Ante ployed in different systems in different forms. That is, in some systems the operational characteristic of the system are designed around the directional Properties of the antennas or in some other systems, the antennas are used simply to radiate electromagnetic energy in an omnidirection or finally insome systems for point to point communication Purposes in which increased gain and reduced wave interference are required. Inespective of type of application of an antennas or antenna system, all the antennas possessed certain Properties which will now be discussed in this chapter. The important properties of an antenna are ttrally given in some terms like, Radiation Pattern, Radiation Intensity, Polarization gain, directive or directivity, Power gain, Efficiency, Effective Aperture or Area, Self and Mutual impedance, lation resistance, Beam width, Band width etc. These antenna terminology will one by one be taken up. Fever, we shall start with another term Isotropic Radiator which will be nezded subsequently for Mparison purposes. ISOTROPIC RADIATORS , _(AMIETE, Nov. 1969) An isotropic radiator is a fictitious radiator and is defined as a radiator which radiates uniformly 211 directions, 11 is also called as isotropic source or omnidirectional radiator or simply unipole, An pic radiator is a hypothetical lossless radiator or antenna, with which the practical radiators or antennas "pared, Thus an isotropi¢ antenna or radiator is used as reference antenna. Although, sometimes, a ve dipole antenna is also used as reference antenna but these days usc of isotropic antenna as reference ANd is prefer s preferred, Since all the practical antennas have atleast some directional properties ic. elreliay ania ne eres ‘ ic cnerg, ever, in acoustics we have a Hh thing as isotropic radiator of elecomagnetic energy. However, in accoustics w Poi of sound is a i ¢ radiator. >und is an example of isotropic 12 a : Lotus now j a hat an isotropic radiator is situated at the centre of asphere of radius ¢r), Then Me energy (poy ) afeed from se must pass over the surface area of the sphere (assuming there is no ¥ (power) radiate :ANTENNA & Wing Eby Ve ther, as said earlier, the Poynting vector ¢ oF ‘obstruction to absorb the power) 4 7 PF e r unit area in any di Pow, he sphere gives “Power radiated pe n «Since Pt a ppealnhed eae ine therefore fra sotropic radiator, the magnigyge eye a isotropic source flows in ra ee fn only (because Po = Pe = 0). ey P is cqual to the radial component IP1=Pr is known akall points on a sphere of radius r fron, ) radiated by the source is integral over the surfacg oft eg ‘Thus, if the Poynting vector lossless medium, the total power (Wi ie radial component P, of average Poynting vector. Symbolically, We= ff Peds ff rreda =r, ffde — tromb.1 0 = @ = Ofor isoxopic rain ig 1 Wie Pp 4nP nfP=P oJ ds = 4 xP = arcaotsutay Ww 2 * or Pps Watts/m’ an? a Here W, = Total power radiated, in Watts. P, = Radial component of average power density poynting vector, in W/m? ds = Infinitesimal clement of area of sphere of radius r = 7° sin0 d@ do. and r 6.3. RADIATION PATTERN Itis found, in practice, that radiated energy from an antenna is not of the same strength inal dts Radius of sphere, in meures. Instcad, itis more is one direction and lessor zero is other direction. The cnergy radiated in a particular diet by an antenna is measured in terms of FIELD STRENGTH at a point which is at a particular distance fom the antenna. For the calculation of field strength, the voltages at two points on an electric lines of force, a and then it is divided by the distance between the two points. Hence the unit of radiation patter is valine or milli-volvmetre, The radiation pattern of an antenna is generally its most basic requirement bet determines the distribution of radiated energy in space. Once the operating frequency is known, the ri pattern is the first property of an antenna that is specified. 5 Radiation Pattern of an antenna is nothing but a graph which shows the strength of electromagnetic field at all points which are at equal distance from the the graph of radiation pattern will be three-dimensional and hence can not completely be r# ona plain puper. In order to draw the radiation pattern of an antenna field strengths arc measwed 4 point which lies on the surface of an imaginary sphere of a fixed radius treating antenna as cenve Nr gg three dimensional solid figure is constructed from the reading s0 obtained. In this case dis’ Toy centre (fixed points) to the surface of sphere represents the field strength in that direction. In one sd radiation pattern of an antennais represented on a plain paper, the three dimensional solid figure so? is cut by a plane passing through the fixed point (say centre of sphere) and the figures 0 rifle used to represent the radiation pattern in a usual way. The radiation patterns are differe™" antennas and are affected by the location of antenna w.r.t. ground. In fact, the graphical representation of radiation of an antenna asa functio the name radiation pattern of the antenna, If the radiation from the antenna is express" field strength E (voll/metre), the radiation pattern is called as the ‘Field Strength Patter” hand, the radiation in a given direction is expressed in terms of power per unit solid angle! og patiern is r ‘Power Pattern’. However, both arc related to each other—a power pattern is tenn, Obvits on presetANTENNA FERMINOLOGY —— suse tt sarength pattern — and unless otherwise mentioned will pe field strength pattern, ince the radiation pattem isa three dimensional radiation pattems henceforth (1). The shape Tre direction