Pradesh (7.00 per cent), Assam (3.09 per cent), Chhattisgarh
(3.09), Delhi (4.14), Goa (3.32), Haryana (4.11), Jammu & Kashmir (3.44),
Meghalaya (3.16), Mizoram (3.27), Nagaland (5.27), Punjab (3.19),
Sikkim (4.83), Tamil Nadu (3.56), Andaman & Nicober Islands (4.40),
Chandigarh (3.40), and Dadra & Nagar Haveli (14.59). There is none
among the States that has recorded a negative growth. Among the UTs,
however, Lakshadweep has recorded a negative growth of –0.77 per cent.
It is noteworthy that some of the States with low level of urbanisation
figure among the States which have been experiencing higher rate of
urbanisation in recent years, while many of the States with higher level of
urbanisation (i.e., many of the Group A States) are experiencing urban
deceleration. Among the major States that have experienced very low rate
of annual growth in the last decade are Andhra Pradesh (1.37), Kerala
(0.74), Manipur (1.21) and West Bengal (1.84).
The trend however was different until 1991 of the post-
independence period. The states like Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Punjab
already had high concentration of urban centers and urban population but
the rate of urban growth was either medium or low. On the other hand, the
Self - Instructional Material relatively backward States like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Orissa registered higher growth rate despite the fact that these
States had lower share of urban population. As an exception to this trend,
economically advanced states like Haryana and Maharashtra had both
higher rate of growth and higher share of urban population. Overall, the
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trend until 1991 negates the positive correlation between economic
development and urban growth. We have to look for other factors to
explain this puzzle. Possibly, higher incidence of rural poverty, regular Trends of World
occurrence of natural disasters like drought and flood can also cause higher Urbanization
incidence of rural-urban migration and hence higher rate of urban growth.
The post-independence dualism in the urbanisation pattern, according to
Kundu (2005: 108), be partially be attributed to government investment in
the district and taluka headquarters, programmes of urban industrial NOTES
dispersal, and transfer of funds from the states to local bodies through a
need based or what is popularly known as ―a gap filling‖ approach‘. The
―lack of diversification in agrarian economy‖ in these NOTES
backward States
also, as Kundu suggests, has contributed to higher urban growth.
In the 1990s, with the economic liberalization gaining
NOTESmomentum,
there has been significant investment of foreign and corporate capital and
expansion of commercial activities in the economically advanced States.
This precisely explains why the rate of urbanisation is high in Tamil Nadu,
Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra and Gujarat. In Karnataka and West Bengal
the rate of urbanisation is relatively low among these highly urban states
because a state, and particularly West Bengal, has been following a policy
of urban dispersal. The introduction of land reforms, infrastructure
development of small and medium sized towns, dispersal of production
activities, introduction of panchayats have probably put a check on the rate
of urbanisation and city-bound movement of population.

Check your progress - 2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
3. Write down the four major reasons for the growth of urban
population in India.
4. What are the six states together account for half the total
population of India?

12.4.3 URBANISED STATES IN INDIA

Among all the States and Union territories, the National Capital
Territory of Delhi and the Union territory of Chandigarh are most
urbanized with 97.5 percent and 97.25 percent urban population
respectively, followed by Daman and Diu (75.2 percent) and Puducherry
(68.3 percent).
Among States, Goa is now the most urbanised State with 62.2
percent urban population, a significant increase since 2001 when urban
population of Goa was 49.8%. Another significant instance of rapid Self - Instructional Material
urbanisation is that of Kerala, its urban population is now 47.7 per cent,
while a decade ago it was just 25.9 percent. Among the North-Eastern
States, Mizoram is most urbanised with 51.5 per cent urban population,
though in terms of absolute contribution to total urban population in the
country, Mizoram‘s contribution is just 0.1 percent. Similarly Sikkim, Self - Instructional Material
which was just 11.0 urbanised a decade ago became almost 25 percent
191
 urbanised in 2011. Among major states, Tamil Nadu continues to be the
most urbanized state with 48.4 percent of the population living in urban
Trends of World areas followed now by Kerala (47.7 per cent) upstaging Maharashtra (45.2
Urbanization percent).
The proportion of urban population continues to be the lowest in
Himachal Pradesh with 10.0 per cent followed by Bihar with 11.3 percent,
Assam (14.1 percent) and Orissa (16.7 percent).
In terms of absolute number of persons living in urban areas,
NOTES Maharashtra continues to lead with 50.8 million persons which comprise
13.5 percent of the total urban population of the country. Uttar Pradesh
accounts for about 44.4 million, followed by Tamil Nadu at 34.9 million.
12.4.4 COMPONENT OF URBAN GROWTH
Urban growth (Bhagat, 1992) can be attributed to mainly three
components 1) Natural increase, 2) Net migration, 3) Areal reclassification.
These components have been estimated using residual method. Since
separate information in wake of change in the area and population due to
extension of municipal boundaries during the intercensal period is not
available either for total or for migrant population it is difficult to estimate
decadal migration to urban areas. Besides migration data for new and
declassified towns are not available separately and so there is a possibility
error in estimating contribution of migration in the share of urban growth.
From table 4 it is evident that during 1971-81 about 41% of urban growth
(estimated by Jain, RG 1991 Census) can be attributed to natural increase
which reflects the role of demographic momentum, 36% due to net
migration and municipal boundary changes and 19% due to reclassification
of area. But urban growth due to natural increase has increased from 42%
in 1971-81 to about 60% during 1981-91. Urban growth due to migration
and changes in municipal boundaries has reduced from 39% in 1971-81 to
22% in 1981-91. But estimates (figures in parenthesis) by Pathak and
Mehta for these components of urban growth reflect slightly different
results (Pathak and Mehta, 1995). It is clear that urbanisation process in
India is not mainly "migration lead" but a product of demographic
explosion due to natural increase. People migrate to cities not due to urban
pull but due to rural push. Poverty led migration (Sen and Ghosh, 1993)
has induced very poor quality of urbanisation followed by misery, poverty,
unemployment, exploitation, rapid growth of slum, inequalities,
degradation in the quality of urban life.

Table 4
Components of Urban Growth
Percent share 1971-81 1981-91
Natural increase 41.7 (45.1) 59.9 (58.7)
Net Migration + Changes in municipal 39.4 (36.1) 22.6 (23.7)
Self - Instructional Material boundaries
Areal reclassification 18.8 (18.8) 17.4 (17.5)

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12.4.5 BASIC FEATURE AND PATTERN OF INDIA'S
URBANISATION
Basic feature of urbanisation in India can be highlighted as: Trends of World
 Lopsided urbanisation induces growth of class I cities Urbanization
 Urbanisation occurs without industrialization and strong
economic base
 Urbanisation is mainly a product of demographic explosion and
poverty induced rural - urban migration NOTES
 Rapid urbanisation leads to massive growth of slum followed
by misery, poverty, unemployment, exploitation, inequalities,
degradation in the quality of urban life NOTES
 Urbanisation occurs not due to urban pull but due to rural push.
 Poor quality of rural-urban migration leads to poor quality of
urbanisation (Bhagat, 1992). NOTES
 Distress migration initiates urban decay
The pattern of urbanisation in India is characterized by continuous
concentration of population and activities in large cities. Kingsley Davis
used the term "over-urbanisation (Kingsley Davis and Golden, 1954)
"where in urban misery and rural poverty exist side by side with the result
that city can hardly be called dynamic" and where inefficient, unproductive
informal sector (Kundu and Basu, 1998) becomes increasingly apparent.
Another scholar (Breese, 1969) depicts urbanisation in India as pseudo
urbanisation where in people arrives in cities not due to urban pull but due
to rural push. Reza an Kundu (1978) talked of dysfunctional urbanisation
and urban accretion which results in a concentration of population in a few
large cities without a corresponding increase in their economic base.
Urbanisation process is not mainly "migration lead" but a product of
demographic explosion due to natural increase. Besides rural out migration
(Premi, 1991) is directed towards class I cities. The big cities attained
inordinately large population size leading to virtual collapse in the urban
services and quality of life. Large cities are structurally weak and formal
instead of being functional entities because of inadequate economic base.
Globalisation, liberalization (Kundu and Gupta, 2000), privatization are
addressing negative process for urbanisation in India. Under globalisation
survival and existence of the poor are affected adversely. Liberalisation
permits cheap import of goods which ultimately negatively affects rural
economy, handicrafts, household industry on which rural poor survives.
The benefits of liberalization (Despande and Despande, 1998) generally
accrue to only those who acquire new skills. It is unlikely that common
man and the poor will benefit from the liberalization. Privatisation causes
retrenchment of workers. All these negative syndrome forces poverty
induced migration (Mukherjee, 1993) of rural poor to urban informal
sectors (Kundu, Lalitha and Arora (2001). Hence migration which is one of
Self - Instructional Material
the components of urban growth occurs not due to urban pull but due to
rural push.

Check your progress - 3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Self - Instructional Material
unit.
193
 5. Which is the most urbanised state in India?
6. What are the components of urban growth?
Trends of World
Urbanization 12.5 LET US SUM UP
Urbanisation refers to the population shift from rural areas to urban
areas, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas,
and the ways in which each society adapts to this change. The world‘s total
population in 2018 is 4.196 billion. Urban Population growth (annual %) in
2018 is 1.936. On the basis of population size the Census of India has
NOTES placed towns into six categories. Census of India classifies the Indian
States and Union Territories into three groups depending upon the levels of
urbanisation: Group A consisting of States and UTs with higher level of
urbanisation (with an urban population higher than the national average of
27.72 per cent), Group B consisting of States and UTs with moderate level
of urbanisation (more than 20 per cent but less than the national average),
and Group C consisting of States and UTs with low level urbanisation
(with less than 20 per cent urban population to total population of the State
or UT). The introduction of land reforms, infrastructure development of
small and medium sized towns, dispersal of production activities,
introduction of panchayats have probably put a check on the rate of
urbanisation and city-bound movement of population.

In this unit you have learnt the level of urbanisation and urban
population. You have studied urban growth in India, its components, basic
features and patterns of urbanisation in India also in detail.

12.6 UNIT – END – EXERCISES

1. Briefly explain the level of urbanisation in the world.
2. Write about geographical approach in urbanisation.
3. Classify the towns according to Census of India.
4. Discuss the criteria for classify Indian States and Union
Territories in to groups.
5. Describe the basic features of India‘s urbanisation.
6. Analyse the terms urban population and urban growth.
12.7 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The world‘s total population in 2018 is 4.196 billion.
2. Level and growth of urban share of total population and its
distribution by size classes of cities and towns. This is
called demographic approach in urbanisation.
3. (a) natural increase, (b) growth of new towns outside
agglomerations, (c) merging of towns and jurisdictional
changes in agglomerations, and (d) rural-urban migration.
4. Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, and
West Bengal.
Self - Instructional Material 5. Goa is the most urbanised state in India.
6. 1) Natural increase, 2) Net migration, 3) Areal
reclassification.

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 Trends of World
12.8 SUGGESTED READINGS Urbanization

1. Kundu, Amitabh, 2005. ‗Urbanization and Urban Governance:

Search for a Perspective beyond Neo-Liberalism‘, in Pachimbange
Nagar Unnyoner Abhigyata, Proceedings of the Seminar held at NOTES
NBU on 5-6 February 2005: 101-124.
2. Ramachandran, R., 1989. Urbanization and Urban System in India,
New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
NOTES
3. Sandhu R.S. (2003). Urbanisation in India Sociological
Contributions, Sage, New Delhi.
4. Bose, A. ―India‘s Urbanisation: 1901-2001‖, Tata McGraw Hill
NOTES
Publishing Co. Ltd, New Delhi 1978
5. Sivaramakrishnan, K.C, Amitabh Kumdu and B. N. Singh, 2005,
―Handbook of Urbanisation in India: An Analysis of Trends and
Processes‖, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2005.

