WAVES

Introduction

When we think of the word "wave" we usually picture someone moving their hand back and
forth to say hello.In physics, a wave is a disturbance that travels through space and matter
transferring energy from one place to another. When studying waves it's important to remember
that they transfer energy, not matter.

Waves in Everyday Life

There are lots of waves all around us in everyday life. Sound is a type of wave that moves
through matter and then vibrates our eardrums so we can hear. Light is a special kind of wave
that is made up of photons. You can drop a rock into a pond and see waves form in the water.
We even use waves (microwaves) to cook our food really fast.

Types of Waves

Waves can be divided into various categories depending on their characteristics. Below we
describe some of the different terms that scientists use to describe waves.

Mechanical Waves and Electromagnetic Waves

All waves can be categorized as either mechanical or electromagnetic.

Mechanical waves are waves that require a medium. This means that they have to have some
sort of matter to travel through. These waves travel when molecules in the medium collide with
each other passing on energy. One example of a mechanical wave is sound. Sound can travel
through air, water, or solids, but it can't travel through a vacuum. It needs the medium to help it
travel. Other examples include water waves, seismic waves, and waves traveling through a
spring.
Electromagnetic waves are waves that can travel through a vacuum (empty space). They don't
need a medium or matter. They travel through electrical and magnetic fields that are generated
by charged particles. Examples of electromagnetic waves include light, microwaves, radio
waves, and X-rays.

Transverse Waves and Longitudinal Waves

Aanother way to describe a wave is by the direction that its disturbance is traveling.

Transverse waves are waves where the disturbance moves perpendicular to the direction of the
wave. You can think of the wave moving left to right, while the disturbance moves up and down.
One example of a transverse wave is a water wave where the water moves up and down as the
wave passes through the ocean. Other examples include an oscillating string and a wave of fans
in a stadium (the people move up and down while the wave moves around the stadium).

Longitudinal waves are waves where the disturbance moves in the same direction as the wave.
One example of this is a wave moving through a stretched out slinky or spring. If you compress
one portion of the slinky and let go, the wave will move left to right. At the same time, the
disturbance (which is the coils of the springs moving), will also move left to right. Another
classic example of a longitudinal wave is sound. As sound waves propagate through a medium,
the molecules collide with each other in the same direction as the sound is moving.
In a longitudinal wave the direction of motion of the particles is in the same direction as the
wave travels. This can be seen using a long spring called a slinky.

Properties of Waves

There are many properties that scientists use to describe waves. They include amplitude,
frequency, period, wavelength, speed, and phase. Each of these properties is described in more
detail below.

Graphing a Wave

When drawing a wave or looking at a wave on a graph, we draw the wave as a snapshot in time.
The vertical axis is the amplitude of the wave while the horizontal axis can be either distance or
time.

In this picture you can see that the highest point on the graph of the wave is called the crest and
the lowest point is called the trough. The line through the center of the wave is the resting
position of the medium if there was no wave passing through.
We can determine a number of wave properties from the graph.

Amplitude

The amplitude of a wave is a measure of the displacement of the wave from its rest position. The
amplitude is shown on the graph below.

Amplitude is generally calculated by looking on a graph of a wave and measuring the height of
the wave from the resting position.

The amplitude is a measure of the strength or intensity of the wave. For example, when looking
at a sound wave, the amplitude will measure the loudness of the sound. The energy of the wave
also varies in direct proportion to the amplitude of the wave.

Wavelength

The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two corresponding points on back-to-back
cycles of a wave. This can be measured between two crests of a wave or two troughs of a wave.
The wavelength is usually represented in physics by the Greek letter lambda (λ).

Frequency and Period

The frequency of a wave is the number of times per second that the wave cycles. Frequency is
measured in Hertz or cycles per second. The frequency is often represented by the lower case "f."

The period of the wave is the time between wave crests. The period is measured in time units
such as seconds. The period is usually represented by the upper case "T."