of ie stone) forthe radiation field is always tangemial othe spherical spherical surtace sphere of radius r and for vertical dipole electric field strength Eis in the direstion 8 and f and for the f imaginary ce Arion Hoop inte direction of ©. Inother words, radiation field strength may have components E, . “nctntegtan ormaerataly, ponents Es and Ey as well which may or may E=VB+E (64) dad E= Toial ehecific field strength. - Ey = Amplitude of @ component, Eg = Amplitude of 9 component. ‘The radiation characteristics for vertically and a horizontal polarizations are different and hence shown by different radiation patterns. ‘Accomplete radiation patter is a three dimensional solid figure and gives the radiation for all angles of the @ and g. However to represent the radiation pattem on a (or He Frayed pauem as shown in Fig. 62.0 sore ides 2 (a) is one half of mensional pattern i a three dimensional patte a oO qu phe angle while Fig. 6.2 (b) is a two ‘dimensional pattern obt acd % aig te eee Sake ” averical plane along the axis of dipole. In other words ae rn br lpia 1 also two dimensional pattern obtained ty cain re i Daweh | ) with angk Hlustrates that fields arc functio ‘AU the centre of the dipole. Asscen, three dimensi= = ANTENNA & Way (ear 2 PREG vertica, VERTICAL ANTENA asvenns (oiroLe! 5 wrr%e} n ern Fig. 62(c) Two Fig. 62.(a) Half of the Fig. 62 (6) Two dimensioanl patern three-dimensioanl patiern obtained by cutting three damensional when (Doughnut shape) paitern with a vertical plane along the axis of dipole (vertical pattern) shaped [ Fig. 6.2 (a)], two dimensional pattern is a figure of eight ~ [ Fig. 6.2 (b)] when cat byaw and a circle (Fig. 6.2 (c)] when cut by a horizontal plane. Above patterns are of course, for a vez ly placec dipole antenna. Similarly, for a horizontally placed dipole antenna, three dimensional pattem is 25 shown i Fig. 6.3 (a), its front view i.e. two dimensional pattern is a figure of eight 8 { Fig. 6.3 (b)] when cut by a vertica Plane along the axis of dipole and a circle when cut by a vertical plane at the centre of dipole perpendicular its axis { Fig. 6.3 (c) ]. The two vertical planes i.e. one along the axis of dipole and the other perpendicular axis of dipole are of great importance. Further increase in length of antenna changes the shape of radiatio pattern. z | | " om Tan | ene : fei Pe . Fig.6.3, (a). Half of the three Fig. 6.3. (b) Two dimensional patiern Fig. 6.3 (c) Two dimensional patern dimensionepatern Dipole placed obtained by cuting thre dimensional whebcad Mrgveviad ez Pe cert Aorizontally). Pattern with a vertical plane along the of dipole perpendicualr to its axis. fo axis of dipole (vertical pattern) Since an isotropic radiator radiates uniformly inall direction and hence its radiation pater isa sph ‘The common types of radiation patterns can be classified as (i) Omnidirectional or Broadcast-type pattern, (ii) Pencil Beam pattern, Fan-Beam Pattern, (iv) Shaped Beam Pattern, doa mncan an tte ate othe pattem shapes io which are wilized indirection finding For example, Limacon or Cardioid, figure of cight Patterns etc, ‘i On Summarising ~ Anantenna radiation rang a, ical represen D alter is, therefore, defined as ‘‘a graphical reper of radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space co-ordinates ta crow cast tH ea pattern is determined in the far field region and is Fepresented as a function of the dite. coordinates Radiation properties Include radiation intensity fee eect phase or polarisstie™ on radiation property of mast concemis the thee dimensional spatial distibienotadiaiedenctsy 54"631. Ecntioal Fa Z faneras ne eoeaee a the antenna is usually described in terms of its ipal E-plane and H-pla - For a linearly polarised : f fern eataining the eleciiccheld cece: anathe direction of maxi ro ee i dined as ‘aghe plane containing the magnetic-field ve mum radiation” and the H-plane ctor and the direction of m: rf i is . a aximut i & eto orient most antennas in such a way that atleast one of the princi nee see geometric principal planes, Thisis illustrated in Pig (a,b) al Plane pattems coincide with one | L-wass Powe, wink 2 (HPew) 2 / # _ SE LOBE winon— - toe erie weLaNe “pack Lope wricwo | ‘ an a ate ELMO (a) Radiation lobes and BW of an antenna (b) E-plane and H-plane principal patterns. Fig. 6.4. Inthis, the x-z plane is the principal E-plane (elevation Plane @ = 0) nd the x-yplane isthe principal (azimuth plane @ = x/2 yi §32. Radiation Pattern Lobes. Different parts of radiation pattern are referred to.as Lobes", This 8ybe sub-classified ‘as major Tobe, minor lobe, side lobe and back lobe. A radiation lobe is a portion of the Faller bounded by regions of relatively weak tadiation intensity, This is illustrated in Fig. 6.5 where %étical three-dimensional Polar pattern with a number of radiation lobes. Although all are known as Yes bu Some are having greater radiation intensity and some are lesser radiation intensity, A linear Raed ional pattem of the Fig. 64 (@) is shown in Fig. 6.5 where only one plane of Fig, 6.4 (a) is IMEGE LOBE. SIDE LOBE BACK LOBE YiaN ANTENNA & WAS ‘the radi: SRO, is defined as ‘‘the ra iation lobe con 534 in beam and is eres nag (i) Major Lobe is also called re ey iar He : imum rat . nas, irection of maximum Sa major lobe 1.