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195
 UNIT-XIII
Location of Cities –
Nature, Culture,
LOCATION OF CITIES – NATURE,
Function CULTURE, FUNCTION
Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Location of cities
13.3.1 Meaning of City
13.3.2 Definition of City
NOTES 13.3.3 Classification of Cities
13.3.4 Challenges of cities
13.4 Nature
13.4.1 Nature of City
13.4.2 Characteristics of City
13.5 Culture
13.5.1 City culture
13.5.2 Types of city culture
13.6 Function
13.6.1 Main functions of a city
13.7 Migration
13.7.1 Meaning of Migration
13.7.2Migration in India
13.7.3 Types of Migration
13.7.4 Causes of Migration
13.7.5 Impact of Migration
13.7.6 Migration Trends
13.7.7 Advantages of Migration
13.7.8 Disadvantages of Migration
13.8 Let us sum up
13.9 Unit – end – exercises
13.10 Answer to check your progress
13.11 Suggested Readings
13.1 INTRODUCTION
A city is a relatively large, dense, permanent, heterogeneous, and
politically autonomous settlement whose population engages in a range of
non agricultural occupations. City culture is aspects of life in a city that
people enjoy and regard as valuable. Culture emerges over the history of
a city as a result of the shared experiences of its residents. A city may have
more than one culture. Once a city comes up, it acquires one or more of the
functions depending on a number of factors. According to the Indian
census, a migrant is one who is enumerated at a place other than his place
of birth. Causes, types and impact of migration are explained.
In this unit you will learn meaning and definition of city, types,
functions, nature of cities. You will learn city culture and its types,
Self - Instructional Material
migration it‘s type, causes, impact, advantages and disadvantages also in
detail.
196
13.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit you will be able to; Location of Cities –
 know city and it‘s types Nature, Culture,
 understand the functions of cities Function
 discuss the city culture
 explain the concept of migration
 describe causes and impact of migration
NOTES
13.3 LOCATION OF CITIES
13.3.1 MEANING OF CITY
A city is an area in which a large number of people live fairly close
together. Cities usually have their own separate governments and systems
NOTES
for maintaining and providing utilities and transportation.
A city is a relatively large, dense, permanent, heterogeneous, and
politically autonomous settlement whose population engages NOTES
in a range of
non agricultural occupations.
A city is basically a big city — the population is large in relation to
the amount of land, since people often live in apartments or multi-family
housing. The largest city in the world today is Shanghai, China.
13.3.2 DEFINITION OF CITY
Definitions of cities and their associated phenomena vary by time
and place, and by population size, area, and function. The city is often
defined in terms of administrative area, which may be larger than, smaller
than, or equal to the area of relatively dense settlement that comprises what
is otherwise known as the city proper. The suburb is a less dense but a
permanent settlement that is located outside the city proper and contains
populations that usually have social and economic ties to the city.
Cities reflect other areas with which they are linked and the
civilizations of which they are a part. Cities are centres‘ of markets,
governments, religion, and culture (Weber, 1958). A community is a
population sharing a physical environment and leading a common and
interdependent life. The size, density, and heterogeneity of the urban
community have been described as leading to ‖urbanism as a way of life,‖
which includes organizational, attitudinal, and ecological components
different from those of rural areas (Wirth 1938).
Mumford (1948) also mentions this fact in his article on City:
Forms and Functions in International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, he
writes "Although the city as a form of human settlement dates back to the
beginnings of civilisation, it long escaped scholarly scrutiny; and its very
definition is still under debate. Levi - Strauss's attack on the ambiguities of
"totemism" would apply equally to the term "city" but with less
justification, since the city has undergone many changes without losing its
architectural and institutional continuity." has undergone many changes
without losing its architectural and institutional continuity. Self - Instructional Material
"A city is distinguished from other human settlements by its
relatively great size, but also by its functions and its special symbolic
status, which may be conferred by a central authority. The term can also
refer either to the physical streets and buildings of the city or to the
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 collection of people who dwell there, and can be used in a general sense to
mean urban rather than rural territory.
Location of Cities – A way of life and meaning that unifies residents of a city with a
Nature, Culture, sense of shared identity.
Function
13.3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CITIES
Noel P Gist and L A Helbert have attempted on classifying cities on
the basis of some broad criteria as under:
i. Production centres
ii. Centre of trade and commerce
iii. Capitals and administrative centres
NOTES iv. Health and recreation centres
v. Religious and cultural centres
vi. Diversified cities

13.3.4 CHALLENGES OF CITIES

Cities are major contributors to climate change but they‘re also
heavily vulnerable to it: they‘re affected by rising sea levels, more frequent
and stronger storms and cyclones, and more frequent extremes in heat and
cold. In many cities there‘s also a shortage of housing, pressure on
healthcare systems, and issues with poverty and crime.
Cities in the developing world face the toughest challenges, and it
is here that 95% of future urban growth is predicted to take place by 2050.
These cities will experience great change but have the lowest levels of
resources and institutional capabilities to deal with that change. Already,
828 million people live in slums and the number keeps rising (UN, 2015).
13.4 NATURE
13.4.1 NATURE OF CITY
An urban area (City) is characterized by heterogeneous crowded
people and settlement where most of the people are engaged in non-
agricultural activities like manufacturing, trade, commerce, and other
services. F. Tonnies (1957) has used the term of Gesellschaft for urban
characteristics of an area. It denoted large scale, impersonal, calculative
and contractual relationship of the people in a society. Tonnies believed
that most of the characteristics of rural areas got lost under the process of
urbanization and industrialization and have given new form of social
organization, behaviour and attitude. Simmel (1950) considered that every
act of urban life is done with objectivity and rationality; here people are
more calculative and rational in reactions to an activity as compared to
traditionally simple rural people.

The basic characteristics of urban people (individuality, rationality

secular, regimentation, impersonality, heterogeneity) are somehow affected
by physical and social conditions of urban life. Urban and rural way of life
is contradictory to each other. Urban life has their influence on rural areas,
Self - Instructional Material which is now in the process of change. These characteristics are defined by
the term ‗urbanism‘.

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13.4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CITY
The characteristics of urban areas are as follows: Location of Cities –
Nature, Culture,
 The urban areas have high density of population and are physically
Function
crowded but socially distant in nature. There is prevalence of
nuclear type of family with small house hold size in urban areas.
Person per room is often used as an important housing quality
indicator measuring how crowded a house/room is? In urban areas
there are more persons per room than in rural areas. The urban NOTES
areas are also characterised by larger share of younger population
due to immigration. Generally urban units are larger than the
village. People are engaged in manufacturing, mechanical pursuits,
trade and commerce, professions and other NOTES non-agricultural
activities.
 An urban area has population of myriad caste, culture, ethnic
groups, classes and religions. They are not allNOTES like, there are
heterogeneous population as they differ in the sense of food habits,
dressing style, and living conditions. Anonymity is the chief
characteristics of an urban area. In urban areas there are more
numerous contact and have wider area of interactions. An urban
area shows the predominance of secondary, impersonal, relations
that exist for short duration of time and man is remembered not by
his name but by his numbers and addresses.
 Morphological characteristics of urban settlements include the
structure of city, industrial and market areas, residential area, open
areas, religious and cultural centres, parks, playground, down town,
and the forested areas.
 There is scarcity of water in urban areas. Most of the urban people
get water from a municipal/public or private companies. LPG is the
one source of fuel for most of the urban households.
 In urban areas there is more social differentiation and stratification
than the rural areas. These stratifications and differentiations are
based on the occupational status, economy and skills of an
individual. There may be slums of the poor amidst or along
luxurious bungalows, towering apartments of the rich people.
 Mobility is an important aspect of urban areas; urbanity and
mobility are positively correlated. Urban life is dynamic in nature
and it runs with the speed of metro train. The city gives weight on
rationality and the people revolve around status, wealth and
material possession. The urban people frequently change their place
of jobs for better salary and facilities. The urbanites are clock
regulated and are controlled by the traffic lights. Regularity and
punctuality are the characteristics of urban life.

Check your progress - 1 Self - Instructional Material

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. What do you mean by city?
2. Write two challenges faced by cities nowadays.
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 Location of Cities – 13.5 CULTURE
Nature, Culture, 13.5.1. CITY CULTURE
Function Urban culture is the culture of cities. The defining theme is the
presence of a great number of very different people in a very limited space
most of them are strangers to each other.
City culture is aspects of life in a city that people enjoy and regard
as valuable. Culture emerges over the history of a city as a result of the
shared experiences of its residents. A city may have more than one culture.
13.5.2 TYPES OF CITY CULTURE
NOTES
Language
The language used by residents including any variations that are
unique to a city. A cosmopolitan city typically has a great number of ethnic
neighbourhoods where different languages thrive. It is also common for a
city to have its own dialect of a dominant language.
Norms
Norms are informal understandings that guide behaviour such as
norm of politeness. These are often specific to a culture and city.
Symbols
Iconic visual scenes and other symbols of a city‘s identity
Legend and Myth
Old stories that aren‘t true but nonetheless serve to bond people by
giving them colourful narratives that are unique to a city.
History
Some cities have a long history of cultural development, political
intrigue, natural disasters etc.
Knowledge
Local knowledge such as how to haggle with local vendors
Architecture
The architecture of a city including traditional, and modern
Urban landscape
The urban design of a city
Products and services
A city has unique products and services such as a city known for its
food.
Markets
Markets and other commercial areas that have a stimulating
atmosphere
Public space
Public place such as parks, malls, beaches, theatre are providing
space for recreation, play, socializing and personal reflection.
Sports
Local sports teams that unify locals towards a common purpose.
Festivals and events
Local events such as a traditional festival or community event

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13.6 FUNCTION
13.6.1 MAIN FUNCTIONS OF A CITY
Location of Cities –
Cities and villages differ from each other where their functions are Nature, Culture,
concerned. Villages are mainly associated with production related to Function
agricultural activities. The surplus is used by the villages in exchange for
other commodities, which they themselves do not produce, from other
villages or cities. The village, accessible to all others, generally becomes
the focal point for exchange of commodities. This village generally
develops into a city. Once a city comes up, it acquires one or more of the NOTES
functions depending on a number of factors. The hierarchy of these
functions is discussed below:
1. Centre for Processing and Production
NOTES
Processing is one of the most basic functions of a city and involves
processing of agricultural products. The most easily accessible village
generally becomes the processing centre. This may have NOTES been the reason
for the emergence of the earliest cities.
It is a well-known fact that development of industries and industrial
production has led to the emergence of most of the cities of the world.
Even in the recent times, the process of industrialization is constructed as
an important reason for the growth and expansion cities. We may associate
the industrial revolution of the modern era not only with the industries, but
also with the urban revolution .in India, we find many large cities which
are characterized both as industrial and production centres. We Can also
further classify the production centres into a couple of sub-categories, such
as: (i) primary production centers, and (ii) secondary production centres. In
primary production centres raw materials or primary products for industries
are obtained. As they are mainly the suppliers of raw materials, the
inhabitants in these cities are directly or indirectly involved in the
production of raw materials. The city of Nellore, Kolar and Baeeilly are
some examples in this regard. On the other hand, the secondary production
centres are characterized by existence of final products. Most of the
secondary production centres are very large in size which also increases
day by day.
2. Trade
After processing, the next level of cities is associated with trade.
The cities act as the centres for exchange of processed items or
manufactured goods between two or more places. These markets may
operate on a daily or weekly basis. Weekly markets are a common feature
throughout India. These centres may also specialise in one or more items
such as fruits and vegetables, cattle and food-grains.
The medieval cities and cities were the centre of activities of trade
and commerce .In these cities production was the secondary activity.
Merchants and traders were organized into guilds which were acting as
banks, apart from the distribution of goods and services .public received
regular interest from the guilds for having invested their money. The king Self - Instructional Material
also recognized the guild‘s function as ordinary courts dealing with
customary laws. In the past also skilled workers were organized into
factories. A systematic account of the state enterprises during the Mughal
period has been presented by R.K.Mukherjee .Along with state enterprises,
individual enterprises also existed during the period. However, it is also
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 interesting to note that the respective state capitals also witnessed the
growth of commercial centres in them because of the reason that the
Location of Cities – merchants needed the patronage of the king as well as the state so as to
Nature, Culture, flourish. The merchants needed appropriate hinterland and availability of
Function channels of their communication for their organization.
Political security was instrumental in the rise and fall of different
commercial cities, cities and markets. The centres of commerce and trade
were also dependent on the commodities available in the hinterland to a
great extent. That apart, they also depended upon transport, trade and
commerce in large cities and the discovery of new maritime trade routes.
For example, Calicut became an important commercial centre only after
NOTES the discovery of the new sea trade routes by Vasco-da-Gama. A typical
example is Mumbai where trade and commerce activities superseded its
activities as a production centre. However, the cities of Broach and Surat
suffered a setback due to the growth and development of Bombay under
the colonial rule. By and large, the cities have the connectivity of sea
routes are important centres of trade and commerce. While the important
ports of India, like Kozikode, Kochi, Tuticorin, Visakhapatnam, Kolkata,
Kakinada and Chennai, are usually the centres of trade and commerce, it
cannot always be generalized that the ports are always the centres of trade
and commerce.
Cities are engaging in wholesale trade in agricultural products for
the next high level in functional pattern of cities. Transport facility is a
crucial factor in such cities. These cities generally fulfil processing
functions also. Later, they may develop manufacturing and other services
also. They are generally small in size and dispersed, often specialising in
one commodity or the other.
3. Services like capitals and administration
Administrative cities and cities occupy a central place in the
emergence of the city with a long history. The Indian urban history is
replete with the emergence and decline of urban centres with the rise and
fall of different kingdoms .The example of Pataliputra, Vijaynagaram,
Madurai, Golcunda, may be cited as the administrative cities of the past,
which are no more identified as the administrative centres of the present.
However, it may be mentioned here that as cities are selected by the
political regimes for the purpose of capital, the same city may be built
several times by different dynasties several times. The cases of Delhi or
Agra or Pataliputra may be cited in this regard. The administrative centre
or the capital city is industrialisation and globalization; the capital cities
were considered the most important cities of the world.
In cities, services like education, health, administration and
communication, not adequately available in villages, are well- developed.
Of all these functions, administration is the most important one. A city may
be the headquarters of a panchayat union, a state cooperative or a district.
Administrative cities also have law courts, police stations, government
departments associated with developmental works, etc. Chandigarh is a
good example of an administrative city.
4. Manufacturing and Mining
Self - Instructional Material Such activities give rise to large cities because manufacturing and
mining activities generate large-scale employment and give rise to other