The period and frequency are closely related to each other. The period equals 1 over the
frequency and the frequency is equal to one over the period. They are reciprocals of each other as
shown in the following formulas.

period = 1/frequency
or
T = 1/f

frequency = 1/period
or
f = 1/T

Speed or Velocity of a Wave

Another important property of a wave is the speed of propagation. This is how fast the
disturbance of the wave is moving. The speed of mechanical waves depends on the medium that
the wave is traveling through. For example, sound will travel at a different speed in water than in
air.
The velocity of a wave is usually represented by the letter "v." The velocity can be calculated by
multiplying the frequency by the wavelength.

velocity = frequency * wavelength

or
v=f*λ

Types of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are a form of energy waves that have both an electric and magnetic field.
Electromagnetic waves are different from mechanical waves in that they can transmit energy and
travel through a vacuum.

Electromagnetic waves are classified according to their frequency. The different types of waves
have different uses and functions in our everyday lives. The most important of these is visible
light, which enables us to see.
Radio Waves

Radio waves have the longest wavelengths of all the electromagnetic waves. They range from
around a foot long to several miles long. Radio waves are often used to transmit data and have
been used for all sorts of applications including radio, satellites, radar, and computer networks.

Microwaves
Microwaves are shorter than radio waves with wavelengths measured in centimeters. We use
microwaves to cook food, transmit information, and in radar that helps to predict the weather.
Microwaves are useful in communication because they can penetrate clouds, smoke, and light
rain. The universe is filled with cosmic microwave background radiation that scientists believe
are clues to the origin of the universe they call the Big Bang.

Infrared

Between microwaves and visible light are infrared waves. Infrared waves are sometimes
classified as "near" infrared and "far" infrared. Near infrared waves are the waves that are closer
to visible light in wavelength. These are the infrared waves that are used in your TV remote to
change channels. Far infrared waves are further away from visible light in wavelength. Far
infrared waves are thermal and give off heat. Anything that gives off heat radiates infrared
waves. This includes the human body!

Visible light

The visible light spectrum covers the wavelengths that can be seen by the human eye. This is the
range of wavelengths from 390 to 700 nm which corresponds to the frequencies 430-790 THz.
You can go here to learn more about the visible spectrum.

Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet waves have the next shortest wavelength after visible light. It is ultraviolet rays from
the Sun that cause sunburns. We are protected from the Sun's ultraviolet rays by the ozone layer.
Some insects, such as bumblebees, can see ultraviolet light. Ultraviolet light is used by powerful
telescopes like the Hubble Space Telescope to see far away stars.

X-rays

X-rays have even shorter wavelengths than ultraviolet rays. At this point in the electromagnetic
spectrum, scientists begin to think of these rays more as particles than waves.They can penetrate
soft tissue like skin and muscle and are used to take X-ray pictures of bones in medicine.

Gamma rays

As the wavelengths of electromagnetic waves get shorter, their energy increases. Gamma rays
are the shortest waves in the spectrum and, as a result, have the most energy. Gamma rays are
sometimes used in treating cancer and in taking detailed images for diagnostic medicine. Gamma
rays are produced in high energy nuclear explosions and supernovas.

Wave Behavior

When waves encounter new mediums, barriers, or other waves they can behave in different
ways. In physics these behaviors are described using some of the terms below.

Reflection

The word "reflection" is used in everyday life to describe what we see in a mirror or on the
surface of the water. In physics, a reflection is when a wave encounters a new medium that acts
as a barrier, causing the wave to return to the original medium. The wave "reflects" off the
barrier at an angle that is incident to the angle of the wave hitting the barrier (see below).
Diffraction

Diffraction occurs when a wave stays in the same medium, but bends around an obstacle. This
can occur when the wave encounters a small object in its path or when the wave is forced
through a small opening. An example of diffraction is when a water wave hits a boat and bends
around the boat. The waves after the boat are changed or diffracted.

An example of a diffracted wave

passing through a small opening.