€. all the lobes except the Major lobey a ny lobe except (ii) Minor Lobe is at minor lobe. 7 rection other than the intended lobe, Normally i “ jon lobe in any direction o} eee Y aig Gi) Site Leia ration bein oerupes the Remispherein direction ofthe main 4 i b eee Ron ciate to aminor lobe that occupies the hemisphere in a direcy, (iv) Back Lobe Norm: ion major (main ) lobe. oo ; ‘ __ to that of the i = resent radiation in undesired directions and they should be Mrininiegg eevee minor lobes. The level of minor lobe is ore @S a ratio Of they cee fae Iie is fia Of the major lobe. This ratio is often termed the side 2 Falio oF side bigs Side lobe level ‘of 20 db or smaller are usually not harmful in most of the Applications. Side lope ky 7,30. db requires very carcful design and construction. In radar, side lobe ratios are very importantton.. false target indictions through side lobes. 7% 64. RADIATION POWER DENSITY Electromagnetic radio waves are used to transport information through wireless m: Structure from one point to the other and hen: with electromagnetic fields. The quantity wu ce it is natural to assume that Power and en sed to describe the power associated with elec the Instantaneous Poynting vector ie. PeoExit where P tedium or a py 3 eTRY are as. = tromagneti = Instantaneous Po, E = Instantaneous el A i | yating vector, in W/m2, | lect fi 1 Instantaneous magnetic field intensity in A/m?, For time varying ficlds itis more desirable to find the ave; i i «, s " és Tage power density which is Obtained by integrating the instantaneous Period and dividing by the period. For time harmonic variation f ee E ii samara oe saa Han Pe fm e'*", the complex Fields B and # are related by ter icld intensity, in V/m. Baan er, [Besa eer] 7) 3 Ferny = RK, ce er Ula, yay Te shove auton can alo be wrveng [ ae ] ]- R[E eles) _ EB ier + (Ear Pet Similarly Putting eqn. 6.7 into eqn. 6,6 we have Rao ste un. cao ney ol TOA CEES aa ir < —aiOLOOT —— a 4ae7 6.16 (a) ds=PdQ ds = elemental surface area dQ = differential solid angle. ads dQ” ? a «6.16 (0) ‘Thus there are P metres of: surface area per unit solid angle Eqn, 6.12 (b). Further it is known that the i‘ ver adiated per unit area in any direction is given by the Poynting vector, P=Ex a {Yo y Amp _ Waussm? mm sic E = Electric field Intensity, in volts/m. H = Magnetic field Intensity, in A/m. P = Instantaneous Poynting vector, in Watts/m?. Here E x H isa vector product and the mutually perpendicular components E and H contribute anything to the power flow and the direction of the flow is normal to the plane containing E and H. But when E and H are changing with time then average. Poynting vector ( Pav ) , instead of simple P, is of great interest. In order to find ( Pav ) complex notation has to be followed. In complex notation Poynting vector is fivenby (E x H’) (-w=3) where =a Eye!” 6.14 (a) ol H’ = complex conjugate of H. HY = ay Hye 1'2'-®) 6.14 (b) Here @y and ay are unit vectors in the direction of E and H respectively. Also H = ay Ho d'- 8 = Phase angle between E and H. Now we are in position to give average Poynting vector ( Pa, ) which is given by the real part of the Complex Poynting vector i.e. ad P., = Real part of P (complex) = Re P Py, = } Re {Ex He} Watts wn (6.13) 11. a ted. InthisE and H are instantancous values. Ifr.m.s. values are taken then the tm 2 ea beomitte ernaively, P., can also be found by integrating the insiantancous Poynting vector Ovet one period and Ing the same by one period. |ANTENNA & Wave — Wy Veo 338 and H are o1 ial to radi Hare orthogonal ina plane norm: ius i Id that E Itis known for radiation fic! this case. E=12007H E=nH h To = Intrinsic Impedance of space. where " Thus power flow per unit area can now be written as P=EH=E= from above No i EB 2 => W/m ol or No / fi In the far field, Poynting vector is entirely radial i.e. 1 P | = Fields are atirely wansvere ay E and Hare varying as 1/r so that, radiation intensity is independent of distance. Instead Tadiation Teng | depends on the angle @ and ©, Therefore, the relation between average Poynting vector and electric fldy | point of the far field is given by | -1F (0,9) Pras Ee 6.160 If now the magnitude of intensity is measured, then we g = Radiation Intensity = Poynting vector P, is multiplied by the square of radius r at Which radising et the power per unit solid angle i.e. the radiation Intensity. | 9(0.%)=P,-Pa@ i 7 oe o-P ~ 6170) | 1E (97 a o=l Coe from eqn. 6.16 (0) ..6.170) ‘The total power radiated ( W, ) from a radiator is calculated from _ Differential Power (dW, ) 4 erential element of solid angle (dQ) | or dW,= 040 ~ 618 Total power radiated is obtained | a j ¢ nn (619) 7 1 © = 0, (Sy) we 6.200) 6.2000) an isotopic radiator,EE 5) Of (6, 9) at ef ©. = constant oe ro £(@, ©) = Any function of @ and @ a, we total power radiated is piven by from eqn. 6.19 by generalising as Wr= J) Of (6,0) a9 | 0 j ~-6.22(a) = ]O Ss (8,0) - si d+ sindd do 622.00) + GAIN _ (AMIETE, May 1973, 74, 75, 76, 78, Nov. 1965, 66) Tre gain of an antenna is a basic property which is frequently used as figure of merit Gain is closely post and directivity itself dependent entirely upon the shape of radiation petteras of ex eo. The ability of an antenna or antenna system to concentrate the radiated power in a given direction jasversely to absorb effectively the incident power from that direction specified by various antenna terms ‘asseana gain or simply gain or directive gain or power gain or directivity. Since the antenna isa passive t,o gain of an antenna is not the same as the gain of an amplifier in which case it is the retin of aga Input The term passive means a system or device which functions only when acted upon by an sera} signal where as the term “‘active"” means a system device which generates its own signal. Therefore, jeese ofan antenna, gain is a relative term in which actual antenna is compared with a ‘reference antenna’ ‘perefrence antenna normally used is a hypothetical