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useful economic activities like trade, services, transport, ancillary industry
etc. These activities attract large-scale migrations from adjoining regions.
Jamshedpur came up around the Tata Iron and Steel Works while Raniganj Location of Cities –
and Kolar are examples of cities which have come up around mining Nature, Culture,
activities. Function
5. Transport
Transport is a basic necessity for all types of economic activities
and for the evolution and further expansion of a city. Many of the cities,
therefore, have come up around railway stations or port cities. Railway
stations act as the centres for change from road to rail traffic and vice-versa NOTES
and for purposes of transhipment, collection, sorting and despatch.
Jolarpettai in south India is a good example of a city which has come up at
a railway junction. NOTES

Similarly, the ports act as the centres for change from road or rail to
sea traffic. Ports may also develop manufacturing andNOTES administrative
functions. Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Kandla, Paradip, etc., are examples
of cities which have come up around ports. ‗
6. Pilgrimage/Tourism
Religious sentiments dominate the Indians to such an extent that
many cities have become famous and grown into big cities due to their
importance as religious centres. Pilgrimage is an important activity
associated with travelling and lodging. Thus, at such places transport and
lodging facilities also come up. The cities adapt themselves to support a
large floating population. We may cite the example of Kashi or Varanasi,
Prayag or Allahabad in this regard Because of their locations on the holy
river, they have acquired religious prominence. That apart, as India is a
multi-religious country, it contains at least one or two religious centres of
each religion. For example, whereas Ajmer is place of pilgrimage for the
Muslims, Amritsar is the religious capital for the Sikhs in India. In the like
manner, Puri, Varanasi, Rameswaram, Haridwar, Ayodhya, Tirupati etc.
are important holy places for the Hindus in India. Shirdi, abode the mystic
saint Sai Baba attracts huge number of pilgrims from all religions. Bodh
Gaya is a famous pilgrimage for the Buddhists.
From the historical or cultural point of view some cities have also
gained prominence. For example, Taj Mahal of Agra, Quitab Minar in
Delhi, Gol Gambuj of Bijapur victory tower at Chittorgarh, Shimla,
Darjeeling, Udagamandalam (Ooty) made their locations famous.
Similarly, whereas Pondicherry is famous for Sri Aurobindo Ashram,
Nalanda and Taxila were the seats of old universities.
7. Health and recreation centres
In India, we find a number of cities which are famous scenic beauty
and healthy climatic conditions throughout the year. Such urban centres are
generally located on the rivers or near the sea coast or on the hills. The hill
cities and beach resorts are cool in summer and therefore the tourists rush
towards them. Also Governmental initiatives are taken to make those Self - Instructional Material
tourist places more attractive. In Kerala, some tourists‘ centres also provide
the tourists with health facilities. The inhabitants of these places mostly
depend on tourism for their livelihood.

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 8. Residential
Cities with residential functions often come up around big cities
Location of Cities – where land prices are lower, basic services are cheaper and fast transport
Nature, Culture, links with the main city are available. Sonepat, Faridabad and Gaziabad are
Function examples of such cities around Delhi. These cities have also developed
manufacturing functions in recent times.
9. Diversified cities
There are some cities which may not exclusively perform a
particular function; they may not fit into the types which we have
discussed earlier. Therefore, the fundamental reason of their prominence
may not be the same as in case of growth. For example some cities are now
NOTES capitals .but at the time of their growth they were production centres or
holy places or port cities. But in course of time, they have gained
prominence in many respects.
Generally, a city has more than one function, but one or two of
these dominate. The functions of a city depend on its location, its
infrastructural facilities, and historical and economic factors. The dominant
function may be identified on the basis of number of persons involved in
that particular activity.

Check your progress - 2

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
3. List down any four items reflects urban culture.
4. Describe diversified cities.
13.7 MIGRATION
13.7.1 MEANING OF MIGRATION
The needs of human are met they continue to progress and the
moment they feel an inadequacy and insecurity they search for it
elsewhere. It requires them to leave his original place of existence, his birth
land and it is called migration.
It is not a term. It‘s a process. The Latin term ‗migrare‘ is
considered and it means to move or shift. Tony Kushner says, ―We can‘t
just stop, we‘re not rock progress, migration, a motion is modernity. It‘s
animate; it‘s what living things do. We desire. Even if all we desire for is
stillness, it‘s still desire for.‖
Migration is accepting the change to change. It is politicized; there
is no place for personal choice rather the last step that one might think of
taking. It involves the movement and mobility of a settled population to
another place as an alien with an intention to either temporarily or
permanently settles there. It may be a place over long distances, over
countries or within short distance, within country between regions.
Self - Instructional Material Migration could be one‘s own decision, or a decision influenced by other
factors.

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13.7.2 MIGRATION IN INDIA
It is only in recent decades that natural increase has played an
increasing role in accounting for urban population growth. Traditionally Location of Cities –
cities grew by migration which is a geographical process, since death rates Nature, Culture,
match birth rates or were greater than birth rates in the past. In the past, it Function
was migration that contributed to urban growth. Migration is the movement
of population from one geographical region to another. Migration is a
multi-faceted concept which includes both in migration and immigration.
Immigration is in-migration, which means a population enters a
region from another area. Emigration is out-migration, which means a NOTES
population leaves an area. Net migration is the difference between
immigration and emigration. Internal migration is movement within a
nation‘s boundaries. NOTES

In India, migration from abroad has been most reliable, except in

recent years when there has been a significant increaseNOTES in the Muslim
population due to migration from Pakistan, Bangladesh & Afghanistan. It
is in fact the internal migration which has led to population distribution
from east to west and north to south today even through the death rate has
fallen substantially, the birth rates has not fallen that much. Hence growth
does not depend on birth or death rates alone but on migration which is
determined by a number of socio-economic factors. Migration constitutes
the very foundation of urban process in India. According to the Indian
census, a migrant is one who is enumerated at a place other than his place
of birth.

13.7.3 TYPES OF MIGRATION

A. By political boundaries
a) Internal: Migration within the same country, including
crossing political boundaries, rural to urban and urban to
suburban.
b) International: Migration across country boundaries.
B. By movement patterns
a) Step migration: Initiating from a small settlement and
going to a larger settlement in the urban hierarchy over the
years.
b) Circular migration: Cyclical movement between origin
and destination settlements, typically for employment. It
includes seasonal migration (driven by seasonal peaks in
labour demand) and return migration (one-time emigration
and return after an extended stay outside the destination).
c) Chain migration: Occurs after a small number of groups
move to a host destination and are followed by others in the
community.
C. By decision-making approach
a) Voluntary migration: Self - Instructional Material
Based on a person‘s free will and initiative, which could
involve weighing options and choices.

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 b) Involuntary migration:
Location of Cities – Reluctant/impelled/imposed: Not forced, but caused by
Nature, Culture, unfavourable situations..
Function c) Forced: Involuntary migration due to environmental and political
factors.
These include:
a) Refugees: Individuals who are unable to return home.
b) Asylees: Individuals undergoing legal procedures to qualify as
refugees in a host country.
Internally displaced people (IDPs): Individuals who are forced to leave but
NOTES do not cross any boundaries
13.7.4 CAUSES OF MIGRATION
A. Push factors
(Compel people to migrate)
a. Economic
i. Unemployment
ii. Rural poverty
iii. Unsustainable livelihood
b. Socio political
i. Political instability
ii. Safety & security
iii. Conflicts or threats
iv. Slavery or bonded labour
v. Inadequate/limited urban services & infrastructure
c. Ecological
i. Climate change
ii. Crop failure/food scarcity
B. Pull factors
(Attract people to migrate)
a. Economic
i. Job opportunities
ii. Wealth prospects
iii. Industrial innovation
iv. Specialized education
b. Socio political
i. Family reunification
ii. Freedom
iii. Integration & social cohesion
iv. Food security
v. Affordable & accessible urban services
c. Ecological
i. Abundance of natural resources
ii. Favourable climate

13.7.5 IMPACT OF MIGRATION

A. Positive
Self - Instructional Material a. Economic
i. Cheap & surplus labour
ii. Closes gaps in skills
206
 b. Social
i. Multi-ethnic society & increased tolerance
ii. New services from country of origin Location of Cities –
c. Political Nature, Culture,
i. Push for inclusive policy making Function
ii. Integrated development
B. Negative
a. Economic
Increase in remittances leading to –
i. Native unemployment in case local consumption NOTES
decreases
ii. Increased capital and risk constraints on local
production with reduced investmentsNOTES
b. Social
i. Urban services & social infrastructure under stress
ii. Xenophobia NOTES
iii. Cultural dilution
c. Political
i. Stricter immigration norms
13.7.6 MIGRATION TRENDS
1. International Migration
The term international migration refers to the change of usual
residence between one nation and the other. The overwhelming majority of
such movers across the frontiers do not necessarily mean that they have
decided to change their usual residence. Both international and internal
migration involves a change of usual residence. Another interesting feature
is that the recorded volume of international migration is much less than the
undocumented/ unauthorised migration. This is because people cross the
international boundaries in a clandestine way. Whatever the case may be,
the net international immigration has always been an important component
of the population change in the country of entry. It may be noted that as a
result of emigration significant change in population composition is
registered in the countries of departure. A policy statement of the United
Nations suggests that international movements within an intended stay of
more than one year be classified as international migration. Unfortunately,
there is no uniformity among the nations on the definition of international
migration. Many governments, including the government of the United
States of America, collect data on immigration but not on emigration. All
data on immigration published by governments refer to legal immigration
only while data on illegal or undocumented immigration is not tabulated
(Bergatta, 1992, p. 986-87). This gap in information is a serious drawback
in any study of international migration.