Polarization

Polarization is when a wave oscillates in one particular direction. Light waves are often polarized
using a polarizing filter. Only transverse waves can be polarized. Longitudinal waves, such as
sound, cannot be polarized because they always travel in the same direction of the wave.
In this picture the unpolarized light wave travels through the filter and then is polarized along a
single plane.

Interference

When one wave comes into contact with another wave this is called interference. When the
waves meet the resulting wave will have the amplitude of the sum of the two interfering waves.

Depending on the phase of the waves the interference can be constructive or destructive. If the
resulting wave has a higher amplitude than the interfering waves, this is constructive
interference. If it has a lower amplitude, this is called destructive interference.
Diffusion
Diffusion waves lack wave fronts, can’t be beamed, and don’t travel very far, yet they form the
basis of several new and revolutionary measurement technologies.

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
In physics, light is a type of electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the eye. Light has the
unique property that it can be described in physics as both a wave and as a stream of particles
called photons.

Reflection

One of the most important wave-like behaviors of light is reflection. It is reflected light that we
see with our eyes. How light reflects off objects affects the colors we see as well.

When a wave strikes a new medium, some of the wave will bounce off the surface. How
reflective the surface is will determine how much light (and what wavelengths of light) will be
reflected and how much will be absorbed or transmitted.

When light is reflected it obeys the law of reflection that is followed by waves. This means that
the angle of the reflected wave of light will equal the angle of incidence of the incoming light
wave. See the picture below for an example:
Types of Reflection

• Specular reflection - A specular reflection is when rays of light are reflected off a surface
in a single outgoing direction. An example of this type of reflection is a mirror. Specular
reflections occur on surfaces that are flat at the microscopic level such as polished silver
or a smooth body of water.
• Diffuse reflection - A diffuse reflection is when a surface reflects rays of light in a broad
range of directions. Diffuse reflections occur when a surface is rough at the microscopic
level. The surface may appear or feel smooth, like a piece of paper, but it is actually
rough at the microscopic level. This causes the beams of light to reflect at different
angles.
Refraction

When light moves from one medium (like air) to another medium (like water) it will change
directions. This is a "wave-like" behavior and is called refraction. In this way light behaves like
other waves such as sound waves. The speed of the light wave also changes when it moves from
medium to medium.

You can see an example of refraction of light in water if you put a straw in a glass of water. You
will see how the straw seems to move to the side. This is the light wave bending as it enters the
water.

Index of Refraction

In order to measure how light will behave in different substances, scientists use the index of
refraction. This gives a ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum over the speed of light in the
substance. The equation for the index of refraction is:

n = c/v

where n is the index of refraction, c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and v is the speed of light
in the substance.
As an example, take the index of refraction for water which is 1.33. This means that the speed of
light in a vacuum is 1.33 times faster than the speed of light in water.

Lenses and Light

A lens is a curved piece of glass or plastic designed to refract light in a specific way. Lenses are
used in glasses and contacts to help correct vision. They are used in telescopes to help view items
that are far away and are used in microscopes to help view very small items.

Refraction

When a light wave moves from one medium (like air) to another medium (like glass) the light
rays are bent. This is called refraction. By using refraction, lenses can bend multiple light rays.
Most of the lenses we use in everyday life are designed to bend light rays to a specific focal point
where items will be in focus (clear).

LENSES
A lens is a curved piece of glass or plastic designed to refract light in a specific way. Lenses are
used in glasses and contacts to help correct vision. They are used in telescopes to help view items
that are far away and are used in microscopes to help view very small items.
Types of Lenses

There are different ways to classify lenses. One way to classify lenses is by how they bend light.

Converging

A converging lens will cause the light rays to bend to a specific focal point. Another name for
this type of lens is a positive lens.
Diverging

A diverging lens will cause light rays from a specific focal point to be spread out. Another name
for this type of lens is a negative lens.

Other Types of Lenses

Another way to classify lenses is by the curve of the glass on each side of the lens. There are
terms used to describe each side. Then the two sides are combined to come up with the name of
the lens.