lossless isotropic radiator or antenna which rediztes iwnly in all directions. Although half wave dipole is also, sometimes, used as reference antenna but sep antenna as reference antenna is preferred. If all the available power is radiated in a desired direction, sesaturally there is a gain in that direction. Thus gain of antenna may be defined in any one of the following 1. Gain of antenna without involving the antenna efficiency is defined as “the ratio of maximum saison intensity in given direction to the maximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna produced ante same direction with same power input’ i.e. Symbolically. ten (G)= Maximum Radiation Intensity from Subject or Test antenna Maximum Radiation Intensity from a reference antenna with same power input Here, effect of losses are involved in both, the subject (antenna under consideration) antenna and the ence antenna, When reference antenna is taken as isotropic antenna (having 100% efficiency), then gain fsdjec antenna is denoted by Go (instead of G ) and is known as Gain w-r.t. isotropic antenna. Thos, Gain (Gy) = ‘Maximum Radiation Intensity from test antenna Radiation Intensity from Isotropic antenna ( lossless ) with same power input 623 (a) Symbotically & 2 == 24 (0) Go= a ©’, = Max, Radiation from test antenna ial @p = Radiation Intensity from a lossless isotropic antenna This definition is favoured for microwave antennas. Strce gain denotes concentration of energy. the high values of gain are associated with narrow beam ‘TMobeditcmen becker sete nfoms oneness cate rotated ta Directivity(D) (tobe discussed). Gain> ANTENNA & WAYS Res “AC 540 irectivil i {ficiency is cent Dy losses, gain and directivity are same otherwise not When efficiency Percent, then ag y Directivity (D) are interchangeably used. ~ Sain in the din Although gain may be given in any direction from the antenna but senerally maximum gain is taken. The gain in a direction for which the radiation intensity © is nop maxing ey designated by specifying the angle © at which it is measured. In gencral, the symbol Gy (8, %) Pk utilized for the purpose and is given by ) "ah On Go (8,0) + = Go or Go (8,9) = wy where ®, = Maximum Radiation Intensity / = Radiation Intensity in the direction of @ and > Angle @ = Angle of Colatitude. Angle 9 = Polar angle. 2, The power radiated by any practical antenna is concentrated more in one direction and lessig other directions. The field in the direction of maximum radiation is greater than that produced by an isomngic radiator emitting the same total power. Therefore all the practical antennas are having directi ry. Thas the i is represented by the shape of its radiation pattem or polar diagram while the increased signal ina Particular direction indicates that the practical antenna has a gain in that particular direction, For all the poser available is deflected and radiated in that particular direction and thus, obviously, there is a gain in tht direction. Hence in terms of signal power received by a receiver at a distant point in the direction of maximen radiation, the gain of any antenna can be defined as Gain (G) = Maximum power received from given antennas (Pi) . = 6.26 (a) Maximum power received from reference antenna (P2) for the same input power in both the cases of subject antenna and reference antenna or 62600) Gms, = ft ‘The signal power is proportional to the square ofthe radiation field at the point. 3. Let certain amount of acenain field strength (E ) ata gi : in increased field strength over that produced by the isotropic anten™ the most favoured direction. Peodneeaey) 5 . ; is Thus if field stength at a given distance from the practical antenna in its most favoured direction ‘say E) and the field strength from an isotopic antenna practical antenna in terms of field strength is given by the rati al the same distance is say £2, then gain of anY i0 Of the two, i.e. 62) ____ In other words, gain is the ratio of vohia, hypothetical antenna, oe siamese nAttern bs eee og pROPET ET he three dimer — Ja . na nd 8 BCS produced at a given point by a practical anten! 3rs FERMINOLOGY 3az not an antenna is expressed in decibel ratio i.e. db gai ww (6.28) Gain ( Go ) defined w.r.t. isotropic antenna is necessarily theoretical concept. That is gain ( Go) is to ed rather than to be measured because an isotropic antenna has no existence in electromagnetic ead, ahalf wave dipole antenna is used for the purpose of gain measurement. A half wave dipole oa has theoretical gain of 1.64 or 2.15 db over an isotropic antenna. i pIRECTIVE GAIN cea (AMIETE, June 1981, 87, 88) / All practical antenna concentrate its radiated energy to more or less extent in certain preferred as, The extent to which a practical antenna concentrates its radiated energy relative to that of some ‘ cred antenna is termed as directive gain. Thus the directive gain ( Ga) in a given direction is defined as sat of the radiation intensity in that direction to the average radiated power. i ‘The directive gain is a function of a angles (@ and @) which should be specified. Let © (8, 9) = Radiation Intensity in a particular direction. “ © = Average Radiation Intensity in that direction = ~ from eqn. 6.20 (b) ‘Then by definition, directive gain (Ga) is given by aaa. ‘colar eicea Directive gain = Radiation intensity in a particular direction ‘Average radiated power Ge (8, 9) = 2G -8) - 2 C8) 7 an S dnote. 9) 6.30 (a) 4nO(8, G29. 