2. Trends of Migration in India Self - Instructional Material

Trends of migration in India can be classified into two categories:
intrastate migrations and interstate migrations. A few examples may be
cited to show that the terminology used here may be confusing. When a
family migrates from the Agra district of Uttar Pradesh to the neighbouring
district of Bharatpur in Rajasthan, one has to describe it as interstate
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 migration, even though distance covered is short. On the other hand, if a
family or a single individual moves from Srikakulam district of Andhra
Location of Cities – Pradesh to Adilabad or Guntur in the same state, migration will be
Nature, Culture, described as intrastate, although a long distance has been covered. It may,
Function therefore, be concluded that distance is not a definitive criterion.

a. Intrastate Migration
Studies show that migrants in India do not generally cover long
distances. They generally move within the state of their birth/origin. This
type of migration is called intrastate. Estimates on the basis of census
NOTES records show that people mostly move from one village to the other in the
same state. There are about 200 million people who are normally on the
move within the state. Within this group are included those who move
from one village to the other. This category accounts for about 70 per cent
of all migrants. On the other hand, only 9 per cent migrants move from
small towns to cities. About 15 per cent of the intrastate migrants move
from rural to urban areas, while 6 per cent move in the reverse direction,
i.e., from urban to rural areas.
An interesting feature is that about 75 per cent of the total intrastate
migrants are females. This shows that the bulk of the female migration in
India is related to marriage. About 7 per cent of female migrants move
from one urban centre to the other; about 12 per cent move from rural to
urban areas.
Among the migrants, around 50 million consist of males. They
move mainly in the rural to rural stream. This stream accounts for about
one-sixth of the urban to urban category. About one-fourth is in the rural to
urban and 8 percent in the urban to rural stream.

b. Interstate Migration
Census data on migration show that interstate movement is much
less in India as compared to the intrastate migration. In all about 27 million
migrants cross the state boundaries. Of these, a little less than one-third
belong to the rural to rural stream; another one-third belong to the urban to
urban stream and another one-third move from the rural to urban areas.
Those who move from urban to rural areas account for 7 per cent of all
migrants. Data also show that in the category of interstate migrants, some
15 million women are also included. About two-fifths of them move within
the rural areas; about one-third are in the urban circuit, i.e., they move from
one urban centre to the other; about one-fourth of this category move from
urban places to villages.
13.7.7 ADVANTAGES OF MIGRATION
The urban place gets cheap labour, and it helps to overcome the
shortage of labour in factories and manufacturing departments including
service sectors for jobs like peons and secretary, immigrants often agree to
do unskilled jobs which do not require them to invest a lot of their brain
Self - Instructional Material
and they also survive.

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 Location of Cities –
Nature, Culture,
13.7.8 DISADVANTAGES OF MIGRATION
Function
There are language problems, racial and ethnic discrimination. The
immigrant is better skilled than the permanent resident of the place then the
job will be given to the immigrant.

Check your progress - 3 NOTES

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit. NOTES
5. What is called migration?
6. Enumerate the disadvantages of migration. NOTES

13.8 LET US SUM UP

A way of life and meaning that unifies residents of a city with a

sense of shared identity. A city has functions such as processing, trade,
services, pilgrimage and tourism. City culture varies city to city. It includes
language, norms, symbols, festivals, events, products, landscape etc. A
person moves from his birth place or origin to other for any purpose it is
called migration. Causes of migration are push and pull factors including
economic, socio political and ecological factors. Migration in cities has
merits and demerits.

In this unit you have learnt meaning and definition of city, types,
functions, nature of cities. City culture and its types, migration its type,
causes, impact, advantages and disadvantages were discussed in detail.

13.9 UNIT – END – EXERCISES

1. Define city.
2. How Noel P Gist and L A Helbert classify cities?
3. How language plays a vital role in urban culture?
4. Explain the main functions of a city.
5. Discuss migration in India.

13.10 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. A city is a relatively large, dense, permanent, heterogeneous, and
politically autonomous settlement whose population engages in a
range of non agricultural occupations.
2. Climate change, shortage of houses, pressure on healthcare
systems, and issues with poverty and crime. Self - Instructional Material
3. Norms, symbols, history and festivals.
4. There are some cities which may not exclusively perform a
particular function; they may not fit into the types which we have
discussed earlier. Therefore, the fundamental reason of their
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209
 prominence may not be the same as in case of growth. For example
some cities are now capitals .but at the time of their growth they
Location of Cities – were production centres or holy places or port cities. But in course
Nature, Culture, of time, they have gained prominence in many respects.
Function 5. The needs of human are met they continue to progress and the
moment they feel an inadequacy and insecurity they search for it
elsewhere. It requires them to leave his original place of existence,
his birth land and it is called migration.
6. There are language problems, racial and ethnic discrimination. The
immigrant is better skilled than the permanent resident of the place
then the job will be given to the immigrant.
NOTES
13.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Bhalla, G. S. and A. Kundu (1984), 'Small and Medium Towns in a

Regional Perspective-The Case of Batala and Moga in Punjab State
(India), in O.P. Mathur(ed.), The Role of Small Cities in Regional
Development, UNCRD, Nagoya.
2. Kundu, A. (1983), 'Theories of City Size Distribution and the
Indian Urban Structure; A Reappraisal', Economic and Political
Weekly, July.
3. (1992), Urban Development and Urban Research in India, New
Delhi: Khama. Publications, New Delhi.
4. Chandna, R.C. 1986, A Geography of Population, Kalyani
Publishers: New Delhi,
5. Premi, M.K., et al. 1983, An Introduction to Social Demography,
Vikas : NewDelhi,
6. Trewartha, G.T. 1969, A Geography of Population: World Patterns,
John Wiley and Sons Inc: London.
7. Bergel,E.E. (1955). Urban Sociology, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, NewYork.
8. Shivaramakrishan, K. C., Amitabh Kundu and B. N. Singh, (2005).
Oxford Hand Book of Urbanisation in lndia, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.

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UNIT-XIV URBAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS
Structure Urban Social Problems

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 India – Urban social problems NOTES
14.3.1 Urban social problems
14.3.2 Definition of social problem
14.4 Crime
NOTES
14.4.1 Definition of Crime
14.4.2 Characteristics of Crime
14.4.3 Crime in cities NOTES
14.5 Juvenile Delinquency
14.5.1 Definit ion of Juvenile Delinquency
14.5.2 Characteristics of Juvenile Delinquency
14.5.3 Factors in Juvenile Delinquency
14.5.4 Preventive Programmes
14.5.5 Types of Juvenile Delinquency
14.6 Slums
14.6.1. Nature of Slums
14.6.2. Types of Slums
14.6.3 Characteristics of the Slums
14.6.4 Functions of the Slums
14.6.5 Approaches to the Slum Problems
14.6.6 Urbanisation and Slums
14.7 Housing problems
14.7.1. Role of Housing
14.7.2. Magnitude of the housing problem
14.7.3. Measures to Solve the Problem of Housing in India
14.8 Environmental problems
14.8.1. Environmental problems of modern cities
14.8.2. Environmental problems of urban area
14.9 Poverty
14.9.1 Poverty in India
14.9.2 Urban Poverty in India
14.9.3 Definition of Poverty
14.9.4 Absolute Poverty and Relative Poverty
14.10 Unemployment
14.10.1. Definition of Unemployment
14.10.2. Types of Unemployment
14.10.3. Urban unemployment in India
14.10.4. Unemployment Rate in Urban
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14.10.5. Unemployment Rate of male and females in Urban
14.10.6 Causes of Unemployment at Urban Areas in India
14.10.7 Measures to Minimize Unemployment in India
14.11 Let us sum up
14.12 Unit – end – exercises
14.13 Answer to check your progress Self - Instructional Material
14.14 Suggested Readings

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 14.1 INTRODUCTION
Urban Social Although India is one of the less urbanized countries of the world
Problems with only 27.78 per cent of her population living in urban
agglomerations/towns, this country is facing a serious crisis of urban
growth at the present time. The process of industrialisation has added much
to the phenomenal growth of cities. Due to the rapid industrialisation cities
have grown in an unsystematic manner. Industrialisation and urbanisation
have brought along with them many vices. Here we discuss seven serious
social problems in urban area. Those are crime, juvenile delinquency,
NOTES slums, housing problems, environmental problems poverty and
unemployment.

In this unit you will learn urban social problems such as crime,
juvenile delinquency, slums, housing problems, environmental problems
poverty and unemployment problems in a detailed manner.

14.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to
 know the concept of urban social problems
 understand the meaning and definition of urban social problems
 analyse the causes, solutions for social problems in urban

14.3 INDIA – URBAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS

14.3.1 URBAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS
When a particular social phenomenon or condition disturbs the
social order and hinders smooth working of social institutions that comes
to be identified as a social problem. At the initial phase such conditions are
neglected since they do not have any serious adverse effects on the social
system. But gradually, they get accumulated and begin to affect normal
social life. Then such condition is recognised as a social problem. Once
social problem takes roots and develops beyond the bounds of tolerance,
there arises resentment against it and there is a demand for remedy in the
interest of social harmony.
Although India is one of the less urbanized countries of the world
with only 27.78 per cent of her population living in urban
agglomerations/towns, this country is facing a serious crisis of urban
growth at the present time. Whereas urbanisation has been an instrument of
economic, social and political progress, it has led to serious social
problems.
14.3.2 DEFINITION OF SOCIAL PROBLEM
A more precise, though broad, definition is given by E. Raab and
G.J.Selznick. According to them, a social problem is ―a problem in human
relationship which seriously threatens society itself or impedes the
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14.4 CRIME
The sociology of crime (criminology) is the study of the making, Urban Social Problems
breaking, and enforcing of criminal laws. Its aim is to understand
empirically and to develop and test theories explaining criminal behaviour,
the formation and enforcement of laws, and the operation of criminal
NOTES
justice system.
14.4.1 DEFINITION OF CRIME
1. Tappan has defined crime as ―an intentional act or omission
in violation of criminal law committed without
NOTES defence or
justification‖.
2. Thorsten Sellin has described it as ―violation of conduct
norms of the normative groups‖ NOTES
3. Mowrer had defined it as ―an anti-social act‖.
14.4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CRIME
Hall Jerome (1947), according to him, no action is to be viewed as
crime unless it has five characteristics
 It is legally forbidden
 It is intentional
 It is harmful to society
 It has criminal objective
 Some penalty is prescribed for it.
Confinement of Correction of Criminals
 Two methods are mainly used in our society in
punishing/treating the criminals.
 Imprisonment and release on probation

Prisons
 The conditions in Indian jails were horrible up to 1919-20.
 It was after recommendations of 1919-20 Indian Jails Reform
committees that changes like classification, segregation of
prisoners, education, recreation, assigning productive work and
opportunities for maintaining contacts with family and society were
introduced in maximum-security prisons.
 That is central jail, district jails and sub-jails