• Convex - A convex lens is one where the center of the lens is thicker than the edges.
 • Concave - A concave lens is one where the center of the lens is thinner than the edges.
One way to remember the difference between the two lenses is to think of "caving in"
with the concave lens.
• Plano - A plano lens is a flat lens. This is used when one side is flat and the other side is
concave or convex. You can think of flat as a "plain."
• Meniscus - A meniscus lens is one where one side is concave and one side is convex.

Putting the Names Together

• Biconvex - A lens in which both sides are convex is biconvex. Biconvex lenses are
converging lenses.
• Plano-convex - A lens in which one side is convex and the other is plano. Plano-convex
lenses are converging lenses.
• Biconcave - A lens in which both sides are concave is biconcave. Biconcave lenses are
diverging lenses.
• Plano-concave - A lens in which one side is concave and the other is plano. Plano-
concave lenses are diverging lenses.
• Positive meniscus - A converging lens where one side is concave and the other convex.
• Negative meniscus - A diverging lens where one side is concave and the other convex.

Focal Point

The focal point of a lens is generally noted by the capital letter "F." This is the point in space
where the light rays will converge to after passing through a converging lens. A diverging lens
will have a negative focal point where the rays originate from before diverging through the lens.

Focal Length

The focal length is the distance from the center of the lens to the focal point.

Principal Axis

The principal axis is a horizontal imaginary line drawn through the center of the lens. In a perfect
lens the focal point will reside on the principal axis at a distance of the focal length

OPTICAL PHYSIOLOGY

Sight is one of the five senses that help us to get information about what is going on in the world
around us. We see through our eyes, which are organs that take in light and images and turn them
into electrical impulses that our brain can understand.

How do we see?

When we see something, what we are seeing is actually reflected light. Light rays bounce off of
objects and into our eyes.

Our Amazing Eyeballs

Pupil and Iris:

Eyes are amazing and complex organs. In order for us to see, light enters our eyes through the
black spot in the middle which is really a hole in the eye called the pupil. The pupil can change
sizes with the help of the colored part around it, a muscle called the iris. By opening and closing
the pupil, the iris can control the amount of light that enters the eye. If the light is too bright, the
pupil will shrink to let in less light and protect the eye. If it's dark, the iris will open the pupil up
so more light can get into the eye.

Retina:

Once the light is in our eye it passes through fluids and lands on the retina at the back of the eye.
The retina turns the light rays into signals that our brain can understand. The retina uses light
sensitive cells called rods and cones to see. The rods are extra sensitive to light and help us to see
when it's dark. The cones help us to see color. There are three types of cones each helping us to
see a different color of light: red, green, and blue.

Focus:
In order for the light to be focused on the retina, our eyes have a lens. The brain sends feedback
signals to the muscles around the lens to tell it how to focus the light. Just like the way a camera
or microscope works, when we adjust the lens we can bring the image into focus. When the lens
and muscles can't quite focus the light just right, we end up needing glasses or contacts to help
our eyes out.

Off to the Brain:

The rods and cones of the retina change light into electrical signals for our brain. The optic nerve
takes these signals to the brain. The brain also helps to control the eye to help it focus and to
control where you are looking. Both eyes move together with speed and precision to allow us to
see with the help of the brain.

Why two eyeballs?

With two eyeballs our brain gets two slightly different pictures from different angles. Although
we only "see" one image, the brain uses these two images to give us information on how far
away something is. This is called depth perception.

Fun facts about the eye

• The image at the retina is actually upside down from the actual image. Our brain figures
this out for us and switches it around, or we would get really confused!
• The cornea is a clear layer at the front of the eye that helps protect it.
• We have a blind spot where the optical nerve connects to the retina.
• Tears help keep the eye clean, but scientist don't really understand why we cry when we
are sad or upset.
• The average person blinks 15 times per minute.
• Around eight percent of men are color blind, but less than one percent of women.