9) 5 AS Oro 1-630 (b) when directive gain is expressed in decibels, then db Ga = 10 logio Ga (8, 9) 4n (6, Ga = 101 “Joan db Ga eae | dQ ++ 6.31 (a) The directive gain is a qualitative measure of the extent to which the total power radiated is “xcentrated in one direction. It is also expressed cither as a power ratio or in terms of the equivalent number deciles, The directive gain solely depends on’the distribution of radiated power in space. In does not ‘4 upon the power input to the antenna, antenna losses or the power consumed in a terminating ‘Stance, Thus, stating in another words the directive gain of an antenna is defined, ina particular direction, wate tio ofthe power density (ie. Poynting vector) in that particular direction ata given distance ime Trager density that would be radiated at the same distance by an isotropic antenna, radiating power”, symbolically Gz = —Power density radiated in_a particular direction by subject antenna Inject 6.31 (b) Power density radiated in that particular direction by an isotropic antenna dayCe em nie sistznce. The gi inte ver and at the same ~ ow, . for the same total radiated power and a Nindittccant nt tigns Asa matteree ra, s a quantity that may be different i 4 OF fact, a, Saeco oso fan antenna becomes a directive gain power paitern, provided the power Seay Sy density pater Of Sn Bn De betes ec erecer a radiating the sanu sotal poo” engin value is taken as the power density of an isotropic antenna iano ‘al power ;,.°* a reference of the power density of the antenna in its maximum radiation direction, 6.9. POWER GAIN (AMIETE, May 197 The directive gain defined by Eqn. 6.31 (b) compares the two power densities Of acty, antenna on the assumption that both are radiating the same total power. Another Concepy og power gain compures the radiated power density of the actual antenna and that of an ‘Souopic ans basis of the same input power to both i.e. - Power density radiated in a particular direction by the subject antenna Ge Power density radiated in that direction by an isotropic antenna for the same total input power and at the same given distance. Hence, in the defi directive gain) and power gain only difference is seen that for directivity the radia: for the directive antenna, whereas for power gain the power fed (i.e. power input In other words directive gain and power gain are identical except that power gain take: losses. It may be written as nitions of gj ted power j ) t0 the ante, S into accoy, Tey is cong Ta jg tae Gp n n Gp =1 Ga where Thus when Efficiency factor lies between 0 to 1 [Wo Ga + Power gain equal directive gain as happens frequently in VHF and UHF etc. The formal distinction between the definitions of directive and in the past years the term “antenna gain’? another. The proper terminology is still not al better to keep in mind that some authors may the simple term “Antenna gain’””, How Electrical and Electronics Engincers (IE gain and power gain has not alwaysexisd was used to mean sometimes one thing and some-tines te Ways used in some of the current literature. Hence it mayte mean cither “directive gain’? or ‘power gain” wien they? ever, the definitions given above are according to the Institute EE), Now obviously the power gain is of greatest important to a radio, system designer, whereas the cone ircctive gain’ is most convenien (2) Power gain in agiven direction to the average total input power, i.e. Radiation intensity in_a_given direction Average total input_ power js ea 1 direcio® isalso defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in hat Gp G, - 249.9) Wr. an where Wr=W,+ Wh = Total input power 4x (0,0) W | Gre We 633 nd ye ante W; being ohmic loss in | 2= - input, power ga fo, jutermsof power iP Pn Ss aD 543 | Sener 543 in is given by Power input supplied to subject antenna in the dit rection of maximum radiation (G)= Power input supplied to reference antenna (6.34) ain (UP ‘ pot 4d strength at the same given point. came fic let the field produced by a subject antenna ig twice to that produced by an isotropic ws amples For ex tl nak 2 v2 2 F G=|F)=2 Power gail va to produce the same field strength at the same distance, four times as much power would have Tso roan tropic radiator in comparison to the practical antenna, Ceo however, be noted that in gain or power gain antenna efficiency is involved and an account is jeafor the input power antenna losses, and power consumer terminating resistance. The power gain fgutds on He following two things (0 Sharpness of lobe, Sharper the lobe higher will be th i) Volume of the solid radiation pattern, reasuring power ratio and hence power gain of antenn, 1 power gain. Since decibel is the excellent practical unit for 3 System is gencrally expressed in decibels. The number Gp (db) or G, (db) = 10 logo (2J = 10 x 2 logio (3 } if voltage ratio is involved s+ 6.35 (b) to double the ans fable to use as much antenna g: ible field strength in a particul itis desirable to radiate al Bun tS limited due ‘0 the connection betweet *Steauited in a given appli caually in all horizontal directions, then maximum gain antenna gain and antenna pattern. Thus determination of ication is am: i alter of engineering judgement;== re ANTENNA & yy a AVE Game ee OI aaseeinaneh ee teint irectivity of an antenna and is denoy, se" May The maximum directive gain is called as directivity of nore ie " direction the directivity D is a constant. t (1) Directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of Maximum rad. radiation intensity i.e, Maximum Radiation Intensity of test antenna Direcviy (O)= tage Rann Tnensiy of est or D= TO Plow both of test antenna, on mensty yi, a Q) Directivity D of anantenna may also be defined as the ratio of maxiny the subject antenna to the radiation intensity of an isotropic or reference antenna Power i.e. MM