Probation
 Probation is an alternative to a prison.
 It is suspension of sentence of an offender by the court and
releasing him on certain conditions to live in the community
with or without the supervision of a probation officer.
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 The system was introduced in India in 1958 by passing the
Central Probation Act.
 Through section 562 in 1898 IPC permitted release of an
offender on probation but it applied only to juvenile delinquents
and first offenders.
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 14.4.3 CRIME IN CITIES
Indian Penal Code (IPC)
Urban Social Due to the increasing disparities in the urban areas of India,
Problems particularly the million plus cities, urban crime has been on the rampant in
most of the areas. The common types are theft of property, crime against
women, crime against children, crime against the aged and cyber crimes.
A total of 297679 cognizable crimes under the IPC (Indian Penal
Code) were reported from the 35 million plus cities in 2002, (National
Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2002), as compared to
289775 crimes during 2001, thereby reporting an increase of 2.7 percent
NOTES compared to the national scenario on a marginal increase of 0.6 percent.
The Indian metropolises witnessed an increase of Murder (5.9 percent),
attempt to commit murder (6.2 percent), dacoit (37.1), riots (1.3) and
dowry deaths (10.1). In addition, the metropolitan centers, had also
contributed to 45.9 percent of the total Auto thefts cases in the country,
31.5 percent cheating cases and 28.6 percent of counterfeiting cases of the
nation‘s total crime.
Crimes under Special and Local Laws (SLL)
The 35 metropolitan cities reported 1625689 cases of SLL crimes
in 2002 compared to 1763759 cases in the previous year. Contrary to the
National level increase of 4.9 percent, cities reported a decrease of reported
cases of 7.8 percent over 2001.
Despite this, the 35 million plus cities contributed significantly
towards the nation‘s share for cases under Copyright Act (36.9 percent),
Indecent Representation of Women Prohibition Act (22.4 percent),
Immoral Traffic (P) Act (17.9 percent) and Arms Act (19.9 percent).
Ludhiana reported the highest percentage of 78.2 percent, followed by
Varanasi 72.3 percent. In addition, Kolkata and Vijaywada also reported
much higher incidences of cases under SLL.
Cyber Crimes
In recent years Cyber Crimes have also increased in the Indian
Cities. The Information technology (IT) Act of 2000, specifies, the
criminal acts under the broad head of Cyber Crimes. Of the total 70 cases
registered under IT Act 2000, around 47 percent cases pertain to obscene
publication and transmission in electronic form. 38 persons were taken in
custody for such offences during 2002. Other such cases include hacking,
signature fraud, breach of confidentiality etc. The urban centers of Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Delhi reported the maximum
number of these cases.
Check your progress - 1
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
1. What do you mean by social problem?
2. When was probation introduced in India?
3. Write the abbreviations for IPC, SLL.
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14.5 JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
Delinquency is a kind of abnormality. When an individual deviates
Urban Social Problems
from the course of normal social life, his behaviour is called
―delinquency‖.
Juvenile delinquents are simply under-age criminals constitute
crimes when committed by adults between the age group of 7 to 16 or 18 NOTES
years, as prescribed by the law of the land.
When a juvenile, below an age specified under a statute exhibits
behaviour which may prove to be dangerous to society and/or to him he
may be called a ‗Juvenile delinquent‘. Each state has its ownNOTES
precise
definition of the age range covered by the word ‗juvenile‘.
Crime committed by children under statutory age is known as
juvenile delinquency. As per statistics released by the NOTESNational Crime
Records Bureau (NCRB), juvenile criminals between 16 and 18 years
accounted for more than 60% of the crimes registered against minors in
India in 2013.
14.5.1 DEFINITION OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
1. According to Reckless (1956), the term ‗juvenile
delinquency‘ applies to the ―violation of criminal code
and/or pursuit of certain patterns of behaviour disapproved
of for children and young adolescents‖.
2. Cyril Burt defines delinquency as occurring in a child
―When his antisocial tendencies appear so grave that he
becomes or ought to become the subject of official action‖.
3. Friedlander says, ―Delinquency is a juvenile misconduct
that might be dealt with under the law‖.
4. The Second United Nations Congress on the Prevention
of Crime and Treatment of Offenders (1960) states, ―By
juvenile delinquency should be understood the commission
of an act which, if committed by an adult, would be
considered a crime.‖
5. C.B. Mamoria writes, ―The phrase ‗juvenile delinquency‘
may be loosely used to cover any kind of deviant behaviour
of children which violates normative rules, understanding or
expectations of social system‖.
In simple words, it can be said that juvenile delinquency is a type of
abnormal or antisocial behaviour by a juvenile who is below an age
specified by statue.
14.5.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
On the basis of these studies and on the basis of data compiled by
National Crime Records Bureau, 1998, following characteristics of
juvenile delinquency in India may be given: Self - Instructional Material
1. The delinquency rates are many times higher for boys than
girls, that is, girls commit fewer delinquencies than boys.
2. The delinquency rates tend to be highest during early
adolescence (12-16 years age group).
3. Juvenile delinquency is more an urban than a rural
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phenomenon.
4. Children living with parents and guardians are found to be
more involved in the juvenile crimes.
215
 5. Low education background is the prime attribute of
delinquency.
Urban Social 6. Poor economic background is another important
Problems characteristic of juvenile delinquency in India.
7. Nine out of 10 juvenile delinquents are first-offenders and
only one-tenth is recidivists or past-offenders.
8. Not many delinquencies are committed in groups. In India,
it appears, a large number of delinquencies are committed
all alone.
9. Though some delinquencies are committed in groups yet the
NOTES number of juvenile gangs having support of organised adult
criminals is not large in our country.

14.5.3 FACTORS IN JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

Individual factors
1. Submissiveness
2. Disobedience
3. Lack of sympathy
4. Irresponsibility
5. Feeling of insecurity
6. Fear
7. Emotional conflicts
8. Lack of self-control

Situational factors
Family, Movies, Peer group relations, School environment
Family
1. Parents‘ discipline
2. Parents‘ affection
3. Cohesiveness of family
4. Conduct-standards of home
5. Replacement parents
6. Father‘s work habits
7. Economic conditions of family
8. Conjugal relations of parents
9. Broken homes

School environment
1. Adjustment to school mates
2. Attitudes toward school
3. Failure in classes or academic interests

14.5.4 PREVENTIVE PROGRAMMES

General improvements in the institutional structure of the society,
for example, family, neighbourhood, school
1. Raising the income levels of poor families
2. Providing job opportunities to children
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3. Establishing schools
4. Improving job conditions
5. Providing recreational facilities in neighbourhoods
216
 6. Improving marital relations through family counselling
services
7. Imparting moral and social education Urban Social Problems

14.5.5 TYPES OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

Howard Becker (1966: 226-38) has referred to four types of NOTES
delinquencies:
(a) individual delinquency,
(b) group-supported delinquency,
(c) organised delinquency, and NOTES
(d) Situational delinquency.
(a) Individual delinquency
NOTES
This refers to delinquency in which only one individual is involved
in committing a delinquent act and its cause is located within the individual
delinquent.
(b) Group-supported delinquency
In this type, delinquencies are committed in companionship with
others and the cause is located not in the personality of the individual or in
the delinquent‘s family but in the culture of the individual‘s home and
neighbourhood.
(c) Organised delinquency
This type refers to delinquencies that are committed by formally
organised groups. This concept refers to the set of values and norms that
guide the behaviour of group members encourage the commission of
delinquencies, award status on the basis of such acts and specify typical
relationships to persons who fail outside the groupings governed by group
norms.
(d) Situational delinquency
Situational delinquency provides a different perspective. Here the
assumption is that delinquency is not deeply rooted, and motives for
delinquency and means for controlling it are often relatively simple.

14.6 SLUMS
A slum is a heavily populated urban informal settlement
characterized by substandard housing and squalor. While slums differ in
size and other characteristics from country to country, most lack reliable
sanitation services, supply of clean water, reliable electricity, timely law
enforcement and other basic services. Slum residences vary from shanty to
poorly built, deteriorated buildings. In the 20th century, slums were
predominantly found in urban regions of developing and undeveloped parts
of the world, but also found in developed economies.
Slums form and grow in many different parts of the world, for Self - Instructional Material
many different reasons. Some causes include rapid rural-to-urban
migration, economic stagnation and depression, high unemployment,
poverty, informal economy, poor planning, politics, natural disasters and
social conflicts. Strategies tried to reduce and transform slums in different
countries, with varying degrees of success, include a combination of slum Self - Instructional Material
removal, slum relocation, slum upgrading, urban planning with city wide
infrastructure development, and public housing projects.

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 14.6.1 NATURE OF SLUMS
Urban Social Slums may be characterized as areas of substandard housing
Problems conditions within a city. A slum is always an area. The term housing
conditions refers to actual living conditions rather than mere physical
appearance of the area. The substandard is to be taken not in an objective
or technological but rather in a relative social sense i.e. compared with the
recognized standard at a given time in a specific country. The cave
dwelling of prehistoric people, the dugouts etc. of pioneers are all
substandard according to our notion, but they do not create slum
NOTES conditions. Slum word has a long and a negative connotation. It has been
almost an epithet, implying evil, strange and something to be shunned and
avoided. It is being apparently derived from ―slumber‖ as slum were once
thought by majority to be unknown, back streets presumed to be sleepy and
quite.
There is a disagreement over whether people make slums or slums
make people. Are substandard housing conditions due to social standards
behaviour of certain groups or vice- versa? The slum is a complex product
of many products as it is true of many other social phenomena. But poverty
is the foremost one, interplay of objective economic facts and subjective
group standard. Low-incomes force people to live in slums. Slum residents
are negligent and do not mind dirt. They have neither money nor time to
their area clean or clean if themselves. Lack of basic infrastructure, like
drains, drinking water, electricity and location gives the slums a very
ungainly picture.
14.6.2 TYPES OF SLUMS
According to Bergel, there are three types of Slums –
1. Original Slum – An area which from the beginning consisted of
unsuitable buildings, these sections are beyond recovery and need to be
razed.
2. Converted slums – Houses earlier built according to the prevailing
standards, but now vacated by the original dwellers and occupied by the
lower income groups turn into slums as new occupants cannot maintain
them e.g. in proper Mumbai earlier bungalows or big apartments are
converted into one room chawls with common toilet facilities.
3. Slums developed due to transition – Once the area has become blighted,
physical and social deterioration spreads rapidly. This kind of slum is
characterized by having semipermanent structures, overnight
accommodation of the destitute, cheap entertainment clubs and houses. It is
populated by transients, tramps, vagrants, chronicalcoholics, beggars,
homeless men and habitual criminals. Such slums need rehabilitation and
not the demolition of building.
14.6.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SLUMS
Slums vary from one type to another, but certain general patterns of
slums are universal. Although, the slum is generally characterized by
inadequate housing, deficient facilities, overcrowding and congestions
involve much more then these elements. Sociologically, it is a way of life,
Self - Instructional Material a sub culture with a set of norms and values, which is reflected in poor
sanitation and health practices, deviant behavior and attributes of apathy
and social isolations. People who live in slums are isolated from the

218
general power structure and are regarded as inferiors. Slum dwellers in turn
harbor, suspicions of the outside world.
Some of the features of slums are: Urban Social Problems
1. Housing conditions
In terms of the physical conditions and housing standards it is
important to keep in mind the comparative nature of the definitions. A
slum should be judged physically according to the general living standards NOTES
of a country. Slums have commonly been defined as those portions of
cities in which housing is crowded, neglected deteriorated and often
obsolete. Many of the inadequate housing conditions canNOTES be attributed to
poorly arranged structures, inadequate lighting and circulation, lack of
sanitary facility, overcrowding and inadequate maintenance.
2. Overcrowding and congestion NOTES
A slum may be an area which is overcrowded with buildings or a
building over-crowded with people or both. Density does not always result
in unfortunate social consequence, the issue is primarily one of
overcrowding. Congestion is again a judgment about the physical condition
of the building in terms of high density per block, acre or square mile.
William. F. Whyte (1943) in his well-known sociological study, Street Corner
Society situated in Boston‘s north end, stressed upon the importance of
overcrowding as a criterion for measuring slum conditions. Some slum areas
like in Delhi, have 40, 00,000 people per square mile.
3. Neighborhood facilities
A poor slum is invariably associated with poor facilities and
community services. Along with shabbiness and dilapidation, schools are of
poor quality and other public facilities are often insufficient. Streets and
sidewalks often go un-repaired and rubbish and garbage are infrequently
collected adding to the undesirable environment. Shortage of water, electricity
and sanitary facility are common in most of the slums.
4. Poor Sanitation and Health
Slums are generally been dirty and unclean places which is
defined largely in terms of the physical deterioration, stressing particularly
unsanitary conditions and lack of sufficient facilities like water and latrines.
These factors have resulted in high rates death and disease. These factors have
always been typical of slum areas where overcrowding and presence of rats
and other pest complicate the problem of health and sanitation. In slum areas
of developing countries, the rate of disease, chronic illness and infant
mortality are exceptionally high.
5. Deviant Behavior
A high incidence of deviant behavior- crime, juvenile delinquency,
prostitution, drunkenness, drug usage, mental disorder, suicide, ill legitimacy
and family maladjustments have long been associated with slum living. It is a
fact that vice may be found in slums but is by no means confined only to the
slums. Due to the lack of money and power often slum dwellers are prove to Self - Instructional Material
be pressurized by the goons of upper classes to commit crime. It is a vicious
cycle for the sum dwellers.
6. The Culture of the Slum- a way of life
Slums differ widely with respect to the social organization of their
Inhabitants. They range from the slums in which the inhabitants are strangers
to one another, to the family slums in which there is a wide acquaintance Self - Instructional Material
between the inhabitants.