(a) Myopia
Myopia is also known as near-sightedness. A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly
but cannot see distant objects distinctly. A person with this defect has the far point nearer than
infinity. Such a person may see clearly upto a distance of a few metres. In a myopic eye, the
image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina [Fig. 11.2 (b)] and not at the retina itself.
This defect may arise due to (i) excessive curvature of the eye lens, or (ii) elongation of the
eyeball. This defect can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable power. This is
illustrated in Fig. 11.2 (c). A concave lens of suitable power will bring the image back on to the
retina and thus the defect is corrected.

(b) Hypermetropia
Hypermetropia is also known as far-sightedness. A person with hypermetropia can see distant
objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects distinctly. The near point, for the person, is farther
away from the normal near point (25 cm). Such a person has to keep a reading material much
beyond 25 cm from the eye for comfortable reading. This is because the light rays from a closeby
object are focussed at a point behind the retina as shown in Fig. 11.3 (b). This defect arises either
because (i) the focal length of the eye lens is too long, or (ii) the eyeball has become too small.
This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of appropriate power. This is illustrated in
Fig. 11.3 (c). Eye-glasses with converging lenses provide the additional focusing power required
for forming the image on the retina.

(c) Presbyopia
The power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with ageing. For most people, the
near point gradually recedes away. They find it difficult to see nearby objects comfortably and
distinctly without corrective eye-glasses. This defect is called Presbyopia. It arises due to the
gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of the eye lens. Sometimes,
a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia. Such people often require bifocal
lenses. A common type of bi-focal lenses consists of both concave and convex lenses. The upper
portion consists of a concave lens. It facilitates distant vision. The lower part is a convex lens. It
facilitates near vision.

These days, it is possible to correct the refractive defects with contact lenses or through surgical
interventions.

Instrumental optics

A magnifying glass (called a hand lens in laboratory contexts) is a convex lens that is used to
produce a magnified image of an object. The lens is usually mounted in a frame with a handle
(see image). A magnifying glass can be used to focus light, such as to concentrate the sun's
radiation to create a hot spot at the focus for fire starting

Construction and function of optical microscope

A microscope is a device that enlarges objects that are too small to see with the naked eye.
Magnification can be calculated by dividing the image size bu the ojects size. Their are 3 types of
microscopes; the optical microscope, electron microscope the scanning probe microscope.

Optical microscope components(Light microscope)

Eyepiece
The lens at the top that you look through. It contains 2 or more lenses that focus the
image. Usually has a 10x magnification.

Turret
This holds 2 or more objective lenses and can be rotated easily to change magnification
power. Normally when viewing a slide for example, it is best to start the magnification at
the lowest and then work your way upwards.

Objective
1 or more objective lens that collect light. The lenses are usually in a cylindrical shaped
tube. The shortest lens has the lowest power i.e the lowest level of magnification, the
longest one is the lens that has the greatest magnification power. The objective lenses
usually have the magnification power 4x, 10x and 40x.

Focus wheel
 These are wheels that move the stage in the vertical plane. There are also wheels for
adjusting coarse and focus. Some microscopes however, do allow focus at the eyepiece as
well.

Frame
The frame consists of the arm, the base and is in essence the bodywork of the
microscope. It allows attachment of the focus wheels and the stage to the microscope.

Light source
A light source used in place of a mirror. Most microscopes do allow manual light
adjustment via a wheel located near the base.

Condenser
The function of the condenser lens is to focus the light onto the specimen. To increase the
quality the condenser lens may also have filters or a diaphragm.

Stage
A platform underneath the objective that provides a platform for the slide to be viewed.
In the center of the stage is a hole which allows light to pass through. The stage also
normally has arms to hold the slide in place.

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
Electron microscopes use a beam of electrons rather than visible light to illuminate the sample.
They focus the electron beam using electromagnetic coils instead of glass lenses (as a light
microscope does) because electrons can’t pass through glass.
Electron microscopes enable us to look in far more detail at objects than is possible with a light
microscope. Some electron microscopes can detect objects that are approximately one-twentieth
of a nanometre (10-9 m) in size – they can be used to visualise objects as small as viruses,
molecules or even individual atoms.