radiation radiating the a ‘ame seaatitt Maximum Radiation Intensit Of subject or test antenna Directivity = ai - ~ “I Radiation Intensity of an tsotropic antenna : (0, @) max. (test antenna) of P= op (isotropic antenna) a G) Alternatively still another way of expressing Directivity of an anten radiated power. Itis ratio of total radiated power by the su antenna for the same radiation intensity, i.e, na is in terms of ject antenna to the power radiated by anison Directivity = Power Fadiated from {test antenna Power radiated from an isotropic antenna For the same radiation intensity _ IW" _"“Cirom atestantenna W" (from an isotropic antenna ) ounce the average radiation intensity (a) is obtained by dividing total power radiated W by ‘Steradian. Therefore eqn. 6.30 may be written as = 28.9 )mu a War -———_—____ D = SE9(0.9 nu 6390) D 0,9) = nu oueD D(0,9) = : where nan = max. radiation intensity A ® = Radiation in “Wigs tensity in direction f(0, o ).545) ppisalso expressed in decibels ratio as Directivity ) db = (Direct erent = eee «6.41 (a) = lWlogioD 6.41 (b) ‘cal value of directivity D always lies between 1 Sane pic antenna and hence D can not be less than 1. ee Gnd a general expression for the directivity. For, tus ee and hence, in general, represented a ‘ane and 2 ie. 1 < D < co, 1 being the the radiation intensity may be any vil o = df 0, 9) 7 (6.42) ©, = aconstant — = Radiation intensity et cn value of Radiation intensity (eqn. 6.36) is given by 2, Moxie! Ona = Paf 0, ma (6.43) gases CSC in case of sercire maa (8, @)max= 1 (6.44) 1 = += (6.45) a eqn. 645, in eqn. 6.42, we get © = O, (0,9) + (6.46) ses he average radiation intensity © is given by total power radiated divided by 4n steradian, _w, _JJeaa an ae SJicere8.q) - a Oe = a 6.46 (a) abere dQ = sin 0 dO dp = elements of solid angle. Thusby definition, directivity = Max RA (®ronx)_ Daf (8, Jar Average R.I. (Pay) j J af (8, 9) dQ an from eqn. 6.42 = ATO. One £(0.9) z = wo (6.47) ‘ = fn (0, @) = normalized power pattern Tre. aa Ce F(Gnax 9) “Threom = 4n Uroman ~ TT p00, 9940 18, 9)max : ant 146.48 (a) Pee £8, 9 rman pis oe 1 6.48 (C) here ae Qa = Beam solid angle JJro.ma2 (645) bh 7 reeis nothing but solid angle of tivity of an antenna is a % Therefore, the eet ; tn % . divided by the antenna beam 6.36 and eqn. 6.48 From the definition aie a =e MH = On Prax . y. c 4n in = A Cmax W, = Qs Pax ae “W; = Total power radiated. Thus beam solid angle is the solid angle through which all the Power radiated Would sty, power per unit solid angle equal to the maximum value of radiation intensity Dmax Over the bean soup Directivity isa dimensionless (i.e. constant)quantity which indicates the effectiveness ofc, power into a limited solid angle. The narrower the solid angle, the higher the directivity, Itentrely depends onthe far field pattem. Unlike gain or power gain, antennaefficiencyisn.,. in the directivity, If.an antenna has not any losses like ohmic, dielectric mismatch i.e. 100% efcien directivity and gain are same. However, for an antenna with losses, gain will be less than dicing factor which corresponds to efficiency. The directivity and gain are related as Gee ls where G = gain k = efficiency factor = 1 for 100% efficiency < 1 if losses are present D = Directivity This is derived as follows, Let us assume that the maximum radiation intensity from the test ana is ‘max and let this maximum radiation intensity ®’max be related to the maximum radiation intensity O-n0 100% efficient test antenna by a factor k known as radiation efficiency factor as | Qrmax = k dmax (65) where the values of k lies between Oand lie. OS k <1 ‘OncEaes But the gain w.r.. an isotropic antenna is j Snax x0) Gale from Eqn. 62 $0 1 where = RL. from a lossless isotropic antenna ! _ Pe Hn from Egn. 62 From Eqn. 6.37 Go = kD im ssl D = Sm { 0 ios Since, in many antennas the antenna losses are extrem of gains many ely small and hence the value qual to the directivity. Thal is why, gain and directivity are interchangeably used. aa VEGAIN AND GAIN OR POWER —————__— “pie sinion,irective gain Gais given by oan 0 ar Radiation Intensit eo) n Intensit 200, 9) Average Radiated Power = ha Ga = 429 C9) W, 7 (6.53) is the ratio of tw ihe power enn is /0 powers and the tot « ee tal power input is taken instead of simply . a Radiation intensit Power gain or gain = Radiation intensity _ 0,9) Gs Total input power 9? = “We74 x G2 se 8) Hite Wr 6.58) "te Wr= We + W, “ee =Wa na Toa Power = Radiated Power + Power loss in ohmic resistance {@ Directive gain depends entirely on the distribution of radiated power in i ie Jin depends on the sharpness of the lobe and volume of the solid radiation patie cache {@) Directive gain is a qualitative measure of the extent tothe fotal power radiated is concentrated in ez Culosses,mismatch losses and power consumed in terminating resistance etc, whereas the power inp Fe antenna losses are accounted in the power gain, Thus power gain takes ino account the antenna Zoey as well as its directional properties. Ly, DIRECTIVE GAIN AND DIRECTIVITY (AMIETE, May 1978, Dec. 1973) (1) By definition, ae Radiation intensit D = —Radiation intensity _ lrective gain = Average radiated power Gae= DOG) _ 42, 9) 4 WaT W, ‘The extent to which a practical antenna concentrates its radiated energy relative to that of some “J cart amienna is known as directive gain whereas the maximum directive gain is called as directivity D and itefned as (6.53) pivetivity (Dp) =, Maximum diaion intensity of est antenns irectivity (D) = ~ A verage radiation intensity of test antenna oe © (0, Q)ow (testantenna) D ‘@ey (test antenna ) _f Meratvely, Directiviyy = Maximum Radiation Intensity of test antenna irectivity = Radiation Intensity of an isotropic antenna D (0, Qn (test antenna) 37) @p (isotropic antenna ) 2) For a lossless isotropic antenna, ircetive gain and directivity is same In his case radiation efficiency factor k = 1. Go = kD Gab. i 1luc of directive gain may lic bet Lands tnlincacefdinciviy tem tor ie bene : (4) Directive gain depends entirely on the distri of directivity depends on the solid angle of the far (radial (5) _ Directive gain does not depend on the t tO the. antenna true for the directivity. In other words antenna efficiency is not invol ved in (6) The numerical value of directivity of current element and half. 1.76 db) and 1.64 (or 2.15 db). bution of radian ted) field Pattern, Power input to 1 And an these two, Directive gain of half-wave dipole over current clement S413. ANTENNA EFFICIENCY (n) (Kanpur Univ. M; (2.15 ~}, Sc. Phy. (Prev,) 1 The efficiency of an ante na is defined as the ratio pp Power radiated to the total; 1968, y, | tal De, ‘othe antenna and is denoted by Nor k. Thus ut Pomerat : {ficiency = Power Radiated mena efficiency = Total Input Power ] a dno, i il a pee Weare i tena and for this loss resisuncel SSL Of the following, in general. ; enna conductor electric toss i Gi) PR Loss in antenna and groung systey (iv) Ss in earth connect ee ©) Leakage tose iM insulation Thus antenna efficiency isconverted j OR CaprurE AREA O71, (AMIETE, Nov we MCHC Waves and a receiving antenna receives a ieet : 'Y Considering an antenna to ha)ing electromagnetic ratio of power received at theantenna load terminal tothe Poynting vector lent wave. Thus Power received ' ose r once mee CP Poynting vector of incident wave 6.57 (@) Ww A= Hea W = PA .. 6.57 ((b) W = Power received, in Watts, P = Poynting vector of incident plane wave, in Watts/m? or power flow per sq. metre for the incident wave. A = Effective or Capture area or Effective aperture, in m2, at a receiving antenna be placed in the field of plane polarised travelling waves as illustrated in 1 ,, «7 baving a effective arca A and the receiving antenna (dipole) is terminated at a load impedance fe 2h + iXL it ete TeRwinateS | +— JProrasation TOAD IMPEDANCE OF PLANE PocaRiseo REcEVIig + ARTE mae (a) (b) Fig. 6: (a), Receiving antenna in the field of plane polarised wave. (b) Equivalent circuit of Fig. (a). IE be the terminal current, then received power W = BeRe + (6.58) where Ry = Loadresistance, in Q Is = Terminal rms current W_ BreRe Acip oP Since the antenna extracts energy from incident electromagnetic waves, delivers the same to ter- hated ‘oad impedance. Z_ and the power flowing per square metre or Poynting vector is P W/m?, This entire no bereplaced by an equivalent circuit [given in Fig, 6.7 (b)) according to Thevenin’s theorem. In V = Equivalent Thevenin's voltage. Za = Equivalent Thevenin’s impedance. The voltage V is induced by passi i i rh ir jing electromagnetic waves which produces current J;m; throug! “minal oad im, ee ag) = —Equivalent voltage ™ © Equivalent Impedance v 2+ Zs 2s = Ra + j Xa = complex antenna impedance, / Img = a w= (6.59)_ + R= Rr if R= 0 is assumed 2 - 7 dition resistance + loss resistance = Ra we have Now putting the values of Z, and Za, Vv Im = (ROW JRL) + (Ra + Ra) Wi ~ Vw |= (Ru + Ray + (Xt + Xay ral cc Vee 1 = (Re + Re + RY + (XL + Xap Xz = Load reactance, in Q where ing Xa = Antenna reactance, in i impedance is given by eqn, 6, ; Since the Power Teceived by terminal load imy ince is given 'Y eqn. 6.58. Therefor, a Can. 6.61 (a) in 6.58, we ger, Wey Ry, , VER: ve ORs ne ~ This is the Power delivered by antenna at the terminating load impedance 2..Now by efiniton Cffective Aperture A, ,eqn, 6.57 @ . = Power received (W) 2 oa Poynting vector (P) ™? or 2’ VR, 2 2 7 m* or 2 (Re + RS Oke RPL From eq, gy th anne tens een ism? Butifthe unitofp; ‘terms of wavelength 4 (which is convenient) ag Wauts/(wave length then A, is in (wavelenghy? 8 Re . : WORE DETC ES Poynting weet py Prsson ciate or “SIME area in terms of power den induced voltage y is maximum na nk c ; ‘rminating load impedance Z,. incident wave both have th, Larisation, oriented for mism; D Ant ~“Fesponse and the antenna and t | And antenna losses * A According to maximum a the antenna terminating Joag jg POW tans fe theoremim power received in antenna termi Tmee aan, yaximu inating load i si vere i without antenna loss and corresponding ee “Impedance 2, under the condition , ans clive aperture is known as maximum Seg ae Effective Aperture WM A Max. reed. 7 ‘Ac)max = Teed. power v 56 (Ae)ma = Dower density of incident wave ~ 4 Ry P ve (Ac)mx = TPR 2 or m? - — wn (6.66) simes Tmax. effective aperture is simply designated as effective. ‘aperture and effective aperture ure following the ‘Institute of Radio Engineers’ (IRE) standards. Eqn, 6.66 is the i . " s a |. 