219
 Slums inhabited by immigrant groups may have a firm social organization.
Culture might be defined as system of symbols or meanings for the normative
Urban Social conduct of standards, having three distinct properties. It is transmittable, it is
Problems learned and it is shared. The slum has a culture of its own and this culture is
the way of life. This way of life is passed from generation to generation with
its own rationale, structure ad defense mechanism, which provides the means
to continue in spite of difficulties and deprivation. It is the habits, customs and
behavior pattern people have learned and which they hold that move them to
act in a particular way. Although, these cultural patterns are typical of the
slum, form ethnic groups to ethnic groups, from own society to society to
another.
NOTES 7. Apathy and Social Isolation
Every residential area within the modern city tends to be socially
isolated from others, partly by choice and partly by location. The slum is
especially so, as it is inhabited by the people of the lowest status. The chief
link with rest of the community is their identification with labour market, but
there may be an additional link through politics. A slum also has an image in
the eyes of the larger community. There is a societal reaction to slum dwellers.
The non-slum dweller often associates the physical appearance and difficult
living conditions of the slums with belief in the ―Natural inferiority‖ of those
who live in slums. This reaction has important consequences in the social
isolation of slum dwellers and their exclusion, from power and participation in
urban society. The slum dwellers often lack an effective means of
communication with the outside world. Because of apathy, lack of experience
in communicating with outsiders and their own powerlessness to make their
voice heard. William. F. Whyte (1943) stated that although the north end slum
studied in his work on street corner society was a mysterious, dangerous and
depressing place to an outsider, it provided an organized and familiar
environment for those who lived in it.
14.6.4 FUNCTIONS OF THE SLUMS
The slums have met various needs and have served several useful
functions for the slum residents. The most common functions of the slums
have been to provide housing for the lowest income groups and migrants in
the city. The slums also serve as places where group living and association
on the basis of villages, regions, tribes or ethnic or racial groups may
develop. Whyte (1943) found an organized way of life in slums, which
offered satisfaction to its residents. The slums also perform a function as a
type of ―School‖ to educate newcomers to the city. It gives them a place to
become oriented upon arrival, to find first jobs and to learn the ways of city
life. Another important function of the slum is that of offering a place of
residence to those who prefer to live an anonymous life. It includes
migratory workers, criminals, chronic alcoholic and workers in illegal
enterprises.
14.6.5 APPROACHES TO THE SLUM PROBLEMS
Some experts advocates the policy of slum clearance while others
believe proving welfare services to slum dwellers. Still others stress
providing greater economic opportunity for slum dwellers. All however
have serious limitations as solutions either alone or together to the slum
Self - Instructional Material dwellers.
The traditional welfarist approaches advocate the policy of
destroying the slums, tearing it down physically and redevelopment with
subsidized housing. It is believed that providing welfare services to slum
220
dwellers is the best way to bring about changes in slum areas and to solve
the slum problems.
Urban community development offers a new developmental Urban Social Problems
approach to some of the problems of urban areas in general and of the
slums in particular. It involves two fundamental ideas:- the development of
effective community feeling within an urban context and the development
of self-help and citizens participation, of individual initiative in seeking NOTES
community integration and change.
The Marxist and Socialist approach to the problem of slums clearly
points out that if only the land in urban areas is nationalized and removed
NOTES
from the orbit of market operation.

14.6.6 URBANISATION AND SLUMS NOTES

The Government of India Slum Area (Improvement and Clearance)
Act of 1954 defines a slum as ―any predominantly residential area, in
which light or sanitary facilities or any combination of these factors are
detrimental to the safety, health or morals‖. According to NSS (National
Sample Survey), ―a slum is a compact settlement with a collection of
poorly built tenements, mostly of temporary nature, crowded together, in
unhygienic conditions, usually with inadequate sanitary and drinking water
facilities. Such an area is considered as a Non-Notified Slum if at least 20
households live in that area. Notified Slums are those areas notified as
Slums by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) or development authorities. The vast
majority of the city ward migrants belongs to the working class and finds it
difficult to secure accommodation within their means. Therefore they squat
on every open space available, nearby their work places and construct huts
with cheap temporary building materials. In this way, slums grow in
number and population. Total and slum population in India according to
size/class of towns during 1991 showed that 41 percent of the total slum
population was residing in million plus cities where 27 percent of the total
population of India resided. However, cities with population between 0.5 –
1 million have only 9 percent of total slum population, where 20 percent of
the total population was residing. Further, cities with population between
0.3 to 0.5 million had only 6 percent of total slum population where 19
percent of total population was residing. This shows that cities with
population between 0.5 to 1 million and city with population between 0.3
to 0.5 million has very less percentage of slum population whereas million
plus cities have more percentage of slum population. It reveals that the
opportunity in the medium cities is less than that offered by the million
cities.
Check your progress - 2
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Self - Instructional Material
unit.
4. What is called delinquency?
5.Enumerate some preventive programmes for Juvenile
delinquency.
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6. What is slum?

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 14.7 HOUSING PROBLEMS
In India, the problem of housing is acute. There is a wide gap
Urban Social between the demand and supply of houses. This gap is responsible for
Problems growth of slums in cities where crores of people live in most unhygienic
and unhealthy conditions.

14.7.1 ROLE OF HOUSING

Housing is closely associated to the process of overall socio-
economic development. It provides shelter and raises the quality of life. It
generates conditions which are congenial to the achievement of social
NOTES
objectives such as health, sanitation and education. It provides employment
opportunities to the rural and urban people. Moreover it helps to improve
urban rural equality by narrowing down the difference in the standard of
living. Thus housing performs multiple functions including many social
needs of the household.

14.7.2 MAGNITUDE OF THE HOUSING PROBLEM

 The magnitude of the problem of housing in India is quite wide.
The problem has both quantitative and qualitative dimensions.
 Qualitatively speaking the state of housing in India is
miserable.
 Quantitatively speaking, there is acute shortage of housing in
urban areas in India. In 2000, there is shortage of 104 lakh
houses in urban areas.

14.7.3 MEASURES TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM OF HOUSING IN

INDIA
 The Ministry of Urban Development and Ministry of Rural
Development have the overall responsibility to build houses
in urban and rural areas of the country.
 As housing is a State subject, the role of the Central Govt. is
confined to policy making, laying down guidelines and
assistance in the form of loans etc.
 The actual implementation of the housing schemes is the
responsibility of the State Governments.

The following are the measures taken by the Govt. to solve the
problem of housing:
1 Institutional Finance for Housing
To facilitate the construction of houses, several financial
institutions have been established by the Govt. to provide housing finance.
In the co-operating sector House building co-operative societies has been
set up to provide housing finance. LIC was the only public financial
institution to provide housing finance to the policy holders till 1970.
The Central Govt. instituted Housing and Urban Development
Self - Instructional Material Corporation (HUDCO) which gives loans for housing to State Housing
Boards, Municipal Corporations, and Development authorities. Housing
Development Finance Corporation (HDFC) was established in the private

222
sector to provide housing finance in 1977. The RBI has been allocating
yearly a specific amount to commercial Bank funds for housing finance
since 1981. National Housing Bank (NHB) was established for housing Urban Social Problems
finance in July 1988.
2. Research and Development
Besides financial institutions, there are agencies who are engaged
in research and development in the field of housing construction activities. NOTES
These activities are improvement in the traditional construction materials
and methods of construction, acceptance of new materials, providing
information and technical help to other organisations and to individuals.
NOTES
These institutions are National Building Organisation (NBO) and Central
Building Research Institute (CBRI).
3. State Housing Boards NOTES
In various States, the State Housing Boards allocates plots and
construct houses for people belonging to different income groups in urban
areas. The allotees make payment on instalment basis at Government rates.
The houses are built in groups and in a planned manner with all basic and
civic amenities like water supply, sewerage, parks, shopping area and roads
etc.
4. Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana (VAMBAY)
This programme was launched on 2nd December 2001. The scheme
is meant for urban slum dwellers below the poverty line that do not have
adequate houses. For construction of dwelling units and community toilets
in urban slums the Central Govt. provides 50 percent of the cost and the
rest 50 percent is given by the State governments. Central Govt. has given
Rs. 211.87 crore for the construction of 1.06 lakh dwelling units and 20817
toilets in urban slums.
14.8 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Localized environmental health problems such as inadequate
household water and sanitation and indoor air pollution.
City-regional environmental problems such as ambient air
pollution, inadequate waste management and pollution of rivers, lakes and
coastal areas.
Extra-urban impacts of urban activities such as ecological
disruption and resource depletion in a city‘s hinterland, and emissions of
acid precursors and greenhouse gases.
Regional or global environmental burdens that arise from activities
outside a city‘s boundaries, but which will affect people living in the city
14.8.1. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF MODERN CITIES
Urban environmental problems are mostly inadequate water supply,
wastewater, solid waste, energy, loss of green and natural spaces, urban Self - Instructional Material
sprawl, pollution of soil, air, traffic, noise, etc. All these problems are
particularly serious in developing countries and countries with economic
transition, where there is a conflict between the short-term economic plan
and the protection of the environment.
14.8.2. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF URBAN AREA
Self - Instructional Material
1. Development of Slum

223
 The areas within the cities and towns (urban areas) without civic
and basic amenities are called Slums. The slum settlement arises due to un-
Urban Social flux of rural peoples into urban areas and shortage of housing facilities for
Problems them.
They construct their dwellings using rusted tins, empty tar barrels,
tarpaulins, jute sacks etc. Although these areas become overcrowded, these
lack civic amenities like light, water supply, drainage, roads, toilets and
medical facilities. The areas of slum become centres of a number of
environmental problems. Some important environmental problems may be
outlined as follows:
NOTES (i) These areas without proper water supply dispose their waste in an
unplanned manner which pollutes air and water.
(ii) The contamination of water causes diseases like typhoid, cholera,
enteric fever and gastroenteritis.
(iii)The unplanned waste dumping places and open defecation become
the sites of the growth of a number of disease carriers like flies,
mosquitoes etc. These cause health hazards not only in slum areas
but also in other nearby places.
Thus, to avoid the above environmental problems, the slum areas
should be developed by providing the civic amenities like light, water
supply, drainage, toilet and medical facilities.

2. Management of solid waste

Thickly populated urban area consumes large quantities of material
and simultaneously releases a lot of solid wastes. The solid wastes include
municipal wastes, industrial wastes, hazardous wastes etc. The solid waste
production increases with an increase in population. When these solid
wastes are dumped for a longer period of time, these produce foul smell
and poisonous gases and become breeding grand‘s of vectors of different
diseases.
The gases produced cause air pollution, surface run-off from the
wastes cause water pollution and vectors cause different diseases. In order
to avoid the above environmental problems, suitable methodology should
be adopted to dispose the wastes scientifically or to recycle them or
segregate organic, inorganic and recyclable wastes.

3. over exploitation of natural resources

Due to high population density and expensive life style, the rate of
consumption of natural resources (e.g. water, energy, fossil fuel, forest
products etc.) is very high in urban areas. There is also misuse of natural
resources whose immediate compensation becomes difficult. Few acute
problems of urban areas are scarcity of drinking water especially the
ground water, scarcity of forest products, power cut due to excessive use of
electricity etc.
4. Non-availability of open space
Due to unplanned urbanization and thick population density, urban
Self - Instructional Material areas are highly congested without open spaces for parks, play grounds and
recreation centres. This results in non availability of free and clean air and
space of playing and recreation.
5. Air pollution
224
 The air of urban areas get polluted due to a lot of anthropogenic
activities, flying of large number of automobiles, industries etc. These
activities release pollutants like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, oxides Urban Social Problems
of nitrogen, oxides of sulphur, hydrocarbons, vapours of organic
compounds, particulates, and toxic metals etc. which are capable of
inducing a number of health hazards.
6. Noise pollution NOTES
The noise produced from automobiles, vehicles, social functions,
industries etc. cause noise pollution in urban areas which causes
psychological and physical ailments. NOTES
7. Violation of urban planning rules
The unplanned urbanization leads to violation of rules laid down
for establishing ideal urban settlements where one can leadNOTEShealthy and
comfortable life. The buildings constructed do not obey the prescribed
floor space index or floor area ratio.
8. Water-logging and drainage
The migration of large number of poor and rural people without any
civic sense, disposal of a large amount of solid waste, unplanned
settlements etc. in urban areas cause water logging and drainage problem.
9. Traffic and floating population
The large migration of rural peoples in search of job to the urban
areas causes serious traffic problem and environmental pollution of all
kinds.
10. Unusual rise in temperature
The unplanned constructions of large buildings in urban areas
absorb solar radiation and in the afternoon, these emit heat radiations
increasing the climatic temperature.

Check your progress - 3

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
7. Comment on – Role of housing.
8. Write about VAMBAY.
9. List down the urban environmental problems.
14.9. POVERTY
Poverty studies in India have concentrated on counting the number
of units-usually households or individuals –falling below a certain level of
consumption expenditure or income. Amartya Sen (1973) wrote, ‗The
Indian poor may not be accustomed to receiving much help, but they are
beginning to get used to being counted. The poor in this country have
lately been lined up in all kinds of different ways and have subjected to Self - Instructional Material
several sophisticated head counts.‖
14.9.1 POVERTY IN INDIA
Poverty is one of the most widespread socio-economic problems of
India. It is, indeed, a common problem which is being faced with most of
the underdeveloped and the developing countries of the world. It is not Self - Instructional Material
only socio-economic but even emotional, cultural and political in nature.
The developments that have been taking place in this land for the past six

225
 decades have not been able to wipe out poverty. Poverty has been the root
cause of many of the problems.
Urban Social 14.9.2 URBAN POVERTY IN INDIA
Problems
The acceleration of structural changes and poverty analysis is that,
the level of urban is more closely linked with overall indicators of
economic development than with specific indicators related to
industrialization or urbanization. Indeed, the close correlation with level of
rural poverty indicates that the two cannot be viewed separately. Given
relatively high labour mobility, this is not surprising. Increasing level of
urban welfare naturally pulls in job aspirants from rural areas if conditions
NOTES
there are much worse. Conversely, rural prosperity has its reflection in
relative urban prosperity through generation of urban activities resulting
from demand stimulation. It is also of some significance that the variance
in rural poverty is much higher than in urban poverty. Urban activities are
essentially footloose- urban labour markets are probably more national in
character than the rural labour markets. Moreover rural productivity is
more clearly rooted in immovable assets –land and hence less prone to
greater variance between states. The rate of change in the employment
structure has lagged far behind that of output and value added.
Manufacturing activities have indeed grown apace but not perhaps fast
enough.
There is a clear evidence of an accelerating change in the
employment structure also, contrary to the popular impression
manufacturing employment and not the tertiary sector has been the fastest
growing sector. There seems to have been a greater tendency of industrial
dispersal up to the mid –1970 the subsequent. From the evidence it is
difficult to argue that industrial dispersal had any significant effect on
urban poverty removal- though the correlation of urban poverty and
manufacture activity are generally in the right direction. The key regional
pattern that emerges is really on east-west divide. The states with
persistently high poverty level both rural and urban are Bihar, MP, Orissa,
UP and Tamil Nadu. The advance states of West Bengal and Maharashtra
are also exhibit high level of rural poverty. Thus the three traditionally
advanced industrial states: West Bengal, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu all
exhibits high levels of rural poverty. As a result their urban poverty levels
are also not low as might have been expected. What is of great interest is
that Haryana and Punjab are found to be the most successful in all spheres
and this has been achieved without large-scale industrial investment. Yet
the growth in manufacturing employment is among the highest in these
states including employment in household industries, which is generally
declining elsewhere. The level of urban poverty is lowest in these states as
well, non-agricultural employment in both rural and urban areas.

Along with all these changes, urbanization also accelerated

significantly in these states. So the key to removal of urban poverty is
agricultural growth. It is difficult to sustain high growth rate in
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manufacturing activity and employment without the accompanying
improvements in agricultural productivity. In deed the magnitude of non-
agricultural employment growth that is needed for poverty removal can
226
only occur if there is adequate growth in agricultural productivity. The
evidence from the older industrialized states is clear: poverty removal in
these states is stymied by languishing hinterlands despite high levels of Urban Social Problems
industrialization and urbanization. The effect of accelerated agricultural
growth would be most felt in the generation of non-agricultural activities
both in rural as well as in the small and medium towns whose primary
function is the service of their hinterland. NOTES

Big cities are then indirectly affected through operation of the

labour market and through enhanced demand for their products and
NOTES
services from the small and medium towns. The decay of the eastern region
emerges as the most significant problem. The strategy of locating heavy
industries in the eastern and central states has had little beneficial
NOTES impact in
terms of poverty removal. Vast areas in Bihar, MP, Orissa, UP, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka have very low productivity agricultural regions. Their
levels of urbanization and industrialization are among the lowest in the
world-along with some of the highest indices of poverty. Industrial
dispersal in the absence of significant direct attack on agricultural
productivity will do little to reduce urban or rural poverty in these areas.
All the evidence suggests that the slow decrease in poverty in India has
been caused by slow overall structural change. The fact that employment
structure has changed much more slowly than that of value added suggest
that the investment strategy has been wrong, being aimed at a dispersal of
heavy and large industry rather than agriculture and light industries. A self-
sustaining plan poverty removal in urban and rural areas can only be
reached if the investment strategy is oriented toward a much more
accelerated generation of non-agricultural employment.

14.9.3 DEFINITION OF POVERTY

1. Gillin and Gillin : ―Poverty is that condition in which a
person either because of inadequate income or unwise
expenditures, does not maintain a scale of living high
enough to provide for his physical and mental efficiency
and to enable him and his natural dependents to function
usefully according to the standards of the society of which
he is a member.‖
2. Adam Smith: ―A person ... is rich or poor according to the
degree in which he can afford to enjoy the necessaries, the
conveniences and the amusements of life‖.
3. Goddard: ―Poverty is insufficient supply of those things
which are requisite for an individual to maintain himself and
those dependent upon him in his health and vigour‖.
Self - Instructional Material
14.9.4 ABOSOLUTE POVERTY AND RELATIVE POVERTY
Absolute Poverty
Right from the 19th century, some researchers are trying to fix
some yardstick for measuring poverty in precise terms. Ideally speaking Self - Instructional Material
such a yardstick would help us establish a fixed level of poverty, known as
―poverty line‖ below which poverty begins and above which it ends. Such
227
 a yardstick is believed to be universal in character and would be applicable
to all the societies. This concept of poverty is known as ―Absolute poverty‖
Urban Social Absolute poverty is often known as ―subsistence poverty‖ for it is based on
Problems assessments of minimum subsistence requirements of basic ―physical
needs‖ such as food, clothing, shelter, health requirements etc. Some
concepts of absolute poverty would even include the idea of ―basic cultural
needs‖. This broadens the idea of basic human needs beyond the level of
physical survival. Drewnowski and Scott include education, security,
leisure and recreation in their category of ―basic cultural needs‖.
Relative Poverty
NOTES The difficulties involved in the application of the concept of
―absolute poverty‖, made some researchers to abandon the concept
altogether. In place of absolute standards, they have developed the idea of
relative standards that is; standards which are relative to particular time and
place. In this way, the idea of absolute poverty has been replaced by the
idea of relative poverty. ―Relative poverty is measured in terms of
judgements by members of a particular society of what is considered as
reasonable and acceptable standard of living and styles of life according to
the conventions of the day. Just as conventions change from time to time,
and place to place, so will definitions of poverty.‖ in a rapidly changing
world, definitions of poverty based on relative standard will be constantly
changing. Hence, Peter Townsend has suggested that any definition of
poverty must be ―related to the needs and demands of a changing society‖.

14.10 UNEMPLOYMENT
Unemployment, also referred to as joblessness, occurs when people
are without work and are actively seeking employment. During periods of
recession, an economy usually experiences high unemployment rates.
14.10.1 DEFINITION OF UNEMPLOYMENT
1. C.B Mamoria define "Unemployment is a state of work less
for a man fit and willing to work, that is , it is a condition of
involuntary and not voluntary idleness"
2. ―Unemployment is defined as a condition in which an
individual is not in a state of remunerative occupation despite
his desire do so‖---- D. Mello
3. "Unemployment is often described as a condition of involuntary
idleness‖----Nava Gopal Das

14.10.2 TYPES OF UNEMPLOYMENT

 Classical: occurs when real wages for jobs are set above the
market-clearing level. It causes the number of job seekers to be
higher than the number of vacancies.
 Cyclical: occurs when there is not enough aggregate demand in the
economy to provide jobs for everyone who wants to work. Demand
for goods and services decreases, less production is needed, and
Self - Instructional Material fewer workers are needed.
 Structural: occurs when the labor market is not able to provide
jobs for everyone who wants to work. There is a mismatch between
the skills of the unemployed workers and the skills needed for
228
 available jobs. It differs from frictional unemployment because it
lasts longer.
 Frictional: the time period in between jobs when a worker is Urban Social Problems
searching for work or transitioning from one job to another.
 Hidden: the unemployment of potential workers that is not taken
into account in official unemployment statistics because of how the
data is collected. For example, workers are only considered NOTES
unemployed if they are looking for work so those without jobs who
have stopped looking are no longer considered unemployed.
 Long-term: usually defined as unemployment lasting NOTESlonger than
one year.
14.10.3 URBAN UNEMPLOYMENT IN INDIA
NOTES
Urban unemployment in India is estimated at 15 to 25 per cent of
the labour force. This percentage is even higher among the educated
people. It is estimated that about half of all educated urban unemployed are
concentrated in four metropolitan cities (Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and
Chennai). Furthermore, although urban incomes are higher than the rural
incomes, they are appallingly low in view of high cost of living in urban
areas.
One of the major causes of urban unemployment is the large scale
migration of people from rural to urban areas. Rural-urban migration has
been continuing for a pretty long time but it has not always been as great a
problem as it is today. The general poverty among the rural people pushes
them out to urban areas to migrate in search of livelihood and in the hope
of a better living.
But the growth of economic opportunities fails to keep pace with
the quantum of immigration. The limited capacity of urban areas could not
create enough employment opportunities and absorb the rapid growth of
the urban labour force. Efforts made by the central and the state
governments to create employment opportunities in rural areas and to
check the large scale rural-urban migration have not met with much
success.