6.66 is the expression af aximum Effective Aperture in terms of induced voltage, power density of incident wave and: vaation 64) foe ante. Further, the ratio of effective area and max. effective area is given a name known as effectiveness ion vad is denoted bya. eS. B 1 a= A es Than ws (6.67) ‘The values of . lies between 0 and 1, the latter value is of that a perfectly matched antenna of cent jrcentefficiency. Inpractice, however, the terminated load impedance is generally, not at the antenna terminal as shown 6. but the load is in the receiver which itself is connected with a transmission line, In such case the binpedance 2, is the equivalent impedance which appears across the terminals of the antenna. Thus the delivered to receiver and load impedance Zz is same if transmission line is lossless and less if the 3¢q q “lossy by an amount equal to loss in the line. ; 614.1. Scattering loss Apertures. Besides effective aperture, there are other apertures also like "eng aperture A, ) and loss aperture (Ar) corresponding to considerable losses in radiation or re-radia- (J *rsisance (R,) and antenna loss resistance (1) respectively and accordingly they are called as (ce | "Band toss apertures. Mathematically, 2 Scattering Aperture = As = VR ; As = TC py + Raye + (Xe + Xa VP nn (688) 2 Loss Aperature = Ar = /ms Re VR nus (6.69) ———sr a P Now pl F(X + Xa 1 P [(Re + Ray ) ae 1% te cont energy is introduced in eqn. 6:68 from ea 6.64, we '¢ Condition of maximum transfer of encrB}(oz 4RP Thus under the condition of maximum transfer of energy maximum effective aperture are same as seen from eqn. 6.66 and 6.70 i.e. (As max = (Ae Imax Scattering oer G a, Further, the ratio of scattering aperture to effective aperture is given a ame known ag x and is denoted by B . Thus . Scattering ratio = B = * The values of B lies between 0 to e, 6.14.2. Collecting Aperture. Out of power collected by antenna, there are 1osses 2s hey: resistance (), radiation resistance (R,) and antenna loss resistance ( Ry ) and comesponingy apertures are Effective, Scattering and Loss. By virtue of Conservation of energy these three pena collectively known as collecting aperture and is given mathematically as Collecting Aperture = Ac = Ae + Ay + Ay or Ac = Fens Ri + Pru Ry + Ps Ry - Vv? Re + VR, PUCRL+ Ral + (XL + Xa?” PUR, + Res (X + XP] + Vv? RI PUCRe + Ray + (Xi + Mi) Ae V* (Re + Re + Ri) a PUR + Re + Ri) + (X, + Xa “* 6.14.3. Physical Aperture, Swill another type of aperture is known as ‘Physical Aperture’ whic related to the actual physical size (or cross-section) of the antenna and is denoted by the symbol A>. Tis antennas only, while effective aperture is a uni defined as “the physical cro: netic wave with antenna se . i que quantity for any antenna. Hence physical eT se Section perpendicular to the direction of propagation of incident eet + for maximum response’. 1 e ier toss-section (in wavelength) antennas like hom, parabolic reflector, mast clement, the physical aperture is greater than effective aperture which for antenna like short dipo! it than the effective spertre, For example, the value of effective aperture is approx. 50% of physial for hom Antenna, between S0% to 65% for parabolic eter about cent per-cent for laB° Ty multi-clement type of antenna. In an ideal sine ator there is no thermal losses and the fied isi 7 Physical apenture A, and effective aperture A, wn equal and under this condition maximum di! achieved i.e. @ BAP AGS, wien nd losses But directivity D and effective spenure,A, ae related by oe _From eqn. 6.73 ; 7 (6.74) tio of maximum effective aperture to th ral te Me denoted by Y. Thus atid io ie physical aperture is given the name as @ Absorption ratio = y = 6.15) salves OFF ics between 0 and © and being ratio has no unit, ey TION BETWEEN MAX, APERTURE AND GAIN OR DIRECTIVITY REL | (AMIEIE Dec, 1978, Nov, 1977) ving antennas, by virtue of reciprocity theorem ipe of the radiation pattern, is extended for that the directivity of receiving antennas are directly ,dintion pattem is same for transmitting and rey Lawet a of directivity, which itself is related with ase Mennas also. It is found, in pra civin a to the maximum effective apertures, etthere be WO antennas A aad B whose directivit yy De and (Aca! Jax and (Acs! Jax. Fespectively, Da < (Aca nnn 4 Dp ~ (Aeb )max Da _ (Ae oe Dp (Aeb Joa put from the eqn. 6.51, the gain and directivity w.r.4 isotropic source or antenna is given by sand maximum effective apertures are denoted (6.16) Go=kD bee Go = Gain of a transmitting or receiving antenna, k = Efficiency factor. D = Directivily. If now the losses of efficiency factor k and mismatch are included, the & can be replaced by *etveness ratio 0, ie. we (6.17) effectiveness ratio and directivity of antenna nna B, then from eqn. 6.77. Go = 0D Let us now assume that Goa, Oa » Da being the gain, AandG.5, ag , Dy the corresponding quantities for the anten Goa = Oa De + for Ant. A be Ges Dees: ae Geox _ a Da. 02 (Aue foes from eqn. 6.76 . (6.78) Gon 7 Gy Dp 8 (Act dows *tom definition, . Os = Chea us a - (Aug) = 4 (Ava down 6.79 (b) *4simitany (Ags) = 08 (Aat dos(esa AS Wats Hence from eqn. 6.78 i and B. Letus now ‘ Aea and Ags are the effectiveness apet F - pea ass ea Semen then its directivity Dg = 1. Putting this condition in eqn, 6.76, we a lat ey, De _ 1 _ (Aca dre Dy Ds (Aes Jax CAT ; or (Ace max = Dy wf This eqn. suggests that if the maximum effective aperture and directivit: P 4 Y Of antenna (ora, ; 8 are known, then the ratio of the two will give the maximum effective aperture of 9N isotropie Further, if the maximum effective aperture of an isotropic antenna is calculated, then the ainstigg antenna can be calculated from the following eqn. ie. olay al : ~ (Aw nas OO Ra Ynat ~ 680) This states that the directivity of any antenna is nothing but the ratio of its max. ectve operyy the max. effective aperture of an isotropic antenna, 7 For example, let us take the case Directivity, if calculated, will be given by of a short dipole antenna whose max. effective aperture ng 3) 9? ang 3 Bx | * and 5, then from eqn, 6.80 (a). 32 -St_ wv (Andon = 3 = (Ava mux = az (681) Putting this in eqn. 6.80 (b), the desired relation is obtained i.e. D, = (At nae 2 j 4n ee _4n Ds = e (Aes max or in general ar (Ae max sve 682(2) or simply D= & Ae 1 6.820) aE dem This is the relation between directivity and max, Ak were ernie seen fective aperture of an antenna.