14.10.4 UNEMPLOYMENT RATE IN URBAN

The latest Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) states that the
unemployment rate (UR) in both rural and urban India is at its highest
since 1972.
The unemployment rates among men and women in both rural and
urban groups are also the highest ever. The increase in the UR is more than
three times among rural men and more than double among rural women
Self - Instructional Material
according to the usual status since 2011-12.
In urban areas, the UR among men is more than twice and has
increased twice among women since 2011-12. It is to be noted that the UR
between 1972 and 2012 was almost static or did not have many
differences. Besides, the UR rose sharply among youth of ages between
15-29 years and those who got better education. Self - Instructional Material
The measurement of unemployment is based on the usual status and
Current Weekly status. The Usual Status approach to measuring
229
 unemployment uses a reference period of 365 days i.e. one year preceding
the date of the survey of the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO)
Urban Social for measuring unemployment.
Problems The Current Weekly Status (CWS) approach to measuring
unemployment uses seven days preceding the date of survey as the
reference period. A person is considered to be employed if he or she
pursues any one or more gainful activities for at least one hour on any day
of the reference week.
The Union Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
had constituted PLFS under the chairmanship of Amitabh Kundu. The data
NOTES was collected by NSSO from July 2017 to June 2018. The survey was
spread over 12,773 first-stage sampling units (7,014 villages and 5,759
urban blocks) covering 1, 02, 113 households (56,108 in rural areas and
46,005 in urban areas) and enumerating 4, 33, 339 persons (2, 46, 809 in
rural areas and 1, 86, 530 in urban areas).
The unemployment rates in urban areas are higher than those in
rural areas. In urban areas, the UR is 7.8 per cent according to the usual
status. The overall unemployment rate is 6.1 per cent in India according to
the usual status. According to CWS, the urban rate is 9.6 per cent. The
overall unemployment rate is 8.9 per cent.

14.10.5 UNEMPLOYMENT RATE OF MALE AND FEMALES IN

URBAN
In urban areas, the unemployment rates for females are higher than
those for males.
The unemployment rate among youth between 15 and 29 years has
risen sharply since 2011-12. Among rural males and females, the UR is
almost three times since 2011-12, whereas among urban males and
females, this rate is more than double.
The UR has also sharply increased among those who are more
educated. Since 2011-12, the UR among rural males has increased by
almost three times, from 1.7 per cent to 5.7 per cent. Those who have
higher degree of education and those who are completely not-literate have
witnessed almost the same level of unemployment.
Interestingly, unemployment among rural not-literate females has
reduced and among urban females, the number of those who are literate up
to primary-level jobs is the same as 2011-12.

14.10.6. CAUSES OF UNEMPLOYMENT AT URBAN AREAS IN

INDIA
Some of the Causes of Unemployment at Urban Areas are as
follows:
According to Madan, the causes of unemployment can be divided into
three categories, namely:
(i) Personal factors
Personal factors refer to the physical disability, weak mentality,
accidents, defective education and training. Elliott and Merill have
Self - Instructional Material
explained the following under the personal factors.
a. Age factor

230
 The very young and old persons are at a disadvantage in securing
employment due to inexperience and inefficiency, respectively.
b. Vocational unfitness Urban Social Problems
Many young people have no understanding of their own abilities or
interests and have no particular task in mind when they have to get their
training. Willingness to do anything may seem to indicate a worthy desire
on the part of the person seeking work. Employers, on the other hand, may NOTES
seek qualified and competent trained workers. Similarly, there may be
more men trained in a particular profession than required. The demand is
less than the supply and hence unemployment. NOTES
c. Illness or physical disabilities
A number of workers may be temporarily unemployed because of
illness or physical disabilities. Illness may be caused dueNOTES
to conditions in
the occupation and disabilities may arise due to accidents.
(ii) Technological and economic factors
Another important factor causing unemployment is disorganization
in the economic structure and the dislocation in industries. Due to
advancement in science and technology, a high specialization in the
division of labour takes place. Due to this, able-bodied and capable men
remain unemployed. The unemployment generated under this category is
due to trade cycles, technological advancement, seasonal variations and
lack of mobility among the labour force. Unemployment is a result of both
technological changes and cyclical variations of business and trade, which
are deeply connected with the production process.
(iii) Mass migration
Mass migration is an important cause for unemployment in urban
areas. People migrate from rural areas in large groups when there is
drought or when any other unfavourable conditions occur. A city or town
can ill-afford to provide employment opportunities to all of the migrated
people, thus, causing mass unemployment.
The problem of unemployment that exists in India is an outcome of
several cumulative factors such as the British rule and its policies, the
Zamindari system, which exploited the farmers, the policy of laissez faire
and free trade, which hindered the progress of rapid industrialization, the
rapid growth of population, the decay of small-scale and cottage industries,
which led to a large-scale migration from rural to urban areas, and the low
levels of investment that resulted in the slow expansion of the secondary
and tertiary sectors.

14.10.7. MEASURES TO MINIMIZE UNEMPLOYMENT IN INDIA

It is disturbing as well as distressing to find that the standard of
living of man is still below the desired level and unemployment is on the
Self - Instructional Material
increase. In order to meet the problem of unemployment, the following
measures are to be taken:
a. According to Madan, the personal disabilities include
illness, physical handicaps, old age and inexperience. The
methods suggested to overcome these disabilities are
socialized health services, adequate wage provisions to Self - Instructional Material
maintain health, vocational rehabilitation, vocational
education and educational planning, workmen‘s
231
 compensation and other social security schemes and new
vocational opportunities.
Urban Social b. Planned development by accelerating industrialization,
Problems removing the deficiency of demand, stabilizing the rate of
domestic investment and consumer demand can fight the
problem of unemployment.
c. Creating more employment opportunities in the rural areas
through intensive farming, greater irrigation facilities,
extension of community projects, organization of co-
operative farming, development of village industry and
NOTES settlement of agricultural labourers on the reclaimed land.
Emphasis should also be laid on the development of small-
scale and cottage industries to relieve the pressure on land.
These not only help in creating employment opportunities
but also check the rate of migration from rural to urban
areas.
i. According to Madan to eliminate seasonal unemployment,
the manufacturers can take up the production of some
other commodities in the slack season.

ii. Providing temporary work for those who have lost

employment. In India, the surplus labour power can be
utilized for various public works programmes, affor-
estation and expansion of cottage industries and so on.
iii. The present education system needs a thorough overall
check to meet the changing pattern of demand not only
through re-orientation but also by diversifying the courses
in the field of commerce, trade, banking, insurance,
technical and managerial personnel so that the
adjustments of demand and labour in various occupations
become easy.
iv. Development of small-scale and village industries can
increase the rate of employment. For this, the government
should guide the small-scale industries in financing and
marketing.
v. Self-employment schemes for the unemployed youth have
to be launched to enable them to start their own business
or small-scale firm, which can also generate employment
for many others.

Check your progress - 4

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.
10. What is known as poverty line?
11. What is the major cause of urban unemployment?
12. Write any two measures to minimize unemployment.
Self - Instructional Material

232
14.11 LET US SUM UP
Urbanisation has been an instrument of economic, social and Urban Social Problems
political progress; it has led to serious social problems. Measures are taken
to minimize the problems in urban area. Crime, juvenile delinquency,
slums, housing problems, environmental problems, poverty and
NOTES
unemployment are in urban areas as social problems. This unit helps the
learner to discuss, analyse the causes, preventive measures with available
data.
NOTES
In this unit you have learnt urban social problems such as crime,
juvenile delinquency, slums, housing problems, environmental problems
poverty and unemployment problems. NOTES

14.12. UNIT – END – EXERCISES

1. Define social problem.
2. How did Tappan define crime?
3. Write notes on Cyber crime.
4. Explain the characteristics of Juvenile Delinquency.
5. Describe the types of slums.
6. Briefly explain the approaches to the slum problems.
7. How can solve the problems of housing?
8. Explain environmental problem in urban..
9. Explain the absolute poverty and relative poverty
10. Explain the causes of unemployment at urban areas in India.

14.13. ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. When a particular social phenomenon or condition disturbs the
social order and hinders smooth working of social institutions that
comes to be identified as a social problem.
2. In 1958
3. Indian Penal Code
4. Delinquency is a kind of abnormality. When an individual deviates
from the course of normal social life, his behaviour is called
―delinquency‖.
5. Raising the income levels of poor families, Providing job
opportunities to children,
Establishing schools
Improving job conditions
Providing recreational facilities in neighbourhoods
6. A slum is a heavily populated urban informal settlement Self - Instructional Material
characterized by substandard housing and squalor
7. Housing is closely associated to the process of overall socio-
economic development. It provides shelter and raises the quality of
life. It generates conditions which are congenial to the achievement
of social objectives such as health, sanitation and education. It
provides employment opportunities to the rural and urban people. Self - Instructional Material
Moreover it helps to improve urban rural equality by narrowing
down the difference in the standard of living. Thus housing
233
 performs multiple functions including many social needs of the
household.
Urban Social 8. This programme was launched on 2nd December 2001. The scheme
Problems is meant for urban slum dwellers below the poverty line that do not
have adequate houses.
9. Water supply, wastewater, solid waste, energy, loss of green and
natural spaces, urban sprawl, pollution of soil, air, traffic, noise, etc.
10. Researchers try to fix some yardstick for measuring poverty in
precise terms; such a yardstick would help to establish a fixed level
of poverty known as poverty line.
NOTES 11. Large scale migration
12. A) To eliminate seasonal unemployment, the manufacturers can
take up the production of some other commodities in the slack
season.
B) Self-employment schemes for the unemployed youth have to be
launched to enable them to start their own business or small-scale
firm, which can also generate employment for many others.

4.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Rao, M.S.A. (ed.) 1991. A Reader in Urban Sociology Orient
Longman: New Delhi.
2. Kundu Amitabh and Darshini Mahadevia (Eds.). 2002. Poverty and
vulnerability in a globalising metropolis Ahmedabad: New Delhi:
Manak Publication Pvt. Ltd.
3. : A critic of poverty theories and policies, Rutgers University.
4. Beteille Andre. 2003. ‗Poverty and Inequality‘ EPW. Vol-42,
October –2004.
5. Rao, M .S. A. (ed.), 1974. Urban Sociology in India, Orient
Longman, New Delhi.
6. Ramachandran, R., 1989. Urbanization and Urban Systems in India,
OUP, Delhi.
7. Desai. A. R and S. Devadas Pillai. Eds. (1990). Slums and
Urbanisation. Bombay. Popular Prakashan.
8. A.R.Desai and S. D. Pillai. (1972). A Profile of an Indian Slum.
University of Bombay.
9. Verma, Gita Dewan. (2002). Slumming India: A chronicle of slums
and their saviours. Delhi. Penguin Books.
10. Dhadave M. S. (1989). Sociology of Slum. New Delhi. Archives
Books.
11. Bose, Ashish. (1985). ―Urbanization and Slums, Important
Strategies for the future‖. in Prodipto Roy and Shagon Dasgupta.
12. Waxman, Chaim. I. 1983. The stigma of property: A critic of
poverty theories and policies, Rutgers University.

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 DISTANCE EDUCATION – CBCS – (2018 – 19 Academic
Year Onwards)
Urban Social Problems
Question Paper Pattern (ESE) – Theory
(UG/PG/P.G.Diploma Programmes)
Time: 3 Hours
Maximum: 75 Marks NOTES
Part – A
(10 x 2 = 20 Marks)
Answer all questions
1. Define - Rural Sociology. NOTES
2. What is called peasant movement?
3. What is Mahalwari System?
4. Define – Caste. NOTES
5. What is the meaning of Seasonal Unemployment?
6. What is meant by urban sociology?
7. What are the functions of Dominant caste?
8. What is called demographic approach in urbanisation?
9. Define city.
10. Who are Juvenile Delinquents?
Part – B
(5 x 5 =
25 Marks)
Answer all questions choosing either (a) or (b)
11. a. Explain the Scope of Rural Sociology.
(or)
b. Enumerate the Rural Urban contrast
12. a. Explain the features of jajmani system
(or)
b. Explain the types of Unemployment.
13. a. Enumerate the ways to measure Urbanisation
(or)
b. Explain the impact of Green Revolution.
14. a. Explain the main functions of a city.
(or)
b. Describe the types of slums.
15. a. Describe the basic features of India‘s urbanisation.
(or)
b. List down the objectives of National Urbanization Policy.

Part – C
(3 x 10 = 30 Marks)
(Answer any 3 out of 5 questions)
Self - Instructional Material
16. Explain environmental problem in urban.
17. Discuss migration in India.
18. Discuss in detail about Agrarian Social Structure and Change
19. Write an essay about Health and sanitation.
20. Elucidate the Rural Development Programme
Self - Instructional Material

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